06-Hydraulic Design of Open Channels

Chapter 6
Drainage Design Manual - 2002 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
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Open channels are natural or fabricated conveyances for water in which the water
surfaces are exposed to the atmosphere, and the gravity force component in the direction
of motion is the driving force.
There are various types of open channels encountered by the designer of transportation
facilities including :
• stream channels
• chutes
• roadside channels or ditches
• irrigation channels, and
• drainage ditches.
The principles of open channel flow hydraulics are applicable to all drainage facilities
including culverts.
Stream channels are usually:
• Natural channels with their size and shape determined by natural forces;
• Compound in cross section with a main channel for conveying low flows and a
floodplain to transport flood flows; and
• Shaped geomorphologically by the long-term history of the sediment load and
water discharge that they have experienced.
Artificial channels include roadside channels, irrigation channels, and drainage ditches
that are
• man-made with regular geometric cross sections, and
• unlined, or lined with artificial or natural material to protect against erosion.
While the principles of open channel flow are the same regardless of the channel type,
stream channels and artificial channels (primarily roadside channels) are treated
separately in this chapter as appropriate.
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Channel analysis is necessary for the design of transportation drainage systems in order
to assess :
• Potential flooding caused by changes in water surface profiles,
• Disturbance of the river system upstream or downstream of the highway right-of-
way,
• Changes in lateral flow distributions,
• Changes in velocity or direction of flow,
• The need for conveyance and disposal of excess runoff, and
• The need for channel lining to prevent erosion.

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Chapter 6
Hydraulic Design of Open Channels Drainage Design Manual - 2002
'(6,*1
Hydraulic design associated with natural channels and roadway ditches is a process that
selects and evaluates alternatives according to established criteria. These criteria are the
standards established to insure that a highway facility meets its intended purpose without
endangering the structural integrity of the facility itself and without undue adverse effects
on the environment or the public welfare.
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The purpose of this chapter is to:
• Establish Ethiopian Roads Authority principles
• Specify design criteria
• Review design philosophy
• Outline channel design procedures, and
• Demonstrate design techniques by example problems
6.2 SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES
The general principles are a set of goals that establish a definite course or method of
action and that are selected to guide and determine present and future decisions. These
principles are implemented through design criteria established as standards for making
decisions (see Chapter 2 and Section 6.3). Channel designs and/or designs of highway
facilities that impact channels should satisfy the standards set forth by the agency
constructing the facility. ERA policy with regard to open channel design states that:
• Coordination with the Ministry of Water Resources should have high priority
in the planning of highway facilities.
• The design of artificial drainage channels or other facilities should consider
the frequency and type of maintenance expected and make allowance for
access of maintenance equipment.
• A stable channel is the requirement for all channels that are located on
highway right-of-way or that impact highway facilities, as well as channels
outside the right-of-way.
• The range of design channel discharges shall be selected and approved by the
designer based on class of roadway, consequences of traffic interruption,
flood hazard risks, economics, and local site conditions.
6.3 DESIGN CRITERIA

Design criteria establish the standards by which an open channel shall be constructed.
They form the basis for the selection of the final design configuration. Listed below are
examples of design criteria that shall be considered for channel design.
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The following criterion applies to natural channels and may be revised if necessary:
• The hydraulic effects of flood plain encroachments shall be evaluated over a full
range of frequency-based peak discharges from the design frequency to the
check/review recurrence intervals on any major highway facility as deemed
necessary by the designer.

3DJH (WKLRSLDQ5RDGV$XWKRULW\
Chapter 6
• If relocation of a stream channel is unavoidable, the cross-sectional shape,

meander, pattern, roughness, sediment transport, and slope should conform to the
existing conditions as much as practicable. Some form of energy dissipation may
be necessary when existing conditions cannot be duplicated.
• Streambank stabilization shall be provided, when appropriate, to any stream
disturbance such as encroachment and should include both upstream and
downstream banks and the local site.
• Features, such as dikes and levees, associated with natural channel modifications
should have a 5-meter minimum top width with access for maintenance
equipment. Vehicle turning points shall be provided no further than 500 meters
apart and at the end of any such feature.
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The following criterion applies to roadside channels and may be revised by ERA:
• Channel sideslopes shall not exceed the angle of repose of the soil and/or lining
and shall be 2:1 or flatter in the case of rock-riprap lining. Stone pitching or
grouted riprap must be used for channel side slopes steeper than 2:1.
• Flexible linings shall be calculated using the method of allowable tractive force.
• The design discharge frequency for permanent, roadside, ditch linings and for
temporary linings shall be per Table 2.1.
• Channel freeboard shall be 0.3 meters.
6.4 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Design analysis of both natural and artificial channels proceeds according to the basic
principles of open channel flow. The basic principles of fluid mechanics—continuity,
momentum, and energy—can be applied to open channel flow with the additional
complication that the position of the free surface is usually one of the unknown variables.
The determination of this unknown is one of the principle problems of open channel flow
analysis and it depends on quantification of the flow resistance. Natural channels display
a much wider range of roughness values than artificial channels.
6SHFLILF(QHUJ\ (E) is defined as the energy head relative to the channel bottom. If the
channel is not too steep (slope less than 10 percent) and the streamlines are nearly
straight and parallel (so that the hydrostatic assumption holds), the specific energy E
becomes the sum of the depth and velocity head:
E = y + α (V2/2g) (6.1)
Where:
y = depth, m
α = velocity distribution coefficient (see equation 6-2)
V = mean velocity, m/s
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
9HORFLW\ 'LVWULEXWLRQ&RHIILFLHQW (α). Due to the presence of a free surface and also to
friction along the channel boundary, the velocities are not uniformly distributed in the
channel section. As a result, the velocity head of an open channel is usually greater than
the average velocity head computed as (Q/At)2/2g. A weighted average value of the
velocity head is obtained by multiplying the average velocity head, above, by a velocity
distribution coefficient, α, defined as:

Chapter 6
n
α = ∑(Ki3/Ai2)/(Kt3/At2 (6.2)
i=1
Where:
Ki = conveyance in subsection (see Equation 6.8)
Kt = total conveyance in section = average velocity in subsection, m/s (see
Equation 6.8)
Ai = cross-sectional area of subsection, m2
At = total cross-sectional area of section, m2
n = number of subsections
7RWDO(QHUJ\+HDG - The total energy head is the specific energy head plus the elevation
of the channel bottom with respect to some datum. The locus of the energy head from
one cross section to the next defines the energy grade line. See Figure 6-1 for a plot of
the specific energy diagram.
6WHDG\DQG8QVWHDG\)ORZ - A steady flow is one in which the discharge passing a given
cross-section is constant with respect to time. The maintenance of steady flow in any
reach requires that the rates of inflow and outflow be constant and equal. When the
discharge varies with time, the flow is unsteady.
8QLIRUP )ORZ DQG 1RQ8QLIRUP )ORZ - A non-uniform flow is one in which the
velocity and depth vary in the direction of motion, while they remain constant in uniform
flow. Uniform flow can only occur in a prismatic channel, which is a channel of constant
cross section, roughness, and slope in the flow direction. However, non-uniform flow can
occur either in a prismatic channel or in a natural channel with variable properties.
*UDGXDOO\9DULHG DQG 5DSLGO\9DULHG - A non-uniform flow in which the depth and
velocity change gradually in the flow direction, such that vertical accelerations can be
neglected, is referred to as a gradually-varied flow; otherwise, it is considered to be
rapidly-varied.
)URXGH 1XPEHU (Fr) - The Froude number is an important dimensionless parameter in
open channel flow. It represents the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces and is defined
by:
Fr = V/[(gd/α).5 (6.3)
Where:
α = velocity distribution coefficient
V = mean velocity = Q/A, m/s
g = acceleration of gravity, 9.81 m/s2
d = hydraulic depth = A/T, m
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m2
T = channel top width at the water surface, m
Q = total discharge, m3/s
This expression for Froude number applies to any single section channel of
nonrectangular shape.
&ULWLFDO)ORZ – The flow in open channels at which the energy content of the fluid is at a
minimum. Also, that flow at which the variation of specific energy with depth at a
constant discharge shows a minimum in the specific energy at a depth called &ULWLFDO
'HSWK at which the Froude number has a value of one. Critical depth is also the depth of

Chapter 6
maximum discharge when the specific energy is held constant. These relationships are
illustrated in Figure 6-1.
αQ2/g = A3/T (6-4)
Where:α = velocity distribution coefficient
Q = total discharge, m3/s
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
T = channel topwidth at the water surface, m
6XEFULWLFDO)ORZ - Depths greater than critical occur in subcritical flow and the Froude
number is less than one. In this state of flow, small water surface disturbances can travel
both upstream and downstream, and the control is always located downstream.

Chapter 6
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6XSHUFULWLFDO )ORZ - Depths less than critical-depth occur in supercritical flow and the
Froude number is greater than one. Small water-surface disturbances are always swept
downstream in supercritical flow, and the location of the flow control is always upstream.
+\GUDXOLF-XPS - A hydraulic jump occurs as an abrupt transition from supercritical to
subcritical flow in the flow direction. There are significant changes in depth and velocity
in the jump, and energy is dissipated. For this reason, the hydraulic jump is often
employed to dissipate energy and control erosion at highway drainage structures.

Chapter 6
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The classification of open channel flow is summarized as follows:
6WHDG\)ORZ
• Uniform Flow
• Nonuniform Flow
− Gradually Varied Flow
− Rapidly Varied Flow
8QVWHDG\)ORZ
• Unsteady Uniform Flow (rare)
• Unsteady Nonuniform Flow
− Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow
− Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow
The steady uniform flow case and the steady nonuniform flow case are the most
fundamental types of flow treated in highway engineering hydraulics.
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The following equations are those most commonly used to analyze open channel flow.
The use of these equations in analyzing open channel hydraulics is discussed in Section
6.5.
&RQWLQXLW\ (TXDWLRQ – The continuity equation is the statement of mass in fluid
mechanics. For the special case of one dimensional, steady flow of an incompressible
fluid, it assumes the form:
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 (6.5)
Where
Q = discharge, m3/s
V = mean cross-sectional velocity, m/s (which is perpendicular to the cross
section)
Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to successive cross sections along the flow path.
0DQQLQJ¶V (TXDWLRQ –For a given depth of flow in a channel with a steady, uniform
flow, the mean velocity, V, can be computed with Manning’s equation:
V = (1/n)R2/3S1/2 (6.6)
Where
V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy gradeline, m/m (note: for steady uniform flow, S =
channel slope, m/m)

Chapter 6
The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation; however, considerable

experience is essential in selecting appropriate ‘n’ values. The range of ‘n’ values for
various types of channels and floodplains is given in Table 6-1. A further guide to the
selection of ‘n’ values is the series of channel Photographs 1-24 following Table 6.1.
For a given channel geometry, slope, and roughness, and a specified value of discharge
Q, a unique value of depth occurs in steady uniform flow. It is called the normal depth.
The normal depth is used to design artificial channels in steady, uniform flow and is
computed from Manning’s Equation:
Q = (1/n) AR2/3 S1/2 (6.7)
Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = channel slope, m/m
If the normal depth computed from Manning’s Equation is greater than critical depth, the
slope is classified as a mild slope. Conversely, if the normal depth is less than critical
depth, the slope is a steep slope. Thus, uniform flow is subcritical on a mild slope and
supercritical on a steep slope.
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In channel analysis, it is often convenient to group the channel properties in a single term
called the channel conveyance K:
K = AR2/3 /n (6.8)
and then Manning’s Equation can be written as:

Q = KS1/2 (6.9)
The conveyance represents the carrying capacity of a stream cross-section based upon its
geometry and roughness characteristics alone and is independent of the streambed slope.
The concept of channel conveyance is useful when computing the distribution of
overbank flood flows in the stream cross section and the flow distribution through the
opening in a proposed stream crossing. Manning’s Equation should not be used for
determining high-water elevations in a bridge opening.
(QHUJ\ (TXDWLRQ - The energy equation expresses conservation of energy in open
channel flow as energy per unit weight of fluid that has a dimension of head and it
therefore called energy head. The energy head is composed of potential energy head
(elevation head), pressure head, and kinetic energy head (velocity head). These energy
heads are scalar quantities that give the total energy head at any cross section when
added. In comparing an upstream open channel cross section designated 1 and a
downstream cross section designated 2, the energy equation is:
h1 + α2 (V12/2g) = h2 + α2 (V22/2g) + hL (6.10)

Chapter 6
Where:
h1 and h2 = the upstream and downstream stages, respectively, m
α = kinetic energy correction coefficient
hL = head loss due to local cross-sectional changes (minor loss) as well as
boundary resistance, m
The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure
head, or depth of flow ‘y,’ i.e. h = z + y. The terms in the energy equation are illustrated
graphically in Figure 6-2. The energy equation states that the total energy head at an
upstream cross section is equal to the energy head at a downstream section plus the
intervening energy head loss. The energy equation can only be applied between two cross
sections at which the streamlines are nearly straight and parallel so that vertical
accelerations can be neglected.
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6.5 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS

The hydraulic analysis of a channel determines the depth and velocity at which a given
discharge will flow in a channel of known geometry, roughness, and slope. The depth
and velocity of flow are necessary for the design or analysis of channel linings and
highway drainage structures.
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Two methods are commonly used in hydraulic analysis of open channels. The 6LQJOH
6HFWLRQ method is a simple application of Manning’s Equation to determine tailwater
rating curves for culverts, or to analyze other situations in which uniform or nearly
uniform flow conditions exist. The 6WHS%DFNZDWHU method is used to compute the
complete water surface profile in a stream reach to evaluate the unrestricted water surface
elevations for bridge hydraulic design, or to analyze other gradually varied flow
problems in streams.

Chapter 6
The single-section method will generally yield less reliable results because it requires
more judgment and assumption than the step-backwater method. In many designs,
however, the single-section method is all that is justified, for example, for a standard
roadway ditch, culvert, storm drain outfall, etc.
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Coordinates of lateral distance and ground elevation that locate individual ground points
define the cross-sectional geometry of streams. The cross section is normally taken where
the flow direction is along a single straight line. However, in wide floodplains or bends it
may be necessary to use a section along intersecting straight lines such as a “dog-leg”
section. It is especially important to make a plot of the cross section to reveal any
inconsistencies or errors.
Cross sections shall be located so that they represent the subreaches between them.
Stream locations with major breaks in bed profile; abrupt changes in roughness or shape;
control sections such as free overfalls, bends, and contractions; or other abrupt changes in
channel slope or conveyance will require cross-sections be taken at shorter intervals to
model better the change in conveyance.
Cross sections shall be subdivided with vertical boundaries where there are abrupt lateral
changes in geometry and/or roughness as in the case of over-bank flows. The
conveyances of each subsection are computed separately to determine the flow
distribution and K (conveyance), and are then added to determine the total flow
conveyance. The subsection divisions must be chosen carefully so that the distribution of
flow or conveyance is nearly uniform in each subsection (15). Selection of cross-sections
and the vertical subdivision of a cross section are shown in Figure 6-3.
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Manning’s ‘n’ is affected by many factors and its selection in natural channels depends
heavily on engineering experience. Pictures of channels and flood plains for which the
discharge has been measured and Manning’s ‘n’ has been calculated are very useful (see
Ref. 3 and 4). Once the Manning’s ‘n’ values have been selected, it is highly
recommended that they be verified with historical high water marks and/or gauged
streamflow data.
Manning’s ‘n’ values for artificial channels are more easily defined than for natural
stream channels. See Table 6-1 for typical ‘n’ values for both artificial and natural stream
channels. Photos 1-24 following table 6-1 also illustrate various types of channels and
their corresponding Manning’s n.

Chapter 6
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Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
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a. Earth, straight and uniform
1. Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
2. Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth, winding and sluggish
1. No vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
2. Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
3. Dense Weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides 0.025 0.030 0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy sides 0.025 0.035 0.045
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Backhoe-excavated or dredged
1. No vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
2. Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
2. Jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
2 Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
3. Same, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
4. Dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
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1 Minor streams (top width at flood stage < 30 m)
a. Streams on Plain
1. Clean, straight, full stage, no rims or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
2. Same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
3. Clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
4. Same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
5. Same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
slopes and sections 0.040 0.048 0.055
6. Same as 4, but more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
7. Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
8 Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.100 0.150
with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
b. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks
usually steep, trees and brush along banks
submerged at high stages
1. Bottom: gravel, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
2. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
2 Flood Plains
a. Pasture, no brush
1. Short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
2. High grass 0.030 0.035 0.050

Chapter 6
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

b. Cultivated area
1. No crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
2. Mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
3. Mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Brush
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
2. Light brush and trees in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
4. Medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
5. Medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
d. Trees
1. Dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
2. Cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
3. Same as above, but with heavy growth of
spouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few down trees,
little undergrowth, flood stage below 0.080 0.100 0.120
branches
5. Same as above, but with flood stage
reaching branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
3 Major Streams (top width at flood stage > 30 m).
The n value is less than that for minor streams of
similar description, because banks offer less
effective resistance.
a. Regular section with no boulders or brush 0.025 -- 0.060
b. Irregular and rough section 0.035 -- 0.100
4 Various Open Channel Surfaces
a. Concrete 0.012- 0.020
b. Gravel bottom with:
Concrete 0.020
Mortared stone 0.023
Riprap 0.033
c. Natural Stream Channels
Clean, straight stream 0.030
Clean, winding stream 0.040
Winding with weeds and pools 0.050
With heavy brush and timber 0.100
d. Flood Plains
Pasture 0.035
Field Crops 0.040
Light Brush and Weeds 0.050
Dense Brush 0.070
Dense Trees 0.100

Chapter 6
(1)
(2)
(3)
1. n = 0.012. Canal lined with concrete slabs having smooth neat cement joints and very
smooth surface, hand-troweled and with cement wash on concrete base.
2. n = 0.014. Concrete canal poured behind screeding and smoothing platform
3. n = 0.016. Small concrete-lined ditch, straight and uniform, bottom slightly dished, the
sides and bottom covered with a rough deposit, which increases the n value.

Chapter 6
(4)
(5)
(6)
4. n = 0.012. Canal lined with concrete slabs having smooth neat cement joints and very
smooth surface, hand-troweled and with cement wash on concrete base.
5. n = 0.014. Concrete canal poured behind screeding and smoothing platform
6. n = 0.016. Small concrete-lined ditch, straight and uniform, bottom slightly dished, the
sides and bottom covered with a rough deposit, which increases the n value.

Chapter 6
(7)
(8)
(9)
7. n = 0.020. Irrigation canal, straight, in hard-packed smooth sand.

n = 0.022 cement-plaster lining applied directly to the trimmed surface of the earth
channel, with weeds in broken places and loose sand on bottom.
9. n = 0.024. Canal excavated in silty clay loam. Slick and hard bed.

Chapter 6
(10)
(11)
(12)
10. n = 0.024. Ditch lined on both sides and bottom with dry-laid unchinked rubble.
Bottom quite irregular, with scattered loose cobbles
11. n = 0.026. Canal excavated on hillside, with upper bank mostly of willow roots and
lower bank with well-made concrete wall. Bottom covered with coarse gravel.
12. n = 0.028. Cobble-bottom channel, where there is insufficient silt in the water or
too high a velocity, preventing formation of a graded smooth bed.

Chapter 6
(13)
(14)
(15)
13. n = 0.029. Earth canal excavated in alluvial silt soil, with deposits of sand on
bottom and growth of grass.
14. n = 0.020. Canal with large-cobblestone bed.
15. n = 0.035. Natural channel, somewhat irregular sideslopes; fairly even, clean and
regular bottom; in light gray silty clay to light tan silt loam; very little variation in
cross section

Chapter 6
(16)
(17)
(18)
16. n = 0.040. Rock channel excavated by explosives.

17. n = 0.040. Ditch in clay and sandy loam; irregular sideslopes, bottom, and cross
section; grass on slopes.
18. n = 0.045 Dredged channel, irregular sideslopes and bottom, in black, waxy clay at
top to yellow clay at bottom, sides covered with small saplings and brush, slight and
gradual variations in cross section

Chapter 6
(19)
(20)
(21)
19. n = 0.050. Dredged channel with very irregular sideslopes and bottom, in dark-colored
waxy clay, with growth of weeds and grass. Slight variation in shape of cross sectionn
for variation in size
20. n = 0.060. Ditch in heavy silty clay; irregular sideslopes and bottom; practically entiree
section filled with large-size growth of trees, principally willows and cottonwoods. Quitee
uniform cross section.
21. n = 0.080. Dredged channel in black slippery clay and gray silty clay loam, irregular widee
slopes and bottom, covered with dense growth of bushy willows, some in bottom; remaindere
of both slopes covered with weeds and a scattering growth of willows and poplars, noo
foliage; some silting on bottom.

Chapter 6
(22)
(23)
(24)
22. n = 0.110. Same as (21), but with heavy foliage and covered for about 12m. with growth
resembling smart weed.
23. n = 0.125. Natural channel floodway in medium fine sand to fine clay; no side slopes;
fairly even and regular bottom with occasional flat bottom sloughs; variation in depth;
practically virgin timber, very little undergrowth except occasional dense patches of bush
and small trees, some logs and dead fallen trees.
24. n = 0.150. Natural river in sandy clay soil. Very crooked course, irregular sideslopes and
uneven bottom. Many roots, trees and bushes, large logs and other drift on bottom; trees
continually falling into channel due to bank caving.

Chapter 6

Chapter 6
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Equations can be calibrated to ensure that they accurately represent local channel
conditions. However, the calibration process requires a large amount of data, including
cross-sections, recorded water levels and flow rates. It should be considered if the failure
of a facility would increase risk to life or property.
The calibration process involves varying input parameters until a good agreement exists
between measured and simulated values. Hydraulic parameters which are varied include
roughness coefficients and expansion and contraction coefficients. The parameter with
the greatest influence on water levels is the Manning roughness coefficient. Additional
information on the calibration process is given in Appendix A-3.
6:,7&+%$&.3+(120(121
If the cross section is improperly subdivided, the mathematics of the Manning’s Equation
causes a switchback. A switchback results when the calculated discharge decreases with
an associated increase in elevation. This occurs when, with a minor increase in water
depth, there is a large increase of wetted perimeter. Simultaneously, there is a
corresponding small increase in cross-sectional area which causes a net decrease in the
hydraulic radius from the value it had for a lesser water depth. With the combination of
the lower hydraulic radius and the slightly larger cross-sectional area, a discharge is
computed which is lower than the discharge based upon the lower water depth. More
subdivisions within such cross-sections should be used in order to avoid the switchback.
This phenomenon can occur in any type of conveyance computation, including the step-
backwater method. Computer logic can be seriously confused if a switchback were to
occur in any cross-section being used in a step backwater program. For this reason, the
cross-section should always be subdivided with respect to both vegetation and geometric
changes. Note that the actual n-value, itself, may be the same in adjacent subsections.
6,1*/(6(&7,21$1$/<6,60(7+2'6/23($5($0(7+2'

The single-section analysis method (slope-area method) is simply a solution of
Manning’s Equation for the normal depth of flow given the discharge and cross-section
properties including geometry, slope, and roughness. It implicitly assumes the existence
of steady, uniform flow, however, uniform flow rarely exists in either artificial or stream
channels. Nevertheless, the single-section method is often used to design artificial
channels for uniform flow as a first approximation, and to develop a stage-discharge
rating curve in a stream channel for tailwater determination at a culvert or storm drain
outlet.
A stage-discharge curve is a graphical relationship between stream-flow depth or
elevation and discharge at a specific point on a stream. This relationship should cover a
range of discharges up to at least the base (100-year) flood. The stage-discharge curve
can be determined as follows:
• Select the typical cross-section at or near the location where the stage-discharge
curve is needed;
• Assign a roughness coefficient (Manning’s n-value) as described above;
• Estimate water-surface slope: since uniform flow is assumed, the average slope of
the streambed can usually be used;
• Apply a range of incremental water surface elevations to the cross-section;
• Calculate the discharge using Manning’s Equation for each incremental elevation.

Chapter 6
Total discharge at each elevation is the sum of the discharges from each
subsection at that elevation; in determining hydraulic radius, the wetted perimeter
shall be measured only along the solid boundary of the cross-section and not
along the vertical water interface between subsections; and
• After the discharge has been calculated at several incremental elevations, a plot of
stage versus discharge shall be made, this plot is the stage-discharge curve and it
can be used to determine the water-surface elevation corresponding to the design
discharge or other discharge of interest.
A graphical technique such as that given in Figure 6-4 or a nomograph as in Figure 6-5
can be used for trapezoidal and prismatic channels. An example with solution is given in
Figure 6-5. The best approach, especially in the case of stream channels, is to use a
computer program such as WSPRO or HEC-2 to obtain the normal depth.
Channels can also be sized using the charts listed as Charts 6-1 through 6-3 at the end of
this chapter, for differing shapes, linings, widths, side slopes, linings, and channel slopes.
In stream channels the transverse variation of velocity in any cross section is a function
of subsection geometry and roughness and may vary considerably from one stage and
discharge to another. It is important to know this variation when designing erosion
control measures and locating relief openings in highway fills, for example. The best
method of establishing transverse velocity variations is by current meter measurements.
If this is not possible, the single section method can be used, whereby the cross section is
divided into subsections of relatively uniform roughness and geometry. It is assumed that
the energy grade line slope is the same across the cross section so that the total
conveyance KT of the cross section is the sum of the subsection conveyances:
KT = K1 + K2 + …. + KN (6.11)
1/2
The total discharge is then KtS and the discharge in each subsection is proportional to
its conveyance. The velocity in each subsection is obtained from the continuity equation,
V = Q/A.
Alluvial channels present a more difficult problem in establishing stage-discharge
relations by the single-section method because the bed itself is deformable and may
generate bed forms such as ripples and dunes in lower regime flows. These bed forms are
highly variable with the addition of form resistance, and selection of a value of
Manning’s ‘n’ is not straightforward. Instead, several methods (Ref. 35) have been
developed for this case and shall be followed unless it is possible to obtain a measured
stage-discharge relation.
There may be locations where a stage-discharge relationship has already been measured
in a channel. These could exist at gauging stations on streams monitored by the Ministry
of Water Resources. Measured stage-discharge curves will generally yield more accurate
estimates of water surface elevation and should take precedence over the analytical
methods described above.

Chapter 6

Chapter 6

Chapter 6
Determine Q, b,
n-value (uniform) and
Determine Q the slope S
Determine cross- Co mpute value in

section of channel and abscise
n-values for each sub
cross section
Apply z
Determine slope
Read y/b and compute y

Chose initial elevation
y
GRA PHICAL M ETHOD
using figure 6-4
Co mpute DQ(y) with Used for Steady Uniform Flow, only
Increment y the Manning’s trapezoidal or rectangular cross section
equation (6.7) for each
sub-section
(see Form 6-2)
Co mpute Q(y)
(Form 6-2)
Input S
Plot point (Q(y),y) in

the Stage Discharge Input Q x n -value
diagram (uniform)
Enough connect to turning line

No
points to draw
curve ?
Yes Input b
Draw stage-discharge curve

Connect to z-line
Determine elevation for Q

Read y/b and compute y
SINGLE-SECTION M ETHOD GRA PHICAL M ETHOD

Used for Steady Uniform Flow, any using figure 6-5
type of cross section Used for Steady Uniform Flow, only
trapezoidal or rectangular cross section
Flowchart 6-1 : Co mputation of elevation for

steady uniform flows.

Chapter 6
Step-Backwater Analysis
Step-backwater analysis is useful for determining unrestricted water surface profiles
where a highway crossing is planned, and for analyzing how far upstream the water
surface elevations are affected by a culvert or bridge. Because the calculations involved
in this analysis are tedious and repetitive, a computer program such as the FHWA/USGS
program WSPRO or U.S. Army Corps of Engineers HEC-2 can be used to assist with the
equations.
The WSPRO program has been designed to provide a water surface profile for six major
types of open channel flow situations:
• Unrestricted flow;
• Single opening bridge;
• Bridge opening(s) with spur dikes;
• Single opening embankment overflow; and
• Multiple alternatives for a single site, and multiple openings.
The HEC-2 program developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is widely used for
calculating water surface profiles for steady gradually varied flow in a natural or man-
made channel. Both subcritical and supercritical flow profiles can be calculated. The
effects of bridges, culverts, weirs, and structures in the floodplain may also be considered
in the computations. This program is also designed for application in flood plain
management.
The computation of water surface profiles by both WSPRO and HEC-2 is based on the
standard step method in which the stream reach is divided into subreaches by cross
sections spaced so that the flow is gradually varied in each subreach. The energy
equation is then solved in a systematic fashion for the stage at one cross section based on
the stage at the previous cross section.
The method requires definition of the geometry and roughness of each cross section as
discussed at the beginning of Section 6.5. Manning’s n-values can vary both horizontally
across the section as well as vertically. Expansion and contraction head loss coefficients,
variable main channel and overbank flow lengths, and the method of averaging the slope
of the energy grade line can all be specified.
To develop the methodology, the energy equation is repeated from Section 6.4:
h1 + α1(V12/2g) = h2 + α2(V22/2g) + hL (6.12)
Where:
h1, h2 = the upstream and downstream stages, respectively, m
α = velocity distribution coefficient
hL = head loss due to local cross-sectional changes (minor loss) as well as
boundary resistance, m
The stage ‘h’ is the sum of the elevation head ‘z’ at the channel bottom and the pressure
head, or depth of flow y, i.e., h = z+y. The energy equation is solved between successive
stream reaches with nearly uniform roughness, slope, and cross-sectional properties.
The total head loss is calculated from:
hL = Km⏐[(α1V12/2g) - (α2V22/2g)]| + SfL (6.13)
Where:
Km = expansion or contraction loss coefficient.

Chapter 6
Sf = mean slope of the energy grade line evaluated from Manning’s equation and a
selected averaging technique m/m
L = discharge-weighted or conveyance-weighted reach length, m
These equations are solved numerically in a systematic procedure called the Standard
Step Method from one cross section to the next.
Water surface profile computation requires a beginning value for elevation or depth
(boundary condition) and proceeds upstream for subcritical flow and downstream for
supercritical flow. In the case of supercritical flow, critical depth is often the boundary
condition at the control section, but in subcritical flow, uniform flow and normal depth
may be the boundary condition. The starting depth in this case can be found either by the
single-section method (slope-area method) or by computing the water surface profile
upstream to the desired location for several starting depths and the same discharge. These
profiles should converge toward the desired normal depth at the control section to
establish one point on the stage-discharge relation. If the profiles do not converge, then
the stream reach may need to be extended downstream, a shorter cross-section interval
shall be used, or the range of starting water surface elevations shall be adjusted. In any
case, a plot of the convergence profiles can be a very useful tool in such an analysis (see
Figure 6-6).
Given a sufficiently long stream reach, the water surface profile computed by step-
backwater will converge to normal depth at some point upstream for subcritical flow.
Establishment of the upstream and downstream boundaries of the stream reach is

Chapter 6
required to define limits of data collection and subsequent analysis. Calculations must
begin sufficiently far downstream to assure accurate results at the structure site, and
continued a sufficient distance upstream to determine accurately the impact of the
structure on upstream water surface profiles (see Figure 6-7). Data collection upstream
and downstream shall be rounded up to the nearest 50 meters.
Equations for determining upstream and downstream reach lengths are as follows (Ref.
33):
Ldn = 1.2 (HD0.8/S) (6.14)
Lu = 2.0 [(HD0.6) (HL0.5)]/S (6.15)
Where:
Ldn = downstream study length (along main channel), m (for normal depth
starting conditions)
Lu = estimated upstream study length (along main channel), m (required for
convergence of the modified profile to within 30 mm of the base
profile)
HD = average hydraulic depth (l- percent chance event flow area divided by
the top width), m
S = average reach slope, m/m
HL = headloss ranging between 0.15 m and 1.5 m at the channel crossing
structure for the 1-percent chance flood, m

Chapter 6
Computation Procedure
A sample procedure form for use in calculating water surface profiles is shown in Form
6-1:
Column 1- Cross Section No. is the identification number. Kilometers upstream from the
mouth are recommended.
Column 2- Assumed water surface elevation, which must agree with the resulting
computed water surface elevation within +/-0.015m, for trial calculations to be
successful.
Column 3- Computed, the rating curve value for the first section, but thereafter, the value
calculated by adding WS to the computed water surface elevation for the previous
section.
Column 4- A, cross-section area. If the section is complex and has been subdivided into
several parts, use one line on the form for each subsection and sum to get A.
Column 5- R, hydraulic radius.
Column 6- R2/3.
Column 7- Manning’s roughness coefficient “n”.
Column 8- K, conveyance, defined as CmAR2/3/n, where Cm is 1.
Column 9- Kt, average conveyance for reach, calculated by 0.5(Ktd +Ktu), where
subscripts D and U refer to downstream and upstream ends of the reach, respectively.
Column 10- Sf, average slope through the reach determined by Q/Kt)2.
Column 11- L, the discharge-weighted reach length.
Column 12- hf, energy loss due to friction through the reach, calculated by hf = (Q/Kt)2L
= Sf L
Column 13- .3/A2), part of the expression relating distributed flow velocity to an
average value.
Column 14- WKH YHORFLW\ GLVWULEXWLRQ FRHIILFLHQW FDOFXODWHG E\ .3/A2)/ (Kt3/At2)
where the numerator is the sum of values in column 13 and the denominator is calculated
from Kt and At.
Column 15- V, the average velocity calculated by Q/A.
Column 16- 92/2g, the average velocity corrected for flow distribution.
Column 17- 92/2g), the difference between velocity heads at the downstream and
upstream sections. A positive value indicates velocity is increasing, therefore, use a
contraction coefficient for “other losses.” A negative value indicates the expansion
coefficient should be used in calculating “other losses.”
Column 18- ho is “other losses,” and is calculated by multiplying either the expansion or
contraction coefficient, Km, by the absolute value of column 17.
Column 19- :6WKHFKDQJHLVZDWHUVXUIDFHHOHYDWLRQIURPWKHSUHYLRXVFURVVVHFWLRQ
It is the algebraic sum of columns 12, 17 and 18.
:$7(5$1'6(',0(175287,1*
Water and sediment routing methods should be employed where possible scour and/or
sediment are of concern. It is generally not used at stable stream locations. Various
computer models can be employed to investigate water and sediment routing. For
instance, the BRI-STARS Model (Bridge Stream Tube Model for Sediment Routing
Alluvial River Simulation, Refs 24 and 25) is based on the stream tube method of
calculation. The scour or deposits in each stream tube, determined by sediment routing,
will give the variation of channel geometry in the vertical direction.

Chapter 6
Drainage Design Manual-2002 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels
Cross Hydraulic 1000 ∆ Water

Surface
Section Water Surface Elevation Area Radius
Elevation
No. Assumed Computed R R2/3 n K Kt St L ht K3/A2 α V αV2/2g ∆(α2/2g) ho
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)

)RUP:DWHU6XUIDFH3URILOH)RUP

Chapter 6
This model or an equivalent method should be used to solve complicated river

engineering problems, using limited data and resources. Its use should be limited to those
areas where historic or anticipated alluvial scour or deposition occur for subcritical,
supercritical, or a combination of water surface profiles that pass through critical depth.
An advantage of BRI-STARS is that the model can also simulate the channel widening or
narrowing phenomenon, as well as local scour due to highway encroachments. Water and
sediment routing methods are also particularly useful for evaluating sites where
contraction scour and/or effects of in-stream materials mining activities are a concern.
6.6 DESIGN PROCEDURE
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The design procedures for all types of channels have many similar elements, however
each type of channel will require unique inputs. This section will 1) outline a process for
assessing a natural stream channel and 2) offer a more specific design procedure for
roadside channels.
The analysis of a stream channel, in most cases, takes place in conjunction with the
design of a highway hydraulic structure such as a culvert or bridge. In general, the
objective is to convey the water along or under the highway in such a manner that will
not cause damage to the highway, stream, or adjacent property. An assessment of the
existing channel is usually necessary to determine the potential for problems that might
result from a proposed action. The detail of studies necessary shall be commensurate
with the risk associated with the action and the environmental sensitivity of the stream
and adjoining flood plain (see Section 6.7).
Although the following step-by-step procedure may not be appropriate for all possible
applications, it does outline a process that, in general, will be applicable.
6WHS$VVHPEOH6LWH'DWDDQG3URMHFW)LOH
A. Data Collection
• Topographic, site, and location maps
• Roadway profile
• Photographs
• Field reviews
• Design data at nearby structures
• Gauging records
B. Studies by other agencies
• Ministry of Water Resources studies
• Floodplain studies
• Catchment area studies
C. Environmental constraints
• Floodplain encroachment
• Floodway designation
• Fish habitat
• Commitments in review documents
D. Design criteria
• See Section 6.3
Chapter 6
6WHS'HWHUPLQHWKH3URMHFW6FRSH
A. Determine level of assessment
• Stability of existing channel
• Potential for damage
• Sensitivity of the stream
B. Determine type of hydraulic analysis
• Qualitative assessment
• Single-section analysis
• Step-backwater analysis
C. Determine additional survey information
• Extent of streambed profiles
• Locations of cross sections
• Elevations of flood-prone property
• Details of existing structures
• Properties of bed and bank materials
6WHS(YDOXDWH+\GURORJLF9DULDEOHV
A. Compute discharges for selected frequencies
B. Consult Hydrology, Chapter 5
6WHS3HUIRUP+\GUDXOLF$QDO\VLV
A. Single-section analysis (6.6)
• Select representative cross section (6.6)
• Select appropriate n values (Table 6-1)
• Compute stage-discharge relationship
B. Step-backwater analysis (6.6)
C. Calibrate with known high water
6WHS3HUIRUP6WDELOLW\$QDO\VLV
A. Geomorphic factors
B. Hydraulic factors
B. Stream response to change
6WHS'HVLJQ&RXQWHUPHDVXUHV
A. Criteria for selection
• Erosion mechanism
• Stream characteristics
• Construction and maintenance requirements
• Vandalism considerations
• Cost
B. Types of countermeasures
• Meander migration countermeasures
• Bank stabilization
• Bend control countermeasures
• Channel braiding countermeasures
• Degradation countermeasures
• Aggradation countermeasures
C. For additional information
• HEC-20 Stream Stability
• Highways in the River Environment

Chapter 6
• See Reference List

6WHS'RFXPHQWDWLRQ
• Prepare report and file with background information
52$'6,'(&+$11(/6
A roadside channel is defined as an open channel usually paralleling the highway
embankment and within the limits of the highway right-of-way. It is normally trapezoidal
or V-shaped in cross section and lined with grass or a special protective lining. Roadside
channels used in Ethiopia are shown in Figure 6-13 at the end of this chapter.
The primary function of roadside channels is to collect surface runoff from the highway
and areas that drain to the right-of-way and convey the accumulated runoff to acceptable
outlet points. A secondary function of a roadside channel is to drain subsurface water
from the base of the roadway. This will prevent saturation and loss of support for the
pavement and provide a positive outlet for subsurface drainage systems such as pipe
underdrains.
The alignment, cross section, and grade of roadside channels is constrained to a large
extent by the geometric and safety standards applicable to the project. These channels
should accommodate the design runoff in a manner that assures the safety of motorists,
and minimizes future maintenance, damage to adjacent properties, and adverse
environmental or aesthetic effects.
67(3%<67(3352&('85(
Each project is unique, but the following six basic design steps are normally applicable:
6WHS(VWDEOLVKD5RDGVLGH3ODQ
A. Collect available site data
B. Obtain or prepare existing and proposed plan-profile layout including
highway, culverts, bridges, etc.
C. Determine and plot on the plan the locations of natural basin divides and
roadside channel outlets. An example of a roadside channel plan/profile is
shown in Figure 6-8
D. Perform the layout of the proposed roadside channels to minimize
diversion flow lengths
6WHS2EWDLQRU(VWDEOLVK&URVV6HFWLRQ'DWD
A. Provide channel depth adequate to drain the subbase
B. Choose channel side slopes based on geometric design criteria including
safety, economics, soil, aesthetics, and access
C. Establish cross sectional area required and determine appropriate ditch
shape and size
D. Identify features that may restrict cross section design:
• right-of-way limits,
• trees or environmentally-sensitive areas,
• utilities, and
• existing drainage facilities
6WHS'HWHUPLQHLQLWLDOFKDQQHOJUDGHV
A. Plot initial grades on plan-profile layout (Slopes in roadside ditch in cuts
are usually controlled by highway grades)
B. Provide minimum grade of 0.3 percent. Note that this gradient does not
necessarily need to be equal to the roadway gradient.
Chapter 6
C. Consider influence of type of lining on grade

D. Where possible, avoid features that may influence or restrict grade, such
as utility locations
6WHS&KHFNIORZFDSDFLWLHVDQGDGMXVWDVQHFHVVDU\
A Compute the design discharge at the downstream end of a channel
segment (see Hydrology, Chapter 5)
B Set preliminary values of channel size, roughness coefficient, and slope
C. Determine maximum allowable depth of channel including freeboard
D. Check flow capacity using Manning’s Equation and single section
analysis
E. If capacity is inadequate, possible adjustments are as follows:
• increase bottom width,
• make channel side slopes flatter,
• make channel slope steeper,
• provide smoother channel lining, and
• install drop inlets and a parallel storm drain pipe beneath the channel
to supplement channel capacity
F Provide smooth transitions at changes in channel cross sections
G. Provide extra channel storage where needed to replace floodplain storage
and/or to reduce peak discharge
6WHS'HWHUPLQHFKDQQHOOLQLQJSURWHFWLRQQHHGHG+(&
A. Select a lining and determine the permissible shear stress τp in Pascals
(N/m2) from Table 6-2 and/or Table 6-3
B. Estimate the flow depth and choose an initial Manning’s n value from
Table 6-4
C. Calculate normal flow depth yo (m) at design discharge using Manning’s
Equation and compare with the estimated depth. If they do not agree,
repeat Steps 5B and 5C
D. Compute maximum shear stress at normal depth as:
τd (Pa) = 2990 yo S where S = channel slope, m/m
E If τd < τp then lining is acceptable, otherwise consider the following
options:
• choose a more resistant lining,
• use concrete, gabions, or other more rigid lining either as full lining or
composite,
• decrease channel slope,
• decrease slope in combination with drop structures, and/or
• increase channel width and/or flatten side slopes
6WHS$QDO\]HRXWOHWSRLQWVDQGGRZQVWUHDPHIIHFWV
A. Identify any adverse impacts to downstream properties that may result
from one of the following at the channel outlet:
• increase or decrease in discharge,
• increase in velocity of flow,
• confinement of sheet flow,
• change in outlet water quality, or
• diversion of flow from another catchment area
B. Mitigate any adverse impacts identified in 6A, possibilities include:

Chapter 6
• enlarge outlet channel and/or install control structures to provide

detention of increased runoff in channel,
• install velocity control structures,
• increase capacity and/or improve lining of downstream channel,
• install sedimentation/infiltration basins,
• install sophisticated weirs or other outlet devices to redistribute
concentrated channel flow, and
• eliminate diversions that result in downstream damage and which
cannot be mitigated in a less expensive manner
'(6,*1&216,'(5$7,216
In order to obtain the optimum roadside channel system design, it may be necessary to
make several trials of the previous procedure before a final design is achieved.
More details on channel lining design may be found in HEC-15 including consideration
of channel bends, steep slopes, and composite linings.
6.7 STREAM MORPHOLOGY

The three-dimensional form assumed by a natural stream is a function of many variables
for which cause-and-effect relationships are difficult to establish. The stream may
discharge the same amount of sediment that it receives although there may be short-term
adjustments in its bedforms in response to flood flows. On the other hand, the stream
reach may be aggrading or degrading as a result of deposits or scour in the reach. The
plan-form of the stream may be straight, braided, or meandering. The complexities of
stream morphology can be assessed by inspecting aerial photographs and topographic
maps for changes in slope, width, depth, meander form, and bank erosion with time.
A qualitative assessment of the river response to proposed highway facilities is possible
through a thorough knowledge of river mechanics and accumulation of engineering
experience.
Chapter 6
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Chapter 6
7DEOH&ODVVLILFDWLRQRI9HJHWDO&RYHUVDVWR'HJUHHVRI5HWDUGDQF\
5HWDUGDQFH &RYHU &RQGLWLRQ
A Native grass Excellent stand, tall >750 mm
B Native grass Good stand, tall (average 300 – 600 mm)
C Native grass Good stand, uncut 150 – 300 mm
D Native grass Good stand, uncut 50 – 150 mm
E Native grass Good stand, cut to 40 mm, Stubble
7DEOH6XPPDU\RI6KHDU6WUHVVIRU9DULRXV3URWHFWLRQ0HDVXUHV
Protective Cover Category τp (Pa)
Vegetation Class A 177
Class B 101
Class C 48
Class D 29
Class E 17
Temporary Woven Paper 7

Jute Net 22
Straw W/Net 69
Curled Wood Mat 74
Synthetic Mat 96
Gravel: D50 = 25 mm 19
D50 = 50 mm 38
Rock: D50 = 150 mm 120

D50 = 300 mm 239
Gabions 1676
Geoweb 479
Soil Cement >2155
Concrete construction blocks, granular filter under layer >958
Wedge-shaped blocks with drainage slot >1197
Chapter 6
7DEOH0DQQLQJ¶V5RXJKQHVV&RHIILFLHQWV+(&
n - value
Depth Ranges
Lining Category Lining Type 0-0.15m 0.15–0.06 m > 0.6m
Rigid Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Unlined Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Temporary* Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
Jute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.022 0.019
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Curled Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
Gravel Riprap 25 mm D50 0.044 0.033 0.030
50 mm D50 0.066 0.041 0.034
Rock Riprap 150 mm D50 0.104 0.069 0.035
300 mm D50 -- 0.078 0.040
Note: Values listed are representative values for the respective coefficients, n, vary with the flow depth.
*Some “temporary” linings become permanent when buried.
The natural stream channel will assume a geomorphological form that will be compatible
with the sediment load and discharge history that it has experienced over time. To the
extent that a highway structure disturbs this delicate balance by encroaching on the
natural channel, the consequences of flooding, erosion, and deposits can be significant
and widespread. The hydraulic analysis of a proposed highway structure should include a
consideration of the extent of these consequences.
675($05(63216(72&+$1*(
The major complicating factors in river mechanics are: 1) the large number of
interrelated variables that can simultaneously respond to natural or imposed changes in a
stream system; and 2) the continual evolution of stream channel patterns, channel
geometry, bars, and forms of bed roughness with changing water and sediment discharge.
In order to understand better the responses of streams to the actions of man and nature, a
few simple hydraulic and geomorphic concepts are presented.
Any natural or artificial change that alters channel slope can result in modifications to the
existing stream pattern. For example, a cutoff of a meander loop decreases channel
sinuosity and increases channel slope. Conversely, it is possible that a slight decrease in
slope could change an unstable braided stream into a meandering one.
The different channel dimensions, shapes, and patterns associated with different
quantities of discharge and amounts of sediment load indicate that as these independent
variables change, major adjustments of channel morphology can be anticipated. Further,
a change in hydrology may cause changes in stream sinuosity, meander wavelength, and
channel width and depth. A long period of channel instability with considerable bank
erosion and lateral shifting of the channel may be required for the stream to compensate
for the hydrologic change.

Chapter 6
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A countermeasure is defined as a measure incorporated into the crossing of a stream to
control, inhibit, change, delay, or minimize stream and bride stability problems.
Countermeasures may be installed at the time of highway construction or retrofitted to
resolve stability problems at existing crossings.
The practice of retrofitting makes good economic sense and in many locations it is also
good engineering practice. This is because the magnitude, location, and nature of
potential stability problems are not always discernible at the design stage, and indeed,
may take a period of several years to develop.
The selection of an appropriate countermeasure for a specific bank erosion problem is
dependent on factors such as the erosion mechanism, stream characteristics, construction
and maintenance requirements, potential for vandalism, and costs. Below is a brief
discussion of possible countermeasures for some common river stability problems.
1RWH7KHUHDGHULVHQFRXUDJHGWRFRQVXOWZLWKWKHUHIHUHQFHVOLVWHGDW
WKH HQG RI WKLV FKDSWHU IRU GHWDLOHG LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ WKH GHVLJQ DQG
FRQVWUXFWLRQRIFRXQWHUPHDVXUHV
The best countermeasure against meander migration is a crossing location on a relatively
straight reach of stream between bends. Other countermeasures include the protection of
an existing bank line, the establishment of a new flow line or alignment, and the control
and constriction of channel flow. Countermeasures identified for bank stabilization and
bend control are bank revetments, spurs, retardant structures, longitudinal dikes, vane
dikes, bulkheads, and channel relocations. Measures may be used individually or in
combination to combat meander migration at a site (Refs. 30 and 21).
Countermeasures used at a braided stream are usually intended to confine the multiple
channels to one channel. This tends to increase sediment transport capacity in the
principal channel and encourage deposits in secondary channels.
The measures usually consist of dikes constructed from the limits of the multiple
channels to the channel over which the bridge is constructed. These include spur dikes at
bridge ends used in combination with revetments on highway fill slopes; rip rap only on
highway fill slopes; and spurs arranged in the stream channels to constrict flow to one
channel.
'(*5$'$7,21$1'$**5$'$7,21
Degradation in streams can cause the loss of bridge piers in stream channels, as well as
piers and abutments in caving banks. A check dam, which is a low dam or weir
constructed across a channel, is one of the most successful techniques for halting
degradation on small to medium streams.
Longitudinal stone dikes placed at the toe of channel banks can be effective
countermeasures for bank caving in degrading streams. Precautions to prevent
outflanking, such as tiebacks to the banks, may be necessary where installations are
limited to the vicinity of the highway stream crossing. In general, channel lining alone is
not a successful countermeasure against degradation problems (Ref. 21).
Current measures in use to alleviate aggradation problems at highways include
channelization, bridge modification, continued maintenance, or any combination of these.
Channelization may include excavating and cleaning channels, constructing cutoffs to
increase the local slope, constructing flow control structures to reduce and control the
local channel width, and constructing relief channels to improve flow capacity at the
Chapter 6
crossing. Except for relief channels, these measures are intended to increase the sediment
transport capacity of the channel, thus reducing or eliminating problems with
aggradation.
6.8 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

352%/(0
Given: The 25-year and 100-year peak discharges equal Q25 = 4.96 m3/s and Q100 = 6.20
m3/s. Cross-section information is given in the following table of surveyed data
points for a typical cross-section.
7DEOH&URVVVHFWLRQ'DWD6HFWLRQ³$´±6WD
Distance Elevation n-value
0.0 223.57 0.06
2.44 222.87 0.06
12.19 222.75 0.035
13.72 221.59 0.035
15.24 221.59 0.035
16.15 222.69 0.05
23.77 222.32 0.05
31.39 222.81 0.05
32.92 223.72 0.05
As indicated in Figure 6-9, Subsection 1 consists of an overbank area with light brush
and trees. Subsection 2 is in the main channel of this stream and comprises a clean,
straight stream with a few weeds and rocks. Subsection 3 is in the right floodplain and
includes some scattered brush with considerable weediness.

Chapter 6
)LJXUH6WUHDP&URVV6HFWLRQ³$´
Find: Use the single-section method to develop a stage discharge curve for the channel
cross-section at station 1+36 which is located downstream from a highway culvert
(see3 Figure 6-10). Determine the tailwater elevation at the outlet of the culvert
(assume a channel station of 0+30 for this location) for the 25-year and 100-year
floods.
)LJXUH/RQJLWXGLQDO6HFWLRQ

Solution: The slope of the stream can be determined by examining the reach from
stream Station –0+91 to our typical section at Station 1+36. The flow line
differential for this reach is 0.61 m (in 227 m of stream reach). Therefore,
the slope (S) is 0.0027 m/m.
Form 6-2 can be used to assist in the development of a stage-discharge

curve for this typical section. Assuming water surface elevations
beginning at 221.89, calculate pairs of water surface elevation/discharge
for plotting on a stage-discharge curve. Illustrative calculations in which
arbitrary increments of water surface elevation of 0.3 m were used are
Chapter 6
shown on Form 6-2. A plotted stage discharge curve is shown in Figure 6-

11. The water elevation for Q25+ (4.96 m3/s) is 222.78 and for Q100 (6.20
m3/s) is 222.84.
Since the calculation section for the stream is downstream of the culvert
site, it will be necessary to project the water surface elevation as
determined from the typical section at stream 1+36 to represent the
tailwater elevation at stream Station 0+30. Therefore, the projected
tailwater levels are calculated as follows:
TW25 = 222.78 + (136 – 30)(0.0027) = 223.07 m

TW100 = 222.84 + 0.29 = 223.13 m
Elevation = 221.89 m Slope = 0.0027

Sub-section ID I II III IV V VI Totals/Average
Area (m2) 0.56 0.56
Wetted Perimeter (m) 2.41
Hydraulic Radius (m) 0.23
R2/3 0.38
N 0.060 0.035 0.050
∆Q (m /s)
3
0.311 0.311
Sub-section Vel. (m/s) 0.56 0.56
Elevation = 222.20 m Slope =

Area (m2) 1.33 1.33
Wetted Perimeter (m) 3.32
Hydraulic Radius (m) 0.40
R2/3 0.54
n 0.060 0.035 0.050
∆Q (m3/s) 1.073 1.073
Sub-section Vel. (m/s) 0.81 0.81
)RUP&KDQQHO&RPSXWDWLRQ)RUP

Chapter 6

Area (m2) 2.29 0.61 2.9
Wetted Perimeter (m) 4.54 6.68
Hydraulic Radius (m) 0.50 0.09
R2/3 0.63 0.20
n 0.060 0.035 0.050
∆Q (m /s)
3
2.152 0.130 2.282
Sub-section Vel. (m/s) 0.94 0.21 0.79

Elevation = 222.80 m Slope = 0.0027
Area (m2) 0.15 3.45 4.18 7.78
Wetted Perimeter (m) 4.88 4.88 15.27
Hydraulic Radius (m) 0.03 0.71 0.27
R2/3 0.10 0.80 0.42
n 0.060 0.035 0.050
∆Q (m /s)
3
0.014 3.987 1.829 5.83
Sub-section Vel. (m/s) 0.00 1.16 0.44 0.75

Area (m2) 3.89 4.55 8.90 16.84
Wetted Perimeter (m) 10.61 4.88 15.88
Hydraulic Radius (m) 0.32 0.93 0.56
R2/3 0.47 0.95 0.68
n 0.060 0.035 0.050
∆Q (m3/s) 1.37 6.46 6.28 14.11
Sub-section Vel. (m/s) 0.40 1.42 0.71 0.84
)RUP&KDQQHO&RPSXWDWLRQ)RUPFRQWLQXHG
Chapter 6
Elevation = Slope =
Area (m2)
Wetted Perimeter (m)
Hydraulic Radius (m)
R2/3
n
∆Q (m3/s)
Sub-section Vel. (m/s)
)RUP&KDQQHO&RPSXWDWLRQ)RUPFRQWLQXHG

)LJXUH([DPSOH6WDJH'LVFKDUJH&XUYH


Chapter 6
352%/(0
Given: A roadside drainage channel is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2 m and
1V:3H side slopes. The bed slope is 0.005 m/m and the design flow rate is
0.6 m3/s.
Find: Calculate the required diameter (D50) of a gravel riprap that is to be used as a
permanent channel lining, and the design depth of flow.
Solution: The solution follows the procedure outlined in HEC-15, which is based on
the tractive force method.
(1) Choose a rounded gravel with D50 = 25 mm
Then τp = 19 Pa (Table 6-3)
(2) Estimate n = 0.033 from Table 6-4 for depth y = 0.15 – 0.6 m
(3) Calculate y from Manning’s equation (Figure 6-4)
[(1.486nQ)/(b8/3)(S1/2)] = [1.486(0.033)(0.6)]/[(1.28/3)(0.0051/2)]
=0.256
Then from Figure 6-4 with Z = 3: y/b = 0.29 and y = 0.35 m
(4) Calculate maximum bed shear stress, τd
τd = 9800 yS = 9800 x 0.35 x 0.005 = 17 Pa
Now because τd < τp, accept D50 of approximately 25 mm.

Otherwise repeat with another riprap diameter.
(5) Side slopes will be stable because side slope is not steepter than
1V:3H. If side slopes are steeper than 1V:3H or if channel slope is
steep, consult HEC-15 for additional computations.
352%/(0

Given: A median ditch is lined with a good stand of native grasses (approximately 0,.203
m in height). The ditch is trapezoidal with a bottom width of 1.2 m and
side slopes of 1V:4H. The ditch slope is 0.010 m/m.
Find: Compute the maximum discharge for which this lining will be stable and the
corresponding flow depth.
Solution: From Table 6-2, the native grass has a retardance class of C and from
Table 6-3, the permissible shear stress is
τp = 48 Pa
Then the allowable depth can be determined by assuming τp = τd:
y = τp/(9800 S) = 48/(9800 x 0.01) = 0.49 m
Chapter 6
Now determine the flow area A and hydraulic radius R:

A = y(b+zy) = 0.49 (1.2 + (4 x 0.49)) = 1.55 m2
P = b+2y(1+z2)1/2 = 1.2 + (2 x 0.49)(1 + 15)1/2 = 5.24 m
R = A/P = 1.55/5.24 = 0.30 m
Finally determine the Manning’s n value from Photo 21 and solve for Q from
Manning’s equation:
From Photo 21, n = 0.080 and
Q = (1/n) A R2/3 S1/2
Q = (1/0.080)(1.55)(0.30)2/3 (0.01)1/2 = 0.86 m3/s
(This method is called the maximum discharge method and is useful for
determining the stable channel capacity for a variety of different linings
for purposes of comparison).
352%/(0

Given: A rectangular channel on a slope of 0.001 with a width of 1.8m expands to a
width of 3 m in a straight walled transition, Z = 0. The design discharge is
8.5 m3/s and Manning’s n = 0.02.
Find: Calculate the depth of flow in the upstream 1.8m wide channel if normal depth is
the downstream control.
Solution: (1) Compute the downstream normal depth y2:

[(1.486nQ)/(b8/3)(S1/2)] = [1.486(0.02)(8.5)]/[(3.08/3)(0.0011/2)] = 0.427
Then from Figure 6-4 with z = 0: y2/b = 0.68 and y2 = 2.04 m and
for a rectangular channel, yc = ((Q/b)2/g)1/2 = 0.9 m
68%&5,7,&$/
(2) The specific energy downstream is:
E2 = y2 + Q2/(2gA22) = 2.04 + (8.5)2/(2 x 9.81)(3x2.04)2) = 2.14 m
(3) Choose a straight-walled transition with a divergence angle of 12.5
degrees which has an expansion loss coefficient of 0.5 (HEC-14).
The length of the transition would be:
L = ((3.0-1.8)/2)/tan 12.5o = 2.71 m
(4) Check if subcritical flow is possible by assuming critical depth in
upstream channel.
E1c = y1c + V1c2/2g and E1 = E2 + z2 –z1 +hL

Chapter 6
Where: z2-z1 = 0.001(2.71) = 0.003 §

y1c = ((8.5/1.8)2/9.81)1/3 = 1.31 m
V1c = Q/A1c = 8.5/(1.8 x 1.31) = 3.6 m/s
V2 = Q/A2 = 8.5/(2.04 x 3) = 1.39 m/s
HL = 0.5 (3.62 – 1.392)/(2x9.81) = 0.281 m
then E1c = 1.31 + 3.62/(2x981) = 1.97 m
and E1 = 2.14 + 0 + 0.281 = 2.42 m
Now since E1 > E1c, a VXEFULWLFDO solution exists. If this were not
the case, the width of 1.8 m would have to be increased.
(5) Solve the energy equation, Eq. 6.10, by trial:
z1 + y1 + Q2/(2gA12) = z2 + E2 +hL
y1+(1-0.5)(8.5)2/2x9.81)x(1.82xy12)
= 2.14 – 0.5(8.5)2/(2x9.81)x(3x2.04)2))
where: z1-z2 = 0
h1 = 0.5 (Q2/(2gA12) – Q2/(2gA22))
E2 = 2.14 m
A2 = 3.0 x 2.04 m2
with the result y1 = 1.94 m and V1 = 3.07 m/s
(6) Calculate the water surface profile using the Standard Step Method
if boundary resistance losses are of concern.
352%/(0

Given: A rectangular transition contracts from a width of 3.0 m to a width of 1.5 m. The
approach flow rate is 8.5 m3/s with a depth of 0.3 m.
Find: Calculate the depth in the contracted section and the angle and length of the
contraction so that the transmission of standing waves downstream is
minimized.
Solution: (1) Calculate the approach Froude number for a rectangular channel.
F = V/(gd)1/2 = (8.5/(3.0x0.3))/(9.8x0.3)1/2 = 5.5 683(5&5,7,&$/
(2) Determine the contraction ratio:
r = b3/b1 = 1.5/3.0 = 0.5
(3) Use Figure 6-12
o and y3/y1 = 2.1 or y3 = 0.62 m
F3/F1 = r-1(y3/y1)-3/2 = 0.66 or F3 = 3.6
L = ((b3-b1)/2)/tan 5o = 8.57 m
(4) This design satisfies the criterion F3>2 and also is just to the left of
curve, A which means choking is not possible (for the complete
equations see HEC-14 and Storm. 1985).
Chapter 6
)LJXUH'HVLJQRI6WUDLJKW:DOO&RQWUDFWLRQVLQ6XSHUFULWLFDO)ORZ

Chapter 6
)LJXUH7\SLFDO*XWWHUDQG'LWFK'HWDLOV
Chapter 6
URBAN DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE SECTION DIMENSIONS
# LINING n shape B Z D K Scrit
grass
U1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0 1 0,45 0,9 0,0253

U2 rect 0,5 0 0,45 1,5 0,0396
U3 0,5 0 0,75 2,9 0,0514
U4 1 0 0,75 3,9 0,0252
U5 concrete 0,015 rect 0,5 0 0,75 5,8 0,0129

U6 0,015 1 0 0,75 7,7 0,0063
85%$1'LWFK&DSDFLW\
3 U1
2,5
U2
2
U3
V
P
H
JU 1,5
DK
FV U4
L
' 1
CHART 6-1
U5
0,5
U6
0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1 0,11 0,12
6ORSHPP
Chapter 6
Hydraulic Design of Open Channels Drainage Design Manual-2002
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY
curve RURAL
# LINING n Shape B Z D K Scrit
R1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,75 6,0 0,0172
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
R6 0,030 1,00 1,5 0,90 24,4 0,0136
R7 0,030 1,00 2,0 0,90 28,5 0,0131
C1 concrete 0,015 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 33,7 0,0036
C2 0,015 0,50 2,0 0,90 41,7 0,0034
C3 0,015 1,00 1,5 0,90 48,8 0,0034
C4 0,015 1,00 2,0 0,90 56,9 0,0033
585$/'LWFK&DSDFLW\
20,0 R1
18,0 R2
16,0 R3
14,0 R4
V R5
12,0
P
H
JU 10,0 R6
DK
R7
FV
L 8,0
'
6,0 C1
4,0 C2 CHART 6-2

2,0 C3
0,0 C4
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08 0,09 0,1 0,11 0,12
6ORSHPP
Chapter 6
DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

CURVE RURAL
# LINING n Shape B Z D K Scrit
G1 grass 0,045 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,90 6,5 0,0364
G2 0,045 0,00 2 0,90 9,1 0,0331
G3 0,045 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 11,2 0,0328
G4 0,045 0,50 2 0,90 13,9 0,0308
G5 0,045 1,00 1,5 0,90 16,3 0,0307
G6 0,045 1,00 2 0,90 19,0 0,0294
R1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0,00 1,5 0,75 6,0 0,0172
R2 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 9,8 0,0162
R3 0,030 0,00 1,5 0,90 13,7 0,0147
R4 0,030 trapezoidal 0,50 1,5 0,90 16,8 0,0146
R5 0,030 0,50 2,0 0,90 20,9 0,0137
585$/'LWFK&DSDFLW\ NOTE : DITCH CAPACITY ONLY

APPLICABLE OVER RANGE
6,0
G1
PLOTTED ON CHART. DITHCH
CAPACITIES SHOWN ARE
G2
LIMITED BY BOTH MINIMUM AND
MAXIMUM VELOCITIES
G3
G5
4,0
V G6
P
R1
H
UJD
KF
LV R2
'
2,0 R3
R4
CHART 6-3
R5
G4
0,0
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04
6ORSHPP
Chapter 6
Hydraulic Design of Open Channels Drainage Design Manual-2002

5()(5(1&(6
1. AASHTO, Vol. VI-Highway Drainage Guidelines, “Hydraulic Analysis and
Design of Open Channels,” AASHTO Task Force on Hydrology and Hydraulics,
1982.
2. American Society of Civil Engineers, High Velocity Flow in Open Channels: A
Symposium, “Design of Channel Curves for Supercritical Flow,” Transactions,
Vol. 116, 1951.
3. Arcement, G.J., Jr., and Schneider, V.R., “Guide for Selecting Manning’s
Roughness Coefficients for Natural Channels and Flood Plains,’ Report No.
FHWA-TS-84-204, Federal Highway Administration, 1984.
4. Barnes, Harry H. Jr., “Roughness Characteristics of Natural Channels,” U.S.
Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 1849, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 1975.
5. Behlke, C.E., “The Design of Supercritical Flow Channel Junctions,” Highway
Research Record No. 123, Transportation Research Board, 1966.
6. Blodgett, J.C., “Rock Riprap Design for Protection of Stream Channels Near
Highway Structures,” Vol. 1, Water Resources Investigations Report 864127,
U.S. Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with Federal Highway
Administration, 1986.
7. Blalock, M.E., and Sturm, T.W., “Minimum Specific Energy in Compound Open
Channel,” Journal of Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. HY6, pp. 699-
717, June 1981.
8. Blodgett, J.C., and McConaughy, C.E., “Rock Riprap Design for Protection of
Stream Channels Near Highway Structures,” Vol. 2, Water Resources
Investigations Report 864127, U.S. Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation
with Federal Highway Administration, 1986.
9. Brice, J.C., and J.C. Blodgett, ‘Countermeasures for Hydraulic Problems at
Bridges, Vol. 1, Analysis and Assessment,” Federal Highway Administration
/RD-75-162, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1975.
10. Brown, S.A., “Streambank Stabilization Measures for Stream Crossings--Executive
Summary,” FHWA/RD-84/099, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
D.C., 1985.
11. Brown, S.A., “Design of Spur-Type Streambank Stabilization Structures,” Federal
Highway Administration /RD-84/101, Federal Highway Administration,
12. Brown, S.A., “Streambank Stabilization Measures for Highway Engineers,’ Federal
Highway Administration /RD-84/100, Federal Highway Administration,
13. Chow, V.T., Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, 1970.
14. Clopper, Paul E., “Hydraulic Stability of Articulated Concrete Block Revetment
Systems During Overtopping Flow,” FHWA-RD-89-199, FHWA, Washington,
D.C., November 1989.
15. Davidian, Jacob, “Computation of Water Surface Profiles in Open Channels,”
Techniques of Water Resources Investigation, Book 3, Chapter A15, U.S.
Geological Survey, 1984.
16. Federal Highway Administration, “Highways in the River Environment,” Training
and Design Manual, 1990.
17. Federal Highway Administration, “Hydraulic Design of Energy Dissipators for
Culverts and Channels,” Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 14, U.S. DOT, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1983.
Chapter 6
18. Federal Highway Administration, “Design of Roadside Channels with Flexible

Linings, “ Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 15, U. S. DOT, U. S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1985.
19. Federal Highway Administration, “Use of Riprap for Bank Protection,” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular No. I-1, U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1967.
20. Federal Highway Administration, “Design Of Riprap Revetments,” Hydraulic
Engineering Circular FHWA 89-016 Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., 1989.
21. Federal Highway Administration, “Stream Stability,” Hydraulic Engineering
Circular No. 20, U.S. DOT, 1991.
22. Henderson, F.M., 2SHQ&KDQQHO)ORZ, Macmillan, 1966.
23. Lane, E.W., “A Study of the Shape of Channels Formed by Natural Stream
Flowing in Erodible Material,” 05'6HGLPHQW6HULHV1R, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineer Division, Missouri River, Corps of Engineers, Omaha, Nebraska,
1957.
24. Molinas, Albert, 8VHUV 0DQXDO IRU %5,67$56, NCHRP Project HR 15-11, 1990
(Dram Report), National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
25. Molinas, Albert, %5,67$56 ([SHUW 6\VWHP )RU 6WUHDP &ODVVLILFDWLRQ NCHRP
Project 15-11, 1990 (Dram Report).
26. Odgaard, A. Jacob, and Spoljaric, Anita, “Sediment Control by submerged Vanes,”
-RXUQDORI+\GUDXOLF(QJLQHHULQJ ASCE, Vol. 112, No. 12 December 1986.
27. Odgaard, Jacob A., and Mosconi, Carlos E., “Streambank Protection by Submerged
Vanes, -RXUQDORI+\GUDXOLF(QJLQHHULQJ, ASCE, Vol. 113, No. 4, April 1987.
28. Richardson, E.V., D.B. Simons, and P.Y. Julien, “Highways in the River
Environment,” prepared for the Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
D.C. by the Department of Civil Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, Colorado, June 1990.
29. Rouse, Hunter, ed., (QJLQHHULQJ+\GUDXOLFV, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1950.
30. Shearman, J.0., “WSPRO User’s Instructions,” FHWA IP-89-27, 1990.
31. Shen, H.W., Schumm, S.A. Nelson, J.D. Doehring, D.O. and M.M. Skinner,
“Methods for Assessment of Stream-Related Hazards to Highways and Bridges,”
FHWA/RD-80/160, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1981.
32. Sturm, T.W., “Simplified Design of Contractions in Supercritical Flow,” -RXUQDORI
+\GUDXOLF(QJLQHHULQJ, ASCE, Vol. 11, No. 5, May 1985.
33. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Accuracy of Computed Water Surface Profiles”,
The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, California, December 1986.
34. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “HEC-2 Water Surface Profiles, User’s Manual,”
The Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, CA, 1982.
35. Vanoni, Vito A., ed., 6HGLPHQWDWLRQ (QJLQHHULQJ, ASCE Manual No. 54, ASCE,
345 East 47th St., New York, NY, 1977.
36. 'UDLQDJH 0DQXDO Drainage and Hydrology Section, Highway Design Office,
Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Downsview, Ontario, 1986-1993.

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Chapter 6

Drainage Design Manual - 2002 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels

6.2 SPECIFIC PRINCIPLES

6.3 DESIGN CRITERIA

• If relocation of a stream channel is unavoidable, the cross-sectional shape,

6.4 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation; however, considerable

and then Manning’s Equation can be written as:

h1 + α2 (V12/2g) = h2 + α2 (V22/2g) + hL (6.10)

6.5 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

7. n = 0.020. Irrigation canal, straight, in hard-packed smooth sand.

16. n = 0.040. Rock channel excavated by explosives.

 6,1*/(6(&7,21$1$/<6,60(7+2' 6/23($5($0(7+2'

Determine cross- Co mpute value in

Read y/b and compute y

Plot point (Q(y),y) in

Enough connect to turning line

Draw stage-discharge curve

Determine elevation for Q

SINGLE-SECTION M ETHOD GRA PHICAL M ETHOD

Flowchart 6-1 : Co mputation of elevation for

Cross Hydraulic 1000 ∆ Water

This model or an equivalent method should be used to solve complicated river

6.6 DESIGN PROCEDURE

• See Reference List

C. Consider influence of type of lining on grade

• enlarge outlet channel and/or install control structures to provide

6.7 STREAM MORPHOLOGY

Temporary Woven Paper 7

Rock: D50 = 150 mm 120

6.8 EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

Form 6-2 can be used to assist in the development of a stage-discharge

shown on Form 6-2. A plotted stage discharge curve is shown in Figure 6-

TW25 = 222.78 + (136 – 30)(0.0027) = 223.07 m

Elevation = 221.89 m Slope = 0.0027

Elevation = 222.20 m Slope =

Elevation = 222.50 m Slope =

Elevation = 223.11 m Slope =

Then τp = 19 Pa (Table 6-3)

(3) Calculate y from Manning’s equation (Figure 6-4)

(4) Calculate maximum bed shear stress, τd

τd = 9800 yS = 9800 x 0.35 x 0.005 = 17 Pa

Now because τd < τp, accept D50 of approximately 25 mm.

Then the allowable depth can be determined by assuming τp = τd:

y = τp/(9800 S) = 48/(9800 x 0.01) = 0.49 m

Now determine the flow area A and hydraulic radius R:

P = b+2y(1+z2)1/2 = 1.2 + (2 x 0.49)(1 + 15)1/2 = 5.24 m

R = A/P = 1.55/5.24 = 0.30 m

From Photo 21, n = 0.080 and

Q = (1/n) A R2/3 S1/2

Q = (1/0.080)(1.55)(0.30)2/3 (0.01)1/2 = 0.86 m3/s

Solution: (1) Compute the downstream normal depth y2:

Where: z2-z1 = 0.001(2.71) = 0.003 §

F3/F1 = r-1(y3/y1)-3/2 = 0.66 or F3 = 3.6

URBAN DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

U1 rip rap 0,030 triangular 0 1 0,45 0,9 0,0253

U5 concrete 0,015 rect 0,5 0 0,75 5,8 0,0129

4,0 C2 CHART 6-2

DITCH FLOW CAPACITY

6,1*/(6(&7,21$1$/<6,60(7+2'6/23($5($0(7+2'

Where: z2-z1 = 0.001(2.71) = 0.003 §