Natural Gas Engineering

CHE 520
NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING
Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 1

CHE 520 NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING
 Introduction
 Natural Gas Origins and Accumulations
 Natural Gas Sources
 Natural Gas Composition
 Natural Gas Phase Behavior
 Natural Gas Properties
 Natural Gas Transportation
 Natural Gas Storage
CHAPTER 2: NATURAL GAS COMPRESSION
 Introduction
 Thermodynamics of Compression
 Multi-staging
 Compressor Efficiencies
 Compressor Station Types
 Compressor Station Piping Losses
 Compressor Types
 Comparison Between Compressors
CHAPTER 3: NATURAL GAS PROCESSING AND LIQUEFACTION
 Natural Gas and Liquid Separation

 Natural Gas Sweetening
 Natural Gas Dehydration
 Natural Gas Liquefaction

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Natural gas is a subcategory of petroleum that is a naturally occurring, complex mixture of

hydrocarbons, with a minor amount of inorganic compounds. Natural gas is used primarily as
a fuel and as a raw material in manufacturing. It is used in home furnaces, water heaters,
and cooking stoves. As an industrial fuel, it is used in brick, cement, and ceramic-tile kilns; in
glass making; for generating steam in water boilers; and as a clean heat source for sterilizing
instruments and processing foods. As a raw material in petrochemical manufacturing,
natural gas is used to produce hydrogen, sulfur, carbon black, and ammonia. The ammonia is
used in a range of fertilizers and as a secondary feedstock for manufacturing other
chemicals, including nitric acid and urea. Ethylene, an important petrochemical, is also
produced from natural gas.
1.2 NATURAL GAS ORIGINS AND ACCUMULATIONS
It is commonly accepted that natural gas, like oil, has been generated from organic debris
that have been deposited in geologic time and have been embedded along with inorganic
matter at a considerable depth below today’s surface. Over time (tens to hundreds of
millions of years), because of compaction, high pressure, and temperature, the organic
material gradually became coal, oil, or natural gas.
Because natural gas and oil are found with water, and because they are less dense, they
would rise vertically, including all the way to the atmosphere. Much has escaped over time
and continues to this day. However, if a vertical barrier is encountered (cap rock), it stops
the migration and confines gas-in-place. Therefore, for natural gas to accumulate, three
things have to be present: the source rock (compacted organic materials) for the creation of
natural gas; the porous media (reservoir) to accommodate the created gas; and the
impermeable rock on top to trap the gas inside the porous rock-reservoir.
1.3 NATURAL GAS SOURCES
Natural gas produced from geological formations comes in a wide array of compositions. The
varieties of gas compositions can be broadly categorized into three distinct groups: (1)
nonassociated gas that occurs in conventional gas fields, (2) associated gas that occurs in
conventional oil fields, and (3) continuous (or unconventional) gas. Some types of
unconventional gas resources include “tight gas” or “tight sands gas,” which is found in low-
permeability rock; “coalbed methane (CBM),” which is natural gas that has been formed
along with the geological processes that formed coal; “natural gas from geopressurized
aquifers,” which refers to gas dissolved under high pressure and at high temperatures in
brines located deep beneath the Earth’s surface; “gas hydrates,” which are ice-like
structures of water and gas located under the permafrost; and “deep gas,” which is found at
levels much deeper than conventional gas.

1.3.1 Associated Gas
Conventional natural gas is either associated or nonassociated gas. Associated or dissolved

gas is found with crude oil. Dissolved gas is that portion of the gas dissolved in the crude oil
and associated gas (sometimes called gas-cap gas) is free gas in contact with the crude oil.
All crude oil reservoirs contain dissolved gas and may or may not contain associated gas.
1.3.2 Non-associated gas
Nonassociated gas is found in a reservoir that contains a minimal quantity of crude oil. Some
gases are called gas condensates or simply condensates. Although they occur as gases in
underground reservoirs, they have a high content of hydrocarbon liquids. On production,
they may yield considerable quantities of hydrocarbon liquids.
1.3.3 Gases in Tight Sands
Gases in tight sand are found in sandstones or carbonates formation generally having low-
permeability of 0.001 to 1 millidarcy (md). In such “tight” reservoirs, it is essentially not
possible for much of the gas to flow naturally. Massive hydraulic fracturing is required. At
higher gas permeabilities, the formations are generally amenable to conventional fracturing
and completion methods.
1.3.4 Gases in Tight Shales
Shale gas is gas found in organic shale rocks, which exist in relative abundance in the United
States. The shale is generally fissile, finely laminated, and varicolored but predominantly
black, brown, or greenish-gray. Core analysis has determined that the shale itself may have
up to 12 percent porosity, however, permeability values are commonly less than 1 md.
Because these reservoirs have virtually no permeability, the choice of well completions has
been horizontal wells with multiple hydraulic fractures.
1.3.5 Coal Bed Methane
Coal bed methane (CBM) refers to methane gas that is found adsorbed in many buried coal
bed deposits. Wells drilled in these deposits are hydraulically fractured and allow for the
production of desorbed methane
1.4 NATURAL GAS COMPOSITION
Depending on where and from what type of reservoir the natural gas is produced, its
composition can vary widely. Generally, it contains primarily methane (CH4) with decreasing
quantities of ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), butane (C4H10), and pentane (C5H12). Some
natural gas mixtures can also contain nonhydrocarbon gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), and traces of rare gases (Ar, He, Ne, Xe).
No matter what the natural composition of gas is, the product delivered and finally used by
the consumers is almost pure methane.
Table 1.1 outlines the typical makeup of natural gas before it is refined.

Table 1.1: Typical Composition of Natural Gas
Compound Volume
Methane >85
Ethane 3–8
Propane 1–2
Butane <1
Pentane <1
Carbon dioxide 1–2
Hydrogen sulfide <1
Nitrogen 1–5
Helium <0.5
1.5 NATURAL GAS PHASE BEHAVIOR
The natural gas phase behavior is a plot of pressure vs temperature that determines
whether the natural gas stream at a given pressure and temperature consists of a single gas
phase or two phases: gas and liquid. Natural gas phase behavior is a function of pressure,
temperature, and volume. Therefore it is very often illustrated by the “PVT diagram” or
phase behavior envelope. Understanding phase behavior is critical to the hydrocarbon
recovery mechanism and production prediction. Certain concepts, demonstrated in Figure
1.1, associated with phase envelopes are worth introducing before we discuss different
types of natural gas behaviors.
 Bubble Point Curve: the curve that separates the pure liquid (oil) phase from the
two-phase (natural gas and oil) region. This means that at a given temperature, when
pressure decreases and below the bubble point curve, gas will be emitted from the
liquid phase to the two-phase region.
 Dew Point Curve: the curve that separates the pure gas phase from the two-phase
region. It is the connected points of pressure and temperature at which the first
liquid droplet is formed out of the gas phase.
 Critical Point: the point on the phase envelope where the bubble point curve meets
the dew point curve. At that given pressure and temperature, gas properties are
identical to liquid properties. The pressure and temperature at the critical point are
called critical pressure and temperature, respectively.
 Cricondentherm: the highest temperature at which liquid and vapor can coexist. That
means the mixture will be gas irrespective of pressure when the temperature is
larger than cricondentherm.
 Cricondenbar: the highest pressure at which a liquid and vapor can coexist.
Clearly, the natural gas phase envelope can be very different depending on its source.

Figure 1.1: Phase diagram (Pressure-temperature diagram) for a typical natural gas mixture.
1.5.1 Dry- and Wet-Gas Phase Behaviors
Dry gas is in the gaseous phase under reservoir conditions, as marked by point A in Figure
1.1. It contains primarily methane with small amounts of ethane, propane, and butane, with
little or no heavier compounds. When it is produced to the surface, it is maintained in the
gaseous phase with surface temperature falling outside the two-phase envelope. Therefore
it will not form any liquids, which are at times referred to as NGL (natural gas liquids).
Wet gas, on the other hand, will have liquid dropped out once it reaches the surface, which
means that the surface conditions of pressure and temperature will fall inside the two-phase
region.
1.5.2 Retrograde-Condensate-Gas Phase Behavior
Retrograde condensate systems and reservoirs are a unique phenomenon that appears only
among hydrocarbon mixtures. No other mixtures of gases exhibit such behavior. As pressure
decreases from point B to the two-phase shaded area in Figure 1.1, the amount of liquid in
the reservoir increases. As pressure decreases further, liquid starts to revaporize. Between
the dew point and the point where liquid revaporizes is the region (shaded area in Figure
1.1) of retrograde condensation. Many natural gas reservoirs behave in this manner. During
production from such reservoirs, the pressure gradient formed between the reservoir
pressure and the flowing bottomhole pressure may result in liquid condensation and form a
condensate bank around the wellbore, reduce gas relative permeability and remain
unrecoverable. Sometimes it could seize production.
One way to prevent the formation of condensate is to maintain the flowing well bottomhole
pressure above the dew point pressure. This is often not satisfactory because the drawdown

(reservoir pressure minus flowing bottomhole pressure) may not be sufficient enough for
the economic production rate. An alternative technique is to allow the formation of
condensate, but occasionally to inject methane gas into the production well. The gas
dissolves and sweeps the liquid condensate into the reservoir. The well is then put back in
production. This approach is repeated several times in the life of the well. It is known as gas
cycling. Another way is to inject both nitrogen and methane, which develops a miscible
displacement process and results in high condensate recoveries
1.5.3 Associated Gas Phase Behavior
Under reservoir conditions, gas is often dissolved in the oil phase as associated gas. As it is
produced to the surface under lower pressure and temperature, gas will come out from the
oil phase. An oil reservoir whose pressure is above the bubble point (point C in Figure 1.1) is
usually referred to as undersaturated. If the pressure is inside the two-phase envelope it is
called a saturated, or two-phase, reservoir and may form a gas-cap on top of the oil zone.
1.6 NATURAL GAS PROPERTIES
Unlike those of oil, natural gas properties vary significantly with pressure, temperature, and
gas composition. Below is an outline of the gas properties that play very important roles in
gas production, prediction, and evaluation. These include the gas specific gravity (often
compared to air), the gas deviation factor, density, viscosity, isothermal compressibility, and
the formation volume factor.
1.6.1 Gas Specific Gravity
Gas specific gravity, 𝛾𝑔 , as commonly used in the petroleum industry, is defined as the ratio
of the molecular weight of a particular natural gas to that of air. The molecular weight of a
gas mixture is the summation of the products of the individual mole fractions and molecular
weights of each individual component. Air itself is a mixture of gases. It contains about 21%
oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and the rest are carbon dioxide, water vapor, and some inactive
gases. So the molecular weight of air has been calculated as 28.97. Therefore, 𝛾𝑔 of a natural
gas can be defined as
𝑀𝑚 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖
𝛾𝑔 = = (1.1)
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 28.97
where yi and 𝑀𝑖 are the mole fractions and molecular weights, respectively, of individual
components in the gas mixture. n is the total gas components in the gas mixture.
Table 1.2 gives the molecular weights and critical properties for most hydrocarbon and
nonhydrocarbon gases likely to be found in a natural gas reservoir. A lean or light gas
reservoir contains primarily methane and ethane with small traces of other gases. Pure
methane would have a gravity equal to (16.04/28.97 =) 0.55. A rich or heavy gas reservoir
may have a gravity equal to 0.75 or, in some rare cases, higher than 0.9.

Table 1.2: Molecular Weights and Critical Properties of Pure Components of Natural Gases
Compound Molecular Weight Critical Pressure (psi) Critical Temp. (R)

Methane 16.04 673 344
Ethane 30.07 709 550
Propane 44.09 618 666
iso-Butane 58.12 530 733
n- Butane 58.12 551 766
iso-Pentane 72.15 482 830
n-Pentane 72.15 485 847
n-Hexane 86.17 434 915
n-Heptane 100.2 397 973
n-Octane 114.2 361 1024
Nitrogen 28.02 492 227
Carbon Dioxide 44.01 1,072 548
Hydrogen Sulfide 34.08 1,306 673
EXAMPLE 1.1: Gas Gravity
A natural gas consists of the following (molar) composition: C1 = 0.871, C2 = 0.084, C3 =

0.023, CO2 = 0.016 and H2S = 0.006. Calculate the gas gravity to air.
SOLUTION
With the data in Table 1.2 and the given composition, the contributions to the natural gas
molecular weight can be calculated and shown in Table 1.3.
Compound 𝒚𝒊 𝑴𝒊 𝒚𝒊 𝑴𝒊
C1 0.871 16.04 13.971
C2 0.084 30.07 2.526
C3 0.023 44.09 1.014
CO2 0.016 44.01 0.704
H2S 0.006 34.08 0.204
1 18.419
Therefore, the gas gravity is
𝑀𝑚 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 18.419
𝛾𝑔 = = = = 0.64
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 28.97 28.97
1.6.2 Gas Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow. The viscosity of a natural gas,
expected to increase with both pressure and temperature, is usually several orders of

magnitude smaller than that of oil or water; and therefore, gas is much more mobile in the
reservoir than either oil or water.
Dynamic viscosity (𝜇𝑔 ) in centipoises (cp) is usually used in the natural engineering:
1 𝑐𝑝 = 6.72 × 10−4 𝑙𝑏𝑚⁄𝑓𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Kinematic viscosity (𝑣𝑔 ) is related to the dynamic viscosity through density (𝜌𝑔 )
𝜇𝑔
𝑣𝑔 = (1.2)
𝜌𝑔
Kinematic viscosity is not normally used in natural gas engineering.
Direct measurements of gas viscosity are preferred for a new gas. If gas composition and
viscosities of gas components are known, the mixing rule can be used for determining the
viscosity of the gas mixture:
∑(𝜇𝑔𝑖 𝑦𝑖 √𝑀𝑖 )
𝜇𝑔 = (1.3)
∑(𝑦𝑖 √𝑀𝑖 )
where 𝜇𝑔 = dynamic viscosity of gas mixture
𝜇𝑔𝑖 = dynamic viscosity of gas component
𝑦𝑖 = mole fraction or percent of gas component i
𝑀𝑖 = molecular weight of gas component i
EXAMPLE 1.2: Gas Viscosity
A natural gas mixture consists of four components C1, C2, C3, and nC4. Their mole fractions
and viscosities at a particular temperature and pressure are indicated below, along with
their molecular weights.
Component Mole Fraction y Viscosity, cP Molecular Weight

C1 0.8200 0.0130 16.04
C2 0.1000 0.0112 30.07
C3 0.0500 0.0098 44.10
nC4 0.0300 0.0091 58.12
Total 1.000
Calculate the viscosity of the gas mixture

SOLUTION
Using the given data, we prepare a table as follows. M represents the molecular weight of
each component and 𝜇𝑔 the viscosity.
Component y M 𝑴𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒚𝑴𝟏⁄𝟐 𝝁𝒈 𝝁𝒈 𝒚𝑴𝟏⁄𝟐

C1 0.8200 16.04 4.00 3.2841 0.0130 0.0427
C2 0.1000 30.07 5.48 0.5484 0.0112 0.0061
C3 0.0500 44.10 6.64 0.3320 0.0098 0.0033
nC4 0.0300 58.12 7.62 0.2287 0.0091 0.0021
Total 1.000 4.3932 0.0542
The viscosity of the gas mixture is
∑(𝜇𝑔𝑖 𝑦𝑖 √𝑀𝑖 ) 0.0542

𝜇𝑔 = = = 0.0123 𝑐𝑃
∑(𝑦𝑖 √𝑀𝑖 ) 4.3932
1.6.3 Gas Density
The gas density is defined as mass (m) per unit volume (V). It can be calculated from the real
gas law
𝑚 𝑝𝑀𝑚
𝜌𝑔 = = (1.4)
𝑉 𝑍𝑅𝑇
In field unit, R is 10.73 psi-ft3/lb-mol-R, 𝜌𝑔 is in lb/ft3, and p and T are in psi and R,
respectively. In SI unit, R is 8.314 m3-Pa/K-mol, 𝜌𝑔 is in kg/m3, and p and T are in Pa and K,
respectively.
Based on the gas specific gravity definition listed in Eq. (1.1), the molecular weight of the gas
mixture (𝑀𝑚 ) in Eq. (1.9) can be replaced by 𝜇𝑔 .
𝑀𝑚 = 𝛾𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑝𝑀𝑚 𝑝𝛾𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 28.97 × 𝑝𝛾𝑔

𝜌𝑔 = = = (1.5)
𝑍𝑅𝑇 𝑍𝑅𝑇 10.73 × 𝑍𝑇
That gives the correlation between 𝜌𝑔 and 𝜇𝑔 :
𝑝𝛾𝑔
𝜌𝑔 = 2.7 (1.6)
𝑍𝑇
Eq. (1.6) is in field unit where 𝜌𝑔 is in lbm/ft3, p and T are in psi and R, respectively.

1.6.4 Gas Formation Volume Factor and Expansion Factor
Formation volume factor is defined as the ratio of gas volume at reservoir condition to the
gas volume at standard condition, that is,
𝑉 𝑝𝑠𝑐 𝑇 𝑧 𝑧𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = = = 0.0283 (1.7)
𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝑝 𝑇𝑠𝑐 𝑧𝑠𝑐 𝑝
where the unit of formation volume factor is ft3/scf. If expressed in rb/scf, it takes the form
of
𝑧𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = 0.00504 (1.8)
𝑝
Gas formation volume factor is frequently used in mathematical modeling of gas well inflow
performance relationship (IPR).
Gas expansion factor is defined, in scf/ft3, as:
1 𝑝
𝐸= = 35.3 (1.9)
𝐵𝑔 𝑍𝑇
or
𝑝
𝐸 = 198.32 (1.10)
𝑍𝑇
in scf/rb. It is normally used for estimating gas reserves.
1.6.5 Compressibility Factor
Gas compressibility factor is also called deviation factor, or z-factor. Its value reflects how
much the real gas deviates from the ideal gas at given pressure and temperature. Definition
of the compressibility factor is expressed as:
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑧= (1.11)
𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠
Introducing the z-factor to the gas law for ideal gas results in the gas law for real gas as:
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑧𝑅𝑇 (1.12)
where n is the number of moles of gas. When pressure p is entered in psia, volume V in ft3,
and temperature in OR, the gas constant R is equal to 10.73 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎 − 𝑓𝑡 3 ⁄𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −𝑂 𝑅
The gas compressibility factor can be determined on the basis of measurements in PVT
laboratories. For a given amount of gas, if temperature is kept constant and volume is

measured at 14.7 psia and an elevated pressure P1, z-factor can then be determined with the
following formula:
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑧= (1.13)
14.7 𝑉𝑂
where VO and V1 are gas volumes measured at 14.7 psia and p1, respectively.
Very often the z-factor is estimated with the chart developed by Standing and Katz (1942).
This chart has been set up for computer solution by a number of individuals. Brill and Beggs
(1974) yield z-factor values accurate enough for many engineering calculations.
The gas deviation factor is an important gas property and it is involved in calculating gas
properties such as the formation volume factor, density, compressibility, and viscosity. All
these properties are necessary in calculating initial gas-in-place (and, thus, reserves),
predicting future gas production, and designing production tubing and pipelines.
1.6.6 Pseudocritical Properties
Similar to gas apparent molecular weight, the critical properties of a gas can be determined
on the basis of the critical properties of compounds in the gas using the mixing rule (Kay’s
rule). The gas critical properties determined in such a way are called pseudocritical
properties. Gas pseudocritical pressure (𝑝𝑝𝑐 ) and pseudocritical temperature (𝑇𝑝𝑐 ) are,
respectively, expressed as
𝑁𝐶
𝑝𝑝𝑐 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑝𝑐𝑖 (1.14)

𝑖
and
𝑁𝐶
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑖 (1.15)

𝑖
where 𝑝𝑐𝑖 and 𝑇𝑐𝑖 are critical pressure and critical temperature of component i, respectively
Pseudo-Critical Properties from Gas Gravity
If the gas composition is not known but gas-specific gravity is given, the pseudocritical
pressure and temperature can be determined from various charts or correlations developed
based on the charts. One set of simple correlations is
𝑝𝑝𝑐 = 709.604 − 58.718𝛾𝑔 (1.16)
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 170.491 + 307.344𝛾𝑔 (1.17)

which are valid for H2S < 3%, N2 < 5%, and total content of inorganic compounds less than
7%.
EXAMPLE 1.3
A natural gas mixture consists of the following components:
Component Mole Fraction y

C1 0.780
C2 0.005
C3 0.002
N2 0.013
CO2 0.016
H2S 0.184
Calculate the apparent molecular weight of the gas, gas gravity, and the pseudocritical
temperature and pseudo-critical pressure.
SOLUTION
Using Table 1.2, we create the following table showing the molecular weight (M), critical
temperature (Tc), and critical pressure (Pc) for each of the component gases. The molecular
weight of the mixture and the pseudo-critical temperature and pseudocritical pressure are
then calculated using Equation 1.14 and Equation 1.15.
Component y M yM 𝑻𝑪 𝑷𝑪 𝒚𝑻𝑪 𝒚𝑷𝑪

C1 0.780 16.04 12.5112 343.34 667.00 267.81 520.26
C2 0.005 30.07 0.1504 550.07 707.80 2.75 3.54
C3 0.002 44.10 0.0882 665.93 615.00 1.33 1.23
N2 0.013 28.01 0.3641 227.52 492.80 2.96 6.41
CO2 0.016 44.01 0.7042 547.73 1070.00 8.76 17.12
H2S 0.184 34.08 6.2707 672.40 1300.00 123.72 239.20
Total 1.000 20.0888 407.33 787.76
Therefore, the apparent molecular weight of the natural gas is
𝑀𝑚 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 = 20.09
The gas gravity, is
𝑀𝑚 ∑𝑛𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 20.09
𝛾𝑔 = = = = 0 6928
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 29 29
Next, we calculate the pseudo-critical values

Pseudo-critical temperature = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑇𝐶 = 407.33°R
Pseudo-critical pressure = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑃𝐶 = 787.76 psia
EXAMPLE 1.4
Calculate the gravity of a natural gas mixture consisting of 83% methane, 12% ethane, and
5% propane. From the gas gravity, calculate the pseudo-critical temperature and pseudo-
critical pressure for this natural gas mixture.
SOLUTION
Using Kay’s rule for multicomponent mixtures and Equation 1.1 for gas gravity, we get
∑𝑛𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖 (0.83 × 16.04) + (0.12 × 30.07) + (0.05 × 44.10)

𝛾𝑔 = = = 0.6595
29 29
Therefore, the gas gravity is 0.6595.
From Equation 1.16 and Equation 1.17, we calculate the pseudo-critical properties as
follows:
𝑝𝑝𝑐 = 709.604 − 58.718𝛾𝑔 = 709.604 − 58.718 × (0.6595) = 670.88 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 170.491 + 307.344𝛾𝑔 = 170.491 + 307.344 × (0.6595) = 373.18°𝑅
1.6.7 Heating Value
The heating value of a gas is defined as the thermal energy per unit volume of the gas. It is
expressed in Btu/ft3. For natural gas, it is approximately in the range of 900 to 1200 Btu/ft3.
There are two heating values used in the industry. These are the lower heating value (LHV)
and higher heating value (HHV). For a gas mixture, the term gross heating value is used. It is
calculated based upon the heating values of the component gases and their mole fractions
using the following equation:
𝐻𝑚 = ∑(𝑦𝑖 𝐻𝑖 ) (1.18)
Where 𝐻𝑚 = gross heating value of mixture, Btu/ft3
𝑦𝑖 = mole fraction or percent of gas component i
𝐻𝑖 = heating value of gas component, Btu/ft3

For example, a natural gas mixture consisting of 80% of gas A (heating value = 900 Btu/ft3)
and 20% of gas B (heating value = 1000 Btu/ft3) will have a gross heating value of
𝐻𝑚 = (0.8 × 900) + (0.2 × 1,000) = 920 Btu⁄𝑓𝑡 3
1.6.8 Wobbe Number or Index
In gas appliances, maintenance of the same combustion characteristics are desirable when
one gas composition is switched to another. Several factors must be considered, but one of
the more important considerations is maintenance of the same heat release at the burner
for a given pressure drop through a control valve. This combustion characteristic is
measured by the Wobbe number, defined as the gross heating value (calorific value)
(Btu/scf) of the gas divided by the square root of the specific gravity (the ratio of the density
of the gas divided by the density of air; both densities evaluated at the same pressure and
temperature). Two gases with the same Wobbe number are interchangeable as far as heat
release at the burner is concerned.
𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑊𝐵 = (1.19),
(𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)1⁄2
with the specific gravity correcting for flow through an orifice. The Wobbe number normally
has a value between 1,100 and 1,400. The Wobbe number is calculated from the gross
heating value (Btu/scf) and specific gravity of the mixture, not from an average of the
Wobbe numbers of the constituents of the mixture.
1.7 NATURAL GAS TRANSPORTATION
Gas, as a result of the storage difficulties, needs to be transported immediately to its

destination after production from a reservoir. There are a number of options for
transporting natural gas energy from oil and gas fields to market. These include pipelines,
liquefied natural gas (LNG), compressed natural gas (CNG), gas to solids (GTS), i.e., hydrates,
gas to power (GTP), i.e., electricity, and gas to liquids (GTL), with a wide range of possible
products, including clean fuels, plastic precursors, or methanol and gas to commodity (GTC),
such as aluminum, glass, cement, or iron. The following section examines some of these
technical methods by which natural gas energy can be transported and covers many of the
essential points needed to enter the discussion.
1.7.1 Pipelines
Pipelines are a very convenient method of transport but are not flexible as the gas will leave
the source and arrive at its (one) destination. If the pipeline has to be shut down, the
production and receiving facilities and refinery often also have to be shut down because gas

cannot be readily stored, except perhaps by increasing the pipeline pressure by some
percentage.
1.7.2 Liquefied Natural Gas
Liquefied natural gas technology has been proven to be effective since the mid-1970s. LNG is
the liquid form of natural gas. Gas cooled to approximately −162OC liquefies and has a
volume approximately 1/600 that of gas at room temperature. However, facilities for
liquefying natural gas require complex machinery with moving parts and special refrigerated
ships for transporting the liquefied natural gas to market. The costs of building a liquefied
natural gas plant have lowered since the mid-1980s because of greatly improved
thermodynamic efficiencies, making liquefied natural gas a major gas export method
worldwide, and many plants are being extended or new ones are being built in the world.
Large cryogenic tanks are needed to store the liquefied natural gas; typically these may be
70 m in diameter, 45 m high, and hold over 100,000 m3 of liquefied natural gas. At the
consumer end, an infrastructure for handling the reprocessing of vast quantities of natural
gas from LNG is required, which is also expensive and vulnerable to sabotage.
1.7.3 Compressed Natural Gas
Gas can be transported in containers at high pressures, typically 1800 psig for a rich gas
(significant amounts of ethane, propane, etc.) to roughly 3600 psig for a lean gas (mainly
methane). Gas at these pressures is termed compressed natural gas. Compressed natural gas
is used in some countries for vehicular transport as an alternative to conventional fuels
(gasoline or diesel). The filling stations can be supplied by pipeline gas, but the compressors
needed to get the gas to 3000 psig can be expensive to purchase, maintain, and operate.
An alternative approach has dedicated transport ships carrying straight long, large-diameter
pipes in an insulated cold storage cargo package. The gas has to be dried, compressed, and
chilled for storage on-board. By careful control of temperature, more gas should be
transported in any ship of a given payload capacity, subject to volume limitation and amount
and weight of material of the pipe (pressure and safety considerations). Suitable
compressors and chillers are needed, but would be much less expensive than a natural gas
liquefier and would be standard so that costs could be further minimized. According to the
proponents, the terminal facilities would also be simple and hence less expensive.
Compressed natural gas technology provides an effective way for shorter-distance transport
of gas. The technology is aimed at monetizing offshore reserves, which cannot be produced
because of the unavailability of a pipeline or because the LNG option is very costly.
Technically, CNG is easy to deploy with lower requirements for facilities and infrastructure.

Results show that for distances up to 2500 miles, natural gas can be transported as CNG at
prices ranging from $0.93 to $2.23 per MMBTU compared to LNG, which can cost anywhere
from $1.5 to $2.5 per MMBTU depending on the actual distance. At distances above 2500
miles the cost of delivering gas as CNG becomes higher than the cost for LNG because of the
disparity in the volumes of gas transported with the two technologies
1.7.4 Gas to Solid
Gas can be transported as a solid, with the solid being gas hydrate. Natural gas hydrate is the
product of mixing natural gas with liquid water to form a stable water crystalline ice-like
substance. NGH transport, which is still in the experimental stage, is believed to be a viable
alternative to liquefied natural gas or pipelines for the transportation of natural gas from
source to demand.
Gas to solids involves three stages: production, transportation, and regasification. Natural
gas hydrates are created when certain small molecules, particularly methane, ethane, and
propane, stabilize the hydrogen bonds within water to form a three-dimensional, cage-like
structure with the gas molecule trapped within the cages. A cage is made up of several water
molecules held together by hydrogen bonds. Hydrates are formed from natural gas in the
presence of liquid water, provided the pressure is above and the temperature is below the
equilibrium line of the phase diagram of the gas and liquid water.
For gas transport, natural gas hydrates can be formed deliberately by mixing natural gas and
water at 80 to 100 bar and 2 to 10OC. If the slurry is refrigerated to around −15OC, it
decomposes very slowly at atmospheric pressure so that the hydrate can be transported by
ship to market in simple containers insulated to near-adiabatic conditions. At the market,
the slurry is melted back to gas and water by controlled warming for use after appropriate
drying in electricity power generation stations or other requirements. The hydrate mixture
yields up to 160 m3 of natural gas per ton of hydrate, depending on the manufacture
process.
Conceptually, hydrate slurry production is simply mixing chilled water and gas. In practice,
processed gas is fed to a hydrate production plant, where a series of reactors convert it into
hydrate slurry. Each reactor further concentrates the hydrate slurry. It is then stored and
eventually offloaded onto a transport vessel. At the receiving terminal, the hydrate is
dissociated and the gas can be used as desired. The water can be used at the destination if
there is a water shortage or returned as ballast to the hydrate generator; because it is
saturated with gas, will not take more gas into solution.
The hydrate mixture can be stored at normal temperatures (0 to −10OC) and pressures (10 to
1 atmosphere) where 1 m3 of hydrate should contain about 160 m3 gas per m3 of water. This
concentration of gas is attractive, as it is easier to produce, safer, and less expensive to store

compared to the 200-m3 per 1 m3 of compressed gas (high pressure ca. 3000 psig) or the
637-m3 gas per 1 m3 of liquefied natural gas (low temperatures of −162OC).
1.7.5 Gas to Power
Currently, much of the transported gas destination is fuel for electricity generation.
Electricity generation at or near the reservoir source and transportation by cable to the
destination(s) (GTP) is possible. Thus, for instance, offshore or isolated gas could be used to
fuel an offshore power plant (may be sited in less hostile waters), which would generate
electricity for sale onshore or to other offshore customers. Unfortunately, because installing
high-power lines to reach the shoreline appears to be almost as expensive as pipelines, that
gas to power could be viewed as defeating the purpose of an alternative less expensive
solution for transporting gas. There is significant energy loss from the cables along the long-
distance transmission lines, more so if the power is AC rather than DC; additionally, losses
also occur when the power is converted to DC from AC and when it is converted from the
high voltages used in transmission to the lower values needed by the consumers.
1.7.6 Gas to Liquids
In GTL transport processes, the natural gas is converted to a liquid, such as syncrude
methanol and ammonia, and is transported as such. The technology of converting natural
gas to liquids is not new. In the first step, methane is mixed with steam and converted to
syngas or synthetic gas (mixtures of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) by one of a number of
routes using suitable new catalyst technology. The syngas is then converted into a liquid
using a Fischer-Tropsch process (in the presence of a catalyst) or an oxygenation method
(mixing syngas with oxygen in the presence of a suitable catalyst).
The produced liquid can be a fuel, usually a clean-burning motor fuel (syncrude) or lubricant,
or ammonia or methanol or some precursor for plastics manufacture (e.g., urea, dimethyl
ether, which is also used as a transportation fuel, LPG substitute, or power generation fuel,
as well as a chemical feedstock). Hundreds of modifications and patents have been applied
to this complex, energy-intensive process, and further developments continue to the present
day. Most recent modifications generally involve lowering capital expenditures and the
overall energy required for processing, especially through the use of proprietary catalysts
and the manner in which oxygen is added to the system.

1.7.7 Gas to Commodity
Commodities such as aluminium, glass, bricks, cement, and iron bars all require large
quantities of energy in their making. In the gas-to-commodity concept, the gas is converted
to thermal or electrical power, which is then used in the production of the commodity,
which is then sold on the open market. It is the energy from the gas, heat via electricity or
direct combustion, and not the components of the gas-to-liquids concept that is used. The
gas energy is, in essence, transported via the commodity, but there are many market risks,
which should be fully assessed. The cost of a GTC plant is very high and raw materials for
conversion to commodities, e.g., bauxite, silica sand, and limestone, may be difficult to
import to sites with reliability. Therefore, much thought has to be given before embarking
on the project(s) and monetizing the gas by this route
1.8 NATURAL GAS STORAGE
Basically, two types of storage facilities exists for natural gas:
1) relatively small capacity (to 15 MMscf [400,000 Sm3]) aboveground, floating-roof gas
holders that operate near ambient pressure and
2) much larger underground facilities (depleted oil and gas fields, salt caverns, and
aquifers) that operate at elevated pressures.
Overall, underground storage is more important. Underground storage is prevalent

throughout the world, with two exceptions, Japan and Korea. In these two countries, gas
storage is primarily in the form of LNG.
Aquifers are underground natural water reservoirs that can, under the right circumstances,
be used for gas storage. However, aquifer storage is usually the most expensive and, thus,
the least desirable underground storage method for six reasons
1) Geologic characteristics of a specific aquifer are generally not well known, which is
usually not the case with a depleted gas or oil field, and, consequently, considerable
resources must be expended to determine the suitability of the aquifer for gas
storage.
2) Infrastructure (wells, pipelines, dehydration facilities, compression equipment, etc.)
is unavailable at the aquifer site, whereas a depleted gas reservoir would have most
of this infrastructure in place.
3) Considerable injection pressure may be required to displace the water with gas.
4) Withdrawn gas requires dehydration.
5) Aquifer formations generally require a much higher level of cushion or base gas (up
to 80% of the total gas volume) than do depleted fields or salt caverns, and, thus, less
of the reservoir volume is usable.

6) Environmental regulations govern the use of aquifers for gas storage.
All of the above factors increase both the capital cost and time necessary for development of
aquifer storage. Consequently, depleted fields and salt caverns are normally preferred.
A common and relatively inexpensive technique for creating large storage facilities is
solution mining of underground salt beds. After the salt bed has been located and the
appropriate well or wells drilled, a coaxial pipe is inserted in the well bore. Water is then
pumped down the annulus of the pipe, and the dissolved brine is withdrawn through the
inner pipe (Figure 1.2). The cavern formed tends to be free from fractures that would permit
gas leaks and is well suited for pressurized gas storage.
Figure 1.2: Generating underground-storage salt caverns by leaching with fresh water

CHAPTER 2
NATURAL GAS COMPRESSION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
“Compression” is used in all aspects of the natural gas industry, including gas lift, reinjection
of gas for pressure maintenance, gas gathering, gas processing operations (circulation of gas
through the process or system), transmission and distribution systems, and reducing the gas
volume for shipment by tankers or for storage. In recent years, there has been a trend
toward increasing pipeline-operating pressures. The benefits of operating at higher
pressures include the ability to transmit larger volumes of gas through a given size of
pipeline, lower transmission losses due to friction, and the capability to transmit gas over
long distances without additional boosting stations.
2.2 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMPRESSION
The different processes by which gas is compressed, such as isothermal, adiabatic

(isentropic), and polytropic compression will be reviewed in this section
3.2.1 Isothermal Compression
The isothermal compression process is one in which the gas pressure and volume
compressed vary in a way that the temperature remains constant. Isothermal compression
requires the least amount of work compared to other forms of compression. Achievement of
isothermal compression requires infinitely good heat transfer to remove all heat of
compression.
Figure 2.1: Isothermal compression
This process is of theoretical interest since, in reality, maintaining the temperature constant
in a gas compressor is virtually impossible. This case represents an unrealistic case, and

isothermal work calculations are rarely used in practice. Figure 2.1 shows the pressure
volume diagram for isothermal compression.
To compute the reversible shaft work, 𝑤𝑆 , of a continuous open process that increases the
absolute pressure from 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 requires evaluation of the integral
𝑃2
𝑤𝑆 = −∆𝐻 = − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑃 (2.1)
𝑃1
where all variables are based upon energy per unit mass. Because the gas is compressible,
the integral depends upon the PV path. Minimizing the work requires minimizing the volume
during compression, which implies that the process must be isothermal. For an ideal gas,
where V = RT/P, the reversible isothermal shaft work is given by
−𝑅𝑇 ln(𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 )

𝑤𝑆 = (2.2)
𝑀𝑤
where R is the gas constant, 𝑀𝑤 is the molecular mass, and T is the absolute temperature.
Reversible isothermal work is the minimum work requirement for a compression process.
Note the negative sign indicates that work is being done on the system and that all pressures
are in absolute units.
2.2.2 Adiabatic Compression
The adiabatic compression process is characterized by zero heat transfer between the gas
and the surroundings. The terms adiabatic (no heat transfer) and isentropic are used
synonymously, although isentropic really means “constant entropy.” An adiabatic process
that is also frictionless is referred to as isentropic.
Figure 2.2: Adiabatic compression
All heat generated in compression goes into the gas phase, which maximizes the volume
and, thus, requires the maximum work for compression. Compressors, although operating

irreversibly, more closely follow this path because compression takes place rapidly, with
little time allowed for heat transfer. For reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression of an
ideal gas, the PV path follows
𝑃𝑣 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2.3)
and the work is calculated by
𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 (𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑤𝑆 = [1 − ( ) ] (2.4)
𝑀𝑤 (𝛾 − 1) 𝑃1
where 𝑇1 is the inlet temperature and is the ratio of the molar heat capacities:
𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃
𝛾= = (2.5)
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑃 − 𝑅
The value of 𝛾 is both temperature and composition dependent. Molar gas mixture heat
capacities are computed by
𝐶𝑃𝑀 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝐶𝑃𝑖 (2.5𝑏)
and 𝐶𝑉𝑀 is computed the same way.
Equations 2.2 and 2.4 show that the work required is a function of the ratio of absolute
pressures, sometimes referred to as the “compression ratio.” The actual pressures have a
significant effect on compressor design and cost. They have only a secondary effect on the
work in that they change the heat capacities and g. This effect is commonly ignored because
the calculations provide only estimates. Equations of state are needed to obtain more
accurate work and power requirements.
EXAMPLE 2.1
Assume an ideal gas, and compute the ratio of heat capacities for the south-west Kansas gas
in Table 2.1 at 100°F. Assume butanes to be all n-butane and C5+ fraction to be hexane
Table 2.1: Data for Example 2.1
Component Mol % CP at 100°F Btu/lb-mol-°R 𝒙𝒊 𝑪𝑷𝒊

Helium 0.45 4.97 0.022
Nitrogen 14.65 6.96 1.020
Methane 72.89 8.65 6.305
Ethane 6.27 12.92 0.810
Propane 3.74 18.20 0.680
Butanes 1.38 24.32 0.336
Pentanes and heavier 0.62 40.81 0.253
𝐶𝑃𝑀 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝐶𝑃𝑖 9.426

The 𝐶𝑉𝑀 for the mixture is
𝐶𝑉𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃𝑀 − 𝑅 = 9.43 − 1.99 = 7.44 𝐵𝑡𝑢/𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − °𝑅
𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃 9.43
𝛾= = = = 1.33
𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑃 − 𝑅 7.44
2.2.3 Polytropic Compression
Polytropic compression is similar to adiabatic compression, but there is no requirement of

zero heat transfer as in adiabatic compression. The outlet temperature, T2, for a reversible
adiabatic compression of an ideal gas can be calculated by
𝑃2 (𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) (2.7)
𝑃1
However, the Engineering Data Book (2004a) recommends use of the following empirical
equation to obtain a more representative discharge temperature, T2
𝑃2 (𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (1 + [( ) − 1])⁄𝜂𝐼𝑆 (2.8)
𝑃1
where 𝜂𝐼𝑆 is the entropic efficiency discussed below. In actuality, compressors have some
heat loss and are irreversible. The PV path followed in this case is
𝑃𝑣 𝜅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (2.9)
where 𝜅 is the empirically determined polytropic constant. This constant replaces 𝛾 in the
above equations, an, thus, the polytropic work is
𝜅𝑅𝑇1 𝑃2 (𝜅−1)⁄𝜅
𝑤𝑆 = [1 − ( ) ] (2.10)
𝑀𝑤 (𝜅 − 1) 𝑃1
Unless the value of 𝜅 is known, 𝛾 is used for the typical quick calculations on compressors.
All the components in natural gas behave like ideal gases at near-ambient pressure and
ambient and above temperatures. However, they become increasing nonideal with
increasing pressure. To estimate the work of compression, ideal gas behavior can be
assumed. However, to accurately determine the reversible 𝑤𝑆 requires use of either an
equation of state or thermodynamic charts, such as a temperature–entropy or pressure–
enthalpy diagram to accurately calculate H.
EXAMPLE 2.2
Assume ideal gas behavior, and compute the reversible work required to compress a natural
gas mixture from 10 to 60 psig, both isothermally and adiabatically, with an initial
temperature of 80°F. Also, calculate the exit temperature for adiabatic compression. The

molar mass of the gas is 18, and the ratio of heat capacities is 1.15. Assume the compressor
is 100% efficient for this calculation.
SOLUTION
(i) Isothermal Compression
From Equation 2.2, the work is
−𝑅𝑇 ln(𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 )

𝑤𝑆 = =
𝑀𝑤
−1.986 (80 + 460) ln[(60 + 14.7))⁄(10 + 14.7)]

𝑤𝑆 = = −65.9 𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄𝑙𝑏
18
(ii) Adiabatic Compression
Use of Equation 2.4 to compute the work, gives
𝑤𝑆 = [1 − ( ) ]
𝑀𝑤 (𝛾 − 1) 𝑃1
1.15 × 1.986 × (80 + 460) 60 + 14.7 (1.15−1)⁄1.15

𝑤𝑆 = [1 − ( ) ] = −70.9 𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄𝑙𝑏
18(1.15 − 1) 10 + 14.7
The outlet temperature is given by Equation 2.7:
𝑃2 (𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( )
𝑃1
60 + 14.7 (1.15−1)⁄1.15
𝑇2 = (80 + 460) ( ) = 624O 𝑅
10 + 14.7
𝑇2 = 624 − 460 = 164O 𝐹
Thus, the adiabatic work of compression is about 8% higher than the isothermal work.
−70.9 − (−65.9)
% 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = = 7.6%
−65.9
2.3 MULTISTAGING
Multistaging of compressors is done for any of several reasons. An obvious reason is that by
cooling the gas between stages, the process reduces the gas volume, and, thus, the work
required. Although this reason is important, the major reason for multistaging is materials
limitations. Assuming 𝛾 remained constant in Example 2.1 and the outlet gas pressure was
625 psig, the outlet temperature would be 365°F. Considering materials of construction,

seals, and lubricants, the Engineering Data Book (2004a) recommends about 300°F (150°C)
as a “good average” for outlet temperatures. If high pressure is involved, 250 to 275°F (120
to 140°C) is recommended. Assuming the initial temperature is near ambient, these
maximum temperatures suggest pressure ratios of 3:1 to 5:1.
The minimum work is obtained when each stage of a multistage unit does the same amount
of work, and, thus, most compressors will have approximately the same pressure ratio for
each stage. In this case, the compression, or pressure ratio, PR, for m stages is computed by
𝑃𝑅 = (𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 )1⁄𝑚 (2.11)
(Note that these compression ratios are always the ratio of absolute pressures.) Then the
total work of compression will be the sum of the work in each stage, as computed by
Equation 2.4.
EXAMPLE 2.3
Determine the number of stages required to compress the gas in Example 2.1 from 10 to 625
psig by use of a compression ratio of 3:1.
SOLUTION
Number of Stages
To determine the value of m, Equation 3.11 is rearranged to give
ln(𝑃2 ⁄𝑃1 ) ln[(625 + 14.7)⁄(10 + 14.7)]

𝑚= = = 2.96 𝑜𝑟 3 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠
ln 𝑃𝑅 ln 3
2.3.1 Compressors in Series
When compressors operate in series, each unit compresses the same amount of gas but at
different compression ratios, such that the overall pressure increase of the gas is achieved in
stages, as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3: Compressors in series.

It can be seen from Figure 2.3 that the first compressor compresses gas from a suction
pressure of 900 psia to 1080 psia at a compression ratio of 1.2.
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 × 𝑃𝑅 = 900 × 1.2 = 1,080 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
The second compressor takes the same volume and compresses it from 1080 psia to a
discharge pressure of 1296 psia
𝑃3 = 𝑃2 × 𝑃𝑅 = 1080 × 1.2 = 1,296 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
Thus, the overall compression ratio of the two identical compressors in series is 1296/900 =
1.44. We have thus achieved the increase in pressure in two stages.
NOTE:
𝑃3 1⁄𝑚 1,296 1⁄2

𝑃𝑅 = ( ) =( ) = 1.2
𝑃1 900
In general, if m compressors are installed in series to achieve the required compression ratio
r, we can state that each compressor will operate at a compression ratio of
𝑟 = (𝑟𝑖 )1⁄𝑚
r = compression ratio, dimensionless
𝑟𝑖 = overall compression ratio, dimensionless
n = number of compressors in series
2.3.2 Compressors in Parallel
Compressors are installed in parallel so that large volumes necessary can be provided by
multiple compressors, each producing the same compression ratio.
Figure 2.4: Compressors in parallel

Three identical compressors with compression ratio of 1.4 can be used to provide a 900
MMSCFD gas flow from a suction pressure of 900 psia. In this example, each compressor will
compress 300 MMSCFD from 900 psia to a discharge pressure of
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 × 𝑃𝑅 = 900 × 1.4 = 1,260 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
This is illustrated schematically in Figure 2.4.
NOTE:
We prefer centrifugal compressors used in gas pipeline applications to have a compression

ratio of 1.5 to 2.0; there may be instances in which higher compression ratios are required
due to lower gas receipt pressures and higher pipeline discharge pressures to enable a given
volume of gas to be transported through a pipeline. Reciprocating compressors are designed
to provide higher compression ratios. However, manufacturers limit maximum compression
ratios to a range of 4 to 6. This is due to high forces that are exerted on the compressor
components, which cause expensive material requirements as well as complicated safety
needs.
EXAMPLE 2.4
A compressor station with multiple compressors in series is to provide a gas discharge

pressure of 1500 psia. The gas inlet pressure and temperature are 100 psia and 80°F,
respectively. How many compressors in series will be required if the discharge temperature
is limited to 250°F? The ratio of specific heats 𝛾 = 1.4.
SOLUTION
The overall compression ratio is
𝑃2 1500
𝑟= = = 15.0
𝑃1 100
Since this is more than the maximum recommended compression ratio of 4 to 6, we need
two or more compressors in series. Initially, consider two compressors in series.
The compression ratio for each compressor is
𝑟 = (15)1⁄2 = 3.873
This is acceptable, but the discharge temperature needs to be checked. From Equation 2.7,
the discharge temperature for the first compressor is
𝑃2 (𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = (80 + 460)(3.8)(1.4−1)⁄1.4 = 790.76O 𝑅
𝑃1

or 330.76°F. This temperature is higher than the 250°F allowable. Therefore, we will need to
consider three stages of compression. Using three compressors in series, the compression
ratio is
𝑟 = (15)1⁄3 = 2.466
Therefore, the discharge temperature for each compressor is
𝑃2 (𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = (80 + 460)(2.466)(1.4−1)⁄1.4 = 698.86O 𝑅
𝑃1
or 239°F. Since this is less than 250°F allowed, the three compressors in series are the
choice. However, the gas must be cooled to the initial inlet temperature of 80°F between
each compressor to limit discharge temperatures to 239°F.
2.4 COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCIES
Several efficiencies are used to define compressor performance. The most common is the
reversible adiabatic efficiency, commonly referred to as the isentropic efficiency and
defined as
𝑤𝑆
𝜂𝐼𝑆 = (2.12)
𝑤𝑆,𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
with 𝑤𝑆 computed by Equation 2.4
The other commonly used efficiency, especially with centrifugal compressors, is the
polytropic efficiency, 𝜂𝑃 , defined as
[(𝛾 − 1)⁄𝛾 ]
𝜂𝑃 = (2.13)
[(𝜅 − 1)⁄𝜅]
This value approximates the ratio of isentropic work to the polytropic work (i.e., Equation
2.4 divided by Equation 2.10), if the pressure-ratio term is ignored. The polytropic efficiency
will always be higher than the isentropic efficiency. It can be used to calculate work when
applied to Equation 2.10 and is useful for estimating discharge conditions, as in Equation
2.14.
𝑃2 (1⁄𝜂𝑃 )(𝛾−1)⁄𝛾
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) (2.14)
𝑃1

EXAMPLE 2.5
Determine the isentropic efficiency of a compressor if the polytropic efficiency is 77% and
the gas has 𝛾 = 1.15. Assume the molar mass of the gas is 18, the inlet temperature is 80°F,
and the compression ratio is 3.0.
SOLUTION
Conversion from polytropic to adiabatic efficiency requires the following steps:
1) Calculate ideal polytropic work.

2) Calculate the actual work by dividing polytropic work by polytropic efficiency.
3) Calculate isentropic work.
4) Calculate isentropic efficiency from ratio of isentropic work to polytropic work.
Step 1: Both 𝛾 and 𝜂𝑃 are given so Equation 2.13 can be used to determine 𝜅 for use in
Equation 3.10. However, 𝜂𝑃 can be used in combination with 𝛾 in Equation 2.10 to give
𝛾𝑅𝑇1 𝜂𝑃 𝑃2 (1⁄𝜂𝑃 )(𝛾−1)⁄𝛾

𝑤𝑆 = [1 − ( ) ]
𝑀𝑤 (𝛾 − 1) 𝑃1
1.15 × 1.986 × (80 + 460) × 0.77

𝑤𝑆𝑃 = [1 − (3)(1⁄0.77)(1.15−1)⁄1.15 ] = −72.1 𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄𝑙𝑏
18 × (1.15 − 1)
Step 2: The actual work required is
𝑤𝑆𝑃 −72.1
𝑤𝑆,𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = = = −93.6 𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄𝑙𝑏
𝜂𝑃 0.77
Step 3: The isentropic work required is
𝑤𝑆 = [1 − ( ) ]
𝑀𝑤 (𝛾 − 1) 𝑃1
1.15 × 1.986 × (80 + 460)

𝑤𝑆 = [1 − (3)(1.15−1)⁄1.15 ] = −70.3 𝐵𝑡𝑢⁄𝑙𝑏
18(1.15 − 1)
Step 4: The isentropic efficiency is then
𝑤𝑆 −70.3
𝜂𝐼𝑆 = = = 0.75 𝑜𝑟 75%
𝑤𝑆,𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 −93.6
Thus, the isentropic efficiency (75%) is two percentage points below the polytropic efficiency
(77%).

2.5 COMPRESSOR STATION TYPES
Compressor stations are installed on gas pipelines to provide the pressure needed to
transport gas from one location to another. Due to limitations of pipeline pressures, multiple
compressor stations may be needed to transport a given volume through a long-distance
pipeline. The locations and pressures at which these compressor stations operate are
determined by allowable pipe pressures, power available, and environmental and
geotechnical factors. Five types of compressor stations are generally utilized in the natural
gas production industry:
(i) Field gas-gathering stations to gather gas from wells in which pressure is insufficient
to produce at a desired rate of flow into a transmission or distribution system. These
stations generally handle suction pressures from below atmospheric pressure to 750
psig and volumes from a few thousand to many million cubic feet per day.
(ii) Relay or main line stations to boost pressure in transmission lines. They compress
generally large volumes of gas at a pressure range between 200 and 1,300 psig.
(iii) Repressuring or recycling stations to provide gas pressures as high as 6,000 psig for
processing or secondary oil recovery projects.
(iv) Storage field stations to compress trunk line gas for injection into storage wells at
pressures up to 4,000 psig.
(v) Distribution plant stations to pump gas from holder supply to medium- or high-
pressure distribution lines at about 20 to 100 psig, or pump into bottle storage up to
2,500 psig. A typical compressor station schematic showing the arrangement of the
valves, piping, and the compressor itself is shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: Compressor station schematic.

2.6 COMPRESSOR STATION PIPING LOSSES
As the gas enters the suction side of the compressor, it flows through a complex piping
system within the compressor station. Similarly, the compressed gas leaving the compressor
traverses the compressor station discharge piping system that consists of valves and fittings
before entering the main pipeline on its way to the next compressor station or delivery
terminus. This is illustrated in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: Compressor station suction and discharge piping
It can be seen from Figure 2.6 that at the compressor station boundary A on the suction side,
the gas pressure is 𝑃1 . This pressure drops to a value 𝑃𝑠 at the compressor suction, as the gas
flows through the suction piping from A to B. This suction piping, consisting of valves,
fittings, filters, and meters, causes a pressure drop of ∆𝑃𝑠 to occur. Therefore, the actual
suction pressure at the compressor is
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃1 − ∆𝑃𝑠 (2.15)
where 𝑃𝑠 = compressor suction pressure, psia
𝑃1 = compressor station suction pressure, psia
∆𝑃𝑠 = pressure loss in compressor station suction piping, psi
At the compressor, the gas pressure is raised from 𝑃𝑠 to 𝑃𝑑 through a compression ratio r as
follows:
𝑃𝑑
r= (2.16)
𝑃𝑠
where r = compression ratio, dimensionless
𝑃𝑑 = compressor discharge pressure, psia
The compressed gas then flows through the station discharge piping and loses pressure until
it reaches the station discharge valve at the boundary D of the compressor station. If the
station discharge pressure is 𝑃2 , we can write

𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑑 − ∆𝑃𝑑 (2.17)
where 𝑃2 = compressor station discharge pressure, psia
∆𝑃𝑑 = pressure loss in compressor station discharge piping, psi
Generally, the values of ∆𝑃𝑠 and ∆𝑃𝑑 range from 5 to 15 psi.
EXAMPLE 2.6
A compressor station on a gas transmission pipeline has the following pressures at the
station boundaries. The station suction pressure = 850 psia, and the station discharge
pressure = 1430 psia. The pressure losses in the suction piping and discharge piping are 5 psi
and 10 psi, respectively. Calculate the compression ratio of this compressor station.
SOLUTION
From Equation 2.15, the compressor suction pressure is
𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃1 − ∆𝑃𝑠 = 850 − 5 = 845 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
Similarly, the compressor discharge pressure is
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑃2 + ∆𝑃𝑑 = 1,430 + 10 = 1440 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑎
Therefore, the compression ratio is
𝑃𝑑 1440
r= = = 1.70
𝑃𝑠 845
2.7 COMPRESSOR TYPES
In gas transmission, two basic types of compressors are used: reciprocating and centrifugal
compressors. Reciprocating compressors are usually driven by either electric motors or gas
engines, whereas centrifugal compressors use gas turbines or electric motors as drivers.
A reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement machine in which the compressing

and displacing element is a piston moving linearly within a cylinder. Reciprocating
compressors are used mainly when high pressure head is required at low flow rates.
Reciprocating compressors are either single-stage or multi-stage type.
Centrifugal and axial flow compressors are examples of continuous flow compressors.
Centrifugal compressor are used for higher pressure ratios and lower flow rates compared to
lower stage pressure ratios and higher flow rates in axial compressors. One of the major
component of a centrifugal compressor is the impeller which consist of a number of rotating
vanes that impart mechanical energy to the gas.

2.8 COMPARISON BETWEEN COMPRESSORS
Differences between reciprocating and centrifugal compressors are summarized as follow
Advantages of a reciprocating compressor over a centrifugal machine include
 Ideal for low volume flow and high-pressure ratios

 High efficiency at high-pressure ratios
 Relatively low capital cost in small units (less than 3000 hp)
 Less sensitive to changes in composition and density
Advantages of a centrifugal compressor over a reciprocating machine include
 Ideal for high volume flow and low head

 Simple construction with only one moving part
 High efficiency over normal operating range
 Low maintenance cost and high availability
 Greater volume capacity per unit of plot area
 No vibrations and pulsations generated

CHAPTER 3
NATURAL GAS PROCESSING AND LIQUEFACTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Raw natural gas after transmission through the field-gathering network must be processed
before it can be moved into long-distance pipeline systems for use by consumers. The
objective of gas processing is to separate natural gas, condensate, noncondensable, acid
gases, and water from a gas-producing well and condition these fluids for sale or disposal.
A typical natural gas processing plant whose simplified schematic representation shown in
Fig. 3.1 consists mainly of the following processes: (i) gas oil separator (treatment unit); (ii)
condensate separator; (iii) dehydrator; (iv) acid gas removal unit; (v) nitrogen extractor or
Nitrogen rejection unit (NRU) and (vi) fractionator.
Figure 3.1: Generalized gas processing plant schematic
3.2 NATURAL GAS AND LIQUID SEPARATION
Separation of well stream gas from free liquids is the first and most critical stage of field-
processing operations. Composition of the fluid mixture determines what type and size of
separator is required. However, pressure is another key factor affecting selection of
separators. Separators are also used in other locations such as upstream and downstream of
compressors, dehydration units, and gas sweetening units. At these locations, separators are

referred to as scrubbers and knockouts. All these vessels are used for the same purpose: to
separate free liquids from the gas stream.
3.2.1 Functional Sections of a Gas-Liquid Separator
Regardless of the size or shape of a separator, each gas-liquid separator contains four major
sections. Figures 3.2 illustrate the four major sections of a horizontal two-phase separator.
Figure 3.2: Horizontal separator schematic (Ken & Maurice, 2008).
(1) Inlet Diverter Section
The inlet stream to the separator is typically a high-velocity turbulent mixture of gas and
liquid. Due to the high velocity, the fluids enter the separator with a high momentum. The
inlet diverter, sometimes referred to as the primary separation section, abruptly changes the
direction of flow by absorbing the momentum of the liquid and allowing the liquid and gas to
separate. This results in the initial “gross” separation of liquid and gas (Ken & Maurice,
2008).
(2) Liquid Collection Section
The liquid collection section, located at the bottom of the vessel, provides the required
retention time necessary for any entrained gas in the liquid to escape to the gravity settling
section. In addition, it provides a surge volume to handle intermittent slugs. The degree of
separation is dependent on the retention time provided. Retention time is affected by the
amount of liquid the separator can hold, the rate at which the fluids enter the vessel, and

the differential density of the fluids. Liquid-liquid separation requires longer retention times
than gas-liquid separation (Ken & Maurice, 2008).
(3) Gravity Settling Section
As the gas stream enters the gravity settling section, its velocity drops and small liquid
droplets that were entrained in the gas and not separated by the inlet diverter are separated
out by gravity and fall to the gas-liquid interface. The gravity settling section is sized so that
liquid droplets greater than 100 to 140 microns fall to the gas-liquid interface while smaller
liquid droplets remain with the gas. Liquid droplets greater than 100 to 140 microns are
undesirable as they can overload the mist extractor at the separator outlet (Ken & Maurice,
2008).
(4) Mist Extractor Section
Gas leaving the gravity settling section contains small liquid droplets, generally less than 100
to 140 microns. Before the gas leaves the vessel, it passes through a coalescing section or
mist extractor. This section uses coalescing elements that provide a large amount of surface
area used to coalesce and remove the small droplets of liquid. As the gas flows through the
coalescing elements, it must make numerous directional changes. Due to their greater mass,
the liquid droplets cannot follow the rapid changes in direction of flow. These droplets
impinge and collect on the coalescing elements, where they fall to the liquid collection
section (Eirik, 2009).
3.2.2 Classification of Oil and Gas Separators
(1) Classification by Function
In terms of the number of fluids to be segregated, separators are classified into two phase
and three phase separators
(2) Classification by Operating Pressure
 Low-pressure separators usually operate at pressures ranging from 10 to 20 up to 180 to

225 psi.
 Medium-pressure separators usually operate at pressures ranging from 230 to 250 up to
600 to 700 psi.
 High-pressure separators generally operate in the wide pressure range from 750 to
1,500 psi.
(3) Classification by Operating Configuration
Separators are classified by shape of the vessel into three namely: vertical, horizontal and
spherical separators.

3.2.3 Separator Selection
There are no simple rules for separator selection. Sometimes, both configurations should be
evaluated to decide which is more economical. The relative merits and common applications
of vertical and horizontal separators are summarized below
(1) Horizontal Separator
Horizontal separators are used most commonly in the following conditions.
 Large volumes of gas and/or liquids.

 High-to-medium gas/oil ratio (GOR) streams.
 Foaming crudes.
 • Three-phase separation.
Advantages and disadvantages of horizontal separators are as follow.
Advantages
 Require smaller diameter for similar gas capacity as compared to vertical vessels.
 No counterflow (gas flow does not oppose drainage of mist extractor).
 Large liquid surface area for foam dispersion generally reduces turbulence.
 Larger surge volume capacity.
Disadvantages
 Only part of shell available for passage of gas.

 Occupies more space unless “stack” mounted.
 Liquid level control is more critical.
 More difficult to clean produced sand, mud, wax, paraffin, etc.
(2) Vertical Separator
These separators are used in the following conditions.
 Small flow rates of gas and/or liquids.

 Very high GOR streams or when the total gas volumes are low.
 Plot space is limited.
 Ease of level control is desired.
Advantages and disadvantages of these separators are as follow.

Advantages
 Liquid level control is not so critical.

 Have good bottom-drain and clean-out facilities.
 Can handle more sand, mud, paraffin, and wax without plugging.
 Less tendency for re-entrainment.
 Has full diameter for gas flow at top and oil flow at bottom.
 Occupies smaller plot area.
Disadvantages
 Require larger diameter for a given gas capacity, therefore, most competitive for very
low GOR or very high GOR or scrubber applications.
 Not recommended when there is a large slug potential.
 More difficult to reach and service top-mounted instruments and safety devices.
Figure 3.3: A typical scheme of a vertical three-phase separator.

3.3 NATURAL GAS SWEETENING
The H2S and CO2 in natural gas well streams are called acid gases because they form acids or
acidic solutions in the presence of water. They have no heating value but cause problems to
systems and the environment. H2S is a toxic, poisonous gas and cannot be tolerated in gases
that may be used for domestic fuels. H2S in the presence of water is extremely corrosive and
can cause premature failure of valves, pipeline, and pressure vessels. It can also cause
catalyst poisoning in refinery vessels and requires expensive precautionary measures. Most
pipeline specifications limit H2S content to 0.25 g/100 ft3 of gas (about 4 ppm).
Carbon dioxide is not as bad as H2S and its removal is not always required. Removal of CO2
may be required in gas going to cryogenic plants to prevent CO2 solidification. Carbon
dioxide is also corrosive in the presence of water. Most treating processes that remove H2S
will also remove CO2. Therefore, the volume of CO2 in the well stream is added to the
volume of H2S to arrive at the total acid-gas volume to be removed.
The term sour gas refers to the gas containing H2S in amounts above the acceptable industry
limits. A sweet gas is a non-H2S-bearing gas or gas that has been sweetened by treating.
Some processes used for removing acid gases from natural gas are briefly described below.
3.3.1 Iron-Sponge Sweetening
The iron-sponge sweetening process (see figure 3.4) is a batch process with the sponge
being a hydrated iron oxide (Fe2O3) supported on wood shavings. The reaction between the
sponge and H2S is
2𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 6𝐻2 𝑆 → 2𝐹𝑒2 𝑆3 + 6𝐻2 𝑂
Figure 3.4: Typical iron oxide process flow sheet

The ferric oxide is present in a hydrated form. The reaction does not proceed without the
water of hydration. The reaction requires the temperature be below approximately 120 0F or
a supplemental water spray. Regeneration of the bed is sometimes accomplished by the
addition of air continuously or by batch addition. The regeneration reaction is
2 𝐹𝑒2 𝑆3 + 3 𝑂2 → 2 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 + 6 𝑆
𝑆2 + 2 𝑂2 → 2 𝑆𝑂2
The number of regeneration steps is limited due to the sulphur remaining in the bed.
Eventually the beds have to be replaced.
3.3.2 Alkanolamine Sweetening
Alkanolamine encompasses the family of organic compounds of monoethanolamine (MEA),

diethanolamine (DEA), and triethnolamine (TEA). These chemicals are used extensively for
the removal of Hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide from other gases and are particularly
adapted for obtaining the low acid-gas residuals that are usually specified by pipelines. The
alkanolamine process is not selective and must be designed for total acid-gas removal, even
though CO2 removal may not be required.
Figure 3.5: Schematic of amine gas-sweetening process flow diagram.

Typical reactions of acid gas with MEA are absorbing and regenerating.
Absorbing reactions are:
𝑀𝐸𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑆 → 𝑀𝐸𝐴 hydrosulphide + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑀𝐸𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2 → 𝑀𝐸𝐴 carbonate + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡
Regenerating reactions are:
𝑀𝐸𝐴 hydrosulphide + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 𝑀𝐸𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑆
𝑀𝐸𝐴 carbonate + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 → 𝑀𝐸𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2
MEA is preferred to either DEA or TEA solutions because it is a stronger base and is more
reactive than either DEA or TEA. MEA has a lower molecular weight and thus requires less
circulation to maintain a given amine to acid gas mole ratio. MEA also has greater stability
and can be readily reclaimed from a contaminated solution by semicontinuous distillation.
3.3.3 Glycol/Amine Process
The glycol/amine process uses a solution composed of 10% to 30% weight MEA, 45% to 85%
glycol, and 5% to 25% water for the simultaneous removal of water vapour, H2S, and CO2
from gas streams. The advantage of the process is that the combination dehydration and
sweetening unit results in lower equipment cost than would be required with the standard
MEA unit followed by a separate glycol/amine glycol dehydrator. The main disadvantages of
the glycol/amine process include increased vaporization losses of MEA due to high
regeneration temperatures, corrosion problems in the operating units, and limited
applications for achieving low dew points.
3.3.4 Sulfinol Process
The sulfinol process uses a mixture of solvents allowing it to behave as both a chemical and
physical solvent process. The solvent is composed of sulfolane, diisopropanolamine (DIPA),
and water. The sulfolane acts as the physical solvent, while DIPA acts as the chemical
solvent. The main advantages of sulfinol are low solvent circulation rates; smaller equipment
and lower plant cost; low heat capacity of the solvent; low utility costs; low degradation
rates; low corrosion rates; low foaming tendency; high effectiveness for removal of carbonyl
sulfide, carbon disulfide, and mercaptans; low vaporization losses of the solvent; low heat-
exchanger fouling tendency; and nonexpansion of the solvent when it freezes. Some of the
disadvantages of sulfinol include absorption of heavy hydrocarbons and aromatics, and
expense.

3.4 NATURAL GAS DEHYDRATION
The term dehydration means removal of water vapour. All natural gas downstream from the
separators still contains water vapour to some degree. Water vapour is probably the most
common undesirable impurity found in untreated natural gas. The main reason for removing
water vapour from natural gas is that water vapour becomes liquid water under low
temperature and/or high-pressure conditions. Specifically, water content can affect long-
distance transmission of natural gas due to the following facts:
 Liquid water and natural gas can form hydrates that may plug the pipeline and other
equipment.
 Natural gas containing CO2 and/or H2S is corrosive when liquid water is present.
 Liquid water in a natural gas pipeline potentially causes slugging flow conditions
resulting in lower flow efficiency of the pipeline.
 Water content decreases the heating value of natural gas being transported.
3.4.1 Water Content Determination
Solubility of water in natural gas increases with temperature and decreases with pressure.
Salt's presence in the liquid water reduces the water content of the gas. Water content of
untreated natural gases is normally in the magnitude of a few hundred pounds of water per
million standard cubic foot of gas (lbm/MMscf); while gas pipelines normally require water
content to be in the range of 6-8 lbm/MMscf and even lower for pipelines in deep water.
The water content of natural gas is indirectly indicated by the dew point, defined as the
temperature at which the natural gas is saturated with water vapour at a given pressure. At
the dew point, natural gas is in equilibrium with liquid water; any decrease in temperature
or increase in pressure will cause the water vapour to begin condensing. The difference
between the dew point temperature of a water-saturated gas stream and the same stream
after it has been dehydrated is called dew-point depression.
It is essential to accurately estimate the saturated water vapour content of natural gas in the
design and operation of dehydration equipment. Several methods are available for this
purpose including the correlations of McCarthy, Boyd, and Reid (1950) and McKetta and
Wehe (1958). Dalton's law of partial pressures is valid for estimating water vapour content
of gas at near-atmospheric pressures. Readings from the chart by McKetta and Wehe (1958)
are presented in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Water Content Readings from the Chart by McKetta and Wehe (1958) (lbm
H2O/MMcf @60 0F, 14.7 psia)
Example 3.1
Estimate water content of a natural gas at a pressure of 3,000 psia and temperature of 150F.
Solution
From table 3.1, water content
𝐶𝑤140𝐹 = 85 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ⁄𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑓
Linear interpolation yields:

3.4.2 Dehydration Systems
Dehydration systems used in the natural gas industry fall into four categories in principle: (a)
direct cooling, (b) compression followed by cooling, (c) absorption, and (d) adsorption.
Dehydration in the first two methods does not result in sufficiently low water contents to
permit injection into a pipeline. Further dehydration by absorption or adsorption is often
required.
(1) Dehydration by Cooling
The ability of natural gas to contain water vapour decreases as the temperature is lowered
at constant pressure. During the cooling process, the excess water in the vapour state
becomes liquid and is removed from the system. Natural gas containing less water vapour at
low temperature is output from the cooling unit. The gas dehydrated by cooling is still at its
water dew point unless the temperature is raised again or the pressure is decreased. Cooling
for the purpose of gas dehydration is sometimes economical if the gas temperature is
unusually high. It is often a good practice that cooling is used in conjunction with other
dehydration processes.
Gas compressors can be used partially as dehydrators. Because the saturation water content
of gases decreases at higher pressure, some water is condensed and removed from gas at
compressor stations by the compressor discharge coolers. Modern lean oil absorption gas
plants use mechanical refrigeration to chill the inlet gas stream.
(2) Dehydration by Adsorption
Adsorption is defined as the ability of a substance to hold gases or liquids on its surface. In
adsorption dehydration, the water vapour from the gas is concentrated and held at the
surface of the solid desiccant by forces caused by residual valiancy. Solid desiccants have
very large surface areas per unit weight to take advantage of these surface forces. The most
common solid adsorbents used today are silica, alumina, and certain silicates known as
molecular sieves. Dehydration plants can remove practically all water from natural gas using
solid desiccants. Because of their great drying ability, solid desiccants are employed where
higher efficiencies are required.
Under normal operating conditions, the usable life of a desiccant ranges from one to four
years. Solid desiccants become less effective in normal use due to loss of effective surface
area as they age. Abnormally fast degradation occurs through blockage of the small pores
and capillary openings from lubricating oils, amines, glycols, corrosion inhibitors, and other
contaminants, which cannot be removed during the regeneration cycle. Hydrogen sulfide
can also damage the desiccant and reduce its capacity.

The advantages of solid-desiccant dehydration include:
 lower dew point, essentially dry gas (water content less than 1.0 Ib/MMcf) can be
produced
 higher contact temperatures can be tolerated with some adsorbents
 higher tolerance to sudden load changes, especially on startup
 quick startup after a shutdown
 high adaptability for recovery of certain liquid hydrocarbons in addition to
dehydration functions
Operating problems with the solid-desiccant dehydration include:
• space adsorbents degenerate with use and require replacement

• dehydrating tower must be regenerated and cooled for operation before another
tower approaches exhaustion. The maximum allowable time on dehydration
gradually shortens because desiccant loses capacity with use
(3) Dehydration by Absorption
Water vapour is removed from the gas by intimate contact with a hygroscopic liquid
desiccant in absorption dehydration. The contact is usually achieved in packed or tray
towers. Glycols have been widely used as effective liquid desiccants. Dehydration by
absorption with glycol is usually economically more attractive than dehydration by solid
desiccant when both processes are capable of meeting the required dew point.
Glycols used for dehydrating natural gas are ethylene glycol (EG), diethylene glycol (DEG),
triethylene glycol (TEG), and tetraethylene glycol (T4EG). Normally a single type of pure
glycol is used in a dehydrator, but sometimes a glycol blend is economically attractive. TEG
has gained nearly universal acceptance as the most cost effective of the glycols due to its
superior dew point depression, operating cost, and operation reliability. Triethylene glycol
has been successfully used to dehydrate sweet and sour natural gases over wide ranges of
operating conditions. Dew point depression of 40 0F to 140 0F can be achieved at a gas
pressure ranging from 25 psig to 2500 psig and gas temperature between 40 0F and 160 0F.
The dew point depression obtained depends on the equilibrium dew point temperature for a
given TEG concentration and contact temperature.
Increased glycol viscosity may cause problems at lower contact temperature. Thus, heating
of the natural gas may be desirable. Very hot gas streams are often cooled prior to
dehydration to prevent vaporization of TEG.
Glycol dehydrators have several advantages including:
• low initial-equipment cost

• low-pressure drop across absorption towers
• makeup requirements may be added readily
• recharging of towers presents no problems
• the plant may be used satisfactorily in the presence of materials that would cause
fouling of some solid adsorbents
Glycol dehydrators also present several operating problems including:
• Suspended matter, such as dirt, scale, and iron oxide, may contaminate glycol
solutions.
• Overheating of solution may produce both low and high boiling decomposition
products.
• The resultant sludge may collect on heating surfaces, causing some loss in efficiency,
or, in severe cases, complete flow stoppage.
• When both oxygen and hydrogen sulphide are present, corrosion may become a
problem because of the formation of acid material in the glycol solution.
• Liquids such as water, light hydrocarbons, or lubrication oils, in inlet gas may require
installation of an efficient separator ahead of the absorber. Highly mineralized water
entering the system with inlet gas may, over long periods, crystallize and fill the
reboiler with solid salts.
• Foaming of solution may occur with a resultant carry-over of liquid. The addition of a
small quantity of antifoam compound usually remedies this problem.
Figure 3.6: Simplified flow diagram for TEG dehydration

3.5 NATURAL GAS LIQUEFACTION
3.5.1 Introduction
Most natural gas is transported from the wellhead to a processing plant, and thereafter, to
consumers in high pressure gas transmission pipelines. At remote locations, separated by
large bodies of water from the market, liquefying the natural gas for transport has been a
major industrial operation for decades and is likely to increase further. The much lower
physical volume of liquefied natural gas (LNG) relative to gaseous natural gas can reduce
transportation costs by allowing delivery using cargo ships or transport trucks instead of
pipelines.
The properties of LNG (one volume unit of LNG yields 600 units of standard gas volume)
allow for its long distance transport by ships across oceans to markets and for its local
distribution by truck onshore. Occasionally, liquefaction of natural gas also provides the
opportunity to store the fuel for use during high consumption periods close to demand
centres, as well as in areas where geologic conditions are not suitable for developing
underground storage facilities. The refrigeration and liquefaction process is the key element
of an LNG project, and for most estimates it can consume about 35% of the capital
expenditure, and up to 50% of the subsequent operating costs.
3.5.2 The LNG Process
An example of a LNG plant overall flow diagram and the main process units are shown in
Figure 3.7. Typically, the feed gas is delivered at high pressure (for example, up to 1,300 psi)
from upstream gas fields via trunklines and any associated condensate will be removed. The
gas is metered and is pressure controlled to the design operating pressure of the plant.
Figure 3.7: Typical LNG plant block flow diagram

The gas is first pretreated to remove any impurities that interfere with processing or are
undesirable in the final products. These include nonhydrocarbon gases and water. Heavier
hydrocarbons are also removed from the dry sweet natural gas using high level refrigerant to
provide the cooling needed to condense the liquids, and the residual gas is then liquefied
using high level and low level refrigerant. The remaining gas is made up mainly of methane
and contains less than 0.1 mol% of pentane and heavier hydrocarbons. It is further cooled in
the cryogenic section to approximately –160°C and is completely liquefied. Mildly
pressurized LNG is further subcooled in one or more stages to facilitate storage at pressures
slightly above atmospheric. Flashed vapors and boil off gas are recycled within the process.
LNG is returned to a gaseous state in a regasification facility at a receiving terminal.
3.5.3 LNG Liquefaction
The liquefaction process is the key element of the LNG plant. Liquefaction is based on a
refrigeration cycle, where a refrigerant by means of successive expansion and compression,
transports heat from the process side to where the natural gas is. LNG plants often consist of
a number of parallel units, called trains, which treat and liquefy natural gas and then send
the LNG to several storage tanks. The capacity of a liquefaction train is primarily determined
by the liquefaction process, the refrigerant used, the largest available size of the
compressor/driver combination that drives the cycle, and the heat exchangers that cool the
natural gas.
The basic principles for cooling and liquefying the gas using refrigerants, involve matching as
closely as possible the cooling/heating curves of the process gas and the refrigerant. These
principles result in a more efficient thermodynamic process, requiring less power per unit of
LNG produced, and they apply to all liquefaction processes. Typical cooling curves are shown
in Figure 3.8.
Figure 3.8: Typical natural gas/refrigerant cooling curves

Observing the cooling curve of a typical gas liquefaction process, three zones can be noted in
the process of the gas being liquefied. A precooling zone, followed by a liquefaction zone,
and completed by a subcooling zone. All of these zones are characterized by having different
curve slopes, or specific heats, along the process. All of the LNG processes are designed to
closely approach the cooling curve of the gas being liquefied, by using specially mixed
multicomponent refrigerants that will match the cooling curve at the different zones/stages
of the liquefaction process, to achieve high refrigeration efficiency, and reduce energy
consumption.
A number of liquefaction processes have been developed with the differences mainly
residing on the type of refrigeration cycles employed. The most commonly utilized LNG
technologies are described below. As with most process designs, there is a trade-off
between efficiency and capital cost. In addition, considerations such as ease of start-up,
ability to handle feedstock composition changes, and maintenance costs play a role.
(1) Propane Precooled Mixed Refrigerant (PPMR™)/C3 MR Process

REFERENCES
API Specification 12J (2008). Specification for Oil and Gas Separators. Eighth edition.
Washington, API Publishing Services
Eirik S. S. (2009). Separation of Gas from Liquids in Viscous Systems. Norwegian University of
Science and Technology.
Guo B. and Ghalambor A. (2005) Natural Gas Engineering Handbook. Houston: Gulf
Publishing Professional
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separator_(oil_production) [Accessed: 01 June 2017]
Ken A. and Maurice S. (2008). Surface Production Operations: Design of Oil Handling Systems
and Facilities. Second edition. Amsterdam: Gulf Publishing Professional, Elsevier.
Mokhatab S., Poe W. A. and Speight J. G. (2006) Handbook of natural gas transmission and
processing. Amsterdam: Gulf Publishing Professional, Elsevier.
Wang X. and Economides M. (2009) Advanced Natural Gas Engineering. Houston, Gulf
Publishing Company.

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CHE 520

NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 1

CHAPTER 2: NATURAL GAS COMPRESSION

CHAPTER 3: NATURAL GAS PROCESSING AND LIQUEFACTION

 Natural Gas and Liquid Separation

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 2

INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL GAS ENGINEERING

Natural gas is a subcategory of petroleum that is a naturally occurring, complex mixture of

1.2 NATURAL GAS ORIGINS AND ACCUMULATIONS

1.3 NATURAL GAS SOURCES

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 3

Conventional natural gas is either associated or nonassociated gas. Associated or dissolved

1.3.2 Non-associated gas

1.3.3 Gases in Tight Sands

1.3.4 Gases in Tight Shales

1.3.5 Coal Bed Methane

1.4 NATURAL GAS COMPOSITION

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 4

1.5 NATURAL GAS PHASE BEHAVIOR

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 5

1.5.1 Dry- and Wet-Gas Phase Behaviors

1.5.2 Retrograde-Condensate-Gas Phase Behavior

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 6

1.5.3 Associated Gas Phase Behavior

1.6 NATURAL GAS PROPERTIES

1.6.1 Gas Specific Gravity

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 7

Compound Molecular Weight Critical Pressure (psi) Critical Temp. (R)

EXAMPLE 1.1: Gas Gravity

A natural gas consists of the following (molar) composition: C1 = 0.871, C2 = 0.084, C3 =

Therefore, the gas gravity is

1.6.2 Gas Viscosity

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 8

1 𝑐𝑝 = 6.72 × 10−4 𝑙𝑏𝑚⁄𝑓𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Kinematic viscosity is not normally used in natural gas engineering.

where 𝜇𝑔 = dynamic viscosity of gas mixture

𝜇𝑔𝑖 = dynamic viscosity of gas component

𝑦𝑖 = mole fraction or percent of gas component i

𝑀𝑖 = molecular weight of gas component i

EXAMPLE 1.2: Gas Viscosity

Component Mole Fraction y Viscosity, cP Molecular Weight

Calculate the viscosity of the gas mixture

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 9

Component y M 𝑴𝟏⁄𝟐 𝒚𝑴𝟏⁄𝟐 𝝁𝒈 𝝁𝒈 𝒚𝑴𝟏⁄𝟐

The viscosity of the gas mixture is

∑(𝜇𝑔𝑖 𝑦𝑖 √𝑀𝑖 ) 0.0542

1.6.3 Gas Density

𝑝𝑀𝑚 𝑝𝛾𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟 28.97 × 𝑝𝛾𝑔

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 10

Gas expansion factor is defined, in scf/ft3, as:

1.6.5 Compressibility Factor

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 11

1.6.6 Pseudocritical Properties

𝑝𝑝𝑐 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑝𝑐𝑖 (1.14)

𝑇𝑝𝑐 = ∑ 𝑦𝑖 𝑇𝑐𝑖 (1.15)

Pseudo-Critical Properties from Gas Gravity

𝑝𝑝𝑐 = 709.604 − 58.718𝛾𝑔 (1.16)

𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 170.491 + 307.344𝛾𝑔 (1.17)

Course Lecturer: Engr. Iduh O. Donald Page 12