Interaction of ionizing radiation with

matter and the physics of radiology

Taweap Sanghangthum, PhD

Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine

Chulalongkorn University!
 Objectives

•  To review the basic physics and x-rays

production
•  To understand the most important interaction
processes between radiation and matter
–  Photoelectric effect
–  Compton Scattering
–  Pair Production
 Atomic and Nuclear Structure
Basic definitions for atomic structure
•  The constituent particles forming
an atom are: - Proton
- Neutron
- Electron

Protons and neutrons are known as nucleons and form the

nucleus.
 Electron Shells

•  Represent the energy level

•  Max. no. of e- in each shell
based upon 2n2
• K shell: Shell #1 = 2 electrons (innermost)
• L shell: Shell #2 = 8 electrons (2)(2)2
• M shell: Shell #3 = 18 electrons (2)(3)2
• Q shell: Shell # 7 = 98 electrons (2)(7)2
 Atomic and Nuclear Structure
Standard atomic notation

A 14
Z
X e.g......... C
6

X = Element symbol
A = Mass number or Atomic mass
= number of nucleons (Z+N) in an atom,
Z = Atomic number
= Number of protons in an atom
N = Number of neutrons in an atom (A-Z).
 Atomic and Nuclear Structure

•  Isotope – nuclides with identical Z (proton, P)

14 16
O
8 8
O
•  Isobar – nuclides with identical A (Z+N)
14 14 14
6
C 7
N 8
O
•  Isotone – nuclides with identical N
12 14
5
B 7
N
•  Isomer – same nuclides with different energy E (higher
energy in metastable state, m)
131 131m
54
Xe 54
Xe
 Chart of Nuclei

Proton มากเกิน'
Three Common Types of Radioactive Emissions

Alpha Beta
4 0
α −1
β
2

Gamma
Penetrating power of most common radiations

Short range; very safe from

external, while most
hazard from internal
 Radioactivity (A)

− λt
A = A0e
−0.693t
T1/2
A = A0e

The half-life, T1/2 (median lifetime) is the time required for

½ of the radioactive atoms to decay
10!
 Radioactivity (A)
The mean life, τ (average lifetime) is the expected life for
the radioactive atom

The relationship btw mean life and half-life is

T1/2
τ= = 1.44T1/2
ln 2

Ex. If a radioactive source has 100 min half-life, what is

the mean life?.........144 min 11!
 Radioactivity (A)
•  is the process by which a
nucleus of an unstable
atom losses energy by
emitting radiation

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration per second (dps)

•  Si unit is Becquerel (1 Bq = 1 dps)

1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
12!
 Exposure; X

dQ charge (C)!
X= mass (kg)!
dm
•  Total charge of one sign!
•  Form X or γ-ray!
•  E < 3 MeV!
•  measure in air under STP condition !
-4
1 R = 2.58 x 10 C/kg
 Absorbed dose; D
is the mean energy imparted
by ionizing radiation to
dε (J ) matter per unit mass
D= •  For any radiation type
dm(kg) •  In medium
•  All energy range

1 Gy = 1 J/kg
1 Gy = 100 rad (radiation absorbed dose)
1 rad = 100 ergs/gram
 Protection Quantities

- Equivalent dose
- Effective dose
 Equivalent dose; HT & Effective dose; E

•  Measured in living tissue

•  Unit in Joule per kilogram
•  Special SI unit of Sievert; Sv

1 Sv = 1 J/kg
•  The previous unit in
Roentgen equivalent man; rem
1 Sv = 100 rem
 Equivalent dose; HT
Consider the biological
damage on radiation type Type and Energy WR
X and gamma rays 1
H T = ∑ (WR × DT ,R ) Electron 1
Neutron
Where <10 keV 5
•  HT = equivalent dose of 10 keV - 100 keV 10
tissue T (Sv or rem) 100 keV - 2 MeV 20
•  WR = Radiation weighting 2 MeV - 20 MeV 10
factor that depends on RBE > 20 MeV 5
of each radiation type Proton (E > 2 MeV) 5
•  DT,R = Average adsorbed Alpha and heavy nuclei 20
dose in tissue T (Gy or rad)
 Equivalent dose; HT
ICRP 103
 Effective dose; E
•  Consider the radiation sensitivity on each tissue

E = ∑ (WT × H T )

Where
•  E = Effective dose for whole body (Sv or rem)
•  WT = Tissue weighting factor
•  HT = Equivalent dose (Sv or rem)
Tissue weighting factor (WT) table
103 WT sum up to 1.0

They are the same for

children and adults !!
Interaction of Radiation with Matter

X-rays production

1.  Bremsstrahlung (Continuous x-rays)

2.  Characteristics x-rays
Interaction of Radiation with Matter

Bremsstrahlung production

radiative energy loss (E) by electrons slowing

down on passage through a material

⇒ is the deceleration of the incident electron by

the nuclear Coulomb field
⇒ radiation energy (E) (photon) is emitted.
Electrons Strike the Nucleus

Emax
 Bremsstrahlung Production
•  With materials of high atomic number
–  the energy loss is higher
•  The energy loss by Bremsstrahlung
–  > 99% of kinetic E loss as heat production, it
increases with increasing electron energy
•  X-rays are dominantly
produced by Bremsstrahlung
Spectral Distribution of Characteristic X Rays

•  Starts with ejection of e- mainly from K shell (also

possible for L, M,…) by ionization
•  e- from L or M shell fall into the vacancy created in the
K shell
•  Energy difference is emitted as photons
•  A sequence of successive electron transitions between
energy levels
•  Energy of emitted photons is characteristic of the atom
Spectral Distribution of Characteristic X Rays

Energy
(eV)
100 Kα1

80
- 20 P 6
- 70 O 5
N 60 Kα2
- 590 4 Kβ1
- 2800 M 3
- 11000 40
L 2 Lα Lβ
Lγ Kβ2
- 69510 20
K
0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(keV)
The Resulting X-ray Spectrum

Characteristic
X Rays
Bremsstrahlung
Spectrum after
filtration

Maximum electron energy

 X-ray & Gamma-ray Interaction
•  X- or γ rays can interact by several different mechanism

- Coherent scattering
- Photoelectric absorption Diagnostic X-ray
- Compton scattering
- Pair production
Therapeutic X-ray beam
- Photodisintrigration

The possibilities can be depicted as

e-µx = (e-ωx)Ÿ(e-τx)Ÿ (e-σx)Ÿ (e-κx)Ÿ (e-πx)
= e-(ω+τ+σ+κ+π)x
 Coherent (Rayleigh) scattering
•  Photon energy smaller than BE
•  No significant loss of energy
•  No absorption, only scatter
•  Not occur in high E interacting with low Z (tissue)

Z2
Probability ∝
E
 Photoelectric Interactions

-  When an incident photon ejects an electron, the process

is called “photoelectric” effect.
-  It is a photon-electron interaction rather than a charged
particle interaction.
 Photoelectric Interactions

•  Transfer the total energy of photon to inner electron of an atom

•  The electron is ejected from atom with kinetic E the overcome
binding energy

Ek = hν – Eb

- Eb is binding energy of ejected electron

 Electron Binding Energy

• Maintains electrons in their shells

• Dependent upon:
• Proximity to nucleus
• Higher BE closer to nucleus
• Total # electrons in the atom
• Higher BE in larger atoms
• Most of the BE comes from the force of
attraction between the electrons and protons
 Photoelectric Interactions
•  since an electron has been ejected, a vacancy exists in
the K shell and thus one or more characteristic x-rays
will be produced as the vacancy is filled by electrons
from higher orbits.
 Photoelectric Interactions

•  Low E photon small angle

•  Vacancies are filled by cascading electron

emission of characteristic photons

energies < 0.5 keV

possible to produce Auger electron

Immediately
absorbed in tissue
 Photoelectric Interactions

Example
What is the kinetic energy of a photoelectron ejected
from the K shell of the lead (Eb = 88 keV) by
photoelectric absorption of a 200 keV photon?

Ek = hν – Eb
= 200 keV – 88 keV
= 112 keV
 Photoelectric Interactions

•  Involve only bound electrons 3

τ Z
•  Increase in likelihood with z3 α 3
•  Decrease in likelihood with (hν)3 ρ E
•  > 80% in tissue involve K electron

•  main source of radiographic

contrast, and why Lead is
used in protection
 Compton Interactions

–  Compton scattering occurs when the incident x-ray

photon is deflected from its original path by an
interaction with an electron.

–  The electron is ejected from its orbital position and the

x-ray photon loses energy because of the interaction
but continues to travel through the material along an
altered path.
 Compton Interactions
•  30 keV – 30 MeV X- or γ ray Compton scattering
•  Part of photon energy is transferred to loosely bound e-

ϕ
θ

•  The e- emitted at an angle ϕ

•  The photon less E & scattered at an angle θ
 Compton Interactions

•  The energy change depends on the angle of

scattering and not on the nature of the
scattering medium.

•  Since the scattered x-ray photon has less

energy, it has a longer wavelength and less
penetrating than the incident photon.
 Compton Interactions
•  From the conservation of energy and momentum law

hν 0 = E + hν '
1 ϕ
hν ' = hν 0
1+ α (1− cosθ ) θ
α (1− cosθ )
E = hν 0
1+ α (1− cosθ )

Where hν0, hν’, and E are energy of incident photon, scattered photon, and e-
α = hν0/m0c2 ; m0c2 = rest energy of electron = 0.511 MeV
 Compton Interactions
•  Because interact W free e-, the interaction is Z independent
•  Compton mass atten. coef. varies directly W e- density (material
has higher ρe provides higher e- concentration)

•  Image acquired from diagnostic range is high contrast

•  Image acquired from RT range is low contrast
kV image MV image
Variation of attenuation with atomic number

energy
 Pair Production
•  Photon converted into two particles (energy into mass)
- electron (-)
- positron (+)

•  The rest mass energy of a positive or negative electron

is 0.511 MeV
 Pair Production
•  To create a pair, photon must have > 2me = 1.022 MeV

•  If the photon energy = 1.02 MeV, all of it is used to

create the rest mass energy of the two particles so that
the particles remain at rest and soon recombine.

•  If, however, the photon energy > 1.02 MeV, the excess
energy is given to the particles as kinetic energy which
permits them to travel at some velocity away from the
point of creation.
 Pair Production

•  This interaction occurs near the nucleus of atom

•  Increase in likelihood with Z and photon energy
•  Complete disappearance of photon
•  Appear the pair of electrons (negative and positive)
 Pair Production
•  Pair production is the dominant photon interaction at high
energies (> 10 MeV)
•  A positron cannot exist at rest. It combines with an electron.
The two particles annihilate each other converting mass
back into energy.
•  The positron will typically annihilate
with an electron producing two annihilation
photons of energy me (0.511 MeV) each
PET Scan
 Triple Production
•  Sometime, pair production occurs near an electron

•  It creates two negative and one positive electrons

•  The threshold energy is twice (2.04 MeV)

 Photodisintrigration
•  For very high energy (>10 MV)

•  Interact with nucleus

•  Rarely occurs in tissue but can take place in shielding

material around linear accelerator

•  It can eject neutrons and gamma rays

Relative important of the three principle interactions of X and gamma rays
Variables that Influence Principal Modes of Interaction of X and Gamma Rays

Dependence of Linear Attenuation Coefficient on

Mode of Photon Atomic Electron Physical

Interaction Energy hν Number Z Density ρe Density ρ

Photoelectric 1/hν3 Z3 - ρ

ρ
Compton 1/hν - ρe

hν
Pair
(>1.02 MeV) Z - ρ
production
Thank You for
Your Attention