c PREFACE

Synergy for Success in Science Series is based on the science curriculum

framework in Singapore, and meets the standards and competencies prescribed in
the K to 12 science curriculum by the Department of Education. This framework
aims to enable students acquire in-depth knowledge, understanding, and skills for
mastery and application of science concepts that are relevant to daily life, society,
and the environment. This book aims to develop students into lifelong learners
with deep appreciation of scientific knowledge and processes, and equipped with
scientific values and attitudes.

This book uses concrete examples and matches them with colorful visuals
and language that is suited to the level of the students to whom this book is
intended. This makes learning experience relevant, accessible, and meaningful
to students regardless of their background and language skills.

This book makes science learning easier with the help of the following features:

Key Concept Important key words and concepts are defined,

compared, and differentiated. This facilitates easy
understanding of science concepts.
Know More This concept-related information enriches students
knowledge and reinforces their understanding of science
concepts, hence appreciate their applications.
Let’s Review These open-ended questions reinforce students
understanding and mastery of science concepts in
each lesson.
Let’s Do This These are simple classroom exercises that enable students
explore and apply science concepts in real-life experiences.
Chapter Summary This serves as a review guide for students.
Key Ideas summarizes important concepts at the end
of each chapter.
Concept Map is a visual summary of the concepts
presented in the chapter.
Chapter Test These multiple choice and structured questions enable
students evaluate their knowledge, understanding, skills,
and mastery of the concepts on their own.
This contains suggested activities that students can do in
Enrichment 
relation to the topic in each chapter.
Making Connections This present practical application/s of the science
concept discussed in the chapter.

iii
iii
Table of Contents

Preface iii

unit 1 Living Things and Their Environment

Chapter 1 The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
1.1 Parts of the Human Respiratory System and Their
Functions 3
1.2 Breathing Mechanism 11
1.3 Parts of the Human Circulatory System and Their
Functions 16
1.4 Mechanism of Blood Circulation 31
1.5 Effects of Unhealthy Lifestyle on the Respiratory and
Circulatory Systems 36
Chapter Summary 46
Chapter Test 48
Making Connections 51

Chapter 2 Heredity: Inheritance and Variation

2.1 Molecular Basis of Heredity 54
2.2 Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance 64
Chapter Summary 82
Chapter Test 84
Making Connections 87

Chapter 3 Biodiversity
3.1 Causes of Species Extinction 90
3.2 Philippine Biodiversity 98
Chapter Summary 108
Chapter Test 110
Making Connections 113

iv
Chapter 4 Flow of Energy in Ecosystems
4.1 Photosynthesis 116
4.2 Cellular Respiration 133
Chapter Summary 143
Chapter Test 146
Making Connections 150

unit 2 Matter
Chapter 5 Electronic Structure of Matter
5.1 The Development of the Atomic Theory 153
5.2 Orbitals 162
5.3 Ways of Distributing Electrons 166
Chapter Summary 179
Chapter Test 181
Making Connections 183

Chapter 6 The Power of a Bond

6.1 Elements, Molecules, Compounds, and Ions 186
6.2 Lewis Electron Dot Symbols, Octet Rule, and
the Nature of Bonds 193
6.3 Ionic Bond and Ionic Compounds 198
6.4 Covalent Bond and Covalent Compounds 206
6.5 Electronegativity and Polarity 214
6.6 Metallic Properties and Bonding 219
Chapter Summary 222
Chapter Test 224
Making Connections 227

Chapter 7 Compounds of Carbon

7.1 Carbon and Its Bonds 230
7.2 Hydrocarbons 235
7.3 Functional Groups and Other Families of Carbon
Compounds 249
Chapter Summary 260
Chapter Test 262
Making Connections 264

v
 Chapter 8 Mole Concept
8.1 Mole 266
8.2 Calculating Molar Masses 268
8.3 Calculations Involving the Mole 271
8.4 Percentage Composition 286
Chapter Summary 291
Chapter Test 293
Making Connections 295

unit 3 Earth and Space

Chapter 9 Fiery Vents Deep in Earth
9.1 Inside a Volcano 299
9.2 Volcanic Activity 306
9.3 Volcanic Energy 316
Chapter Summary 320
Chapter Test 322
Making Connections 324

Chapter 10 Climate: A Global Concern

10.1 Factors Affecting Climate 326
10.2 World Climates 333
10.3 Climate Change 338
Chapter Summary 345
Chapter Test 347
Making Connections 350

Chapter 11 Constellations
11.1 Characteristics of Stars 352
11.2 Position and Arrangement of Stars 357
Chapter Summary 364
Chapter Test 366
Making Connections 368

vi
unit 4 Force, Motion, and Energy
Chapter 12 Motion in Two Dimensions
12.1 Projectile Motion 371.
12.2 Impulse-Momentum Theorem 389
Chapter Summary 408
Chapter Test 410
Making Connections 413

Chapter 13 Work, Power, and Energy

13.1 Mechanical Energy 416
13.2 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 421
Chapter Summary 430
Chapter Test 431
Making Connections 434

Chapter 14 Heat, Work, and Efficiency

14.1 Heat and Work 436
14.2 Efficiency 439
Chapter Summary 444
Chapter Test 446
Making Connections 449

Chapter 15 Electricity
15.1 Renewable Energy Resources 452
15.2 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 459
15.3 Electrical Energy Transmission and Distribution 464
Chapter Summary 467
Chapter Test 469
Making Connections 472

Glossary 473
Index 484

vii
Unit 1
Living Things and
Their Environment

O
rganisms, like polar bears, have developed
adaptive mechanisms that help them survive even
the harshest environmental conditions. These
mechanisms include the coordinated functions of organ
systems, such as the respiratory and circulatory systems,
which facilitate the transport of essential elements in
the body; molecular structures, such as chromosomes
and genes, which allow organisms to inherit adaptive
characteristics; and chemical processes, like the breakdown
of food molecules into substances, which the body can use
to obtain energy from the environment.

This unit will help you understand these mechanisms.

Chapter 1

The Human
Respiratory and
Circulatory Systems
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an energy-carrying
molecule found in cells of living things. This molecule
captures chemical energy from the breakdown of food
molecules and releases it to fuel cellular processes, which
are essential for the continuity of life. The breakdown of
food molecules, a process that produces energy, requires
oxygen. The respiratory system supplies the oxygen, and
the circulatory system distributes oxygen to the various
parts of the body.

This chapter explains, the components and functions of the

respiratory and circulatory systems, and the mechanisms
that provide the body with a continuous supply and
distribution of oxygen.

LEARNING GOALS
• D escribe the parts and functions of the human respiratory and circulatory systems.
• Describe the breathing mechanism.
• Explain the mechanism that enables the human circulatory system to transport
nutrients, gases, and other molecules to and from the various parts of the body.
• Describe the different blood groups.
• Explain how harmful substances affect the human respiratory and circulatory systems.
• Explain how lifestyle affects the functioning of the human respiratory and circulatory
systems.
• Make a chart of diseases affecting the human respiratory and circulatory systems, and
their detection, prevention, and treatment.

2 Living Things and Their Environment

1.1 Parts of the Human
Respiratory System and
Their Functions
The human respiratory system is a group of organs that
provide oxygen to the cells in the human body. Oxygen is
nasal
an essential substance that cells need to produce energy, cavity
which is used as fuel for the life-sustaining functions of the pharynx
larynx
cells. Likewise, the respiratory system helps expel carbon epiglottis
trachea
dioxide, a by-product of cellular respiration.
right
lung bronchus
Cellular Respiration is the process by which
left
chemical energy in food molecules, such as lung
diaphragm
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, is released and pleural
captured in the form of ATP. cavity

The respiratory system also helps regulate the balance of

acid and base in body tissues. This mechanism is crucial
to the normal functioning of body cells. Moreover, the
Figure 1.1  The parts of the human
respiratory system helps protect the body against disease- respiratory system
causing microorganisms and harmful substances by
clearing the air passageways. The respiratory system also
helps in the production of sounds, and houses cells that
detect smell.

The primary organs of the human respiratory system are

the lungs, which generally function to bring oxygen into
the body and remove carbon dioxide. Oxygen is a gas that
helps the body produce energy, while carbon dioxide is
a by-product. Before oxygen and carbon dioxide enter
the lungs or leave the body, they have to pass through
air passages such as the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
and bronchi. These passages conduct air to and from the
lungs. The diaphragm acts as a pump, pushing air into
and out of the lungs during breathing.

The Nose, Nasal Cavity, and Oral Cavity

Air enters the body through the nose, a structure made
of bones, cartilage, muscles, and skin in front of the nasal
cavity. The nose consists of the nostrils whose surfaces are
lined with small hair, which helps the nasal cavity screen
harmful contaminants such as dust, pathogens, pollen,
and other particles, before they reach the lungs.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 3

 epithelial The nasal cavity is a hollow space located above and
cells behind the nose. The nasal cavity primarily functions
to purify, moisten, and warm the air entering the body
cilia
before it reaches the lungs. The walls of the nasal cavity
are lined with a protective mucus membrane composed
nasal cavity primarily of closely packed cells known as epithelial cells.
oral cavity
Each of these cells contains hair-like extensions known as
nostrils
cilia, which along with the mucus secreted by the cells,
help purify air from harmful contaminants. Likewise, the
nasal cavity contains sensory cells, which are involved in
Figure 1.2  Nasal and oral cavities the sense of smell and help detect harmful substances.

The oral cavity, also known as mouth, may be used to

replace the function of the nasal cavity when needed.
However, the mouth does not warm and moisten the air
entering the lungs. Also, the mouth lacks the hair and
protective mucus that purify the air passing through the
nasal cavity.

The Pharynx
The pharynx, also known as throat, is a cone-shaped,
muscular passageway that is about 13 cm (5 in) long and
located behind the nasal and oral cavities. The pharynx
serves both respiratory and digestive functions—
nasopharynx conducting air from the nasal cavity to the larynx, and
receiving food from the mouth allowing it to pass through
oropharynx
the esophagus.
laryngopharynx
epiglottis
larynx
The pharynx consists of three main regions: the
nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The
Figure 1.3  The pharynx is a common nasopharynx is located behind the nasal cavity and
passageway for air, liquids, and solid
food.
connects the nose to the mouth. The adenoid, also known
as nasopharyngeal tonsil, are found on the side walls of
the upper nasopharynx. This mass of lymphoid tissue
produces lymphocytes or white blood cells, which react to
invading disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria
and other parasites.

The nasal pharynx connects to the oral pharynx by

means of a passage known as isthmus. The oral pharynx
extends from behind the oral cavity down the throat to
the epiglottis, a flap of tissue that acts as a switch between
the trachea and the esophagus. Since the pharynx is also
used to swallow food, the epiglottis ensures that air
passes into the trachea by covering the opening to the

4 Living Things and Their Environment

esophagus. The epiglottis, which is attached to the front
!
and above (superior) the larynx, prevents food and fluids Know More
from entering the air passageway, a condition that causes
Heavy smokers
choking. sometimes develop
laryngeal cancer, and
The Larynx may end up undergoing
a large laryngectomy.
The larynx, also known as voice box, is a hollow tube This medical procedure
that is about 5 cm (2 in) long and located in the neck removes the larynx and
replaces it with a breathing
between the esophagus and trachea. The organ is made hole in the pharynx, called
up of an external skeleton of cartilage plates, supported a stoma.
by membranes and muscle fibers. The anterior set of
plate, called thyroid cartilage, contains a central ridge and
elevation commonly known as Adam’s apple.
epiglottis

larynx
thyroid
thyroid cartilage
cartilage
cartilage
trachea plate

a) anterior b) posterior c) midsagittal

Figure 1.4  Parts of the larynx

The primary function of the larynx is to transport air from

the pharynx to the trachea during breathing. Likewise,
the larynx produces vocal sounds (hence, the name voice
box). Air from the lungs passes through the vocal cords,
and the audible sound produced by the vibrations of the
larynx
vocal cords are then modified by the tongue, palate, and
lips to produce speech.
cartilage
rings
The Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, and Alveoli trachea

bronchi
Air passes through the larynx to the trachea, a tube that is
about 12 to 15 cm (about 5 to 6 in) long and located below
the larynx. The trachea is made up of 15 to 20 C-shaped
cartilage rings that hold the trachea open, allowing air to
pass freely.

The base of the trachea branches into the left and right bronchiole

bronchi, delivering air to the left and right lungs, Figure 1.5  Trachea, bronchi
respectively. In the lungs, the bronchi branches into smaller and bronchioles

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 5

 lobular tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles deliver air from
bronchiole
the bronchi to the alveoli. They also control the amount of
terminal respiratory air entering the lungs by constricting or dilating.
bronchioles bronchioles
The bronchioles are divided into lobular bronchioles,
terminal bronchioles, and respiratory bronchioles. Gas
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide begins in the
respiratory bronchioles. On the other hand, the lobular
alveoli
and terminal bronchioles are considered “dead space”
Figure 1.6  Bronchioles and alveoli because gas exchange does not occur in these vessels.

Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide happens in

the alveoli. The alveoli are small, balloon-like structures
located at the end of the bronchioles. They have a structure
specialized for gas exchange.

• Their walls are extremely thin.

• They have a large surface area in relation to volume.
• They are lined with a fluid enabling gases to dissolve.
• They are surrounded by many capillaries.

Each time the body inhales, oxygen from the air diffuses
through the walls of the alveoli and surrounding capillaries
into the blood. Blood transports oxygen to the cells in
various tissues of the body. Carbon dioxide returns to the
lung via the blood, where it diffuses across the alveolar
and capillary walls into the air to be expelled from the
body through exhalation.

alveolus

lungs
capillary

oxygen

carbon
dioxide

Figure 1.7  Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli

6 Living Things and Their Environment

The Lungs !
Know More
The lungs are large spongy organs located on the thoracic
Special cells in the
(chest) cavity. They occupy most of the space of the lungs produce mucus,
thoracic cavity, which is separated from the abdominal which help catch dust
cavity by a large flat muscle called diaphragm. The and other contaminants
diaphragm performs an important function in breathing. that is breathe in
When the diaphragm contracts and pulls downwards, the constantly. The mucus is
the first line of defense
lungs expand and air enters the lungs (inhalation). When against bacteria that enter
the diaphragm relaxes, air is exhaled from the lungs. the body through the air.

trachea

right left main

main stem stem bronchus
bronchus bronchi
right bronchioles
lobes left lobes

pleural
pleura
fluid
diaphragm
alveoli

Figure 1.8  The lungs and the diaphragm

Each lung lies in the pleural cavity, which provides

a hollow space for the lungs to expand into during
inhalation. The pleural cavity is lined by a double-layered
membrane known as the pleura or pleural membranes.
The inner membrane, also known as the visceral pleura,
lines and surrounds the lungs, while the outer membrane,
also known as the parietal pleura, runs along the surface
of the chest cavity and diaphragm. Between the pleural
membranes is a thin fluid known as the pleural fluid,
which provides lubrication as the lungs expand and
contract during breathing.

The lungs vary in size. The left lung is slightly smaller than
the right lung because 2/3 of the heart is located on the
left side of the thoracic cavity. The left lung also contains
the cardiac notch, an indentation in the lung that provides
room for the heart.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 7

 trachea (windpipe)

superior superior
lobe lobe

horizontal
oblique
middle fissure
fissure
Lobe cardiac
notch inferior
inferior
lobe
lobe
Right Lung Left Lung

Figure 1.9  Lobes of the lungs

Each lung consists of several distinct lobes, which are

separated by the horizontal and oblique fissures. The
right lung has three lobes: superior lobe, middle lobe, and
inferior lobe. The horizontal fissure separates the superior
lobe from the middle lobe, while the right oblique fissure
separates the middle lobe and inferior lobe. The left lung
has only two lobes, separated by the left oblique fissure:
the superior lobe and inferior lobe.
In the lungs, red blood cells carry oxygen into the
bloodstream and distribute it throughout the body.
Likewise, red blood cells collect carbon dioxide and carry
it back to the lungs where it is expelled out of the body
during exhalation.

Let’s Review
1 What is the primary function of the
respiratory system?
2 What are the parts of the human respiratory
system?
3 In which part of the respiratory system does
the exchange of gases happen?

8 Living Things and Their Environment

Let’s Do This!

Purposes

1 Construct a model of the respiratory system using common materials

2 Demonstrate how air moves in and out of the respiratory system

What You Need

clear plastic cup with a hole at the bottom

clean straw
elastic bands
two balloons (one small and one large)
modeling clay

What You Need To Do

1 Put the straw into the neck of the small balloon. Keep it in place
using an elastic band. Test if you have an airtight seal by blowing air
into the balloon through the straw.
2 Push the open end of the straw through the hole in the plastic cup
until the small balloon is inside the cup. Use modeling clay to seal
the hole around the straw.
3 Cut the large balloon at the open end and stretch it to cover the top
of the plastic cup. Hold it in place with an elastic band.
4 Draw and label your model.
5 Indicate in the chart that follows the material that corresponds to
each part.

Parts of the Respiratory

Household Material
System
Chest cavity
Diaphragm
Lungs
Trachea

6 Do the following actions and record your observations:

a Gently pull down the outer balloon. Take note of how the action
affects the inner balloon.
b Let go of the outer balloon. Again, observe how it affects the
inner balloon.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 9

 Guide Questions

1 How are the inhalation and exhalation processes demonstrated in

the model?
2 What happens when the small balloon is pulled down? What does
this demonstrate?
3 What happens when the small balloon is pushed up? What does
this demonstrate?
4 What happens to the oxygen once it is inside the lungs? Where
does it go?
5 What is the main substance in the gas that you exhale? Where does
it come from?

10 Living Things and Their Environment

1.2 Breathing Mechanism
Through breathing, oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchanged between the external environment and body
cells.

Breathing is a physical process of getting air in

(inspiration) and out (expiration) of the lungs.

Inspiration

Inspiration, also known as inhalation, is the

movement of air from the external environment,
through the airways, and into the alveoli.

During inspiration, the intercostal muscles—muscles

attached to the rib cage, helping form and move the chest
wall—contract and move upward, raising the chest cavity
(ribs and sternum). Likewise, the diaphragm contracts and
moves downward, expanding the thorax and reducing the
pressure. The air from outside rushes through the airways
and into the lungs.
air
rib cage

1 Rib cage 3 Pressure

moves up pleural in lungs
and out membrane decreases,
and air
comes
2 Diaphragm
contracts rushing in
and moves
down

Figure 1.10  The inspiration process

Expiration

Expiration, also known as exhalation, is the

movement of air out of the lungs and into the
external environment.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 11

 During expiration, the intercostal muscles contract,
lowering the chest cavity and compressing the thorax.
The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, causing
compression of the lungs and an outward flow of air.
Exhaled air contains carbon dioxide.
air

rib cage

1 Rib cage 3 Pressure

moves down in lungs
and in increases
and air is
pushed
2 Diaphragm out
relaxes and
moves up

Figure 1.11  The expiration process

Respiratory Rate

Respiratory rate is the number of breaths taken

within a set amount of time, typically within 60
seconds.

Human respiration rate is measured when a person is at

rest and involves counting the number of breaths for one
minute by counting how many times the chest rises.
The average respiratory rates by age are as follows:

Average respiratory rates by age

Age Average Respiratory Rate
!
Know More
Birth to 6 weeks 30–60 breaths per minute
6 months 25–40 breaths per minute
The amount of air that
moves in and out of the 3 years 20–30 breaths per minute
lungs while breathing 6 years 18–25 breaths per minute
normally is called the tidal
volume. The maximum 10 years 15–20 breaths per minute
amount of air moved in and Adults 12–18 breaths per minute
out of the lungs is called the
vital capacity.
Rates may increase with fever, illness, or other medical
conditions.

12 Living Things and Their Environment

Let’s Review
1 Explain the coordinated functions of the
respiratory system.
2 Where does gas exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide occur in the lungs?
3 What is the difference between inspiration
and expiration?

Let’s Do This!

Purpose

Measure the tidal volume and the vital capacity of your own lungs

What You Need

round balloons
metric ruler
meterstick
bathroom scale (optional)

What You Need To Do

A Measuring Tidal Volume Using a Balloon

1 Stretch the balloon several times to stretch it out.

2 Inhale normally and then exhale normally into the balloon. Do
not force your breathing.
3 Pinch the end of the balloon and measure its diameter.
4 Repeat the procedure to record 3 measurements. Compute the
average and record the results in the data table.
B Measuring Vital Capacity

1 Repeat the procedure, only this time inhale as much air as you
can and exhale forcefully. Record three measurements in the
data table.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 13

 Let’s Do This!

Lung volume (cubic centimeters)

8 000
7 000
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Balloon diameter (centimeters)

Tidal Volume Vital Capacity

Trial Balloon Volume Balloon Volume
Diameter (From graph) Diameter (From graph)

Average

C Estimated Vital Capacity

1 The capacity of a person's lungs is proportional to the surface
area of his or her body. To find the surface area, you will need to
know your height and weight.
2 There are a couple of different ways to calculate your body
surface area mathematically. Either use the equation below or go
to a website that has an automatic calculator. (A google search
on "body surface area calculator" will yield many pages that
have these calculations).
1

( )=(
BSA m 2  Height (cm) × Weight (kg )  / 3600
  ) 2

BSA = SQRT ( (cm ∗ kg) / 3600 )

3 Once you have calculated your body's surface area, a second

equation will calculate your estimated vital capacity.

Males SA x 2500
Females SA x 2000

14 Living Things and Their Environment

 Estimated Vital Capacity
Height (cm)
Mass (kg)
Surface Area
Vital Capacity

Guide Questions

1 Why is it important to measure tidal volume and vital capacity three

times and then get an average?
2 Compare your data with the data obtained by the other members of
the class. How would you account for the differences?
3 How does your measured vital capacity compare with the vital
capacity you estimated using the formula? Which do you think is
more accurate and why?
4 How might an athlete's vital capacity compare with a non-athlete's
vital capacity? Explain your answer.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 15

 1.3 Parts of the Human
Circulatory System and Their
Functions
The human circulatory system is a closed network of
organs and blood vessels responsible for the flow of
materials such as blood cells, carbon dioxide, hormones,
nutrients, oxygen, and other dissolved gases to or from
cells to nourish and protect the body from diseases and
maintain body temperature and pH. The overall purpose
heart
is for the body to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the ability of a system to maintain

a constant internal environment such as proper
temperature and pH in spite of environmental
changes.
veins

The human circulatory system consists of the heart, blood

arteries vessels, and blood.

The Heart
The heart is a hollow muscular organ that pumps blood
through blood vessels by repeated rhythmic contractions.
Figure 1.12  The parts of the
human circulatory system
The adult human heart is about the size of a fist and has a
mass of between 250g and 350g (9 to 11 oz) in females and
300g to 350g (11 to 12 oz) in males. The organ is located
anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the
sternum.

The heart is surrounded by a double-walled membrane

called the pericardium. The outer wall is called parietal
pericardium while the inner wall is called visceral
pericardium. The visceral pericardium secretes pericardial
fluid into the pericardial space between the pericardial
layers, allowing the inner and outer walls to slide over
each other with each movement of the heart.

16 Living Things and Their Environment

 parietal
pericardium

pericardial
fluid

pericardium visceral
pericardium

Figure 1.13  The pericardium

The outer wall of the heart consists of three layers:

• The outer layer is called the epicardium, which is also
known as visceral pericardium since it is also the inner
wall of the pericardium;
• The middle layer, which is made up of contractile
cardiac muscle is called the myocardium; and
• The inner layer, which is in direct contact with the
!
blood that the heart pumps is called the endocardium. Know More

pericardial
cavity
parietal
pericardium

fibrous
pericardium A healthy heart normally
produces sounds
endocardium commonly heard as “lubb,
dubb (or dupp). The sound
myocardium
is amplified by and heard
epicardium more distinctly through
(visceral pericardium) a stethoscope. These are
caused by the vibrations
Figure 1.14  Layers of the outer wall of the heart generated during the
normal cardiac cycle and
The heart consists of four chambers. may be produced by
muscular and valve actions,
• The two upper chambers are called the left and right motion of the heart, or
atria (singular atrium); and blood passing through the
• The two lower chambers are called the right and left heart.
ventricles.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 17

 The atria receive blood flowing back to the heart from
various parts of the body. The ventricles pump blood out
of the heart to various parts of the body. In the middle
of the heart is a thick muscle called septum. The septum
separates the left and the right side of the heart.

pulmonary trunk

aorta

left atrium
mitral valve

pulmonary
valve
aortic valve
tricuspid valve
left ventricle
right atrium

septum
right ventricle

Figure 1.15  The chambers and valves of the heart

The heart consists of valves—flap-like structures located

on each end of the ventricles, which allow blood to flow
in one direction. The valves control the flow of blood
through the heart by opening and closing during the
contractions of the heart, which is controlled by pressure
differences produced within the heart, as well as some
muscles located within the heart.

There are two kinds of valves in the heart. The

atrioventricular (AV) valves, which lie between the atria
and the ventricles, include the mitral valve and tricuspid
valve.

Locations and functions of the atrioventricular valves

Atrioventricular Valve Location Function

Mitral valve, also known Located between the Prevents the backflow of blood
as bicuspid valve left atrium and the left as it is pumped from the left
ventricle atrium to the left ventricle
Tricuspid valve Located between the Prevents the backflow of blood
right atrium and the as it is pumped from the right
right ventricle atrium to the right ventricle

18 Living Things and Their Environment

On the other hand, the semilunar (SL) valves lie between
the left ventricle and the aorta and between the right
ventricle and pulmonary artery, respectively. These are
the aortic valve and pulmonary valve respectively.

Locations and functions of the semilunar valves

Semilunar Valve Location Function

Aortic valve Lies between the left Prevents the backflow of blood
ventricle and the aorta as it is pumped from the left
ventricle to the aorta
Pulmonary valve Lies between the right Prevents the backflow of blood
ventricle and the as it is pumped from the right
pulmonary artery ventricle to the pulmonary
artery

Blood Vessels
The base (posterior) of the heart connects to the main blood
vessels of the body, which consist of the aorta, superior
vena cava, inferior vena cava, pulmonary arteries, and
pulmonary veins.

Blood vessels are networks of hollow tubes that

carry blood and nutrients throughout the body.

Blood vessels vary in diameter, width, and composition.

They are made up of various kinds of tissues.

Tissues that make up blood vessels

Tissue Description and Function
Primarily made up of squamous cells, hence extremely thin and
Endothelium
uniform in all kinds of blood vessels.
Provides support for the blood vessels and connect them with
Connective
other tissues of the body.
Smooth Provides contractility, elasticity, and strength to the walls of blood
muscle vessels.

There are three kinds of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and

capillaries.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 19

 Arteries

Arteries are blood vessel that deliver oxygen-rich

head and neck blood from the heart to various parts of the body.

forearms
pulmonary
artery lungs pulmonary
vein
There are two kinds of arteries: pulmonary arteries and
anterior
systemic arteries. Pulmonary arteries (connected to the
(superior)
vena cava
aortic arch right ventricle of the heart) carry oxygen-poor blood
right atrium left atrium
dorsal from the heart to the lungs where oxygen is obtained. The
posterior aorta oxygen-rich blood from the lungs is delivered back to the
(inferior) right ventricle left ventricle
vena cava heart via the pulmonary veins.
hepatic liver hepatic
vein artery
hepatic On the other hand, systemic arteries deliver blood to
portal vein stomach and artery
intestine to gut various parts of the body. The main systemic artery and
renal
the largest artery of the body is the aorta (connected to the
renal vein kidneys artery left ventricle of the heart), which originates from the heart
and branches out into smaller arteries, supplying blood to
hind limbs the head region, the heart itself, and the lower regions of
the body. The smallest arteries are called arterioles. They
Figure 1.16  The main arteries and
veins of the human circulatory function in microcirculation.
system
Veins

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood from

various parts of the body to the heart.

Veins measure in size from 1 mm to 1-1.5 cm in diameter.

The smallest veins in the body are called venules, which
receive blood from the arteries through the arterioles and
capillaries. Venules branch into larger veins, which carry
the blood to the largest veins, the vena cavae—inferior
vena cava and superior vena cava. The vena cavae deliver
blood to the right atrium of the heart.

Veins are categorized into four kinds: pulmonary,

systemic, superficial, and deep veins. Pulmonary veins
carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart while systemic veins deliver oxygen-poor blood
from various organs of the body to the right atrium of the
heart. On the other hand, superficial veins are located
close to the surface of the skin while deep veins are located
deep within muscle tissues. Unlike superficial veins, deep
veins are commonly located near corresponding arteries

20 Living Things and Their Environment

with the same name (for example coronary arteries and
veins).

Capillaries

Capillaries are extremely small blood vessels artery precapillary

vein
sphincters
located within various tissues of the body.
smooth capillaries
muscle
venule
Capillaries measure in size from about 5-10 microns in small
arteriole
diameter. They are very small, hence red blood cells can venule
only travel through them in single file. Capillaries function
in microcirculation.
thoroughfare
channel
Microcirculation refers to the circulation of
blood from the heart to arteries, to arterioles, to metarteriole
capillaries, to venules, to veins, and back to the Figure 1.17  Capillaries in microcirculation
heart.

Capillary walls are composed of endothelium, a kind

of simple squamous epithelial tissue. Oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nutrients, and wastes are exchanged through the
walls of the capillaries.

The flow of blood in capillaries is controlled by structures

called precapillary sphincters, located between arterioles
and capillaries and contain muscle fibers that allow them
to contract. When the sphincters are open, blood flows
freely to the capillary beds of body tissues. When the
sphincters are closed, blood is not allowed to flow through
the capillary beds.

Structural Differences among Blood Vessels

The walls of arteries and veins are made up of three

layers: an outer layer, or tunica adventitia; a middle layer
or, tunica media; and an inner layer, or tunica intima.
The tunica adventitia is composed of connective tissue,
collagen, and elastic fibers. These fibers allow the arteries
and veins to stretch to prevent overexpansion due to the
pressure that is exerted on the walls by blood flow. The
tunica media is composed of smooth muscle and elastic
fibers. This layer is thicker in arteries than in veins. The
tunica intima is composed of an elastic membrane lining

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 21

 and smooth endothelium (special type of epithelial tissue)
covered by elastic tissues. Figure 1.18 shows the structural
differences of the main blood vessels of the human body.

artery

capillary endothelium
connective tissue
(external layer) vein
smooth muscle
(middle layer)

connective
tissue
endothelium
(inner layer)

Figure 1.18  Structural comparison of arteries,

veins, and capillaries

Blood Pressure

Blood pressure (BP), sometimes referred to as arterial

blood pressure, is the pressure exerted by circulating
blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the
principal vital signs. This is due to the pumping action of
the heart. The force is stronger when the heart contracts,
and weaker when the heart relaxes. Also, the force is
stronger in your arteries, and weaker in your veins.

During each heartbeat, blood pressure varies between a

maximum (systolic) and a minimum (diastolic) pressure.
Systole shows the pressure when the heart contracts and
diastole shows the pressure when the heart relaxes. A
person’s blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the
systolic pressure over diastolic pressure and is measured
in millimetres of mercury (mm Hg), for example 120/80.

Blood pressure tells you how hard your heart is working.

If one or both numbers are higher than normal, you have
high blood pressure.

22 Living Things and Their Environment

 High blood pressure means your heart is working
extra hard to push blood through your arteries. It
also means you may be at higher risk for developing
heart problems.

The Blood
The blood is a unique body tissue. It is the only tissue that
flows, endlessly making its course from the heart to the
different parts of the body and back. Blood carries essential
materials and waste products to and from different organs
in the body.

Composition of Blood

Blood consists of plasma and blood cells. Figure 1.19

shows the composition of the blood.

55% 45%

red blood cells

platelets
plasma

white blood cells

Figure 1.19  Composition of blood

Blood Plasma

Blood plasma is the liquid part of the blood. It makes up

about 55% of the blood volume. Blood plasma contains
proteins that help blood to clot, preventing excessive
bleeding when a blood vessel is injured. Also, blood
plasma contains glucose and other dissolved nutrients.
Blood plasma helps maintain the acid-base balance in the
body.

Blood Cells

The blood consists of white blood cells (WBCs), red blood

cells (RBCs), and platelets. The table that follows compares
the cellular components of the human blood.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 23

 Characteristics of the cellular components of blood
Quantity per cubic
Blood Cell Size Life Span Function
millimeter of the blood
6-8 µm in Females: 4–5 million/mm3 Oxygen
RBCs 120 days
diameter Males: 5–6 million/mm 3 transport
Defense
7-15 µm in 4 hours–
WBCs 5000–10000/mm 3
against
diameter 12 days
infections
3 µm in Blood
Platelets 250 000–500 000/ mm3 3–5 days
diameter clotting

Red Blood Cells (RBCs)

7µm
Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are small,
round, and biconcave cells. These cells are flexible, a
characteristic that enables them to squeeze into extremely
small blood vessels. They are surrounded with membranes
composed of lipids and proteins. RBCs lack nucleus, but
contain hemoglobin—a red, iron-rich protein that adheres
Top view shows with oxygen and gives red blood cells their characteristic
RBC to be circular color.

Red blood cells and their hemoglobin carry oxygen from

the lungs to the cells. RBCs also carry carbon dioxide, a
Side view shows RBC to waste product of cellular metabolism, to the lungs, where
be a biconcaved disc
it is excreted.
Figure 1.20  Red blood cells
Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and
are broken down in the spleen when they are worn out.
Hemoglobin from broken cells are brought to the liver
where they are broken down.
bone marrow The bone marrow
(section cut produces red blood cells.
away to show spleen
center of bone)
red blood cells

bone

The bone
marrow releasing
produces
red blood Hemoglobin
cells. broken down in liver

iron released bile pigments (excreted

(stored in liver) into the gut in bile)
Figure 1.21  Production and destruction of red blood cells
24 Living Things and Their Environment
White Blood Cells (WBCs)

White blood cells, also known as leucocytes, are bigger

than red blood cells but are fewer in number. These cells
lack hemoglobin and are colorless.

Hemoglobin is the molecule in a red blood cell that

carries oxygen.

White blood cells are irregular in shape and contain a

nucleus. They can move on their own, change shape, and
squeeze into the walls of capillaries and into spaces among
cells.

White blood cells defend the body against infection and

foreign materials. White blood cells are produced inside
the bone marrow and stored in the blood and lymphatic
tissues.

There are five kinds of white blood cells, each having a

specific function. The table that follows summarizes the
characteristics and functions of each kind.

Characteristics of white blood cells

Approximate * in
Diameter
Type of WBC Total Number of Main Target Life Span
(µm)
Leukocytes in Adults
6 hours–
Neutrophil 62% 10–12 Bacteria and fungi
Granulocytes

few days
Eosinophil 2.3% 10–12 Larger parasites 8–12 days
Release histamine A few
Basophil 0.4% 12–15 for inflammatory hours to a
responses few days
T lymphocytes help
regulate the function
of other immune cells
and directly attack
Agranulocytes

various infected and A few

Lymphocytes 30% 7–15 tumor cells weeks
B lymphocytes make
antibodies and assist
the activation of T
cells
Hours to
Monocytes 5.3% 7–10
few days

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 25

 Platelets or Thrombocytes

Platelets are not true cells. They are fragments of bone

marrow cells known as megakaryocytes. These fragments
are formed when megakaryocytes undergo fragmentation
as they grow and develop. Although platelets are merely
fragments, their structure enables them to stop bleeding
when blood vessels are damaged. They contain on their
surface proteins that allow them to adhere to one another
and to the break in the damaged blood vessel.
broken blood activated
red blood cell vessel wall platelet clot fibrin

platelet

Figure 1.22  Blood clotting

! Blood Groups
Know More
Although all blood is made of the same basic components,
when analyzed under a microscope, distinct differences
are visible. The differences in human blood are due to the
presence or absence of certain protein molecules called
antigens and antibodies.

Karl Landsteiner (1868-

Antigens are substances that when introduced in
1943) was involved in the the body stimulate the production of antibodies.
discovery of both the Antibodies are special proteins that recognize
ABO blood group (in 1901) foreign organisms that invade the body and are
and Rh blood group (in
1937) and won a Nobel located in the blood plasma.
Prize for these important
discoveries.
Antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells.
Individuals have different types and combinations of
these molecules, thus variation among blood types exists.

There are more than 20 genetically determined blood

group systems known today, but the ABO and Rh systems
are the most important ones. Analysis of blood types is
necessary for blood transfusions. Not all blood groups are

26 Living Things and Their Environment

compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood
groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is
dangerous for individuals.

ABO Blood Group System

In ABO group system, four types of blood exist: A, B, AB

and O.

Four types of blood

Blood Group Description
Blood group A contains A antigens on the surface of the red
A
blood cells and B antibodies in blood plasma.
Blood group B contains B antigens on the surface of the red
B
blood cells and A antibodies in the blood plasma.
Blood group AB contains both A and B antigens on the surface
AB of the red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in the blood
plasma.
Blood group O has neither A nor B antigens on the surface of
O the red blood cells but contain both A and B antibodies in the
blood plasma.

The diagram below further illustrates the differences

among these blood groups:

ABO blood group system

Group A Group B Group AB Group O

Red Blood A B AB O
Cell Type

Antigens in
Red Blood
Cell A and B None
A antigen B antigen
antigens

Antibodies in
Plasma
Anti-A and
Anti-B Anti-A None
Anti-B

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 27

 Based on the characteristics of the blood groups,
compatibility can be summarized as follows:

D
O
N
O
R

O A B AB
R AB
E
C
I B
P
I A
E
N O
T

Figure 1.23  ABO blood compatibility table

Let’s Review
1 What is the main function of the circulatory
system?
2 What are the parts of the circulatory system and
their functions?
3 What is the primary organ of the circulatory
system? What is its function?
4 How is the heart different from the lungs in
terms of function?
5 What are the differences between red blood cells
and white blood cells in terms of function?

28 Living Things and Their Environment

Let’s Do This!

Purpose
Determine an individual’s blood type

What You Need

sodium iodide glass slide with two depressions
silver nitrate medicine dropper
lead nitrate 6 vials
barium chloride microscope (binocular with light)
distilled water or hand lens (optional)

What You Need To Do

1 Prepare the following solutions ahead of time. Transfer each to a
vial and label.

Dissolve 3 g of sodium iodide in 100 mL

Anti-A serum
distilled water.
Dissolve 3.4 g of silver nitrate in 100 mL
Anti-B serum
distilled water.
Dissolve 6.6 g of lead nitrate in 100 mL
Blood Sample No. 1
distilled water.
Dissolve 4.2 g of barium chloride in 100
Blood Sample No. 2
mL distilled water.
Combine an equal amount of blood
Blood Sample No. 3
sample 1 and 2.
Blood Sample No. 4 Distilled water only

2 Place two drops of blood sample no. 1 in each depression.

3 Add two drops of anti-A serum on the left depression and two drops
of anti-B serum on the right depression.
4 Observe and take note of any coagulation or clumping reaction in the
solutions. This reaction is indicated by the presence of a precipitate.
The presence of the precipitate means there is a positive reaction. No
precipitate indicates a negative reaction.
5 Identify the blood sample by referring to the given information on
the table that follows.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 29

 Let’s Do This!

Is there Is there
clumping clumping Blood Blood
on the left on the right Type Sample
depression of depression of Simulated Number
the glass slide? the glass slide?
No No O
Yes No A
No Yes B
Yes Yes AB

6 Write the blood sample number based on the appearance of the

solution. You can use a microscope or hand lens to see the reaction
more closely.

Guide Questions

1 B ased on the result, which blood sample represents each type of

blood?
2 How would you describe the agglutination reaction in each sample?
3 How is this simulated blood typing activity similar to actual blood
typing?

30 Living Things and Their Environment

1.4 Mechanism of Blood
Circulation
Blood helps carry various substances from one part of the
body to another by flowing around the body through the
circulatory system.

The flow of blood through the circulatory system

is known as blood circulation.

Blood circulation in animals may occur in an open

circulatory system or a closed circulatory system.

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

The table that follows summarizes the differences between
open circulatory system and a closed circulatory system.

Comparison of open circulatory system and closed circulatory system

Open Circulatory System Closed Circulatory System

• Blood flows through open spaces • Blood flows through blood vessels.
called lacunae and sinuses
• Blood flows at a slow high velocity • Blood flows at a very high velocity
• Body cavity called haemocoel is • Haemocoel is absent
filled with blood
• Internal organs are in direct contact • Internal organs are not direct
with blood contact with blood
• Blood takes long time to complete • Blood takes short time to complete
circulation
• Supply and elimination of wastes • Supply and elimination of materials
are very slow are very fast
• Exchange of materials takes place • Exchange of materials between
between blood and sinuses blood and tissues takes place via the
capillaries
• Blood flow cannot be regulated • Blood flow can be regulated

Open circulatory system is common among invertebrates

such as arthropods and molluscs.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 31

 Closed circulatory system is common among vertebrates
such as birds and mammals. However, a few invertebrates
such as earthworms have a closed circulatory system.
Figure 1.24 shows the difference between an open
circulatory system and a closed circulatory system.

heart heart

interstitial fluid
hemolymph in sinuses blood
surrounding organs small branch
vessels in
each organ
pores
auxiliary
dorsal vessel hearts
(main heart)

tubular heart ventral vessels

(a) open circulatory system (b) close circulatory system

Figure 1.24  Difference between open and closed circulatory systems

Single and Double Blood Circulations

Some animals like fish, have a single circulation in
which blood flows through the heart once during each
circulation. Blood from the heart is carried by the arteries
to the gills where it gets oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood is
then carried by the arteries to various organs of the body
where it is collected by the veins and carried back to the
heart. The blood collected by the veins from the organs is
poor in oxygen content.
pulmonary
gill capillaries capillaries
pulmonary
circulation

gill
circulation aorta
ventricle left
atrium ventricle
systemic aorta
systemic systemic circulation
systemic
circulation capillaries capillaries

Single circulation in fish Double circulation in

mammals and birds
Figure 1.25  Single and double blood circulations

32 Living Things and Their Environment

On the other hand, mammals like humans have a double
circulation, in which blood passes through the heart
twice in one complete circulation. The double circulation
in mammals consists of the pulmonary circulation and
systemic circulation.

Pulmonary Circulation !
Know More
The flow of blood between the heart and the lungs is
known as pulmonary circulation, in which oxygen-poor
blood from the heart is carried by the pulmonary arteries
to the lungs where it releases carbon dioxide and absorbs
oxygen. The oxygen-rich blood is then carried back to the
heart by the pulmonary veins. Figure 1.26 shows the flow
of blood in pulmonary circulation.
William Harvey (1578-1657)
Pulmonary circulation begins when oxygen-poor blood was the first to accurately
describe how the blood
from various parts of the body enters the right atrium of
circulates through the
the heart through the superior and inferior vena cavae. human body in his work
From the right atrium, blood flows into the right ventricle ‘De Motu Cordis’ (also
through the tricuspid valve. As the right ventricle known as ‘On the Motion
contracts, the tricuspid valve closes preventing the blood of the Heart and Blood’).
from flowing back into the right atrium. Blood from the
right ventricle flows into the pulmonary artery through the
semilunar valve. The semilunar valve prevents the blood
from flowing back to the right ventricle. The pulmonary
vein carries the blood to the lungs.

pulmonary
superior artery
vena cava
O2 CO2
pulmonary
vein
lung
O2 O2

CO2 CO2
right
ventricle left
ventricle
inferior vena
aorta
cava
O2 CO2

capillaries

tissue cells
Figure 1.26  Systemic and pulmonary circulations

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 33

 Systemic Circulation

The flow of blood around the body is called systemic

circulation, in which oxygen-rich blood from the left side
of the heart is carried by the arteries to various parts of the
body, except the lungs. Oxygen-poor blood from various
body parts is carried by the veins back to the right side of
the heart.

Systemic circulation begins when oxygen-rich blood from

the lungs enters the left atrium. As the left atrium relaxes,
blood flows into the left ventricle through the bicuspid
valve. From the left ventricle, blood flows into the aorta
via the aortic valve, which keeps the blood from flowing
back to the left ventricle. The aorta branches into other
arteries, which also branches into arterioles. The arterioles
meet with capillaries where oxygen is exchanged for
carbon dioxide.

Figure 1.27 summarizes the circulation of blood in the

human body.

Superior and Right Pulmonary

Right Right Pulmonary Pulmonary
inferior vena atrioventricular semilunar
atrium ventricle trunk arteries
cavae valve valve

Systemic
veins Gas exchange
in the lungs

Gas and
nutrient Aortic Left Left Left Pulmonary
exchange in Aorta semilunar ventricle atrioventricular atrium veins
peripheral valve valve
tissues

Figure 1.27  Blood circulation in the human body

Let’s Review
1 Describe the flow of blood during pulmonary
circulation and systemic circulation.
2 What role do the lungs have in blood circulation?

34 Living Things and Their Environment

Let’s Do This!
Purpose
1 Compare arterioles, capillaries, and venules in terms of structures
and function
2 Relate the circulatory vessels found in fish to those found in humans
What You Need
cotton
absorbent cotton
aquarium with water
a goldfish
a petri dish
2 glass slides
a microscope
What You Need To Do
1 Saturate enough absorbent cotton with aquarium water to completely
surround a goldfish.
2 Wrap the gold fish with the cotton and place it in a petri dish.
3 Place a glass slide under the caudal fin of the fish and then place
another over it. Make sure there is enough aquarium water in the
petri dish to keep the cotton very wet, yet not so much to cover the
bottom slide under the fish fin.
4 Position the fish fin on the microscope stage such that you can observe
the fin, near its distal portion, through the microscope using the low
power objective.
5 Familiarize yourself with the flow of blood to the fin by moving the
petri dish around as you observe through the microscope.
6 Locate an arteriole, venule, and capillary in the fish fin. After finding
each structure, turn to the medium powered lens and observe.
7 Return the goldfish to the aquarium as soon as you have completed
the investigation.
Guide Questions
1 What is the shape and color of the blood cells?
2 With what relative velocity does blood move in the blood vessels?
3 In what direction does the blood flow in each blood vessel?
4 Does blood move at a constant rate and in one direction or in both
directions and at different rates?
5 How is blood flow in fish the same with that in humans? How are the
blood vessels similar?

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 35

 1.5   Effects of Unhealthy
Lifestyle on the Respiratory
and Circulatory Systems
Unhealthy lifestyle characterized by unregulated diet,
lack of physical exercise, smoking cigarettes and drinking
alcohol raises the risk of developing certain respiratory
and circulatory diseases. Unregulated diet and lack of
physical activity may raise blood pressure, which could
lead to cardiac arrest and stroke.
Cancers Chronic Diseases
stroke
blindness
head or neck
gum Infection

lung aortic rupture

leukemia heart disease
pneumonia
pancreas chronic lung
kidney disease and
stomach asthma
hardening of
colon the arteries

bladder reduced
cervix fertility
hip fracture

Figure 1.28  Smoking is one of the leading

causes of cancers and other chronic diseases.

Effects of Smoking on the Respiratory and

Circulatory Systems
The effects of cigarette smoking on the respiratory system
include:
• irritation of the trachea and larynx;
• reduced lung function and the feeling of breathlessness
because of the swelling and narrowing of the lung
airways and excess mucus in the lung passages;
• impairment of the lungs’ ability to clear accumulated
substances, leading to the accumulation of poisonous
substances, resulting in lung irritation and damage;

36 Living Things and Their Environment

• increased risk of lung infection and symptoms such as
coughing and wheezing; and
• permanent damage to the air sacs of the lungs.

The effects of cigarette smoke on the circulatory system

include:
• raised blood pressure and heart rate;
• constricted blood vessels in the skin, resulting in a drop
in skin temperature;
• reduced amount of oxygen carried by the blood;
• thickened blood, which is more prone to clotting;
• damage to the lining of artery walls, leading to
atherosclerosis—the build-up of fatty deposits on the
artery walls;
• reduced blood flow to extremities—fingers and toes;
and
• increased risk of stroke and heart attack because of
blockages of the blood supply.

What’s in Cigarettes?
Cigarettes contain around 600 chemical substances. Those
chemicals, when burned, form more than 7,000 chemicals,
many of which are poisonous. Figure 1.29 shows the
chemicals contained in cigarettes
hexamine
(barbeque
toluene
stearic acid lighter) (industrial
cadmium (candle wax)
(batteries) solvent) nicotine
(insecticide)
butane
(lighter fluid)

ammonia
(toilet
cleanser)

acetic acid
(vinegar) carbon
monoxide paint
methanol
methane arsenic (rocket fuel)
(sewer gas) (poison)

Figure 1.29  Chemical substances in cigarettes

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 37

 Some of the chemicals in cigarettes are known causes
of respiratory and circulatory diseases such as chronic
obstructive pulmonary diseases or COPD, coronary heart
disease, and cancer.

Respiratory and Circulatory Diseases Related to

Smoking
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease or COPD

describes a group of lung conditions that block
the lung airways and make breathing difficult.

Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of COPD. The

condition usually affect people who are, or have been,
heavy smokers. Prolonged exposure to lung irritants
such as air pollution, dust, or chemical smoke may also
contribute to COPD.

The symptoms of COPD are as follows:

• Chest discomfort or pain

• Cough, which lasts for weeks
• Cyanosis—blueness of the skin, lips, or fingernail beds
• Dyspnea—shortness of breath
• Fatigue
• Headache and muscle ache
• Nasal congestion
• Production of mucus (sputum), which may be clear,
white, yellowish, greenish or occasionally streaked
with blood
• Slight fever and chills
• Sore throat
• Wheezing

The common conditions that make up COPD are chronic

bronchitis and emphysema.

38 Living Things and Their Environment

 Chronic bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining
of the bronchial tubes, which carry air to and from
the lungs.
Emphysema occurs when the air sacs (alveoli) at
the end of the bronchioles in the lungs are gradually
destroyed.

inflammation and
healthy excess mucus

Chronic Bronchitis

alveolar membranes
healthy break down

!
Know More
Emphysema Aortic stenosis is a
condition that causes
Figure 1.31  Chronic bronchitis affects the airways (bronchi) in the the aortic valve, to
lungs while emphysema affects the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs. become calcified and
restricted. Once aortic
COPD is diagnosed via a breathing examination known stenosis becomes severe
and left untreated, it can
as spirometry after a consultation with a doctor. In
be fatal. The most recent
spirometry, a patient blows air into a mouthpiece and treatment for severe
tubing attached to a small machine called spirometer. The aortic stenosis is called a
machine measures the amount of air the patient blows out Transcatheter Aortic Valve
and how fast he or she can blow it. Replacement (TAVR).
During this procedure, the
defective valve is cracked
1 Clip on open via a balloon, which is
nose inserted through the groin.
2 Patient 3 Technician Afterwards a bio-prosthetic
takes a monitors and valve, which is mounted
deep breath encourages on a balloon or catheter,
and blows the patient
is delivered and deployed
as hard as during test
possible at the site of the old valve.
into the TAVR has revolutionized
tube aortic stenosis therapy and
is thought to become the
4 Machine records the results main treatment for aortic
of the spirometry test stenosis in the upcoming
years.
Figure 1.30  Spirometry

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 39

 Coronary Heart Disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a disease in which

a waxy substance called plaque builds up inside the
coronary arteries, the blood vessels that supply
oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle.

The condition in which plaque builds up in the arteries

is known as atherosclerosis. The condition may lead to
serious health problems such as heart attack (angina),
stroke, or even death. The plaque, which is made up of
calcium, cholesterol, fat, and other substances found in the
blood, hardens and narrows the arteries and reduces the
flow of oxygen-rich blood to the organs and other parts of
the body. If the flow of oxygen-rich blood to your heart
muscle is reduced or blocked, a heart attack may occur. A
heart attack can cause serious health problems or death.

The symptoms of CHD are as follows:

• Chest discomfort or pain
• Shortness of breath
• Fatigue

CHD is diagnosed based on a persons family medical

history, risk factors for CHD, a physical examination, and
the results from diagnostic examinations and procedures
such as the following:

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)

Records the electrical activity of the heart. An
electrocardiogram can reveal evidence of a previous heart
attack or one that is in progress.

Echocardiogram
Uses sound waves to produce images of the heart.
This procedure is commonly used to determine how
the heart beats and pumps blood. The images from an
echocardiogram are used to identify abnormalities in the
heart muscle and valves.

Exercise Stress Test

Provides information on how the heart responds to
physical activity. This diagnostic procedure usually
involves walking on a treadmill or pedaling a stationary
bicycle at increasing levels of difficulty, while the blood

40 Living Things and Their Environment

pressure, breathing rate, electrocardiogram activity, and
heart pulse are recorded.

Cardiac Catheterization or Coronary Angiogram

Checks blood flow in the coronary arteries, as well as
blood flow and blood pressure in the chambers of the
heart. This also determines how well the valves of the
heart work, and checks for defects in the way the wall of
the heart moves. This medical procedure involves passing
a long, thin, and flexible tube, called a catheter, into the
right or left side of the heart. The catheter is often inserted
from the groin or the arm. This procedure can include a
coronary angiogram, which checks the coronary arteries
for plaque deposits.

Heart Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan

Provides images of the heart's coronary arteries. This is
used to detect calcium deposits in the coronary arteries.
The deposits can narrow the arteries and increase the
risk of heart attack. The result of this procedure is called
coronary calcium score. On the other hand, if it is done to
look at the arteries that bring blood to the heart, it is called
CT angiography.

Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA)

A type of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan that
uses a magnetic field and pulses of radio wave energy to
provide pictures of blood vessels inside the body. MRA
can provide information that cannot be obtained from
an X-ray, ultrasound, or computerized tomography (CT)
scan. MRA can find problems with the blood vessels that
may be causing reduced blood flow. With MRA, both the
blood flow and the condition of the blood vessel walls can
be seen. The test is often used to look at the blood vessels
that lead to the brain, kidneys, and legs.

Cancer

Cancer refers to diseases in which abnormal cells

divide out of control and invade other tissues.

There are more than 100 various kinds of cancer, which

are commonly named based on the organ or kind of cell
from which they originate. Examples are lung cancer,
which originates in the lungs and laryngeal cancer, which
originates in the larynx.
The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 41
 Smoking can cause cancer nearly anywhere in the body,
including the nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, and
lungs. Smoking causes nearly 9 out of 10 lung cancers.

Poisons in cigarette smoke can weaken the body’s immune

system, making it difficult to destroy cancer cells. Cancer
cells can spread to various parts of the body via the
circulatory system.

Symptoms of cancer are as follows:

• a swelling or growth in a part of the body

• sudden weight loss or gain without known reason
• hoarseness or a sore that does not heal
• a cough that does not go away
• difficulty in swallowing
• discomfort after eating
• changes in bowel or bladder habits
• unusual bleeding or discharge
• weakness or tiredness

Preventive Measures against Respiratory and

Circulatory Diseases
The development of respiratory and circulatory disorders
can be prevented through a healthy lifestyle, which
includes having a balanced diet, regular exercise, and
adequate rest; managing daily stress; and avoiding vices
such as smoking cigarette and drinking alcohol. Observing
proper hygiene also reduces the risk of having respiratory
and circulatory problems.

Having a healthy diet reduces the risk of having a coronary

heart disease. Replacing saturated fats with unsaturated
fats in the diet helps lower the cholesterol level in the
blood.

Examples of food containing unsaturated fats include

avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils such as canola and olive
oils.

avocado nuts canola and olive oil

42 Living Things and Their Environment

Examples of food containing saturated fat include animal
fat products such as butter, cheese, cream, ghee, lard,
tallow, suet, and fatty meats. Some vegetable products,
such as coconut oil, cottonseed oil, palm kernel oil, and
chocolate, also have a high content of saturated fat. Food
such as pizza, dairy desserts, bacon, and sausage also
contain saturated fat.

butter, cheese, and cream ghee, lard, tallow, and suet

pizza, dairy desserts, coconut oil, cottonseed

bacon, and sausages oil, and palm kernel oil

Likewise, regular exercise helps maintain a healthy

weight. Other benefits of physical exercise include:

• improves the condition of the heart and reduces the

risk of having heart diseases
• enhances the elasticity of the arteries, improving blood
circulation, which facilitates efficient distribution of
oxygen to various organs of the body
• prevents atherosclerosis by lowering the low-density
lipoprotein (known as bad cholesterol) and raising
the high-density lipoprotein (also known as good
cholesterol) in the body

Another preventive measure against respiratory and

circulatory diseases is managing daily stress.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 43

 Let’s Review
1 How does one's lifestyle affect the circulatory
system? the respiratory system?
2 In what way does smoking affect the blood flow
in the circulatory system?
3 Discuss some circulatory system disorders,
diagnoses, treatments, and ways to prevent
such disorders.

Let’s Do This!

Purpose
Examine the effects of exercise on how much carbon dioxide (CO2) is
released by your respiratory system

What You Need

bromothymol blue straw
graduated cylinder water
beaker stopwatch
sodium hydroxyde (NaOH) solution

What You Need To Do

1 Fill the graduated cylinder with 100 mL of water.
2 Pour the water into the beaker.
3 Add 4 drops of bromothymol blue solution to the beaker.
4 Place one end of the straw into the water and blow into it for one
minute.
5 Add NaOH solution to the water until it turns yellow. Count the
number of drops needed for the solution to become yellow and to
remain yellow for a minute.
6 Record the results in the data table that follows.

Situation Number of NaOH drops

Rest
Walking
Running
Jumping jacks

44 Living Things and Their Environment

Let’s Do This!

7 Repeat steps 1 and 2.

8 Perform three types of exercise (walking, running, jumping jacks) each
for two minutes. At the end of each activity, do steps 3 to 6.
9 Construct a line graph based on the data gathered.

Guide Questions
1 How would you compare the number of NaOH drops needed for
the water to become yellow when you are resting and when doing a
physical activity?
2 Is there a significant difference in the number of drops needed when
you do all three activities?
3 What does the result indicate?
4 If a person smokes, do you think there will be a difference in the result?
How? Why?
5 What other lifestyles do you think can affect CO2 production?

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 45

Chap ter Summary

Key Ideas

• T he primary function of the respiratory system is to obtain oxygen, which the

body cells need, and eliminate carbon dioxide. The varied structures that make
up the respiratory system are the following: nose, pharynx, larynx, bronchi,
bronchioles, and lungs.
• Respiration encompasses both the breathing process and cellular respiration.
• The circulatory system primarily function is to transport substances to and
from the body cells.
• The heart, blood, and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The heart
is the pumping organ, the blood is the transport fluid, and the blood vessels are
the transport ducts.
• The blood is composed of plasma and blood cells. Plasma is mostly water while
blood cells consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. They
vary in terms of function.
• The blood vessels are the arteries, veins, and capillaries. Each functions for
transport, but they are different in terms of structure.
• Circulation could be systemic or pulmonary. In systemic circulation, blood
moves to all body organs to deliver the much needed substances and pick up
wastes. In pulmonary circulation, blood goes to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Lifestyles can make or break a person’s health. Healthy lifestyles such as having
a healthy diet, and regular exercise contribute to a healthy body. Nicotine‑ and
alcohol- free regimes can help prevent diseases of the body’s transport system.

46 Living Things and Their Environment

Chap ter Summary

Concept Map

Circulatory System
is composed of

Blood Heart Blood vessels

is made up of has consist of

Arteries
Plasma Blood cells Chambers
which

is composed of consist of namely

Carry oxygenated
blood to the different
parts of the body.
Water RBC Atria
for act as

Organic Transport of Receiving Veins

molecules oxygen chambers
which

Carry deoxygenated
WBC Ventricles
blood from the
for act as different parts of the
Protection Pumping body.
chambers

Capillaries
Platelets
where
for
Exchange of
Blood materials between
clotting the blood and body
cells takes place

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 47

Chapter Test

I Multiple Choice Questions A Plasma contains water, ions, and

Choose the correct answer. gases.
1 Which is not a function of the human B Red blood cells exist in different
circulatory system? types.
A  To deliver oxygen, water, and C Albumin, globulin, and fibrin are
nutrients to the body cells blood proteins.
B To pick up wastes such as CO2 D White blood cells exist in several
and ammonia for elimination forms.
C  To maintain balance or 5 Which double layer membrane
homeostasis protects the lungs?
D  To produce energy needed by A Hilus
the body in the form of ATP B Pleura
2 Inside each of your lungs there are C Pericardium
tubes called bronchi. These tubes D Septum
branch to even smaller tubes much
like the branches of a tree. What are What makes capillaries different
6 
at the end of these tubes? from other blood tubes?
A Alveoli A The flow of blood through them
is controlled by the heart.
B Cells
B Their thin walls allow the entry
C Capillaries
and exit of materials carried by
D Diaphragm the blood.
What is the function of the aortic
3  C They are associated with body
valve that separates the left ventricle cells and tissues.
from the aorta? D They are long and narrow.
A To prevent blood from flowing
Which
7  blood vessels carry
back into the left ventricle
deoxygenated blood from the
B To prevent blood from flowing different parts of the body to the
into the aorta heart?
C To push blood into the left A Arteries
ventricle
B Veins
D To push blood into the aorta
C Capillaries
4 Which of the following statements is D Aorta
false?

48 Living Things and Their Environment

Chapter Test

8 Where does the blood go from the 10 Which should not be done if you
right ventricle? are to maintain a healthy circulatory
A Lungs system?
B Aorta A Eat a diet of fruits and vegetables
and low-fat dairy products.
C Left ventricle
B Have regular physical exercise.
D Left atrium
C Manage a healthy weight.
9 In which of the following parts does D Spend most of your time sitting,
blood lose the greatest amount of playing computer games, and
oxygen? reading books.
A Aorta
B Left atrium of the heart
C Capillaries all over the body
D Capillaries of the lungs

II Structured Question
Using the word bank, label the parts of the heart on the diagram given below. Trace
the movement of blood by putting arrows in the appropriate parts. Use red or blue
colored pencils, respectively, to indicate whether or not the blood that flows in each
part is oxygenated or not.

Word Bank
A aorta
B superior vena cava
C inferior vena cava
D right atrium
E left atrium
F right ventricle
G left ventricle
H tricuspid valve
I mitral valve
J right pulmonary artery
K right pulmonary veins
L left pulmonary artery
M left pulmonary veins

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 49

Chapter Test

Enrichment

1 Conduct an interview with your school physician or nurse on the diseases of

the circulatory system and respiratory system common to people your age.
Find out ways to maintain a healthy heart other than those mentioned in the
book.
2 Research on one circulatory or respiratory disease and make a chart that
shows detection, prevention, and treatment of the disease.
3 Research on the effect of zero gravity on blood circulation if this were to be
experienced in space flight.
4 Write a short story following a red blood cell though the circulatory system.
Include the major parts of the circulatory system as characters in the story.
5 Construct a model of the human heart using milk cartons and straws. Label
the chambers and valves of the heart.
6 Make a video clip summarizing the parts and functions of the circulatory
and/or respiratory system.
7 Construct clay models that will represent the structure of blood vessels.

50 Living Things and Their Environment

Making Connections

Technology
Stem cells are the precursor cells of every tissue in the body, thus have the
potential to provide replacement tissue for damaged and diseased organs.
They can divide and differentiate
into various specialized cells and 3
can regenerate to produce more stem 1
cells. Due to the inherent capacity of
stem cells to produce a large number
of various tissues, these cells promise
great advances in the treatment of
many medical conditions including
cardiovascular diseases. Although
2
still in the infancy stage, this stem cells
technology is already being used in rejuvenated heart tissue
the regeneration of a bone marrow 1 Stem cells are filtered from bone marrow
that produces blood cells, which can obtained from a patient's hip
help those who are suffering from 2 The cells are introduced into the damaged
blood disorders. area of the heart
3 The cells produce proteins that signal the
Some researches related to how growth of new blood vessels and heart
muscle
stem cell technology will be useful
in cardiovascular diseases are the
following:

• the idea of adding a patient’s own stem cells to the heart during cardiac
bypass surgery;
• use of stem cells from human umbilical cords to repair damaged heart
muscles; and
• isolation of stem cells harvested from the bone marrow of a patient's hip
treated with a protein cocktail to replicate natural cues of heart development.

The ultimate goal of cardiac stem cell therapy is the regeneration of the heart,
damage of which is the leading cause of death worldwide.

The Human Respiratory and Circulatory Systems 51

Making Connections

Health
Heart disease is one of the leading causes of death among men and women.
What can you do to reduce the risk of having such disease? The answer lies on
what you put on your plate. Avocado, berries, green leafy vegetables, legumes,
nuts, oatmeal, salmon, and spinach are some of the food loaded with nutrients
that are good for the heart.

On the other hand, food that you should avoid include burgers, donuts, french
fries, ice cream, pizza, and processed meat. Food with high sugar content
and those that contain saturated fats or refined carbohydrates should also be
avoided.

52 Living Things and Their Environment