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Levels and Forms of Student Teachers' Reflective Learning Practices in

Secondary School Teacher Education: Bahir Dar University in Focus
Background of the Study

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 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 97
Levels and Forms of Student Teachers’ Reflective Learning
Practices in Secondary School Teacher Education: Bahir Dar
University in Focus

Amera Seifu

Received: 23 January 2017; Accepted: 31 July 2018

Abstract: This study explored student teachers‟ reflective learning practices by taking
the levels and forms of reflection into account. It used qualitative case study design.
Eight purposively selected student teachers (three females and five males)
participated in the study. Multiple data gathering instruments such as interview,
observations and document analysis were employed. Analysis and interpretation
were also made with the application of multiple techniques such as pattern matching,
case-by-case and then inter-case analysis technique. Accordingly, the following major
findings were obtained. Student teachers‟ status in reflective learning practice was
found to be in its descriptive level and theoretical type of reflections. They were less-
engaged in the productive/higher level (e.g. critical reflection) and practical type of
reflection. This indicated that student teachers‟ reflective learning practices were
below the expected standards. Of the three levels of reflection fixed in this study,
descriptive level of reflection stood first followed by comparative level of reflection
with rare occurrence of critical level of reflection. In contrast, student teachers
sometimes were totally non-reflective particularly in their practical learning
engagements such as in teaching practices and examination responses. In their
forms of reflection, student teachers did better on reflection-on-action than reflection-
in-action, which indeed was better than how on reflection-for-action, was practiced. In
view of the findings, this study suggests that the teacher education faculty should
encourage student teachers and teacher educators by introducing them about
reflective teacher education. Student teachers and teacher educators, moreover,
advise to design and deliver open-ended and practice-focused lesson
contents/assignments and other assessment techniques including test items as well.

Key Terms: Reflective learning practice, levels of reflective learning practice, forms
of reflective learning practice


Associate professor in Teacher Education and Curriculum Studies, College of
Education and Behavioral Sciences, Bahir Dar University. E-mail address:
amera1960ec@gmail.com
98 Amera Seifu

Background of the Study

Teaching facilitates the learning practices of students who are

mostly in various levels of thoughts, interests, motivations and
readiness to learn through varied learning environments. It is,
therefore, taken as a complex and demanding practice. In relation
to this, Bolin (1998) stressed that almost all of the academic
community including the teacher educators and student teachers
need to agree that teaching is a complex and dynamic activity
which requires thoughtful planning and spot-on decisions by the
teacher. Therefore, it seems hard to imagine effective teachers
without being intellectually energetic, flexible, planned and
thoughtful about their teaching and students‟ learning in a
continuous manner (Ostorga, 2006). Such competencies and
other qualities (e.g. being self evaluative, practice-oriented,
lifelong learner, etc) of teachers are mainly realized through the
culture of reflective practice (Bengtsson, 1995; Poltorak, 1993).
This ultimately informs that teachers‟ preparation in the teacher
education, the most important event for teachers‟ professional
shaping, need to work for enhancing student teachers‟ reflective
learning practices (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Husien, 2006; Choy,
2012; Daudelin, 1996) especially the productive type:
Comparative and critical reflections (Brookfeild, 1995; Lee, 2008;
Otienoh, 2011). Hence, this research was designed to explore the
status of student teachers‟ reflective learning practices in
secondary school teacher education program by taking Faculty of
Education and Behavioral Sciences of Bahir Dar University in
focus.

Reflection in general is the ability of describing, comparing,

analyzing and then criticizing experiences (or deconstructing
assumptions) in order to develop some kinds of new propositions.
In support of this, Dewey (1933), for example, defined reflection
as active, persistent and careful considerations of beliefs,
assumptions, etc so as to establish a kind of new ideas/practices
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 99
of course based on firm experiences and rationality. Kolb (1984)
also conceptualized reflection as a mental engagement
(processing) one‟s observation for ensuring meaningful learning.
According to Schon (1983), reflective practice is the process of
professional learning from the engagements of practical contexts
because professionals can understand things through practice
more than what they are trying to say. Reflective learning
practice, therefore, is a matter of delivering learning accompanied
with different levels (description, comparative and critical) (Hellen,
2011) and forms (reflection-for-action, reflection-in-action and
reflection-on-action) of reflection (Schmuch, 1997; Schon, 1983).

As Hellen (2011) and Lee (2008) noted, the three levels of

reflection are conceptualized as follows. A descriptive level of
reflection is the lower level and more of technical type which is
mainly related to deal with recalling, demonstrating and reporting
of experiences as they are. A comparative level of reflection is an
intermediate/dialogistic level which mainly works to see relations
and differences among varied experiences that the person has
and to make certain modifications and arrangements about. A
critical level of reflection, the highest form of reflection, involves in
exploring reasons in the wider sense of the experiences by
making certain critiques about the available assumptions in order
to look something different which might be aligned with ethical,
moral, social or historical contexts. Similarly, forms of reflection
can be defined as the depth and amount of reflection with
reference to a given action and its time of occurrence. A
reflection-for-action is labeled as the reflection practices before
certain actions, reflection-in-action while the action is in progress,
and reflection-on-action after the action is finalized (Schmuch,
1997; Schon, 1983).

Reflective learning in teacher education is basically grounded in

reflective and inquiry model of teacher education which was
followed and emerged from „personal orientation‟ and
100 Amera Seifu

competency-based model of teacher education since 1970s

((Huizen, et al, 2005). Reflective and inquiry model of teacher
education works for enhancing student teachers‟ critical analysis
including self evaluation and improvement. This model combines
multiple theoretical perspectives such as learning by doing and
how we think (Dewey, 1933), constructive learning (Vygotsky,
1978), experiential learning (Kolb, 1984), critical communication in
action and with consensus (Habermas, 1984) and the reflective
practitioner (Schon, 1983). As a result, this model of teacher
education has attracted more attention around the world because
it seems fine to address multi-dimensional approaches in learning
(Doudelin, 1996) which is more advisable than treating things
separately (Edwards, Gilroy and Hartley, 2002). However, its
implementation status is explored by few authors (e.g. Erginel,
2006; Dereje, 2009; Zhu, 2011). This study, therefore, adds
certain facts about reflective learning, its forms and levels in
teacher education.

Statement of the Problem

Like many other countries did (Huizen, et al, 2005), Ethiopia

introduced reflective and inquiry model of teacher education via
the introduction of the current education and training policy (MoE,
1994) in general and Teacher Education System Overhaul
(TESO, 2003) in particular. In order to be responsive for reflective
and inquiry model of teacher education, Ethiopia, through its
various policy and legislation documents (MoE, 2003; MoE, 2009),
has proposed some values and techniques to design and
implement reflective learning practices in different levels of
teacher education programs. Accordingly, the secondary school
teacher education syllabi have initiated practice-led and open-
ended contents and learning experiences, even to the extent, with
the addition of the course „Teachers as a Reflective Practitioners‟
(MoE, 2009). This shows that the current secondary school
teacher education program of Ethiopia which is named as Post
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 101
Graduate Diploma in Teaching (PGDT) has given strong
emphasis for realizing student teachers‟ reflective learning
practices though its actual status is not yet examined (MoE,
2013). The few investigations attempted in Ethiopia in this area so
far (e.g. Husien, 2006; Dereje, 2009) were before the introduction
of this PGDT program. This study, therefore, might help to bridge
the gap in the area of teacher education research.

Cognizant of this, the present study intended to explore student

teachers‟ overall status, levels and forms of reflective learning
practices by taking secondary school teacher education
curriculum implementation processes into account. Accordingly,
the study focused on the following research issues:

 the levels of reflection in learning that are mainly practiced

and the reasons
 the forms of reflection in learning that are mainly practiced
and the reasons
 the present status of student teachers‟ reflective learning
practice and the reasons

Definitions of Important Terms

Reflective learning practice is the ability that student teachers describe,

analyze, and question assumptions about their past, present and future
experiences in order to change these experiences into
learning/developing new experiences or insights through investing
creative and critical thinking.

Level of reflection comprises of descriptive, comparative and critical

types of reflection which are extended from simple recalling of
experiences (as description level), associating, analyzing and
understanding of experiences (as comparative level), and questioning,
criticizing and synthesizing the available experiences/assumptions (as
critical level) for maintaining, amending or investigating something new.
102 Amera Seifu

Forms of reflection refers to the time-position of reflection in

correspondence with reflectors‟ action. The reflection practices might
be delivered at three time-positions that include before (reflection-for-
action), during (reflection-in-action), and after (reflection-on-action) any
kinds of learning actions.

Methodology

Design

The research employed qualitative case study as its typical

design. This design is very important to explore current and live
experiences (as Darke, Shanks and Marrianne, 1998; Zhu, 2011
used) of student teachers‟ reflective learning practices via utilizing
multiple instruments. Moreover, both the topic of this study,
reflective learning in teacher education (Huzein, V. P. , Oers, V.B
and Wubbels, J. 2005), and the selected research design,
qualitative case study (Darke. Shanks and Marrianne, 1998;
Baxter & Jack, 2008), are basically grounded on the same
philosophy which assumes truth is subjective. Zhu (2011) also
argued that because reflection is a matter of action than reporting
perceptions and opinions at a distance, it seems better to use
qualitative case study than other designs (e.g. quantitative
survey).

Participants and Research Site

Faculty of Education and Behavioral Science in Bahir Dar University

was purposively selected as the research site for this study. This
faculty is selected because it is the oldest (more than 45 years ago)
and experienced institution in holding teacher education. So, its
teacher education culture is shared among several current teacher
education faculties/colleges (including Addis Ababa University) found
across Ethiopia. Regarding the participants, although teacher
educators and mentors are directly responsible to facilitate student
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 103
teachers‟ learning, since the issue of learning is mainly attached to
students (Daudelin, 1996), student teachers were taken as the data
sources of this study. The participants were selected through purposive
sampling. Purposive sampling is appropriate technique to choose
participants for qualitative case study design since it will point out
participants from different segments that can discover, understand and
gain deep insights about the issue under exploration (Merriam, 1988;
Yin, 2003). By taking their heterogeneity in field of studies, gender,
academic achievement and then their willingness to participate, ten
student teachers were identified as participants in the study. But, two
participants (one from natural science and the other one from social
science) dropped out after their first interview contact. As a result, eight
student teachers (three each from social science and from natural
science and two from humanities faculties) were identified and served
as data sources. This number seemed to be sufficient to explore a
qualitative case study design similar to that used by Otienoh, 2011;
Dereje, 2009).

Data Collection Instruments

One of the typical features of qualitative case study is using multiple

sources of evidences (Walsham, 1995; Yin, 2003), through a variety of
instruments, in order to bring out the holistic and detailed data from the
viewpoints of the participants. As it was adapted from Erginel (2006)
and Zhu (2011), this study employed reflective interview, classroom
observation and document analysis as its data collection instruments.

Interview in general is a tool that both the researcher and research

participants are engaged in the dialogue where the researcher
attempts to understand the world from the participants' point of view
and then to explore the unfold meaning of peoples' experiences
(Merriam, 1988; Flick, 2006). As it was employed by Erginel (2006)
and Zhu (2011), repetitive reflective interview schedule, which was
conducted around six times with each of the eight cases throughout
the third term, was administered to collect data about student teachers‟
104 Amera Seifu

reflective learning practices (before, during and after) course learning

actions.

Observation is employed to generate qualitative data through

researcher‟s direct involvement while the behavior is demonstrated in
its natural setting (Merriam, 1988; Flick, 2006). In order to observe and
understand how student teachers‟ reflective learning is practiced, both
structured and unstructured observation was conducted. In the
structured observation 13 observation scale items were prepared and
used to see student teachers‟ school teaching practices. Unstructured
observation, on the other hand, tried to see performances (e.g. in
school practicum, teaching practices, pre- and post-teaching
conferences and action research) of student teachers that have direct
and indirect relations with the processes of curriculum implementation
and then reflective learning practices.

Document Analysis

Documents include any kinds of text or electronic forms of artifacts

(Flick, 2006) which have relations to the topic under investigation.
Since other academic artifacts (e.g. practicum portfolio) are expecting
sort of cheating, this study analyzed only lesson plans and essay exam
responses.

Building Credibility and Trustworthiness

In naturalistic inquiry, which can be taken case study as one of the

typical designs in it, credibility, dependability and transformability are
among the major quality indicator practices (Guba & Lincoln, 1985). To
realize such quality indicators of research, this study tried to frame the
problem and its methodology with appropriate procedures and sources
(but flexibly) in order to have genuine data and relevant analysis and
result. As Yin (2003) advised, this study attempted to share research
ideas with professional colleagues, make continuous contact with the
research site, invite participants to see their data summary, check and
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 105
re-check the harmony between the data and the pre-proposed
research questions.

Data Analysis Techniques

In the actual practices of case study, no particular stage that uses a

specific analytical strategy but the researcher tries to use in
heterogeneous manner (Varian, 2008). That is why the present study
(as it was employed by Varian, 2008; Zhu, 2011; Otiienoh, 2011;
Erginel, 2006) employed thematic/pattern matching, case-by-case
analysis, inter-case analysis through the applications of both the
deductive and inductive qualitative data analysis approach. Moreover,
in order to transform the raw qualitative data, which is relatively messy
and unstructured (unlike the quantitative data), into meanings, this
study used displaying, describing, analyzing and interpreting the data
now and then (as Varian, 2008 also used). These techniques were
applied through the researcher‟s movement in the continuum between
the theoretical propositions (e.g. research questions) and the themes
emerging in the empirical data. In addition, data analysis steps like
coding the data, studying and knowing the data and
systematizing/organizing the data into tables were employed in this
study.

Analytical Frames for Data Interpretation

Data were not interpreted directly as they were reported by

respondents. Rather, student teachers‟ direct responses (could be
practical, written or verbal explanation) were defined as per the agreed
upon measures of status, levels and forms of reflective learning
practices as explained below.

Levels of Reflective Learning Practices were determined as follow

(Yost, Sentner & Forlenza-Bailey, 2000; Lee, 2008; Zhu, 2011). If
student teachers‟ response, for example, is simple recalling and
describing of experience as it is, it is referred as descriptive level
106 Amera Seifu

reflection. If it entertains certain comparing and contrasting actions

among different experiences that student teachers have, it can be
considered as comparative level of reflection. If their response is
working to question (or challenge) the available assumptions (taken as
acceptable truth currently) and trying to show alternatives, it can be
labeled as critical level of reflection. On the contrary, if the student
teacher does not have any response or totally off truck from the
expected experiences (e.g. if he/she reported Addis Ababa as the
capital city of Kenya), in fact without sound justification, it is noticed as
‘non-reflective’.

Forms of Reflective Learning Practices were measured as follows. If

student teachers‟ response deals about their past experiences
(actions), it is referred as reflection-on-action, for their present
experience, reflection-in-action, and for their future experience,
reflection-for-action (Schon, 1983; Schmuck, 1997; Dereje, 2009).

Reflective Learning Status was measured (as Dewey, 1933; Boud,

Keogh and Walker, 1985; Brookfield, 1995 conceptualized). If student
teachers‟ response is defined as more of descriptive level of reflection
and “non-reflective”, the study understood that the status of reflective
learning practice is below the expected standard. If their response is
defined more of comparative and critical levels of reflection (which are
referred as productive and full-fledged type of reflection), the status of
reflective learning practice could be taken as above the expected
standard

Results and Discussions

This study attempted to explore the overall status, levels and forms of
student teachers‟ reflective learning practices while third term
secondary school teacher education courses („Inclusive Education‟,
„School Practicum‟ and „Action Research‟) were implemented. In
addition, since the course „Teachers as a Reflective Practitioner‟ (from
second term) has direct relation with the topic under investigation and
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 107
the theoretical aspects of action research is dealt in it, it serves as a
data source only for analyzing student teachers‟ exam response by
searching it from teachers‟ storage. Accordingly, here under data were
presented and discussed through direct quotations, paragraph
explanations and of course in tables (Miles, Huberman and Saladana,
2014) for the sake of having very systematized and organized data and
results.

Reflection in the Preparation for the Coming Course Learning Actions

Based on the course orientations, course guidebooks and manuals
given to them, student teachers forwarded their views about the nature
and types of preparations that they had as reflection-for-action (see
Table 1). To begin with, for the course „Inclusive Education‟,
respondents declared that, because it was new for them, they did not
attempt any preparation. Student teachers S2 and S8, for example,
said that this course is totally new for them and no one told them to get
prepared, they did not take any initiation to read anything related to it.
Student teacher S3 also added, “I do not know what this course is
going to do; therefore, I have nothing as experiences of this course so,
I have not any preparation or reflection”. From this response, this study
understood that unless they are informed or ordered to do so, student
teachers do not have courage to explore further evidences by their own
although they clearly know the action is in front of them. Therefore,
from their responses about the preparation for „Inclusive Education‟,
(as Poltorak, 1993 also shared) student teachers did not attempt to
practice any levels of „reflection-for-actions‟ rather they seemed out of
mind and totally non-reflective about the course.

With regard to the courses „Action Research‟ and „School Practicum‟,

student teachers tried to speculate about the things which are relevant
and important for learning these courses. This includes thinking about
relevant courses to read from teacher education as well as from their
first-degree training, searching previous materials related to these
courses, etc. Otherwise, even for the courses „School Practicum‟ and
„Action Research‟, no student teacher started to put his/her preparation
108 Amera Seifu

into certain formal records or notes in order to have concrete

references while the action of learning is launched immediately in the
following Monday (see Table 1). A couple of days prior to start the
courses they were talking about their plan for preparation. Student
teacher respondents were even unable to give reasons why they did
not start official preparation for their learning though S2, S3 and S6
were trying to state some reasons (see Table 1). Therefore, as Otienoh
(2011) also reported, except student teachers S6, S2, and S3, the
others tried to practice descriptive level of reflection (because they
attempted to memorize and reproduce something from the practicum
orientation meeting).
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 109
Table 1: Student Teachers’ Reflection Level about their
Preparations for Learning the Courses in the Third Term (As
Reflection-for-Action)
Courses Nature of Preparation Respondents Status
Because it is new for them, they did not attempt All except S6 NRLP
Education

any kinds of preparation

Inclusive

Though he had minimal information about this S6 NRLP

course, he did not start preparation yet because no
one told him to do so.
As to the practicum orientation and the manual S1, S2, … S8 DSCR
distributed, they started to speculate about things
which are relevant and important for learning these
courses. They contemplated about relevant
core School Practicum and Action

courses to read from teacher education as well as

from their first degree training, searching previous
materials related to these courses, etc. Otherwise,
no student teachers started to put his/her
preparation into certain records/notes
Teacher education courses are manageable S2 & S3 CRTR
without early preparations as long as you will get
proper reading materials at a spot.
Research

Because they were struggling for their per diem S6 CMPR

and related issues with the university management,
they forgot preparations for the coming courses
They did actual preparations for their teaching S1, S2…S8 CMPR
practice because their practicum grade is mainly
determined with it, and it is done in front of
students with specific time and place. Therefore,
Teaching Practice (as
components of practicum)

they identified the topics of their lesson, read the

textbooks and teacher‟s guide, and prepared the
lesson plans
unlike the regular teacher, he was not only focusing S2 CRTR
on the forms to teach the topic „grammar‟ but also
on its concept
Unlike social science subjects, teaching chemistry, S1 CRTR
as a science subject, is more difficult and
demanding to talk in common senses rather it
needs to prepare and know the concepts.

Key: DSCR=Descriptive Level Reflection, NRLP=Non- Reflective Learning Practice,

CMPR=Comparative Reflection, and CRTR=Critical Reflection
110 Amera Seifu

Respondent S6, as comparative level of reflection, proposed about the

value of some teacher education courses to learn these two courses.
Though it seemed a kind of shifting the burden for their carelessness to
prepare, S2 and S3 tried to practice critical level of reflection by
challenging the nature of teacher education course delivery (as it is
also found by Osttorga, 2006). They said that it did not need
preparation ahead because it is easy to manage at a spot as long as
reading materials are given (Table 1).

Student teachers, on the other hand, did sufficient preparation (e.g.

identifying topics, reading the textbook, etc) for their teaching practices.
They said that it is a must to get ready for the teaching practices
because (i) it is an activity accomplished in front of students and within
specified time range and (ii) it is the main (possibly the only) focus of
supervisors to determine the grade for the practicum course (Table 1).
In this case they seemed to exercise all the three levels of reflection
(see Table 1).

From the above discussion, the study understood that the information
which student teachers had about the courses and the values that they
attached for it (e.g. teaching practice) determine their preparation and
reflection levels. In this regard, Bound et al 1985) noted that the
information/experiences and the values that student teachers gave for
a task matters their levels and amounts of reflection that they did. That
is why they did not attempt any preparation and reflection for the
course „Inclusive Education‟ (because they did not have information
and value); indeed, they did better preparation and reflection for their
teaching practices (because they considered it as decisive and
valuable for their school practicum course grade). In general, student
teachers‟ reflection-for-action (particularly the productive ones-
comparative and critical levels), which is expected ahead of certain
actions (Schmuch, 1997), seemed weakly performed.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 111
Reflection in Learning Adjustments While the Courses are in Progress

Student teachers, as reflection-in-action‟, were asked to explain any

learning adjustments based on the learning actions already started
(see Table 2). Accordingly, for their learning of the course „Inclusive
Education‟, all respondents recognized its value to be a teacher and
then adjusted their interest and energy for its learning engagements
(S2, S3, S6, S7 and S8) (Table 2). They mentioned the able lecturer
(who is physically disabled) as a cause for their initiation. The course is
very useful for prospective teachers in order to handle varieties in the
classroom (S3 and S8) (Table 2). Therefore, this tells that student
teachers, because the delivery was provoking to explore more about
the course, were encouraged to make learning adjustments and then
practice at least the lower (descriptive) and middle (comparative) levels
of reflection comfortably (Table 2). This result is in line with Otienoh
(2011) and Larrivee (2008) who stated that reflection needs motivated
and interested learning environment that mainly initiated by the teacher
(Edwards, Gilroy and Hartley, 2002).
112 Amera Seifu

Table 2: Student Teachers’ Reflection Level in Their Adjustments

While the Course Learning Actions in progress (As Reflection-
in-Action)
Courses Adjustments Done Respondents Status
All have changed their mind about the values of this S1, S2…S8 CMPR
course
Due to one of the disabled teachers (as a lecturer of S2, S3, S6 & CMPR
Education

this course), they attracted and decided not to miss S8

Inclusive

any class in this course

They decided and started to browse and read more S6 , S7 & S8 CMPR
related materials of this course
Only three student teachers thought changing their S2, S5 & S7 CMPR
action research topic from “classroom participation”
to “writing skills” (S2), from „cheating‟ to „students
Action research

attitude towards physics‟ (S5), and from „female

students‟ participation‟ to „students participation in
general‟ (S7)
Others didn‟t make anything related to this course S1, S3, S4, NRLP
because they said no one was directing them about S6 & S8
this course
They didn‟t do any kinds of learning adjustments in S1, S2, …S8 NRLP
relation to their learning about the general practicum
(as Practicum

(e.g. portfolio development, general school

observation, participation in different non-curricular
activities, etc.).
Unlike the regular teacher did, though they are S2, S4 & S6 CRTR
of

expecting to copy her approach, arranged students‟

group discussion on the core ideas (S2), make
components
Teaching Practice

explanations and note giving together (S4), try to

move around and changing his action zone (S6).
After studying the nature of students and availability S1, S4 CMPR
practicum)

of time, S4 jumped to show the human anatomy

diagram, S1 gave direct lecture instead of group and S7
discussions, and S7 offered only two oral questions
core

out of the six he was planning

Key: NRLP = Non -
reflective Learning Practice, CMPR=Comparative Reflection, & CRTR=Critical Reflection

With regard to the course „Action Research‟, only three student

teachers (S2, S5 and S7) tried to think about changing their action
research topic from what they thought before the practicum field trip
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 113
(see Table 2). Similar to what Otienoh (2011) contended, these
students seemed to practice descriptive and comparative levels of
reflection because they did a kind of comparisons between the topics
what they fixed before and the actual contexts (time factor, repetition
and scope) at the school. No student teachers did any kinds of
learning adjustments in relation to their learning about the general
practicum (e.g. portfolio development, general school observation,
participation in different non-curricular activities, etc) (Table 2). Their
justification was that there was no one who guided them about school
practicum although they expected sort of pressures to do something is
not the feature of being a reflective learner (Schmuch, 1997) rather it
needs to be self inquisitive.

In their responses about the learning adjustments related to the

teaching practices, student teachers seemed to practice all the three
levels of reflection though S3, S5 and S8 were not in a position to do
so (Table 2). Student teachers S1, S4, S6 and S7 did comparative
levels of reflection because, depending on the time and students‟
nature that they had, they decided to omit some planned activities (as
S4 and S7 did) and/or shift from one activity to the other (as S6 and S1
did) (see Table 2). Student teachers S2, S4 and S6, on the other hand,
attempted to practice critical levels of reflection because they
questioned the assumption (Brookfield, 1995) that claims about
„student teachers better to follow and take the experienced regular
teachers (Table 2) as a model. From this analysis, it seems
understandable that teacher educators‟ level of concern/devotion for a
course determines student teachers‟ depth and amount of reflective
learning practices (Dinkelman, 2000). That is why student teachers
were good in reflecting for their teaching practices and „Inclusive
Education‟ but not for „Action Research‟ and other general practicum
issues.
114 Amera Seifu

Reflection in Actual Teaching Practices

In order to see how student teachers practice their teaching, both

structured (with 13 observation scale items) and unstructured
observations were applied. Lesson observation was done twice (one
with the presence of their supervisor and the other without him/her) for
each of the eight student teachers although the data was merged and
reported together. The results (obtained from the rating of student
teachers‟ teaching practice observation scale) showed similar features
irrespective of the nature of the contents they presented (Table 3).
Except two student teachers (S4 and S5), who were trying to design
application tasks, all of them were using their 80% instructional time for
describing facts, principles and formulas of the lesson (Table 3). Even
the tasks given for group discussion (e.g. by S1, S3 and S8) were
„what‟ questions which were straight forward and that possibly led
student teachers towards listing some facts and principles found in
students‟ textbook (See Table 3).

Even though student teachers S4 and S5 were raising application

questions/problems (see Table 3), they did not ask the „why‟ and „how‟
questions further.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 115
Table 3: Levels of Reflection in Student Teachers’ Teaching
Practices Involvement (As Reflection-in Action)
Themes Indicators Time Practitioner Status
Stopping to  Metallic elements are good conductors of 1-2‟ S1 NRLP
say any or electricity because…. (unable to give reasons and
delivering stacked)
Confused
explanations  The difference between conditional sentence I 1-2‟ S3 NRLP
and II is …. (unable to proceed in showing the
differences and stacked)
 The relationship between buoyancy and flotation 1-2‟ S5 NRLP
can be explained … (unable to proceed in
showing the relationship and stacked)

 Unclear messages even for the student teachers S2 & S6 NRLP

themselves
Factual  Copying factual notes from the textbook (when the 24-30‟ S1, S4, S5, DSCR
Description university supervisor was not around) or from their S6 & S7
notebook (when the university supervisor was
around) on the blackboard and ordered students
to listen and copy it.
 Copying factual notes from their notebook (when 24-30‟ S2, S3 & S8 DSCR
the university supervisor was/ or was not/ around)
on the blackboard and ordered students to listen
and copy it.
Experience  Identify the major characteristics of metallic 8-13‟ S1, S3, S8
support and elements (S1), & S5
interactive  Sort-out the basic features of conditional CMPR
teaching sentences (S3),
 Identify the use of soil conservation for living
things (S8), and
 Make a relationship between your real
experiences: „Stone sinks and ball floats on water‟
with any of the laws in physics (S5).
 (These were some of the issues mentioned for the
group discussion)
 Why plants with sun light exposure are greener 8-13‟ S4 CMPR
than those lacking sun light? (As oral question for
the class as a whole).
Treating  There were no attempts of treating uncertain
issues issues, interpreting some concepts beyond they ----- ------- -------
beyond the are stating, copying with ill-structured issues,
available developing concepts, and showing how the
facts implication of their lesson for the outside
environment at large.

Key: DSCR= Descriptive Level Reflection, NRLP=Non-Reflective Learning Practice, and

CMPR=Comparative
116 Amera Seifu

Reflection

Rather, they were satisfying with students‟ direct and factual

responses. Student teachers‟ teaching practices were not in a position
to attempt treating uncertain issues, dealing with „how‟ and „why‟
questions, interpreting some concepts beyond what they stated, coping
with ill-structured issues, correcting his/her own mistakes, trying to
work with concept development, etc which can be facilitative for critical
level of reflection (Table 3). Rather, they were intensively describing
and showing what is found in the textbook as well as from what they
know (or memorize) before. Even to the extent some of them (e.g. S1,
S3, S2, S6 & S5) were not sufficiently prepared about the facts in the
textbook (See Table 3). As a result, sometimes they were doing the
teaching practice in disorganized and distorted ways which can be
referred as non-reflective/responsive practices.

The unstructured observation during student teachers‟ teaching

practice, on its side, indicated that student teachers were more
prepared (in lesson planning, teaching materials, dressing, etc for their
lesson) when their supervisor was there than in his/her absence. In the
absence of the supervisor student teachers came carelessly even
without the lesson plan but they were a bit relaxed in presenting the
lesson. The unstructured observation also found that student teachers,
in their post-teaching discussions with supervisors, were totally passive
listeners without attempting to justify what the supervisor tried to
comment although student teacher S4 was different. He argued to his
supervisor by saying the day‟s topic „photosynthesis‟ is not as such
argumentative topic to treat under group discussion.

In general, as per the statements of Otiienoh (2011), about levels of

reflection, it is possible to conclude that student teachers, in their
teaching practices, were frequently practicing descriptive level of
reflection, rarely doing comparative level of reflection (e.g. S1, S3 and
S8 in their group discussion; S4 and S5 in their practical activities)
(Table 3). There was no critical level of reflection at all; rather student
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 117
teachers stacked to say anything (S1, S3 and S8) or two or else they
strived to deliver sort of distorted explanations (S2 and S6). Such
attempts can be taken as non-reflective learning practices (Table 3)
because they were not reflecting (at least to the level of descriptive
reflection) on the evidences which are very familiar to them.

Reflection in Actual Lesson Plan Preparation

Even though the faculty provided them the same lesson plan format for
all types of disciplines (Amharic, English, mathematics, etc), student
teachers have certain rooms to prepare experience-based, doubtful
and open-ended teaching and learning strategies, assessment
techniques, and resource selections that initiates to question the
available assumptions. As it is schematized in Table 4, the given
lesson plan format had general information (e.g. name of the school,
subject, grade level, etc), lesson objectives, lesson topic/content,
teachers and students activity, teaching materials and the like.
Moreover, from the content analysis of student teachers‟ lesson plan,
except the name of the teacher, the type of the subject and its lesson
topic, other things are almost similar across different lesson plans
irrespective of the differences in the nature of their faculty, department,
subjects, topics, and sub topics.

Therefore, student teachers‟ lesson plan development practice was

totally at a descriptive level of reflection because it entertained a simple
copying of the steps found in the format without making any kinds of
adaptation for their own particular topics, students and other contexts
(see Table 4). For example, revision of previous lesson, asking some
motivating questions, presenting the main points of the day‟s lesson,
etc were assigned as common activities of all student teachers.
Similarly, answering the brain storming questions, listening and writing
notes, etc were common activities of all students (see Table 4).
Moreover, all the lesson plans reported oral questioning as their major
tools of lesson assessment techniques with the exception of S6, who
added students‟ presentation as an assessment technique of the day‟s
118 Amera Seifu

lesson. The lesson plans also mentioned the textbook as teaching

materials of the lesson though S1, S4 and S7 were including charts as
additional resources (Table 4).

The data informed that no irregularities in planning the lesson across

disciplines and topics (Table 4). In the first place, the format seems to
have oversimplified contextualization of teaching which might stand
against the current conceptualizations of teaching and learning
(Edwards, Gilroy and Hartley, 2002) including the reflective learning
practices (Ostorga, 2006) that is mainly grounded on constructivist
paradigm (Crosby, 1988). Rather, all the lesson plans analyzed in this
study seemed more appropriate in guiding behaviorist approach
classroom teaching and learning than facilitating the constructivist
learning approach classrooms, which is taken as a milestone for
reflective learning practices (Huizen, et al, 2005) the issue under
investigation.
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 119
Table 4: Levels of Reflection in Student Teachers’ Lesson
Planning Practices (Reflection-in-Action)
Themes Indicators Planners Status
General This section includes name of the school, teacher, S1, DSCR
information grade level, subject, lesson topic, department head and S2…S8
director
Sample lesson At the end of this lesson students will be able to: S7, S1, DSCR
objectives -Define macro economics policy instruments (S7) S3, S8
-Differentiate between metallic and non-metallic and S4
elements (S1)
-Identify the basic features of conditional sentences in
English (S3)
- List the strategies for soil conservation (S8)
-Show the steps of photosynthesis (S4), etc
Main Contents Macro economics (S7), metallic and non-metallic S7, S1, DSCR
elements (S1), conditional sentence in English (S3), S3, S8
soil conservation (S8), Photosynthesis (S4), etc. and S4
Teacher‟s Three major tasks such as revising previous lesson, S2, S6 & DSCR
activity presenting the day‟s lesson, and stabilizing the day‟s S7
lesson.
Four major tasks such as revising previous lesson, S1, S3, & DSCR
presenting the day‟s lesson, giving tasks for S5
group/whole class discussion, and stabilizing the day‟s
lesson.
Five major tasks such as revising previous lesson, S4 and S8 DSCR
Brain storming questions, presenting the day‟s lesson,
giving tasks for group (S8) as well as for whole class
(S4) discussion, and stabilizing the day‟s lesson
Students‟ Listening the presentation, taking notes, asking and S2, S6 & DSCR
activity answering questions S7
Listening the presentation, taking notes, asking and S1, S3, DSCR
answering questions, being active in group as well as S5, S4 &
whole class discussions S8
Teaching Only school textbook S2, S3, DSCR
Materials S5, S6 &
S8
school textbook and charts S1, S4 & DSCR
S7
Assessment Only oral Questioning (questions were not indicated All but S6 DSCR
Techniques yet)
Oral questioning and students‟ presentation S6 DSCR
Time allotment For teachers‟ motivational explanations (3-5‟) S1, S2, DSCR
presentation (18-20‟), stabilization (3-5‟), and students‟ …S8
interaction (10-14‟)

Key: DSCR= Descriptive Level Reflection, NRLP=Non-Reflective Learning Practice, & CMPR =
Comparative Reflection
120 Amera Seifu

As reflective practitioners, student teachers ought to leave room for the

ideas and practices that might be developed and emerged in the
processes of the teaching learning activities (Larrivee, 2008) because
the very features of being reflective is being flexible and open to take
any relevant ideas and/or practices in order to change the assumptions
that we had before (Brookfeild, 1995; Dewey, 1933). This implies that
the format and quality of student teachers‟ lesson plan are irrelevant for
reflective teacher education programs in general and for making the
student teachers reflective learners in particular. This might be one of
the reasons that student teachers were failing to do sufficient amount
of comparative and critical levels of reflections in their lesson plan
preparations (Table 4) and teaching practices (Table 3) as well.

Reflection in Essay Type Examination Responses

Attempts were done to present and analyze final exam essay item
responses for the courses „Teachers as a Reflective Practitioners‟ and
„Inclusive Education‟ since „Action Research‟ and „Practicum‟ did not
have exams but written reports. Due to its special attachment to the
topic under investigation, essay item responses of „Teachers as a
Reflective Practitioners‟ (from term two courses) were added.

The course „Teachers as Reflective Practitioners‟ was more of

objective type (10 true / false, 17 multiple choices, and one easy type
items). Even, the easy item asked student teachers about major
components of action research as a tool for reflection in teaching.
Though essay items are expected to request students in making
analysis, relationships and even questioning assumptions (Brookfield,
1995), this item encourages student teachers to list the components of
action research report and then to define them. Therefore, the
question, though it is labeled as an easy item, it initiates memorization
what was listed and conceptualized in their exercise book or on the
hand out provided to them. Such types of essay items, as Yost et al
(2000) also contended are poor to initiate student teachers‟ reflective
learning practices. In spite of these facts, as Table 5 showed, some of
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 121
the participants of this study (S1, S2, S4, S7 and S8) attempted to
describe the components partially, with no explanations. Some others
(S3, S5 and S6) left this question almost open and therefore they
scored zero (Table 5). This tells that the student teachers, let alone
practicing higher level reflection by making comparisons between the
questions raised and the experiences they had, they seemed to fail
even to describe what they already discussed in the class and
exercised in their action research group proposals (see Table 5).

The course „Inclusive Education had 14 true/false items, 4 matching

items, 20 multiple choice items and one easy item. The essay items,
which seem relatively better to reflect on, asked the student teachers
about the contributions of the course inclusive education for them, as
prospective teachers. For this question, student teachers S 4, S5 and
S8 did simple and partial listing of contributions though student
teachers S4, S6 and S7 left the question vacant (Table 4).
Respondents S2 and S3 (from English department), on the other hand,
attempted to give further explanations (See Table 5).
122 Amera Seifu

Table 5: Levels of Reflection in Student Teachers’ Essay Items

Examination Responses (As Reflection-in-Action)

Courses Themes in the item Responses Respondents Status

They simply listed the components such S1, S2, S4, S7& DSCR
Teachers as as introduction, what is my concern, S8
a Reflective Mention and explain and what did I do(S1), what is my
Practitioners the major concern, why I am concerned, and what
components of did I do (S2), introduction, why I am
action research as a concerned, and What I have learnt (S4
tool for reflection in & S7), and what is my concern and why
teaching. I am concerned (S8), in fact, with no
explanations in all cases
Some leaved the question open S3, S5 & S6 NRLP
paying attention for disable students, S2, S4, & S8 DSCR
giving equal opportunities, and treating
variations fairly (S4 & S5), paying
attention for disable students including
List and explain the gifted, using variety of teaching
Inclusive briefly about the methods (S8)
Education contributions of the It helps to improve his outlook not only S2 CRTR
course inclusive to support students with special needs
education for in the class but also, we teachers have
student teachers, as to influence the curriculum developers
prospective teachers and educational managers in order to
have proper equipments and
institutional settings for children with
special support.
It informs that helping students with S3 CRTR
some special needs is not only a
professional obligation but also a moral
obligation therefore she changes her
mind to exert maximum efforts in order
to support children with special needs.
Some leaved the question open S1, S6& S7 NRLP

Key: DSCR= Descriptive Level Reflection, NRLP=Non-Reflective Learning Practice, & CMPR =
Comparative Reflection

Based on the essay question response analysis, as Ostorga (2006)

and Otienoh (2011) noted, this study has learnt that, except the two
student teachers (S2 and S3), the others were performing the lower
level reflection (descriptive) and even some of them (S5, S6 and S7)
were totally non-reflective because they could not recall and report
what they were familiar through their course learning. However, the
essay responses of S2 and S3 can be considered as higher level
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 123
reflection (i.e. critical reflection) (Table 5) if and only if they were not
informed about it anywhere else before. They questioned assumptions
about the role of the teacher and they tried to go beyond (e.g.
influencing the curriculum designer and educational officers about
special need students). In such cases, higher level reflection could be
realized (Brookfield, 1995).

Reflection after Course Implementation is over

Respondents of this study reported their learning about the courses

one by one as reflection-on-action. They said that the course „Action
Research‟ is totally failed except they developed a group proposal as a
requirement for the course „Teachers as Reflective practitioners‟ (S1,
S2, S3…S8) (see Matrix 6). So, they said no reflection about it.
Unstructured observation of the study also proved this fact. Everybody
was ignorant about „Action Research‟ throughout the school practicum
period. Writers like Bound et al (1985), Loughran (2006) have also
shared this justification. They contended that teacher educators have
to follow and face the learner with open experiences in order to initiate
reflective learning practices.
Student teachers appreciated about the lesson they got in the course
„Inclusive Education‟. It advises us on how to handle variations and
then to support students with certain needs (S1, S2, S3…S8) (Table 6)
though the course lacked to demonstrate and do some practical
exercises through field work assignments for the theories discussed in
the course. The examples mentioned by the disabled lecturer made the
lecture session of „Inclusive Education‟ lovely (S2, S5, S6, S7 and S8).
Student teachers even tried to question the course delivery practice as
it lacked practical exercises (Table 6) but theory intensive. Such
attempts might be taken as critical level of reflection (as it is also noted
by Yost et al, 2004).
In relation to the course „School Practicum‟ including the teaching
practices, respondents reported that though there were a number of
problems (e.g. shortage of time, low commitment from teacher
124 Amera Seifu

educators, etc) (Table 6), they learned some important points such as
experiencing the practices of teaching, students‟ handling, lesson
planning, etc about the practical version of teaching (Table 6). To the
future, S2, for example, was promising to improve his skill of using
active learning strategies properly, S4 and S7 to improve their
language skills, S5 to improve her confidence and skills in managing
instructional time, etc (Table 6). Respondents of this study also
criticized that, unlike their behavior in the theoretical contacts, the
contribution of practicum supervisors from the university was almost
none except they came for 20-30 minutes observation for their
respective student teachers‟ teaching practice (Table 6).
Table 6: Student Teachers’ Reflection about Their Past Learning
Actions (As Reflection-on-Action)
Courses Comments reflected Respondents Status
They reported that action research was totally forgotten, and it S1, S2, …S8 NRLP
failed except they developed a group proposal as a requirement
Research

for the course „teachers as a reflective practitioner‟. No one was

Action

responsible to guide them about how this course could proceed.

They simply submit a proposal in group
They appreciated about the lesson that advises them on how to S1, S2, …S8 CMPR
handle variations thereby to support students with special needs
Education

including the talented (S2, S5, S6 & S8)

Inclusive

They indicated that this course lacks to demonstrate and do S1, S2, …S8 CRTR
some practical exercises through field work, assignments and so
on for the theories discussed in the course
They responded that, though there were a number of problems S1, S2, …S8 CMPR
(e.g. shortage of time, less commitment from teacher educators,
etc), they have learnt some important aspects (such as
experiencing the practices of teaching, students‟ handling, lesson
including the Teaching practices

planning, etc) about the practical version of teaching which is

more important than the theoretical aspects of teaching.
In the future, S2 promised to improve his skill of using active S2, S4, S7, CMPR
learning strategies, S4 and S7 to improve their language skills, S5, S6 & S8
S5 to improve her management of instructional time, S6 to
develop his confidence teaching delivery in front of students, and
School practicum

S8 to minimize her disorganizing behavior via time management

They also announced that the contribution of teacher educators S1, S2, S3, CRTR
was almost zero except they came for 20-30 minutes observation …S8
for the teaching practice delivered by their respective
supervisees. Supervisors seemed reluctant and less committed
for those practice related courses

Key: NRLP=Non-
Reflective Learning Practice, CMPR=Comparative Reflection, & CRTR=Critical Reflection
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 125
Student teachers‟ reflection about the lesson that they developed from
their „School Practicum‟ seemed to involve all the three levels of
reflection (Table 6). They recalled the time shortage, lack of
confidence, etc while the practicum course was in progress (as
descriptive), differentiated and identified future plans (as comparative)
and they attempted to comment/challenge their teacher educators‟ less
commitment and weak performances (as critical reflection). This result
is in line with Brookfield (1995) and Dinkelman (2000).

Reflection in overall Attitudinal Changes as a Result of Course

Learning Actions

At the end of the third term, respondents were asked to explain their
overall attitudinal changes including their professional assumptions as
a teacher by putting the courses they have learnt in mind. With regard
to the course „Action Research‟, all student teachers uniformly reported
that no attitudinal changes obtained from it because this course was
not delivered (Table 7).
126 Amera Seifu

Table 7: Student Teachers’ Level of Reflection on Their Change of

Attitude as a Result of Course Learning Actions (As Reflection-
on-Action)
Courses Observed Personality Changes Respondents Status
Action Because it totally failed, they said that nothing is S1, S2, … S8 CMPR
research happened on their attitude as a result of this
course
Inclusive This course has played a lot to influence their S1, S2, … S8 CMPR
education mind towards positive behavior (e.g.
helpfulness, respectfulness for variations, etc.)
for their students in the class as well as for all
man kinds.
It provokes their mind on how to handling S1, S2, … S8 CRTR
differences and then supporting one another not
only in the classroom but also anywhere and at
anytime in the society
School It is highly helpful to influence our teaching S1, S2, S4, CMPR
practicum learning related personalities rather than S5, S6 & S8
influencing student teachers in other aspects of
personalities because its contents are all about
schooling and its setting in general and
teaching learning processes in particular (S4),
exhaustively tried to deal about things related to
the teaching profession (S6 and S8).
In addition to the skills they have gotten about S3 & S7 CRTR
the teaching profession, possibly teachers may
develop an attitude that able to influence the
remaining world at least through their effective
teaching deliveries for students
Key: CMPR=Comparative Reflection, & CRTR=Critical Reflection

On the contrary, student teachers appreciated the influence of the

course „Inclusive Education‟ towards positive mind (e.g. helpfulness,
respectfulness for variations, etc.) for all human beings (Table 7). That
is to say, this course has changed their mind on how to handle
differences not only in the classroom but also anywhere and at anytime
in the entire society (Table 7). In this course, student teachers tried to
practice all the levels of reflection (as it is also stated by Poltorak,
1993). Descriptive level of reflection was exercised because student
teachers mentioned facts (e.g. helpfulness, maximizing the potentials
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 127
of the disables, respectfulness, etc.) that might be mentioned in the
class. Comparative level of reflection was also there because the
interviewees acknowledged the value of the concepts and skills in this
course and decided to apply them in their future teaching practices
(Table 7). The respondents, as critical reflection, also promised to use
the concepts and skills that they learned in this course for the society at
large by questioning their assumptions about „individualism‟ and then to
support any one with help at anytime and everywhere (Table 7).

For the course „School Practicum‟, student teachers responded that it

is basically devoted to improve the practical aspects of the teaching
profession through facing them in exercising teaching in actual schools
and students (Table 7). They said that the course is highly helpful to
influence their professional personalities in teaching (Table 7) rather
than influencing their attitude in other aspects of life (S1, S2, S4, S6,
S8). However, respondents S3 and S7, as critical reflection, reported
that in addition to the skills they got about the development of their
teaching profession, they claim to influence the society via their
effective teaching for their students which is different from most school
teachers who delimit their practice only within the classroom.
Otherwise, all the other respondents performed descriptive and
comparative level of reflection (see Table 7).

Concluding Remarks and Implications

In most cases, when student teachers attempted to reflect in theoretical

discussions via interview (e.g. talking about preparation for their next
actions, learning adjustments, lessons and attitudinal changes obtained
from past learning actions), they reported things almost by repeating
what the original sources of the information (teachers and handouts)
said. This implies that they in most cases involved for descriptive level
of reflection. However, in the interview sessions, depending on the
nature of the question raised for the student teachers and on the level
of arguments that were made between the researcher and student
teachers, student teachers frequently did comparative level of reflection
128 Amera Seifu

and sometimes critical level of reflection while they were „theorizing‟

about something within the dialogue (see Tables 1, 2, 6 &7). In fact,
student teachers, in their practical engagement of learning such as
practicing of teaching (Table 3), lesson planning (Table 4), and essay
item responses (Table 5), they exercised more of descriptive level of
reflection and even sometimes they staked to say anything (being non-
reflective for the topic they were familiar enough) particularly in their
teaching practices and examination performances (Tables 3 and 5). In
their practice-related reflection, they attempted comparative level
reflection sometimes and critical level reflection very rarely (Tables 3, 4
& 5).

With regard to the forms of reflection, this study understood that

student teachers‟ reflection levels were highly influenced by the level of
their experiences/exposures and value attachments to the topic that
they reflect. In other words, if student teachers have better awareness
(e.g. reflection-for-action of practicum and reflection-in-action and on-
action of inclusive education) and value attachments (e.g. reflection-
for-action of teaching practices) from the teaching/supervising practice
of respective teacher educators, they will invest more time and effort
for preparations and/or post analysis reflective discussions (see Tables
1, 2, 6 &7). If not, they did not want to explore information by their own
(e.g. reflection-for-action of Inclusive Education, reflection-on-action of
Action Research, etc) (Tables 1, 6 & 7). Based on such evidences, the
study found out that student teachers tried to reflect better for the topic
they got better awareness and then related values from different
sources including the teacher educators (e.g. reflection-on-action)
(Tables 6 & 7), which followed by reflection-in-action (Tables 2, 3, 4 &
5), but minimal in reflection-for-action (Table 1).

From the analysis and discussions made above, the following major
findings were derived.

 Since student teachers mainly preferred reporting observations

as they are rather than questioning assumptions, descriptive
 The Ethiopian Journal of Education Vol. XXXVIII No. 1 June 2018 129
level of reflection was practiced dominantly and followed by
comparative level of reflection with rare occurrence of critical
level of reflection. Surprisingly enough, student teachers
sometimes were being totally non-reflective particularly in their
actual/practical learning engagements (e.g. teaching practices
and examination responses).
 Student teachers did better reflective practices when there was
better pressure from the external (e.g. teachers). In their forms
of reflection, therefore, they did better on reflection-on-action
(which they have sufficient experiences through the course)
followed with reflection-in-action and reflection-for-action as
second and last positions, respectively.
 Student teachers‟ status in reflective learning practice is found to
be in its lower, descriptive and theoretical type of reflections.
They were rarely engaged in the genuine, productive, higher
level (e.g. comparative and critical reflection) and practice-
focused type of reflection. As a result, student teachers‟
reflective learning practices were below the expected standards.

In line with the findings of this study, the following implications were
forwarded.
In order to facilitate and then realize practical, productive and higher-
level reflections and reflection-for-action, the teacher education faculty
shall to give sufficient orientations for student teachers and teacher
educators about the nature and quality of reflective teacher education
in general. In their course work at the teacher education, student
teachers and teacher educators

 Are advised to be experience-oriented, practice-focused and

open-ended via encouraging student teachers to involve in the
actual school-related practices rather than exhaustively devoted
in classroom theoretical discussions, which is not as such
favorable for being reflective learner.
 Have to acknowledge that their profession (i.e. teaching) is the
heart of social, economic, and technological development. So,
130 Amera Seifu

they should feel proud and take themselves as the center of the
society. In effect, they might improve their value, interest,
motivation and commitment in exercising reflective teaching and
then reflective learning practices which are a bit demanding
because serious of thinking and practicing should be there.
 Should also strive to design certain activities/experiences which
try to initiate student teachers‟ reflection-for-action and
reflection-in-action. For example, forming activities and pushing
student teachers for developing thoughts/practices for the next
actions and for the actions exactly in progress.
 Have to acknowledge that teaching is dynamic and complex. As
a result, it needs knowledge and skills which are situational,
flexible, process-based rather than attempting to solve problems
through the rules and principles that someone has learnt at the
university/college.

By practicing and realizing such alternatives, the system of secondary

school teacher education can encourage and ensure student teachers‟
reflective learning practices.

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