CHAPTER THREE-

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END
OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
Humans away from the caves and rock shelters in mountains and started living around their farm
plots. They built houses and crop storage protected from moisture or humidity. For mutual
security and to help each other in hard works, families began to live together. Then the family
grew into the community. The stick was gradually replaced by the ox-drawn plow. Farmers
acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the artisans who were
able to specialize in the production of these items. Gradually intermediaries (traders) also began
to buy the products of both to take markets and sell. Then a merchant class emerged. Therefore,
Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of agriculture that gave rise to class
differentiation. Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated the development of states.

State is a highly developed mode of human organization in that it has: Definite territorial area,
Large group of people, An autonomous political unit & Having a government with the power to
decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural process. In this regard, it
should be emphasized that, states arose independently in different places and at different times.
Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in some regions.
Religious leaders such as shamans played prominent role in maintaining the social and religious
affairs of their people during the intial formation of the states. As production became market
oriented, religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and
compulsory tributes which amounted to protection payments with which they maintained
themselves, their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy and other followers.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation took place.
Geographical proximity to international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian
Ocean & rich interior favored state emergence in the region.

3.2. Ancient States

3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The Egyptians hieroglyphic were
the first to give some account about Punt. Egyptian records and paintings tell of a series of
Egyptian naval expeditions sent to the land of Punt.Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.). The
best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by Queen Hatshepsut (c. 1490-
1468 B.C). The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his wife Ati and
his followers. The expedition is said to have taken back from the land of Punt various types of
incense, sweet-smelling (sandal), ivory, rhinoceros horn, gold, ebony leopard skins and live
monkeys.
Scholars have not reached agreement on the exact location of Punt. Some identified it with
northern or northeastern part of Somalia because of the varieties of incense and myrrh mentioned
in the writings. Other related it to northern Ethiopia because of the references to gold, ebony and
monkeys. Considering the two suggestions, still some others argue that it probably stretched
from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape Guardafui.

B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of
Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politico-religious title
known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god), Astarr (Venus
god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain
of the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers.There were
similar practices in South Arabia at the time.

There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:

 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged around 1, 000 BC. It seems that the period of its prosperity was from about
750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings still standing indicateYeha’s glory.

 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed in
rectangular temple surrounded by a wall have been excavated Hawalti Melazo.

 Addi-Seglemeni: is located southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is found and the
oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.

There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi
Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.

C. The Aksumite State

The origin of Aksumite State goes back to around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its territory was
limited to a small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. But gradually it
expanded in all directions. In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended In the east up to Red Sea
coast, in the west up to the Nile valley, in the north to northern Eritrea & in south as north
Shawa.

Two important contemporary documents describe Aksumite state and commerce. The early

formation of the Axumite state has derived from a document written by unknown Greek

speaking, entitled the “Periplus of Erythraen Sea” written in 1st ce A.D. It describes Adulis was

the major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the Red
Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even further west
across Takaze River.
The document also mentioned ports of Aden Gulf like;Zayla and Berbera, and Indian Ocean
Coasts like Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. The major items of export of the Aksumite state
consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, frankincense and some spices (like
ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise shells and
apes. In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt, India,
the Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic
sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of Roman Empire and
Syria were imported. It also mentions the name of the Aksumite king, Zoscales (76-89), who had
the knowledge of the Greek language, the lingua Franca of the Mediterranean world at the time.
In the book published by Cosmas Indicopleustes’ entitled the “Christian Topography”, written
in Greek about an unknown king. it describes commercial activities of the Red Sea areas. It also
mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, in
Beni Shangul. A big caravan merchants some of them special agents of the kings of Aksum
would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to exchange for gold. Yet,
as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to be near to each other to
bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done without one side seeing the
other. This was a good example of silent trade.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian
region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts
involved conflicts between the two regions. From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite
kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different kinds
of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions

Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh
centuries. Between the 3rd and 7thce, Aksum had conquered territories in the South Arabia. King
Gedarat (200-230s A.D), had occupied parts of Southern Arabia. Kaleb (r.500-35) expanded
overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was
converted to Judaism and killed many Christians. In 525 A.D, Kaleb led a naval expedition to
South Arabia. he was supported by Byzantine Vesalius Justinian (r. 527-65) and Patriarch Timit
III (518-538). Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that
continued until 570 A. D.

The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges.
1. Internal factors; Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity started
to weaken it.
2. External factors; With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702,
then, whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of Arab
Muslims and Axum was isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners. this
led to the decline of its political and military power
Finally Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions The recurring rebellions of the
Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite
state.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
The rebellions of peoples as well as Queen Gudit invaded Aksum that led to general shift of the
center of the state south wards to Kubar in the territory of the Agaw. This apparently gave Agaw
elites the opportunity to take part in Aksumite state serving as soldiers and bureaucracies for four
centuries. After integrating with Aksumite ruling class, they successfully tookover the state
administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the
daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took
control of power. Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela
(1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek etc. The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c.
1150 to 1270.
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela). Zagwe
rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. Furthermore, the
Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez. The Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of 11
Monolithic churches during reign of Lalibela. Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem,
and even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in their journey to the Holy
Lands. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy Lands in Israel.

Based on their designs & shapes there are caves, semi-hewn & monolithic churches:
 Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-
Mesqel

 Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration & partial decoration outside. They are
not totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still attached to
rock, eg. Bete Denagil; Debresina/Mikael, Golgota, Merqoriwos, Gabrel and Aba
Libanos.

 Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof & outside. They are
completely separated from surrounding rock. Amanuel, Giyorgis, Mariyam &
Medhanialem.

Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis
is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross

The Decline and Fall of the Zagwe Dynasty

1. Succession problem (internal factors): The problem of succession between them

weakened the Zagwe dynasty.
 2. External factors; Political opposition from descent ancient rulers of Aksum; These groups
considered the Agaw kings as illegitimate rulers.The opposition was on the basis of the
ancient legend of the Queen of Sheba on a book known as Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings).
According to this legend, all the kings of Aksum had to be direct descendants of Menelik
I, son of the queen and king Solomon of Israel. Yekuno-Amlak (r1270-1285), who
claimed decent from the last Aksumite king, organized his forces with the assistance of
the clergy and revolt against Yitbarek, the last king of Zagwe in 1270 AD. Yetbarek was
killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state power proclaiming the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty

3.2. 2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the eighth
century and had early connections with Damot.

B. Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands the south of
Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa. Motalami was a
prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.

C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king
(HinnareTato) was secluded and considered as sacred. The kings had residences in Yadare and
Gowi. In the nineth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into
Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).

D. Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic
speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records
whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own
indigenous religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian
Kingdom mainly in cattle. The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim communities
and states had been established at many locations especially along the main trade routes from
Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include:

A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the
Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.

B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It
was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley and
extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.

C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. It was much smaller than
Ifat, but resembled it in many aspects. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for
transaction

D. Bali: It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim
provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands. Trade
was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had strong army
composed of cavalry and infantry.

E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar
Walasma, who claimed descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from Arabia
between 1271 and 1285. Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat,
sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits,
beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet. Chat was described for the
first time as being consumed as a stimulant.

F. Others: autonomous states mutually independent states like Arababani (between Hadiya
and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya,
 Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in Arsi) and Sim
were established and flourished.

3.3. External Contacts

Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may be
the region’s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world. It had very close relations with
South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C. The introduction of Christianity
to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between the region and Egypt. Until the
introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction of the Christians into minority,
relations between the two were fairly smooth and friendly. Following the introduction of
Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with the Byzantine Empire with which it
shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their rival Persians. Yet, in the
seven century, this relation began to deteriorate. The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs
through the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of
Aksumite land routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the
consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own foreign policy
objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by
threatening to divert the Nile. The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the
reciprocal persecution of religious minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a barrier to the
contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European states.

However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the Middle East had begun at
the end of the first millennium AD. In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims
used the land route to Egypt. From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy land.
Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities found in
different regions, in Egyptian monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in
Italian city-states in subsequent centuries. The communities living in different parts of the world
served as an important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and Europe.When
pilgrims met their fellow Christians of Europe in the holy places, they transmitted information
about the EOC and its exceptional liturgical practices. They also explained about the territorial
extent of the Christian Kingdom.
From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a very
powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa. Consequently, they wanted to use this
imaginary strong Christian power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful Christian ruler
known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. The legend was developed when the balance
of the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of
the Middle East. The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known to
Europe for over a century. However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom as the land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the Red Sea and
the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian Kingdom. Then, they began to search for
the location of the Kingdom and to make an alliance with it.

3.4. Economic Formations

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture. The mastery
of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural production. The
people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring, compost and spreading
residues’ ashes as well as fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing. In times
of peak harvest seasons , farmers also orgnized teamwork.

Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout
history. The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land constitute
what is known as the land tenure system. The most ancient system of land holding which
survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system. Communal
right to land is a group right. Here group refers to the family, the clan and the other lineage
groups to which the individual belonged. Each of these groups had communal right to the land
they lived in and freely exploited the resources of the land.

Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of communal
birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived in
the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law. Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights. The rist owners were known as
bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically.
Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state officials who were given gult right
over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central government. Gult is a
right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted
for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult right that became
hereditary was called Riste-Gult.

B. Handicraft

Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. The social, economic and
political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various fields
including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry and
others. Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords , javelins, bows, arrows, traps, slashers,
shields, knives, axes, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes, hatchets, iron tripods, ornaments etc.
Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements like doors, windows, stools, chairs, tables,
beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams, yoke, stilt, coffins etc while potters produced ceramic
utensils like saucepan, ovens, jar, pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates, granary etc. Tanners
produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover, saddles, harness, ropes, footwear, prayer mats,
sacks, honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until replaced by weavers’ cotton
dresses.

However, except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly
marginalized. The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported luxurious
items rather than the domestic technology. The general public attitude towards artisans was not
at all encouraging. Consequently, the locally produced agricultural implements and house
furniture did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.

C. Trade

Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade. The major socio-economic and political
centers of earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging contacts in
various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area across the
international water bodies. The region was criss-crossed by various trade routes connecting
various market places in all directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to the states in that
one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them safe from robbers.

3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

A. Architecture

As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique architectural
technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were totally fifty
eight steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well made and decorated, half
completed and megaliths (not hewn). The longest one of these stele measures 33meters heights
(the first in the world). It is highly decorated in all of its four sides. It represents a-14 storied
building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It also bears pre-Christian symbols,
which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top. The second longest obelisk measures 24
meters height that was successfully erected and represents a ten-storied building with many
windows and a false door at the bottom. The third longest stele measures 21 meters and
represents a nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It is
smooth at the back of its side with no decoration.

The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements of
the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world cultural
heritage in 1978. Further refinement can be observed in the construction and decoration of the
rockhewn churches in the Zagwe period.

B. Writing System

The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea
and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence
of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat was inscribed
as D’mt, while its successive kings are written as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn. After
the seventh and sixth centuries BC, however, variants of script arose, evolving in the direction of
the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). By the first century AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad
(26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the first-order forms of
modern vocalized alphabet.

Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual
inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD. The process was developed under the
influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, to the
consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system is laid out as a
syllabary. Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense contribution to the
development of literature, art and the writing of history.

C. Calendar

People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well as
the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic cycles
fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented. In most cases, the length of the month
was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun. Calendars were
developed and adopted among various peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn. Oromo calendar has
been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with seven or eight particular
stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star). There
are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which
were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86 by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and
Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop Oromo calendar. In connection with this,
c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to have taken art of shaping phallic bowls to
Zimbabwe.

The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which
are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama week has
only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.
Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or
popular demonstration.

Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and
Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September 11 (Gregorian).
However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year. The Ethiopic solar
calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.

The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made
flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in this
era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").

Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own
dating system.

D. Numerals

Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez uses
numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks individual
characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper typesetting,
combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render this and show
separate bars above and below each character.