Cell structure I-

I-Prokaryotic
cells

Dr. S. Mukanganyama
Department of Biochemistry
University of Zimbabwe
MBChB and BDS I
2009--
2009
 Outline
• Introduction to Biochemistry
• Basic Units of life: Cells
• Prokaryote ,eukaryotic cells & viruses
• Role of microbial cells in disease AIDS,
Cholera
 Biochemistry-”the
Science of life”
• Structure, organization, and functions of living matter in
molecular terms.

• Divided into three principal areas:

1. Structural chemistry of the components of living matter

and the relationship of biological function to chemical
structure.

2. Metabolism - the totality of chemical reactions that occur

in living matter.

3. The chemistry of processes and substances that store

and transmit biological information.
 The cell
•Basic Units of life Variable shapes and sizes +
needs energy to perform its specialised functions in
maintaining life.

Living systems:
•Grow
•Smallest unit in the living organisms capable of
carrying out essential life processes.
•Move
•Perform metabolism
•Respond to stimuli
•Replicate (reproduce) with high fidelity
•Life functions are ultimately interpretable in chemical
terms.
 The Cell Theory

i) Cells make up all living matter

ii) Cells arise from other cells
iii) Genetic information required during the
maintenance of existing cells and the
production of new cells passes on from
one generation to the next
iv) Chemical reactions of an organism i.e.
metabolism takes place in cells
 PROKARYOTIC AND
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• Prokaryotic cells
"Pro"- Before nucleus.
Lack a definite membrane surrounding the
genetic material.
In various types of bacteria.
Cells invariably unicellular.

• Eukaryotic cells
“Eu”, - true or good and karyon for kernel or
hut. Have a membrane-enclosed nucleus
encapsulating their DNA.
 Progenitor
3.5 billion years
ago

Archaebacteria Eubacteria

Distinction between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells artificial –

share a common biochemistry
 Properties of Living Systems
a) Biological structures serve functional purposes.
Function helps to preserve the cell as a living entity.

b) Actively engaged in energy transformation -

ability to extract energy from the environment.
• Upon death an organism at equilibrium with its
inanimate environment.
• steady-state-, energy and material are consumed by
the organism and used to maintain its stability and
order.

c) Remarkable capacity for self-replication

Reproduce virtually identical copies of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Sexual versus
asexual
 Simple molecules - units for
building complex structures
• Organisation of molecules to produce a cell/organisms
• Inorganic precursors e.g. CO2, H2O, Ammonia,
• Metabolites e.g. pyruvate, citrate,
• Building blocks e.g. Amino acids, Nucleotides,
Monosaccharides, Fatty acids, Glycerol
• Macromolecules e.g. proteins, Nucleic acids, polysaccharides
and lipids)
• Supramolecular e.g. ribosomes, structures complexes
cytoskeleton,
• Organelles (Nucleus, Mitochondria,
• The cell e.g. smooth muscle cell, bacterial cell
• Tissues e.g. smooth muscle tissue- similar types of cells
• Organs e.g. blood vessel - Different types of tissues
• Sytems e.g. cardiovascular system- different organs working
together closely
• Organism Many organ systems
Cell Structure I - Prokaryotic
Cells
 Prokaryotes
• Very small + surrounded by a rigid cell wall
• Single membrane, the plasma membrane or
cell membrane.
• No other membranes + no nucleus or
organelles.
• Distinct nuclear area where a single circular
chromosome is localised
• Internal membranous structure, mesosome,
derived from + continuous with the cell
membrane for cellular respiration activities.
 Prokaryotes
• Highly cosmopolitan + varied and highly
adaptable metabolisms.
• Enormous varieties of habitats.
• Thrive in hostile conditions to eukaryotes
e.g. in lack of O2, high temperatures +
unusual chemical environments.
• High reproductive rates (less than 20
min/cell division).
• Resistant spores for survival of adverse
conditions.
 Cell Wall
• Rigid structures to impart shape.
• Prevents cell from expanding and bursting
• Cell wall structure and synthesis is unique to
prokaryotes.
• Two basic types of bacterial cell wall
structures Gram positive (G+) and Gram
negative (G-).
• Bacterial cells look very different following
staining with the Gram stain.
• G+ cells are Purple and G- cells are red.
 Structural Composition
• Peptidoglycan (murein) -Polymer of N-acetylglucosamine
(NAG), N-acetyl muramic acid (NAM), L-alanine, D-alanine,
D-glutamate and a diaamino acid (L-lysine, L-ornithine or L-
daiminobuytric acid).
•  (1-4) glycoside linkage between NAM and NAG.
• Treatment of Gram positive (G+) bacteria with the enzyme
lysozyme degrades their cell walls, which results in lysis.
• Gram-negative (G-) bacteria are resistant to the effects of
lysozyme.
• Lysozyme in body secretions, including saliva, sweat, tears
and vaginal secretions.
• Most Gram+ bacteria contain very little lipid, but those of
Mycobacterium , Corynebacterium contain mycolic acids.
The Gram positive cell wall
 The Gram positive cell wall
• A thick peptidoglycan layer
• Very sensitive to the action of lysozyme
and penicillin, or its derivatives.
• Penicillin is often the antibiotic of choice
for infections caused by G+ organisms.
• E.g. Streptococcus pyogenes which
causes strep throat.
• Always treated with some type of
penicillin
 The Gram Negative Cell Wall
• two separate areas with an additional membrane
besides the cellular membrane.
• Outside of the cytoplasmic membrane (CM) is a
open area called the periplasmic space.
• Beyond this is a thin layer of peptidoglycan.
• Finally, external to the peptidoglycan is an
additional membrane, the outer membrane (OM).
• The OM - large role in the virulence (ability to
cause disease) of G- bacteria.
 Penicillin- an antibiotic
• Metabolic product of one micro-organism that in
very small amounts can kill or inhibit growth of
other micro-organisms.
• Inhibiting cell wall biosynthesis - resulting in the
membrane being the only a barrier but can be
broken easily.
• Penicillin -1929 Sir Alexander Flemming -
Penicillium notatum.
• Binds to and inactivates enzymes (glycopeptide
transpeptidase) that function to cross-link the
peptidoglycan strands of bacterial cell walls
(Reactions?)
Reactions?)
• Exposure to penicillin results in bacterial lysis.
 Bacterial Capsule
• A viscous substance forming a
layer or envelope around the cell
wall of some bacteria.

Functions
• i) Against drying by binding water
molecules
• ii) Block attachment of
bacteriophages (bacterial
parasites)
• iii) Anti-phagocytic ,thus,
contribute to invasive or infective
ability (virulence)
• iv) Promote attachment of
bacteria to surfaces e.g.
Streptococcus mutants, (a
bacterium associated with
producing dental carries)
Major features of prokaryotic
cells
1. Cell wall - Molecular composition: rigid framework of polysaccharide
cross-linked by short peptide chains. Can have a lipopolysaccharide
and protein-rich outer membrane
Function: Mechanical support, shape and protection against swelling
in hypotonic media. Porous non-selective barrier for passage of most
small molecules.

2. The cell membrane- Molecular composition: 45% lipid and 55%

protein. Lipids form a bilayer that is a continuous non-polar
hydrophobic phase in which proteins are embedded. May have some
convoluted specialised structures called mesosomes.
Function Selective permeability barrier. Enzymes for generation of
cellular energy Mesosomes - formation of cross -walls during cell
division. Chromosomal DNA attached to septal mesosomes.
Receptors and proteins of the chemotactic and other sensory
transduction mechanisms. Also involved in the excretion of hydrolytic
enzymes.

3. Nuclear or nucleoid region- Molecular composition: Genetic

material in a single tightly coiled DNA molecule. Function: DNA
blue-print of the cell. DNA molecule replicated to yield two double -
helical daughter molecules. mRNA is made (transcribed) from DNA to
direct the synthesis (translation) of cellular proteins.
 Major features of
prokaryotic cells
4. Ribosomes: Molecular composition: About 15000 ribosomes. Small
(30s) subunit and a larger (50S) subunit. The total size of a complete
unit is 70S. Mass of 2.3 x 106 daltons. 65% RNA and 35% protein.
Function: Protein synthesis. mRNA binds to ribosomes and the mRNA
nucleotide sequence specifies the protein that is synthesised.

5. Storage granule-Molecular composition: Storage forms of

polymerised metabolites such as sugars or -hydroxybutyric acid.
Function: Metabolic fuel, the monomeric units of the polymer are
liberated and degraded by energy-yielded pathways in the cell.

6. Cytosol-Molecular composition: Organised gelatinous compartment

that is 20% protein by weight and rich in the organic molecules that are
the intermediates in metabolism.
Function: Intermediary metabolism, the interconnecting sets of
chemical reactions by which cells generate energy and form the
precursors necessary for biosynthesis of macromolecules essential to
cell growth and function.
 Prokaryotic cells
7. Flagella-Molecular composition: Threadlike appendages composed of protein.
Made of a single type of protein subunit called flagellin. Attached to bacterial
cell body by a structure called a hook and a basal body. The basal body has a
set of rings , one pair in Gram + bacteria and 2 pairs in Gram - bacteria.
· Function: Locomotion + for chemotaxis. Arranged as a single polar flagellum
(monotrichous), a tuft of polar flagella (lophotrichous) or distributed over the
entire cell (peritrichous). Get restored in about 3-6 minutes after shearing.

8. Storage of genetic information

DNA determines properties and structural characteristics of both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells. Two forms DNA in bacteria:
i) Chromosomal DNA
ii) Plasmid DNA
• Bacterial Chromosome: Single circular DNA macromolecule in nucleoid region.
Highly folded and associated with proteins involved in replication, transcription,
and regulation of gene expression.
• Plasmids: One or more pieces of circular macromolecules of extra-
chromosomal DNA. Not all bacteria contain plasmids e.g. Mycobacterium
tuberculosis does not have any. Contain limited amount of specific genetic
information that is a supplement to information on the chromosome.
Supplementary information for:
• mating capabilities, resistance to antibiotics, tolerance to toxic metals
Polar or Monotrichous Lophotrichous Peritrichous

Bacteria are capable of showing simple

behavior that depends upon various stimuli.

Chemotaxis - towards or away from a

chemical stimulus

Phototaxis - towards or away from light

Aerotaxis - towards or away from oxygen

Magnetotaxis - orientation in a magnetic field

 Cell properties from plasmid
genes
a. Drug Resistance- Plasmid-governed resistance mediated by
enzymatic inactivation of the drug e.g. acetylation or phosphorylation

b. Virulence
• Genes that code for toxins e.g. the neurotoxin of Clostridium tetani, the
cholera toxin of Vibrio cholerae!!!!
• Genes for invasiveness.
•
c. Production of antimicrobial agents
• Include antibiotics - the products of metabolic pathways and
polypeptide toxins + other antimicrobial agents called bacteriocins.

d. Metabolic Activities
• Genes determining metabolic pathways e.g. in flavobacterium species,
for nylon degradation

e. Chromosome transfer
• Conjugative plasmids (sex factors) - integrate with host cell
chromosome and in the conjugation process, both plasmid and
chromosomal DNA are transferred from donor to the recipient cell.
Asexual reproduction

Note the electron-transparent nuclear region (n)

packed with DNA fibrils, the dense distribution of
ribosomal particles in the cytoplasm, and the absence
of intracellular membranous organelles.
 Vibrio cholerae
Produces the cholera toxin which causes the release of a
second messenger cAMP. cAMP causes the cells lining
the intestines to secrete large amounts of fluids into the cavity,
causing dehydration and death
 Cholera
• Massive diarrhoea if untreated, massive dehydration and death.
• Vibrio cholerae, bacteria neither invades nor damages tissues, but
merely colonise the intestine
• Catastrophic loss of body fluid that causes over occurs (up to
1litre/hour) is in response to the toxin produced by the bacteria.
• Replacing the cholera victims lost water and body salts enables them
to survive the few days necessary to immunologically eliminate the
bacterial infestations .
• The cholera toxin -an 87-kDa protein of subunit composition AB5.
which binds its cell surface receptor ganglioside GM1, and is taken
into the cell via receptor mediated endocytosis.
• cleavage and –S-S- reduction of the A subunit to two fragments A1
and A2.
• A1 subunit is released into the cytosol where it catalyses the formation
of [cAMP].
• 100 fold increment in intracellular [cAMP] induced by cholera toxin
causes the symptoms of cholera by inducing these epithelial cells to
pour out enormous quantities of digestive fluid.