BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow

1
1.0 Traffic Flow Elements
- Flow (q) is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a point on a highway
during a time period less than 1 h.
n x 3600
q = ------------- veh/h (Eq. 3.1)
T

q = the equivalent hourly flow
n = the number of vehicles passing a point in the roadway in T seconds

- Density (k), sometimes referred to as concentration, is the number of vehicles
traveling over a unit length of highway at an instant in time.
n
k = ---- veh/mi (Eq. 3.2)
L
n = number of vehicles traveling over L miles
L = length in mile

- Speed (u) is the distance traveled by a vehicle during a unit of time. There are two
types of mean speeds: time mean speed and space mean speed.
_
- Time mean speed (u
t
) is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point
on a highway during an interval of time.
_ 1 n
u
t
= --- u
i
(Eq. 3.3)
n i=1
n = number of vehicles passing a point on the highway
u
i
= speed of the ith vehicle (ft/sec)
_
- Space mean speed (u
s
) is the harmonic mean of the speeds of vehicles passing a point
on a highway during an interval of time.
_ n n L
u
s
= ------------- = -------- (Eq. 3.4)
n n
(1 / u
i
) t
i

_ i=1 i=1
u
s
= space mean speed (ft/sec)
n = number of vehicles
t
i
= the time it takes the ith vehicle to travel across a section of highway (sec)
u
i
= speed of the ith vehicle (ft/sec)
L = length of section of highway (ft)

- Time headway (h) (in second) is the difference between the time the front of a
vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front of the next vehicle
arrives at that same point.

- Space headway (d) (in feet) is the distance between the frond of a vehicle and the
front of the following vehicle.
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
2
Example 3.1 Determining Flow, Density, Time Mean Speed, and Space Mean Speed

Figure 6.3 shows vehicles traveling at constant speeds on a two-lane highway between
sections X and Y with their positions and speeds obtained at an instant of time by
photography. An observer located at point X observes the four vehicles passing point X
during a period of T sec. The velocities of the vehicles are measured as 45, 45, 40, and 30
mi/h, respectively. Calculate the flow, the density, the time mean speed, and the space mean
speed.

Solution:

Given n = 4
T = T sec
u
i
= 45, 45, 40 & 30 mi/h = 66, 66, 59, 44 ft/sec
L = 300 ft = 300 / 5280 mile
n x 3600 4 x 3600
flow, q = ------------- = ------------ = 14,400 / T veh/h
T T

n 4 x 5280
density, k = ------- = ----------- = 70.4 veh/mi
L 300


_ 1 n 30 + 40 + 45 + 45
time mean speed, u
t
= --- u
i
= ------------------------ = 40 mi/h
n i=1 4

_ n 4
space mean speed, u
s
= --------------- = --------------------------------- = 57 ft/sec
n (1/66 + 1/66 + 1/59 + 1/44)
(1 / u
i
)
i=1















BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
3
2.0 Flow-Density Relationships
- Flow = density x space mean speed
_
q = k x u
s
(Eq. 3.5)

- Space mean speed = flow x space headway
_ _
u
s
= q x d (Eq. 3.6)

_
- d = (1/k) = average space headway (Eq. 3.7)

- density = flow x travel time for unit distance
_ _
k = q x t t is the average time for unit distance. (Eq. 3.8)

- Average space headway = space mean speed x average time headway
_ _ _
d = u
s
x h (Eq. 3.9)

- average time headway = average travel time for unit distance x average space
headway
_ _ _
h = t x d (Eq. 3.10)

2.1 Mathematical Relationships Describing Traffic Flow

2.1.1. Macroscopic Approach

The macroscopic approach considers traffic streams and develops algorithms that relate
the flow to the density and space mean speed.

- Greenshields Model
_ u
f

u
s
= u
f
- ----- k (Eq. 3.11)
k
j


_
From q = u
s
k (Eq. 3.5)
_ _ u
f

u
s
2
= u
f
u
s
- ----- q (Eq. 3.12)
k
j


u
f

and q = u
f
k - ------ k
2
(Eq. 3.13)
k
j

_
Differentiating (Eq. 3.12) q with respect to u
s
,
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
4
_ u
f
dq
2u
s
= u
f
- --- --- (Eq. 3.14)
k
j
du
s


dq k
j
_ k
j
_ k
j

--_--- = u
f
----- - 2u
s
----- = k
j
- 2u
s
-----
du
s
u
f
u
f
u
f



For maximum flow,

dq _ k
j
u
f

--_-- = 0 k
j
= 2u
s
----- u
0
= ----- (Eq. 3.15)
du
s
u
f
2

Differentiating (Eq. 3.13) q with respect to k,

dq u
f

----- = u
f
- 2 k -----
dk k
j


For maximum flow,
dq u
f
k
j

----- = 0 u
f
= 2 k ----- ----- = k
0
(Eq. 3.16)
dk k
j
2

k
j
u
f

q
max
= ------- (Eq. 3.17)
4


- Greenberg Models
_ k
j

u
s
= c ln ----- (Eq. 3.18)
k

_ k
j

u
s
k = q = c k ln ----- (Eq. 3.19)
k

dq k
j

--- = c ln --- - c
dk k

For maximum flow,
dq / dk = 0, ln ( k
j
/ k ) = 1
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
5
From (Eq. 3.19) for ln k
j
/ k
0
= 1 ,

u
0
= c (speed at maximum flow) (Eq. 3.20)


- Model Application

= a + b x (Eq. 3.21)

1 n b n _ _
a = ---
i
- --- x
i
= - b x (Eq. 3.22)
n i =1 n i=1


n 1 n n
x
i

i
- --- ( x
i
) (
i
)
i=1 n i=1 i=1
b = --------------------------------------- (Eq. 3.23)
n 1 n
x
i
2
- --- ( x
i
)
2

i=1 n i=1

n = number of sets of observations
x
i
= ith observation for x

i
= ith observation for

n _ n _ _
(Y
i
- )
2
( x
i

I
- n x )
2

i=1 i=1
R
2
= ----------------- = --------------------------------------------- (Eq. 3.24)
n _ n _ n _
(
i
Y )
2
( x
i

2
- n x
2
) (
i

2
- n
2
)
i=1 i=1 i=1

Y
i
= the value of the dependent variable as computed from the regression equations.

The closer R
2
is to 1, the better the regression fits.











BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
6
Example 3.2 Fitting Speed and Density Data to the Greenshields Model

Used the method of regression analysis, fitted the speed and density data given below to the
macroscopic Greenshields Model to determine the value of R
2
, maximum flow and the
corresponding velocity and density.
Speed, u
s
(mi/h)
53.2 48.1 44.8 40.1 37.3 35.2 34.1 27.2 20.4 17.5 14.6 13.1 11.2 8.0
Density,k
(veh/mi)
20 27 35 44 52 58 60 64 70 75 82 90 100 115

Solution:

From Eq. 3.11,
_ u
f

u
s
= u
f
- ----- k
k
j


Compare with Eq. 3.21,
= a + b x
_
= u
s
a = u
i
, b = - u
f
/ k
j
, x = k

Speed, u
s
(mi/h),

i
2
Density, k
(veh/mi), x
i

x
i

i
x
i
2

53.2 2830.24 20 1064.0 400
48.1 2313.61 27 1298.7 729
44.8 2007.04 35 1568.0 1225
40.1 1608.01 44 1764.4 1936
37.3 1391.29 52 1939.6 2704
35.2 1239.04 58 2041.6 3364
34.1 1162.81 60 2046.0 3600
27.2 739.84 64 1740.8 4096
20.4 416.16 70 1428.0 4900
17.5 306.25 75 1312.5 5625
14.6 213.16 82 1197.2 6724
13.1 171.61 90 1179.0 8100
11.2 125.44 100 1120.0 10000
8.0 64.00 115 920.0 13225
= 404.8 = 14588.50 = 892 = 20619.8 = 66628.0
_ _
= 28.91 x = 63.71



i
= 404.8 x
i
= 892 x
i

i
= 20619.8 x
i
2
= 66628




BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
7
n _ _
( x
i

I
- n x )
2

i=1 (20619.8 14 x 63.71 x 28.91)
2

R
2
=------------------------------------= ------------------------------------------------------- = 0.94
n _ n _ (66628 14 x 63.71
2
) ( 14588.5 14 x 28.91
2
)
( x
i

2
- n x
2
) (
i

2
- n
2
)
i=1 i=1

From Eq.3.23,
n 1 n n
x
i


- --- ( x
i
) (
i
)
i=1 n i=1 i=1 20619.8 (404.8) (892) / 14
b=--------------------------------------- = ----------------------------------- = -0.53
n 1 n 66628 (892)
2
/ 14
x
i
2
- --- ( x
i
)
2

i=1 n i=1

From Eq.3.22,
_ _
a = - b x = 28.91 (-0.53) x 63.71 = 62.68

a = u
i
= 62.68 mi/h,

b = - u
f
/ k
j
= - (-0.53) = 0.53

k
j
= 62.68 / 0.53 = 118 veh/mi

From Eq.3.18,
k
j
u
f
118 x 62.68
Flow maximum, q
max
= ------- = ------------------ = 1849 veh/h
4 4

From Eq.3.15,

Velocity at maximum flow = u
f
/ 2 = 62.68 / 2 = 31.34 mi/h

From Eq.3.16,

Dencity at maximum flow = k
j
/ 2 = 118 / 2 = 59 veh/h









BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
8
Example 3.3 Fitting Speed and Density Data to the Greenberg Model

Used the method of regression analysis, fitted the speed and density data given below to the
macroscopic Greenberg Model to determine the value of R
2
and the maximum flow.

Speed, u
s
(mi/h)
53.2 48.1 44.8 40.1 37.3 35.2 34.1 27.2 20.4 17.5 14.6 13.1 11.2 8.0
Density,k
(veh/mi)
20 27 35 44 52 58 60 64 70 75 82 90 100 115

Solution:

From Eq.3.18,
_ k
j

u
s
= c ln ----- = c ln k
j
- c ln k
k

Compare with Eq. 3.21,
= a + b x
_
= u
s
a = c ln k
j
, b = - c, x = ln k
Speed, u
s

(mi/h),
i

i
2
Density, k
(veh/mi),
ln k,
x
i

x
i

i
x
i
2

53.2 2830.24 20 2.995732 159.3730 8.974412
48.1 2313.61 27 3.295837 158.5298 10.86254
44.8 2007.04 35 3.555348 159.2796 12.64050
40.1 1608.01 44 3.784190 151.746 14.32009
37.3 1391.29 52 3.951244 147.3814 15.61233
35.2 1239.04 58 4.060443 142.9276 16.48720
34.1 1162.81 60 4.094344 139.6171 16.76365
27.2 739.84 64 4.158883 113.1216 17.29631
20.4 416.16 70 4.248495 86.66929 18.04971
17.5 306.25 75 4.317488 75.55605 18.64071
14.6 213.16 82 4.406719 64.33811 19.41917
13.1 171.61 90 4.499810 58.94750 20.24828
11.2 125.44 100 4.605170 51.57791 21.20759
8.0 64.00 115 4.744932 37.95946 22.51438
= 404.8 = 14588.50 = 892 = 56.71864 = 1547.024 = 233.0369
_ _
= 28.91 x = 4.05

n _ _
( x
i

I
- n x )
2

i=1 (1547.02 14 x 4.05 x 28.91)
2

R
2
=------------------------------------= ------------------------------------------------------- = 0.86
n _ n _ (233.04 14 x 4.05
2
) ( 14588.5 14 x 28.91
2
)
( x
i

2
- n x
2
) (
i

2
- n
2
)
i=1 i=1
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
9
From Eq.3.23,
n 1 n n
x
i


- --- ( x
i
) (
i
)
i=1 n i=1 i=1 1547.02 (56.72) (404.8) / 14
b=----------------------------------= -------------------------------------------- = -28.68
n 1 n 233.04 (56.72)
2
/ 14
x
i
2
- --- ( x
i
)
2

i=1 n i=1

From Eq.3.22,
_ _
a = - b x = 28.91 (-28.68) x 4.05 = 145.06


b = - c = - 28.68 c = 28.68

a = c ln k
j

145.06 = 28.68 ln k
j

ln k
j
= 145.06 / 28.68 = 5.06 k
j
= 157 veh/mi

From Eq.3.20,

Velocity at maximum flow, u
0
= c = 28.68 mi/h

For maximum flow, ln (k
j
/ k
0
) = 1

ln k
j
= 1 + ln k
0

5.06 = 1 + ln k
0


k
0
= 58.0

From Eq.3.19,

Maximum flow,

q
max
= c k
0
= 28.68 x 58.0 = 1663 veh/h


2.1.2 Microscopic Approach
The microscopic approach, which is sometimes referred to as the car-following theory or the
follow-the-leader theory, considers spacing between and speeds of individual vehicles.




BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
10
3.0 Shock Waves In Traffic Streams
- The fundamental diagram of traffic flow for two adjacent sections of a highway with
different capacities (maximum flows) is shown in Figure 6.8.
- This figure describes the phenomenon of backups and queuing on a highway due to a
sudden reduction of the capacity of the highway (bottleneck condition).
- The sudden reduction in capacity could be due to accidents, reduction in the number
of lanes, restricted bridge sizes, work zones, a signal turning red, and so forth,
creating a situation where the capacity on the highway suddenly changes from C
1
to a
lower value of C
2
, with a corresponding change in optimum density from k
0
a
to a
value of k
0
b
.
- This phenomenon is usually referred to as a shock wave in the traffic stream.

- k
1
> k
2
are densities of traffic.
- u
1
= space mean speed of vehicle in the area with density k
1
at section P.
- u
2
= space mean speed of vehicle in the area with density k
2
at section Q.
- u
w
= shock wave moving speed of vehicle

at separated line W.
- u
r1
= speed of vehicle in the area at section P relative to the line W,
u
r1
= (u
1
u
w
)
- u
r2
= speed of vehicle in the area

at section Q relative to the line w,
u
r2
= (u
2
u
w
)
- N
1
= the number of vehicles crossing line w from area P during a time period t.
N
1
= u
r1
k
1
t
- N
2
= the number of vehicles crossing line w from area Q during a time period t.
N
2
= u
r2
k
2
t
- q
1
= flow rate in section P = k
1
u
1

- q
2
= flow rate in section Q = k
2
u
2

- Since the net change is zero, N
1
= N
2

(u
1
u
w
) k
1
t = (u
2
u
w
) k
2
t
u
w
(k
2
k
1
) = k
2
u
2
k
1
u
1


k
2
u
2
k
1
u
1
q
2
q
1

u
w
= -------------- = --------- (Eq.3.25)
k
2
k
1
k
2
k
1


= slope of the line CD shown in Figure 6.8.
This indicates that the velocity of the shock wave created by a sudden change of density from
k
1
to k
2
on a traffic stream is the slope of the chord joining the points associated with k
1
and k
2

on the volume density curve for that traffic stream.
Movement of Shock Wave Due to Change in Densities
k
1

k
2

P W Q
u
2

u
1
u
w

BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
11
Example 3.4: Length of Queue Due to a Moving Shock Wave

The volume at a section of a two-lane highway is 1500 veh/h in each direction, and the
density is about 25 veh/mi. A large dump truck loaded with soil from an adjacent
construction site joins the traffic stream and travels at a speed of 10 mi/h for a length of 2.5
mi along the upgrade before turning off onto a dump site. Due to the relatively high flow in
the opposite direction, it is impossible for any car to pass the truck, which results in the
formation of a platoon having a density of 100 veh/mi and a flow of 1000 veh/h. determine
how many vehicles will be in the platoon by the time the truck leaves the highway.

Solution:

Given q
1
= 1500 veh/h k
1
= 25 veh/mi
q
2
= 1000 veh/h k
2
= 100 veh/mi u
2
= 10 mi/h d
2
= 2.5 mi



q
2
q
1
1000 - 1500
u
w
= --------- = --------------- = - 6.7 mi/h
k
2
k
1
100 25

u
r2
= (u
2
u
w
) = 10 (-6.7) = 16.7 mi/h

the time spent by the truck on the = 2.5 / 10 = 0.25 hrs

the length of platoon = 0.25 x 16.7 = 4.2 miles

the number of vehicles in the platoon = 100 x 4.2 = 420 vehicles.





















BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
12
3.1.Special Cases of Shock Wave Propagation _
- (q
2
q
1
) = q, (k
2
k
1
) = k, q = ku
s


_ _
- q dq d (ku
s
) _ d u
s

u
w
= ----- = ----- = -------- = u
s
+ k ----- (Eq.3.26)
k, dk dk dk


- normalized density,
i
= k
i
/ k
j


- _ k
i

u
si
= u
f
( 1 - ----- ) = u
f
( 1 -
i
) (Eq.3.27)
k
j

- k
2
k
1

[ k
2
u
f
( 1 - ----- ) ] - [ k
1
u
f
( 1 - ----- ) ]
k
j
k
j

u
w
= --------------------------------------------------
k
2
k
1



[ k
2
u
f
( 1 2) ] - [ k
1
u
f
( 1
1
) ]
u
w
= --------------------------------------------------
k
2
k
1


u
f
(k
2
- k
1
) - k
2
u
f
2 + k
1
u
f

1

u
w
= --------------------------------------------------
k
2
k
1



u
f

u
f
(k
2
- k
1
) ----- ( k
2
2
k
1
2
)
k
j

u
w
= ------------------------------------------
k
2
k
1


u
f

u
f
(k
2
- k
1
) ----- ( k
2
k
1
) ( k
2
+ k
1
)
k
j

u
w
= -------------------------------------------------
k
2
k
1

u
w
= u
f
[ 1 (
1
+
2
) ] (Eq.3.28)




BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
13
- Density Nearly Equal
When there is only a small difference between k
1
and k
2
(
1
~
2
)
u
w
= u
f
[ 1 (
1
+
2
) ] = u
f
[ 1 2
1
] (Eq.3.29)


- Stopping Waves
u
w
= u
f
[ 1 (
1
+ 1 ) ] = u
f

1
(Eq.3.30)

- Starting Waves
u
w
= u
f
[ 1 (1

+
2
) ] = u
f

2
(Eq.3.31)

_
u
s2
= u
f
( 1 -
2
)

_
u
w
= u
f
+ u
s2


Example 3.5: Length of Queue Due to a Stopping Shock Wave

Studies have shown that the traffic flow on a single-lane approach to a signalized inter-
section can be described by the Greenshields model. If the jam density on the approach is
130 veh/mi, determine the velocity of the stopping wave when the approach signal changes to
red if the density on the approach is 45 veh/mi and the space mean speed is 40 mi/h. At the
end of the red interval, what length of the approach upstream from the stop line will vehicles
be affected if the red interval is 35 sec?

Solution:
_
Given k
j
= 130 veh/mi k = 45 veh/mi u
s
= 40 mi/h

_ k
u
s
= u
f
( 1 - ----- )
k
j


45
40 = u
f
( 1 ------ )
130

u
f
= 61.2 mi/h

u
w
= u
f

2
= - 61.2 x ( 45 / 130 ) = - 21.2 mi/h

Since u
w
is negative, the wave moves upstream.

Approach length that will be affected in 35 sec = 21.2 x 1.47 x 35 = 1090.7 ft


BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
14
4.0 Gap and Gap Acceptance
- Merging is the process by which a vehicle in one traffic stream joins another traffic
stream moving in the same direction, such as a ramp vehicle joining a freeway stream.

- Diverging is the process by which a vehicle in a traffic stream leaves that traffic
stream, such as a vehicle leaving the outside lane of an expressway.

- Weaving is the process by which a vehicle first merges into a stream of traffic,
obliquely crosses that stream, and then merges into a second stream moving in the
same direction; for example, the maneuver required for a ramp vehicle to join the far
side stream of flow on an expressway.

- Gap is the headway in a major stream, which is evaluated by a vehicle driver in a
minor stream who wishes to merge into the major stream. It is expressed either in
units of time (time gap) or in units of distance (space gap).

- Time lag is the difference between the time a vehicle that merges into a main stream
reaches a point on the highway in the area of merge and the time a vehicle in the main
stream reaches the same point.

- Space lag is the difference, at an instant of time, between the distance a merging
vehicle is away from a reference point in the area of merge and the distance a vehicle
in the main stream is away from the same point.

- The use of gap acceptance to determine the delay of vehicles in minor streams
wishing to merge onto major streams requires a knowledge of the frequency of
arrivals of gaps that are at least equal to the critical gap. This in turn depends on the
distribution of arrivals of main stream vehicles at the area of merge. It is usually
assumed that for light-to-medium traffic the distribution is Poisson, although
assumptions of gamma and exponential distributions have also been made.

- u
x
e
-u

P(x) = ---------- for x = 0, 1, 2, ., (Eq.3.32)
x!

P(x) = the probability of x vehicles arriving in time t sec
u = average number of vehicles arriving in time t

- = V / T u = t

V = total number of vehicles arriving in time T sec
= average number of vehicles arriving per second

- ( t )
x
e
- t

P(x) = -------------- for x = 0, 1, 2, ., (Eq.33)
x!

BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
15
- The minor stream vehicle will merge into the main stream flow only if
there is a gap of t sec equal to or greater than its critical gap (no
vehicles arrive). The probability of this is the probability of zero
cars arriving.

P(0) = P(h > t) = e
- t
for t > 0 (Eq.3.34)

P(h < t) = 1 - e
- t
for t > 0 (Eq.3.35)

P(h < t) + P(h > t) = 1

- Let T = 1 hr, V is volume in veh/h on the main stream,

The expected number of gaps greater or equal to t,
Freq. (h > t) = (V 1) e
- t
(Eq.3.36)

The expected number of gaps less than t,
Freq. (h < t) = (V 1) (1 - e
- t
) (Eq.3.37)

- For heavy traffic, the arrival of main stream vehicle can not be
described by a Poisson distribution.

P(h > t) = e
-(t - t)
for t > 0 (Eq.3.38)

P(h < t) = 1 - e
- (t -t)
for t > 0 (Eq.3.39)

t = minimum headway introduced

Example 3.6: Number of Acceptable Gaps for Vehicles on an Expressway Ramp

The peak hour volume on an expressway at the vicinity of the merging area of an on-ramp
was determined to be 1800 veh/h. If it is assumed that the arrival of expressway vehicles can
be described by a Poisson distribution, and the critical gap for merging vehicles is 3.5 sec,
determine the expected number of acceptable gaps for ramp vehicles that will occur on the
expressway during the peak hour.

Solution:

Given V = 1800 veh/h t = 3.5 sec T = 1hr = 3600 sec

= V / T = 1800 / 3600 = 0.5 veh/sec

The expected number of acceptable gaps in 1 hr, (h > t) = (V 1) e
- t

= (1800 1) e
-(0.5 x 3.5)
= 1799 e
-1.75
= 312
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
16

Example 3.7: Number of Acceptable Gaps with a Restrictive Range, for Vehicles on an
Expressway Ramp

The peak hour volume on an expressway at the vicinity of the merging area of an on-ramp
was determined to be 1800 veh/h. Using a minimum gap in the expressway traffic stream of
1.0 sec, and the critical gap for merging vehicles is 3.5 sec, determine the expected number of
acceptable gaps for ramp vehicles that will occur on the expressway during the peak hour.

Solution:
Given V = 1800 veh/h t = 3.5 sec T = 1hr = 3600 sec t = 1.0 sec

= V / T = 1800 / 3600 = 0.5 veh/sec

The expected number of acceptable gaps in 1 hr, P(h > t) = e
-(t - t) t

= (1800 1) e
-0.5 (3.5 - 1)
= 1799 e
-0.5 X 2.5
= 515

5.0 Queuing Theory
- Arrival Distribution. The arrivals can be described as either a deterministic
distribution or a random distribution. Light-to-medium traffic is usually described by
a Poisson distribution, and this is generally used in queuing theories related to traffic
flow.

- Service Method. Queues can also be classified by the method used in servicing the
arrivals. These include first come-first serve, where units are served in order of their
arrivals, and last in-first served, where the service is reversed to the order of arrival.
The service method can also be based on priority, where arrivals are directed to
specific queues of appropriate priority levels for example, giving priority to buses.
Queues are then serviced in order of their priority level.
- Characteristic of the Queue Length. The maximum length of the queue, that is, the
maximum number or units in the queue, is specified, in which case the queue is a
finite or truncated queue, or else there may be no restriction on the length of the queue.
Finite queues are sometimes necessary when the waiting area is limited.

- Service Distribution. This distribution is also usually considered as random, and the
Poisson and negative exponential distributions have been used.

- Number of Channels. The number of channels usually corresponds to the number of
waiting lines and is therefore used to classify queues, for example, as a single-channel
or multi-channel queue.

- Oversaturated and Undersaturated Queues. Oversaturated queues are those in
which the arrival rate is grater than the service rate, and undersaturated queues are
those in which the arrival rate is less than the service rate. The length of an
undersaturated queue may vary but will reach a steady state with the arrival of units.
The length of an oversaturated queue, however, will never reach a steady state but
will continue to increase with the arrival of units.
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
17



Rate of arrival Rate of service

q veh/h Q veh/h Q > q
Queue Service
area

Figure 3.1: A Single-Channel, Undersaturated Queue


5.1 Single-Channel, Undersaturated, Infinite Queues

- Probability of n units in the system,
q
P(n) = ( q / Q )
n
( 1 --- ) (Eq.3.40)
Q
n = number of units in the system, including the unit being serviced.
- The expected number of units in the system,
q
E(n) = --------- (Eq.3.41)
Q q

- The expected number of units waiting to be served (the mean queue length) in the
system,
q
2

E(m) = -------------- (Eq.3.42)
Q ( Q q )

- Average waiting time in the queue,
q
E(w) = --------------- (Eq.3.43)
Q ( Q q )

- Average waiting time of an arrival, including queue and service,
1
E(v) = ---------- (Eq.3.44)
Q q

- Probability of spending time t or less in the system,

P(v s t) = 1 e
(1- q/Q) q t
(Eq.3.45)


- Probability of waiting for time t or less in the queue,

P(w s t) = 1 (q/Q) e
(1- q/Q) q t
(Eq.3.46)
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
18


- Probability of more than N vehicles being in the system,

P(n >N) = (q/Q)
N + 1
(Eq.3.47)

5.2 Single-Channel, Undersaturated, Finite Queues

In the case of a finite queue, the maximum number of units in the system is specified.
- Probability of n units in the system
1 - p
P(n) = ------------ p
n
(Eq.3.48)
1 - p
N + 1


- The expected number of units in the system
p 1 (N + 1)p
N
+ Np
N + 1

E(n) = -------- ------------------------------ (Eq.3.49)
1 - p 1 - p
N + 1


N = maximum number of unit in the system
p= q / Q
q = rate of arrival
Q = service rate






Example 3.8: Application of the Single-Channel, Undersaturated, Infinite Queue Theory to a
Tollbooth Operation

On a given day, 425 vehicles per hour arrive at a toolbooth located at the end of an off-ramp
of a rural expressway. If the vehicles can be serviced by only a single channel at the service
rate of 625 veh/h, determine (a) the percentage of time the operator of the toolbooth will be
free. (b) the average number of vehicles in the system, and (c) the average waiting time for
the vehicles that wait.(Assume Poisson arrival and negative exponential service time.)

Solution:

Given q = 425 veh/h Q = 625 veh/h

(a). For the operator to be free, the number of vehicles in the system must be zero.

P(n) = ( q / Q )
n
( 1 q/Q )

P(0) = ( 425 / 625 )
0
( 1 425 / 625 ) = 0.32 = 32%
BEC 209 TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 3: Traffic Flow
19

(b). E(n) = q / (Q q) = 425 / (625 425) = 2.125 ~ 2

(c). E(v) = 1/(Qq) = 1/(625425) = 0.005 hr = 18 sec


Example 3.9: Application of the Single-Channel, Undersaturated, Finite Queue Theory to an
Expressway Ramp

The number of vehicles that can enter the on-ramp of an expressway is controlled by a
metering system, which allows a maximum of 10 vehicles to be on the ramp at any one time.
If the vehicle can enter the expressway at a rate of 500 veh/h and the rate of arrival of
vehicles at the on-ramp is 400 veh/h during the peak hour, determine (a) the probability of 5
cars being on the on-ramp, (b) the percent ot time the ramp is full, and (c) the expected
number of vehicles on the ramp during the peak hour.

Solution:

Given N = 10 Q = 500 veh/h q = 400 veh.h p = q / Q = 400 / 500 = 0.8

(a). P(5) = (1 0.8) 0.8
5
/ (1 0.8
(10+1)
) = 0.072

(b). P(10) = (1 0.8) 0.8
10
/ (1 0.8
(10+1)
) = 0.023 = 2.3%

(c). 0.8 1 (10 + 1)0.8
10
+ 10 x 0.8
10 + 1

E(n) = ---------- ------------------------------------------ = 2.97 = 3 vehicles
1 0.8 1 0.8
10 + 1