Gamma Rays: Radiation, dangerous

X-ray: Radiation, dangerous: core-level, atomic resonances: inner shell electrons

UV: Fluorescence, sun burn: atomic resonances: outer-most shell electrons
Visible: ROYGBIV (700-400nm): optical: atomic resonances: outer-most shell electrons
IR: Thermal: Molecular resonances
Microwave: Chemical Processes: Molecular resonances
 Interference and Diffraction

- dsin=n
- Diffraction grating
- -> resolution
- -> wavelength measurements
- -> sin− d~2 or 
- Visible light
- Short wavelength light
- (X-ray):  0.1nm
- -> 1nm separation (grating), atomic spacing
- Solid sample: periodic arrangement of atoms

!! Angle  wrt the surface not the normal

Diffraction: x-ray/neutron/electron
Some Basics
❑ For electromagnetic radiation to be diffracted* the spacing in the grating (~a series
of obstacles or a series of scatterers) should be of the same order as the
wavelength.
❑ In crystals the typical interatomic spacing ~ 2-3 Å** → so the suitable radiation
for the diffraction study of crystals is X-rays.
❑ Hence, X-rays are used for the investigation of crystal structures.
❑ Neutrons and Electrons are also used for diffraction studies from materials.
❑ Neutron diffraction is especially useful for studying the magnetic ordering in
materials.
Generation of X-rays
❑ X-rays can be generated by decelerating electrons.
❑ Hence, X-rays are generated by bombarding a target (say Cu) with an electron beam.
❑ The resultant spectrum of X-rays generated (i.e. X-rays versus Intensity plot). The pattern
shows intense peaks on a ‘broad’ background.
❑ The intense peaks can be ‘thought of’ as monochromatic radiation and be used for X-ray
diffraction studies.

Beam of electrons X-rays

Target

An accelerating (or decelerating) charge radiates electromagnetic radiation

X-rays Tube Schematic
 Generation of X-rays
c • X-rays may be described as
= (1)
waves and particles, having
 both wavelength () and
energy (E)
• Substituting (1) into (2) yields
E = h (2) (3), the relationship between
wavelength and energy.
• In (4) all constants are
hc substituted
E= (3)

 • In the equations at left:

– E is the energy of the electron flux in KeV
– h is Planck’s constant (4.135 x 10-15 eVs)
– v is the frequency
12.398
E= (4) – c is the speed of light (3 x 1018 Å/s)
–  is the wavelength in Å

 Continuous Spectrum
• X-rays are produced whenever matter is irradiated with a
beam of high-energy charged particles or photons
• In an x-ray tube, the interactions are between the
electrons and the target. Since energy must be conserved,
the energy loss from the interaction results in the release
of x-ray photons
• The energy (wavelength) will be equal to the energy loss .
• This process generates a broad band of continuous
radiation (a.k.a. bremsstrahlung or white radiation)
 Generating Characteristic Radiation
• The photoelectric effect is
responsible for generation of
characteristic x-rays.
Qualitatively here’s what is
happening:
– An incoming high-energy
photoelectron disloges a k-shell
electron in the target, leaving a
vacancy in the shell
– An outer shell electron then
“jumps” to fill the vacancy
L-shell to K-shell jump produces
– A characteristic x-ray (equivalent
a K x-ray
to the energy change in the
M-shell to K-shell jump produces
“jump”) is generated
a K x-ray
- X-ray photons interact with electron clouds of an atom
- Electron clouds are not points in space, but possess a finite
size of the same magnitude as the x-ray wavelength
- Electrons are spread in space and consequently not all are s
scattering in phase, the scattering amplitude will vary with 2q
- Atomic scattering factor (ratio of the amplitude scattered by an
atom to that scattered by a single electron) fall off with (sinq)/l
- As a consequence, the Bragg peaks at higher angles will generally
exhibit a lower intensity compared to those at lower angles
 X-ray Diffraction Patterns

Liquid / Powder /
Gas Single crystal
amorphous polycrystalline
Extracting Information from a diffraction pattern

Whole pattern → Phase identification, quantitative analysis

Peak position → Lattice parameters

Peak width → Crystallite size & strain

Diffraction %Crystallinity
Amorphous scattering

Background
 Photoelectric Effect

- Electrons could be ejected from the clean surface of a metal if irradiated with light.
- Electrons could only be ejected when the frequency of the incident light was greater than some threshold frequency
- The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons increased with increasing frequency of the incident light.
- The electrons in the metal had a certain amount of binding energy keeping them bound. Thus, the incident light
needed to have more energy than the binding energy in order to free the electrons.
- According to classical wave theory, a wave’s energy depends on its intensity (which depends on its amplitude), not
its frequency.
- Therefore, if the photoelectric effect were to be explained in terms of classical wave theory, changing the intensity
of the incident light should have determined whether electrons could be ejected, not the frequency.
- Therefore, a pure classical wave theory explanation of the photoelectric effect was not possible.
- Light striking the metal surface should not be viewed as a wave (as in the view of classical wave theory), but
instead as a stream of particles (later called photons)
- Whose energy depends on their frequency according to the equation, E = hν (where h is a fundamental physical
constant known as Planck’s constant, 6.626 × 10-34 J·s).
- Another common form of this equation is in terms of wavelength using c = νλ, E = hc/λ (the E in these equations is
the energy for a single photon). Einstein explained that electrons were ejected when hit by photons having
sufficient energy (a frequency greater than the threshold).
- The greater the frequency of the incident photon (and thus the greater the energy of the photon), the greater the
kinetic energy imparted to the escaping electrons.
- If we think of light consisting of photons, then the intensity of light depends on the number of photons striking the
surface times the energy per photon, as opposed to the amplitude of the incoming wave.
- This explains why the number of ejected electrons increased with increasing intensity of incident light, since the
greater the number of incoming photons, the greater the likelihood that they would collide with some of the
electrons.
- Each metal has a particular electrostatic attraction for its electrons that must be overcome before an electron
can be emitted from its surface. This value is called the binding energy (EBE).
- If photons of light with energy less than EBE strike a metal surface, no single photon has enough energy to
eject an electron, so no electrons are emitted regardless of the intensity of the light.
- This is an important observation since it showed that the energy of the photons was quantized, or had discrete
amounts of energy, and could not be added together to eject a single electron.
- One photon could eject, at most, one electron.
- If a photon with energy greater than EBE strikes the metal, then part of its energy is used to overcome the
forces that hold the electron to the metal surface, and the excess energy appears as the kinetic energy (EKE) of
the ejected electron:
Ephoton = EBE + EKE

- Because the photoelectric effect could not be described using wavelike properties, it suggested a particle-like nature
of light where the energy of the electromagnetic radiation depends on the frequency (or wavelength) of light, not the
intensity of the light..
- Light falling on a metal surface (the emitter) can release electrons, which travel to the collector.
- The experiment must be done in an evacuated tube, so that the electrons do not lose energy in collisions with
molecules of the air.
- Among the properties that can be measured are the rate of electron emission and the maximum kinetic energy of
the photoelectrons.
- The rate of electron emission can be measured as an electric current i by an ammeter in the external circuit.
- The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons can be measured by applying a negative potential to the collector
that is just enough to repel the most energetic electrons, which then do not have enough energy to “climb” the
potential energy hill.
- If the potential difference between the emitter and the collector is V (a negative quantity), then electrons
traveling from the emitter to the collector would gain a potential energy of U = q V = −e V (a positive quantity)
and would lose the same amount of kinetic energy.
- Electrons leaving the emitter with a kinetic energy smaller than this U cannot reach the collector and are pushed
back toward the emitter.
- As the magnitude of the potential difference is increased, at some point even the most energetic electrons do
not have enough kinetic energy to reach the collector. This potential, called the stopping potential Vs, is
determined by increasing the magnitude of the voltage until the ammeter current drops to zero.
- At this point the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the electrons as they leave the emitter is just equal to the
kinetic energy eVs lost by the electrons in “climbing” the hill: Kmax= eVs
where e is the magnitude of the electric charge of the electron. Typical values of Vs are a few volts.
- The surface of the metal is illuminated by an electromagnetic wave of intensity I.
- The surface absorbs energy from the wave until the energy exceeds the binding energy of the electron to the
metal, at which point the electron is released.
- The minimum quantity of energy needed to remove an electron is called the work function φ of the material.
- What does the classical wave theory predict about the properties of the emitted photoelectrons?

1. The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons should be proportional to the intensity of the radiation. As the
brightness of the light source is increased, more energy is delivered to the surface (the electric field is greater) and
the electrons should be released with greater kinetic energies. Equivalently, increasing the intensity of the light
source increases the electric field E of the wave, which also increases the forceF = −eE on the electron and its
kinetic energy when it eventually leaves the surface.
For a fixed value of the wavelength or frequency of the light source, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons (determined from the stopping potential) is totally independent of the intensity of the light source.
- Doubling the intensity of the source leaves the stopping potential unchanged, indicating no change in the
maximum kinetic energy of the electrons. This experimental result disagrees with the wave theory, which
predicts that the maximum kinetic energy should depend on the intensity of the light.

2. The photoelectric effect should occur for light of any frequency or wavelength. According to the wave theory, as
long as the light is intense enough to release electrons, the photoelectric effect should occur no matter what the
frequency or wavelength.
- The photoelectric effect does not occur at all if the frequency of the light source is below a certain value. This
value, which is characteristic of the kind of metal surface used in the experiment, is called the cutoff
frequency fc.
- Above fc, any light source, no matter how weak, will cause the emission of photoelectrons; below fc, no light
source, no matter how strong, will cause the emission of photoelectrons. This experimental result also
disagrees with the predictions of the wave theory.
3. The first electrons should be emitted in a time interval of the order of seconds after the radiation begins to strike
the surface. In the wave theory, the energy of the wave is uniformly distributed over the wave front. If the electron
absorbs energy directly from the wave, the amount of energy delivered to any electron is determined by how much
radiant energy is incident on the surface area in which the electron is confined. Assuming this area is about the size
of an atom, a rough calculation leads to an estimate that the time lag between turning on the light and observing the
first photoelectrons should be of the order of seconds.
The first photoelectrons are emitted virtually instantaneously (within 10 −9s) after the light source is turned on.
The wave theory predicts a measurable time delay, so this result also disagrees with the wave theory.
The Quantum Theory of the Photoelectric Effect
- Based partly on Planck’s ideas, Einstein proposed that the energy of electromagnetic radiation is not continuously
distributed over the wave front, but instead is concentrated in localized bundles or quanta (also known as photons).
The energy of a photon associated with an electromagnetic wave of frequency f is E = hf
where h is a proportionality constant known as Planck’s constant. The photon
energy can also be related to the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave by
substituting f = c/λ, which gives E = hc / λ

- We often speak about photons as if they were particles, and as concentrated bundles of energy they have
particlelike properties. Like the electromagnetic waves, photons travel at the speed of light, and so they must obey
the relativistic
relationship p = E/c. p = h / λ

- Photons carry linear momentum as well as energy, and thus they share this characteristic property of particles.
Because a photon travels at the speed of light, it must have zero mass. Otherwise its energy and momentum
would be infinite.
- Similarly, a photon’s rest energy E0= mc2 must also be zero.
- In Einstein’s interpretation, a photoelectron is released as a result of an encounter with a single photon.
- The entire energy of the photon is delivered instantaneously to a single photoelectron. If the photon energy hf is
greater than the work function φ of the material, the photoelectron will be released.
- If the photon energy is smaller than the work function, the photoelectric effect will not occur.
- This explanation thus accounts for two of the failures of the wave theory: the existence of the cutoff frequency
and the lack of any measurable time delay.
- If the photon energy hf exceeds the work function, the excess energy appears as the kinetic energy of the
electron: Kmax = hf − φ
- The intensity of the light source does not appear in this expression! For a fixed frequency, doubling the intensity
of the light means that twice as many photons strike the surface and twice as many photoelectrons are released,
but they all have precisely the same maximum kinetic energy.
- A photon that supplies an energy equal to φ, exactly the minimum amount needed to remove an electron,
corresponds to light of frequency equal to the cutoff frequency fc. At this frequency, there is no excess energy for
kinetic energy, so hfc = φ, or fc= φ/ h
The corresponding cutoff wavelength λc= c/fc is λc = hc/ φ

- The cutoff wavelength represents the largest wavelength for which the photoelectric effect can be observed for a
surface with the work function φ.
The Quantum Theory of the Photoelectric Effect
- Based partly on Planck’s ideas, Einstein proposed that the energy of electromagnetic radiation is not continuously
distributed over the wave front, but instead is concentrated in localized bundles or quanta (also known as photons).
The energy of a photon associated with an electromagnetic wave of frequency f is E = hf
where h is a proportionality constant known as Planck’s constant. The photon
energy can also be related to the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave by
substituting f = c/λ, which gives E = hc / λ

- We often speak about photons as if they were particles, and as concentrated bundles of energy they have
particlelike properties. Like the electromagnetic waves, photons travel at the speed of light, and so they must obey
the relativistic
relationship p = E/c. p = h / λ

- Photons carry linear momentum as well as energy, and thus they share this characteristic property of particles.
Because a photon travels at the speed of light, it must have zero mass. Otherwise its energy and momentum
would be infinite.
- Similarly, a photon’s rest energy E0= mc2 must also be zero.
- In Einstein’s interpretation, a photoelectron is released as a result of an encounter with a single photon.
- The entire energy of the photon is delivered instantaneously to a single photoelectron. If the photon energy hf is
greater than the work function φ of the material, the photoelectron will be released.
- If the photon energy is smaller than the work function, the photoelectric effect will not occur.
- This explanation thus accounts for two of the failures of the wave theory: the existence of the cutoff frequency
and the lack of any measurable time delay.
- If the photon energy hf exceeds the work function, the excess energy appears as the kinetic energy of the
electron: Kmax = hf − φ
- The intensity of the light source does not appear in this expression! For a fixed frequency, doubling the intensity
of the light means that twice as many photons strike the surface and twice as many photoelectrons are released,
but they all have precisely the same maximum kinetic energy.
 - A photon that supplies an energy equal to φ, exactly the minimum amount needed to remove an electron,
corresponds to light of frequency equal to the cutoff frequency fc. At this frequency, there is no excess energy for
kinetic energy, so hfc = φ, or fc= φ/ h
The corresponding cutoff wavelength λc= c/fc is λc = hc/ φ

- The cutoff wavelength represents the largest wavelength for which the photoelectric effect can be observed for a
surface with the work function φ.

Kmax = hf − φ

- Millikan’s results for the photoelectric effect in

sodium.
- The slope of the line is h/e; the experimental
❑ At the time of this prediction there was no evidence that
determination of the slope gives a way of
Planck’s constant had anything to do with the
determining Planck’s constant.
photoelectric effect.
- The intercept should give the cutoff frequency
❑ There was also no evidence for the dependence of the
stopping potential on the frequency
 Blackbody Radiation
- The radiation absorbed by the body increases the kinetic energy of the constituent atoms, which oscillate about their
equilibrium positions.
- Since the average translational kinetic energy of the atoms determines the temperature of the body, the absorbed
energy causes the temperature to rise.
- The atoms contain charges (the electrons), and they are accelerated by the oscillations.
- The atoms emit electromagnetic radiation, which reduces the kinetic energy of the oscillations and tends to reduce the
temperature.
- When the rate of absorption equals the rate of emission, the temperature is constant, and the body is in thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings.
- A good absorber of radiation is therefore also a good emitter.
- At room temperature the thermal radiation is mostly in the infrared region of the spectrum, where our eyes are not
sensitive. As we heat objects to higher temperatures, they may emit visible light.
- As a body is heated, the quantity of thermal radiation emitted increases, and the energy radiated extends to shorter and
shorter wavelengths. At about 600o-700oC there is enough energy in the visible spectrum so that the body glows

➢ The detector is not a geometrical point but instead subtends a small range of
angles θ, so what we really measure is the amount of radiation in some range θ at
θ, or, equivalently, in some range λ at λ.
➢ The total intensity radiated over all wavelengths (that is, the area under each curve)
increases as the temperature is increased. From measurements, it was found
that the total intensity increases as the fourth power of the absolute or kelvin
temperature: I = σT4 , where we have introduced the proportionality constant σ. The
equation is called Stefan’s law and the constant σ is called the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant. Its value can be determined from experimental, σ = 5.67037 × 10−8W/m2 ·K4
➢ The wavelength λmax at which the emitted intensity reaches its maximum
value decreases as the temperature is increased, in inverse proportion to the
temperature: λmax ∝ 1/T.
➢ From results such as those of Figure, we can determine the proportionality
constant, so that λmaxT = 2.8978 × 10−3 m·K
This result is known as Wien’s displacement law; the term “displacement”
refers to the way the peak is moved or displaced as the temperature is varied.
➢ Wien’s law is qualitatively consistent with our common observation that heated
objects first begin to glow with a red color, and at higher temperatures
the color becomes more yellow. As the temperature is increased, the
wavelength at which most of the radiation is emitted moves from the longer
wavelength (red) part of the visible region toward medium wavelengths.
➢ The box is filled with electromagnetic standing waves. If the walls of the box are metal, radiation is reflected back
and forth with a node of the electric field at each wall (the electric field must vanish inside a conductor). This is the
same condition that applies to other standing waves, like those on a stretched string or a column of air in an organ pipe.
➢ The number of standing waves with wavelengths between λ and λ + dλ is

where V is the volume of the box. For one-dimensional standing waves, as on a stretched string of length L, the allowed
wavelength are λ = 2L/n, (n = 1, 2, 3, . . .).
The number of possible standing waves with wavelengths between λ1 and λ2 is n2 − n1 = 2L(1/λ2 − 1/λ1). In the small
interval from λ to λ + dλ, the number of standing waves is N(λ)dλ = |dn/dλ|dλ = (2L/λ2)dλ. Above equation can be
obtained by extending this approach to three dimensions.
➢ Each individual wave contributes an average energy of kT to the radiation in the box. This result follows from an
analysis similar to that of the statistical mechanics of gas molecules. In this case we are interested in the statistics of
the oscillating atoms in the walls of the cavity, which are responsible for setting up the standing electromagnetic
waves in the cavity. For a one-dimensional oscillator, the energies are distributed according to the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution:

N(E) is defined so that the number of oscillators with energies between E and E + dE is dN = N(E)dE, and thus the total
number of oscillators at all energies is the integration within the limit 0 and ∞ , which (as you should show) works out to
N. The average energy per oscillator is then found in the same way as the average energy of a gas molecule (Eq. 1.25):
which does indeed work out to

Putting all these ingredients together, we can find the energy density of radiation in the wavelength interval dλ inside the
cavity: energy density = (number of standing waves per unit volume) × (average energy per standing wave) or

The corresponding intensity per unit wavelength interval dλ is

This result is known as the Rayleigh-Jeans formula

 ➢ The intensity calculated from the Rayleigh-Jeans formula is compared with typical
experimental results.
➢ The intensity calculated with last equation approaches the data at long wavelengths,
but at short wavelengths, the classical theory (which predicts u → ∞ as λ → 0) fails
miserably.
➢ The failure of the Rayleigh-Jeans formula at short wavelengths is known as the
ultraviolet catastrophe and represents a serious problem for classical physics
➢ The theories of thermodynamics and electromagnetism on which the Rayleigh-Jeans
formula is based have been carefully tested in many other circumstances and found to
give extremely good agreement with experiment.
➢ It is apparent in the case of blackbody radiation that the classical theories do not work,
and that a new kind of physical theory is needed.

• The new physics that gave the correct interpretation of thermal radiation was proposed by the German physicist
Max Planck in 1900.
• The ultraviolet catastrophe occurs because the Rayleigh-Jeans formula predicts too much intensity at short
wavelengths (or equivalently at high frequencies).
• What is needed is a way to make u → 0 as λ → 0, or as f → ∞.
• Considering the electromagnetic standing waves to result from the oscillations of atoms in the walls of the cavity,
Planck tried to find a way to reduce the number of high-frequency standing waves by reducing the number of high-
frequency oscillators. He did this by a bold assumption that formed the cornerstone of a new physical theory,
quantum physics.
• Planck suggested that an oscillating atom can absorb or emit energy only in discrete bundles.
• This bold suggestion was necessary to keep the average energy of a low-frequency (long-wavelength) oscillator
equal to kT (in agreement with the Rayleigh-Jeans law at long wavelength), but it also made the average energy of
a high-frequency (low-wavelength) oscillator approach zero.
• In Planck’s theory, each oscillator can emit or absorb energy only in quantities that are integer multiples of a
certain basic quantity of energy ε,
En = nε, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
where n is the number of quanta. Furthermore, the energy of each of the quanta is determined by the frequency, ε = hf
• The difference between Planck’s calculation and the classical calculation using Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics is
that the energy of an oscillator at a certain wavelength or frequency is no longer a continuous variable—it is a
discrete variable that takes only the values given by En = nε, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
• The integrals in the classical calculation are then replaced by sums, and the number of oscillators with energy En is
then

Note from this equation that Eav ∼kT at small f (large λ)

but that Eav→ 0 at large f (small λ). Thus the small-wavelength
oscillators carry a vanishingly small
energy, and the ultraviolet catastrophe is solved!

Planck’s formula can be used to deduce Stefan’s law and Wien’s displacement
law. Deducing Stefan’s law from Planck’s formula results in a relationship
between the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and Planck’s constant:
➢ By determining the value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant from the intensity data available in 1900, Planck was
able to determine a value of the constant h : h = 6.56 × 10−34 J · s which agrees very well with the value of h that
Millikan deduced 15 years later based on the analysis of data from the photoelectric effect.
➢ The good agreement of these two values is remarkable, because they are derived from very different kinds of
experiments—one involves the emission and the other the absorption of electromagnetic radiation.
➢ This suggests that the quantization property is not an accident arising from the analysis of one particular
experiment, but is instead a property of the electromagnetic field itself.
➢ Planck’s formula still finds important applications today in the measurement of temperature. By measuring the
intensity of radiation emitted by an object at a particular wavelength (or, as in actual experiments, in a small interval
of wavelengths), I(λ) expression can be used to deduce the temperature of the object.
➢ Note that only one measurement, at any wavelength, is all that is required to obtain the temperature.
➢ A radiometer is a device for measuring the intensity of thermal radiation at selected wavelengths, enabling a
determination of temperature.
➢ Radiometers in orbiting satellites are used to measure the temperature of the land and sea areas of the Earth and of
the upper surface of clouds.
 Compton Effect
➢ Radiation scatters from loosely bound, nearly free electrons. Part of the energy of the radiation is given to the
electron; the remainder of the energy is reradiated as electromagnetic radiation.
➢ According to the wave picture, the scattered radiation is less energetic than the incident radiation (the difference
going into the kinetic energy of the electron) but has the same wavelength.
➢ The scattering process is analyzed simply as an interaction (a “collision” in the classical sense of particles)
between a single photon and an electron, which we assume to be at rest.
➢ Initially, the photon has energy E and linear momentum p given by E = hf = hc/λ and p = E/c
where λ is the wavelength of the incident photon and λ is the wavelength of the scattered photon.

➢ The quantity h/mec is known as the Compton wavelength of the electron and has a value of
0.002426 nm; however, it is not a true wavelength but rather is a change of wavelength.
➢ Change in energy or wavelength of the photon, as a function of the scattering angle θ.
➢ Because the quantity on the right-hand side is never negative, E is always less than E, so that the
scattered photon has less energy than the original incident photon; the difference E − E` is just the
kinetic energy given to the electron, Ee − mec2.
➢ Similarly, λ is greater than λ, meaning the scattered photon always has a longer wavelength than
the incident photon; the change in wavelength ranges from 0 at θ = 0o to twice the Compton
wavelength at θ = 180o.
➢ At each angle, two peaks appear, corresponding to scattered X-ray photons with
two different energies or wavelengths.
➢ The wavelength of one peak does not change as the angle is varied; this peak
corresponds to scattering that involves “inner” electrons of the atom, which are more
tightly bound to the atom so that the photon can
scatter with no loss of energy.
➢ The wavelength of the other peak, however, varies strongly with angle; as can
➢ be seen from Figure, this variation is exactly as the Compton formula predicts.
➢ Similar results can be obtained for the scattering of gamma rays, which are higher-energy
(shorter wavelength) photons emitted in various radioactive decays.
➢ Compton also measured the variation in wavelength of scattered gamma rays (right plot)
➢ The change in wavelength in the gamma-ray measurements is identical with the change in
wavelength in the X-ray Measurements (left plot)
➢ The change in wavelength does not depend on the incident wavelength.