CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY OF TOURISM

Dear students, what do you know about s sociology of tourism?

Please focus on concepts and historical development, institutionalization of

tourism studies and issues.

1.1. MEANINGS AND CONCEPTS OF TOURISM

Tourism has developed as a complex and multidisciplinary phenomena which should be
studied from a variety of social science perspectives, including sociology, psychology,
anthropology, history, geography etc. Sociology of tourism is one of the sub-fields and
specialization of sociology in tourism. “As an applied sociology, skills are required in the
process of tourism planning.” This application of sociological approaches, theories and methods
in the study of tourism mainly concentrates on the tourism activities, their social aspects and
effects which is generally about “The study of tourists’ roles, motivations and their social
relations on one hand and structures and systems of tourism, economic, social and cultural
impacts at the destination and on the host societies on the other hand”.

The application of sociological approaches, theories and methods is needed in the process of
tourism planning. Sociological study of tourism includes:

 Tourism activity

 Social aspect of tourism

 Effects of tourism

 Motivation and role of tourist

 Social, economic and cultural impact at destination and host country.

Hence, the aim of introducing sociology of tourism is to:

• introduce students to sociological understanding of tourism and travel

• allow students to engage in discussion of concepts and theories relating to the socio logy
of tourism using examples from everyday experience of travel and tourism

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 • enable students to analyze the impact of tourism on the social, political, environmental
and cultural aspects of communities

Therefore, to understand the meaning and subject matter of sociology of tourism, let we start
from the definition of tourism and related concepts.

The Derivation of Definitions

Etymologically, the word tour is derived from the Latin ‘tornare’ and the Greek ‘tornos,’
meaning ‘a lathe or circle; the movement around a central point or axis.’ This meaning changed
in modern English to represent one’s turn.’ The suffix -ism is defined as ‘an action or process;
typical behavior or quality’ whereas the suffix –ist denotes one that performs a given action.
When the word tour and the suffixes -ism and –ist are combined, they suggest the action of
movement around a circle. One can argue that a circle represents a starting point, which
ultimately returns back to its beginning.

1.1.1. Meaning & Nature of Touris m

For having clear understanding about tourism, it is necessary to differentiate between what is
meant by leisure, recreation & tourism.

A. Leisure

It is most often regarded as the measure of time; the time remaining after work, sleep & essential
house hold or personal chores have been completed. It is the time available for doing as one
chooses or ‘discretionary time’. It is the time that people use to do the things they want to do
rather than the things they have to do. For most People, leisure time includes evenings,
weekends and vacations. People need leisure time in order to add pleasure to their lives and to
refresh their minds and bodies.

Leisure can be thought of as a combined measure of time and attitude of mind to create
periods of time when other obligations are at a minimum.

Growth of leisure: The increase in the amount of leisure time available is due to a number of
factors:-

 Working hours have been reduced.

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  Now, there is provision of holiday with pay.
 Life expectancy has increased.
 Technological developments like machines, computers, telephone internet and
automobiles are widely used.
B. Recreation

It is the wide variety of activity undertaken during leisure time. These activities may be
participatory (like playing sports, sightseeing, hobbies & pastime) and non-participatory (like
watching sports, listening to radio, watching TV, home entertainment and public entertainment)

C. Touris m

There is no one universally accepted definition of tourism because of its multidimensional

aspect and its wide inte ractions with other activities. Thus, no universal definition has yet been
adopted. Different scholars’ defines tourism in different ways. Some of them are presented as
follows.

Webster’s New University Dictionary defines tourism as ‘traveling for pleasure; the business
of providing tours and services for tourists,’ and a tourist as ‘one who travels for pleasure.’
These terms are inadequate synonyms for travel, and their use as such adds further confusion
when the field of travel is variously referred to as the travel industry, the touris m industry, the
hospitality industry, and most recently, the visitor industry.

Herman V. Scholar, an Austrian Economist, in the year 1910 gave one of the earliest definitions
of tourism. He defined it as” the sum total of the operators mainly of an economic nature, which
directly relates to the entry, stay and movement of foreigners inside and outside a certain
country, city or region.

Hunziker and Krampf (1942) - “Tourism is the totality of the relationship and phenomena
arising from the travel and stay of strangers provided the stay does not imply the establishment
of a permanent residence and is not connected with a remunerated activity”.

The Tourism society in Britain (1976) defined tourism as follows: “Tourism is the temporary
short term movement of people to destinations outside the places where they normally live and
work and their activities during the stay at these destinations”.

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Mathieson & Wall in 1982 defined tourism as: “Tourism is the temporary movement to
destinations outside the normal home and work place, the activities undertaken during the stay
and the facilities created to cater to the needs of the tourist”.

Jafari(1997)-“Tourism is the study of man away from his usual habitat, of the industry which
responds to his need and of the impacts that both he and the industry have on the host socio-
cultural, economic and physical environment”.

Touris m Resources Review Commission’s guidelines (1973), distances of 50 miles or more

realistic criteria. On the other hand, the Canadian government specifies that a tourist is one who
travels at least 25 miles outside his community. Therefore, there is no uniform measurement for
the definition of tourism in different countries.

League of Nations in 1937 defined ‘tourist’ in the following way:

 “A Tourist is any person visiting a country other than in which he usually resides for a
period of at least 24 hours.” “Temporary visitor staying at least 24 hours in the country
visited and the purpose of his /her journey can be classified under one of the following
headings:
 Leisure (recreation, health, study, religion , and sports)
 Business, family, mission, and meeting.
More widely and many writers can accept it that the World Trade organization /WTO /and
United Nations /UN/ in 1993 defined as: “Tourism is the activity of persons traveling to and
staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for
leisure, business, or any other purpose”.

From the above definitions, one may deduce the following distinct elements of tourism;

1. Involvement of travel by non-residents

2. Stay of temporary nature in the area visited, and
3. Stay not connected with any remunerated activity or an activity involving earnings.

Sociology concerned on the investigation of society like social problems, social organization,
social institution and social stratification. Therefore, sociology of tourism will combine the two

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disciplines (sociology and tourism) and analyses the contribution of tourism regarding to the
structural behavior of the society.

There are four outlooks of tourism

1. The tourist: seeks different psychic and physical experiences and satisfactions.
This largely determines the destinations chosen and the activities enjoyed.
2. The business providing tourist goods and services.
3. The government of the host community/area/: perspectives of the government
as a wealth factor in the economy. E.g. tax
4. The host community: the perspective of tourism by locals as cultural and
employment factor. E.g. The effect of interaction between tourists and locals. This
effect might be beneficial, harmful or both.

According to the above four perspectives tourism may be defined as “the sum of the
phenomenon and relationships arising from the interaction of tourists business suppliers host
governments and host communities in the process of attracting and hosting these tourists and
other visitors.”(McIntoshet.all -1995)-“

Touris m: is regarded as an extreme form of recreation, involving longer time periods, traveling
long distances and often staying overnights. Tourism, as distinct from other forms of leisure
pursuits, requires blocks of time in order to make the journey & stay worthwhile. Tourism also
calls for more money than most other forms of recreation because of the cost of travel,
accommodation, meals & souvenirs.

Touris m and travel are not synonyms. Tourism represents a particular use of leisure time and
a particular form of recreation, but it includes neither all use of leisure time nor all forms of
recreation. It includes much travel but not all travel. Putting it differently, all tourism involves
travel but all travel is not tourism. All tourism occurs during leisure time but all leisure is not
given to tourist pursuits. Tourism is one of a range of choices or styles of recreation expressed
either through travel or a temporary short term change of residence. Tourism on its modern scale
is a relatively new use of leisure.

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Definition of Traveler, Visitor (Tourist and Excursionist)
Travel: the action and activities of people taking trips to place/places outside of their home
communities for any purpose. -Is a broad term which refers to the movement of people from one
point to another.

Traveler - any person on a trip between two or more countries or between two or more localities
within his/ her countries.

Visitor- a person who travels to a country outside to his usual residence for a period not
exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity
remunerated from within the place visited. Based on the time it had taken visitors are classified
in to two:

A. Same day visitors (excursionists/special tourists/day trippers) - They are

temporary visitors staying less than 24 hours in the place visited.

B .Tourist- They are temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours in the place visited and
not exceeding one year.

1.1.2. Forms /types of Touris m

Forms of Tourism

Basically, there are three forms of tourism. In relation to a given country (say Ethiopia), the
following forms of tourism can be distinguished: (According to UN).

1. Domestic tourism: It involves residents of Ethiopia traveling only within their country.
E.g. From Gondar to Bahir Dar, or from Addis Ababa to Axum.
2. Inbound tourism: It involves non residents (e.g. Kenyans, Americans, Europeans,
Asians) traveling in Ethiopia
3. Outbound tourism: It involves Ethiopians (residents) traveling in another country.
E.g. Ethiopians travelling to Japan

These three forms of tourism are combined in many ways and derive the categories of tourism.
The three principal categories of tourism are:

1. International tourism: It consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism in Ethiopia.

2. National tourism: it consists of domestic tourism and outbound tourism in Ethiopia.

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 3. Internal tourism: It comprises of domestic and inbound tourism in Ethiopia.

Types of Tourism based on purpose

Tourism attractions determine different types of tourism. On the basis of the purpose, tourism is
classified:
 Pleasure Touris m: This is concerned with leisure and rest and to recover physical and
mental stamina and to re-energize. It includes holiday for change, to take rest, to witness folk
dance, songs or to test different cuisines. Pleasure is when you drive happiness or joy after
doing something.
 Cultural Tourism: This is concerned with learning habits, language and customs of the
people in the foreign lands, visiting places rich in historical monuments, ancient civilization
or paying visit to art galleries, museums or to participate in music, art, dance and festivals.
 Sports Tourism: These are two types (1).visiting places to witness sports like Olympics or
world cup foot ball or winter sports, mountain climbing, hunting, fishing etc. (2)
Participating in such kinds of sports.
 Conference Touris m: traveling to participate in trade fair, conference, meetings and
exhibitions.
 Business Tourism: All tours undertaken by business men, industrialist or professionals to a
place of their interest for selling, buying or taking orders, etc, of products related to business.
 Social Touris m: It is practiced by masses and rendered possibly by the help of third party or
governments or association by means of holiday with pay and other measures.

 Mass Tourism: refers large numbers of people in a short space of time to places of leisure
interest, so that greater numbers of people could begin to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.
 Ethnic Touris m: signifies the tourists’ interests in the customs of the indigenous and
exotic peoples. It involves intimate contacts with the “authentic”-traditional or original-
indigenous culture. The tourists visits the homes of the local people, observes and
participates in their festivals, dances, rituals and other forms of cultural expressions.
Tourists’ direct contact with the local people (first- hand experience with the way of life
and cultural artifacts) is very vital which differentiates it from that of cultural tourism.

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  Special interest Tourism: this type of tourism is an optional activity because it is related
to professionals who have the same skill and work.
 Religious Touris m: it is for the purpose of religion. It is also called pilgrimage tourism.
E.g. going to Jerusalem, Mecca.
 Heritage touris m: means "traveling to experience the places, artifacts and activities that
authentically represent the stories and people of the past". It can include
cultural, historic and natural resources". (e.g. the visiting of monuments or sites)

Nature of Touris m
It is clear from the above definitions that conceptually tourism is a composite phenomenon
involving dynamic elements, like the movement to various places and static ones like their stay
in those places. Tourism is generally considered as an industry, an activity, an experience, an art,
a science, a dream machine, a system, etc.

Thus tourism embraces the incidence of a mobile population of travelers, who are strange to the
place they visit and are a distinct element from the resident and working population. Most
importantly, tourism implies the temporary movement of people with an intention to return a few
days, weeks or months. As such, touris m is distinct from migration, which involves the long
term movement of people. Thus, tourism is essentially a pleasure activity in which money earned
in the place of normal residence is spent in the place visited. It is the young area of study at most
50 years old- without the antecedents of a nature subject. International organizations support
tourism for its contribution to the world peace, the benefit of mixing the peoples and cultures, the
economic advantages which can ensure and the fact that tourism is a relatively ‘clean’ industry.
for more clarification about the benefit and costs of tourism we will look it in chapter three of
this course. Now let we see the historical developments of tourism.

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1.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM
1.2.1. History of travel and tourism
The origins of tourism can traced back to pre-Egyptian times, when there was a limited amount
of travel associated with festivals and celebrations of religious or spiritual nature. Travel in
Egyptian times tended to be for the purpose of trade or associated with religious activities. Over
times the opportunities for travel has increased changing its picture from one individual travel to
mass tourism.

1.2.1.1. Travel in ancient times

Travel in Prehistoric Period
Early humans led hard lives so as to find food, water and shelter and in order to do this;
one has constantly to be on the move. People traveled all the time- did not have a fixed place to
stay, since they were hunters and gatherers, in search of food. Their first foot trails later became
roads Movement across the land was a dangerous adventure, which require caution and skill.
Although traveling was rigorous and often unsafe, it did not prevent man all over the world.
Today humans occupy all types of land. The only other mammals that have bee n able to do the
same are mice, bats and rats.

Travel in Neolithic Times

Primitive people started to settle in more permanent areas and formed agricultural communities.
People developed ways to store food, to be consumed at a later date, and migration was no
longer necessary. In this period several innovations were made which changed the nature of
travel. During this time sailing ships were built in ancient Egypt and animals (e.g. donkeys,
camels) were domesticated and trained to carry supplies. and later, the invention of the wheel, by
the Sumerians around 3,500 BC. was also an important landmark which made movement of
people to distant lands possible and reduced the burdens of travels.
Most early travel in this period was associated with trade and exchange of goods. Communities
were able to maintain reliable sources of food and water and this security made the exchange of
surplus food, artifacts, tools and weapons amongst neighboring cultures an interesting option.

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This was also the period that means of payments were developed, like jewelry, knives and
eventually coins. One traveled mostly for reasons of trade, but also travel for religious and
spiritual purposes came to see the light. While earlier hunters and gatherers traveled to survive,
the people of primitive agricultural communities were able to attend spiritual events and
festivals. Members of the community traveled to shrines, burial grounds and sacred locations.

Travel during the Ancient Civilizations

The civilizations of great powers, long duration and extensive territories were known for their
sophisticated levels of commerce. And as commerce grew, more people become rich and travel
for pleasure become possible for certain groups of people. The societies of Greece, Egypt and
Rome were very powerful and openly encourage travel for pleasure. Travel even contributed to
the success of each of these great empires.
The oceans and seas provided major routes of travel- there was a great deal of travelling
on the Mediterranean Sea for example, but also in the Far East, amongst countries like Japan and
China. Also the development of roads made it possible for armies to be transferred, for goods to
be exchanged and messages to be sent over vast distances.
While military and commercial goals were the main reason for travel, the rich and
powerful people of ancient civilizations also started to travel for pleasure. They had the time to
do this, and they were interests tin having a good time and discovering beautiful places. Many
people also travelled to religious centers up and down the Nile and early Christians travelled to
the holly city of Jerusalem. Cultural events like the Olympic Games in Greece become big
attractions in their own right.
Another illustration of the pleasure- seeking Romans was the famous circus games in the
coliseum in the capital city of Rome. These blood- thirsty, sensational events were accessible for
rich and poor alike. From all over the empire, visitors come to see these games and even the
wild animals ( lions, elephants, ostriches) and slaves, gladiators and prisoners who were made to
perform and fight each other in the cruel games were transported from far away territories.
The following includes the 7 wonde rs of ancient world:
 The great pyramid of Egypt-Egypt
 The hanging gardens of Babylon-Babylon(present Iraq)
 The tomb of mausolus at Halicarnassus-present turkey
 The statue of zues -Greece
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  The colossus of Rhodes-Greece
 The great light house-Egypt
 The temple of Artemis (temple of Diana)-present turkey
From the wonders of the ancient world, the great pyramid of Egypt is the sole remaining
wonder.
1.2.1.2. Travel in the medieval times
The fall of Roman Empire around 400-500 A.D. caused travel - for either trade or
pleasure purposes- to be almost diminished. In middle ages – the dark ages- travel was
downright dangerous. The safety, comforts and services needed for travel were no longer there.
There were banditry on roads, wars were going on and there were going on and there were no
accommodation facilities for regular travellers. Only limited travel for trade and military reasons
remained. The common person spent most of his time working the land in the service of feudal
land owners.
The Roman Catholic Church becomes an important and powerful force in Europe during
the middle ages. The church provided safety and comfort for people in a dangerous world at war
and Catholicism gradually replaced the pagan religions and rituals that still existed. There were
still ‘holy days’, but were very formal and serious. A person’s time was to be spent in a serious
manner, in religious reminiscence of heavenly reward and not in worldly pleasure. The only
major travel activities of this period were the crusades and pilgrimages.
The crusades consisted of a number of military expeditions between 1095and 1291,
during which the Christian church attempted to regain land from the Muslim. Military speaking,
the crusades were not so successful, but it did give large numbers of people: young and old,
wealthy and poor, a chance to travel and experience life beyond the walls of their own town
or city.
Pilgrimage-voyages were made for a variety of reasons. Some individuals travelled to
religious places for the forgiveness of their sins, others wished to receive a divine cure for their
health problems. Religion was the main purpose, but adventure, learning and entertainment were
also very much enjoyed. Travel mostly took place on foot or on horseback. People usually
travelled in groups, to be faster against thieves and muggers, and also for comfort and
enjoyment.

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 Eventually, the religious nature of travel becomes less important and people become
more interested in education, the arts and other cultures. Marco Polo made his explorations Asia
and his book was the west’s main source of information about life in the orient. After Marco
Polo, other explorers were inspired to discover more of the world, like Christopher Columbus,
who travelled to the west and ‘found’ America.

Travel in the Renaissance

The Renaissance was a time of enlightenment, change and exploration, which lasted from
the 14th to the 17th century. One had great admiration for the way the ancient civilizations had
efficiently organized their societies in the past. The grand Tour of Europe was one of the
manifestations of Upper class travel during this period and can be considered as the beginning of
modern tourism.
At first the grand Tour was mainly an individual educational experience for the sons of
the English aristocracy- it started in England and had the major cultural cites of Italy as its
ultimate destination. Culture, health, pleasure, career development and art we re the main
motivations for travelling. In the early days, the British crown highly valued the Grand Tour
and often even paid for part of it, especially when it concerned future diplomats.
The tour could last as long as 3-4 years; for example: the young traveler could spend a whole
year studying a new language or particular type of literature.
To observe and appreciate natural scenery-mountains, forests, the oceans- for the first
time become an important travel motivation in the late 1700s.
These years of admiring the beauty and splendor of nature, mainly encouraged and
communicated by writers, artists and philosophers, become known as the Romantic Period. In
the past, nature had mainly been experienced as dangerous: for example, to cross the Alps
mountain range was a difficult and fearful undertaking one did not look forward to very much.
By 1800, the Grand Tour had changed considerably: it was no longer exclusively made
by members of the upper class, but also by the middle classes. The lasted approximately 4
months and pleasure reasons gradually become more important than the educational mot ives.
Cities along the tour were becoming known for their excellent hotels and services, there
were taverns and inns, offering food and drinks in the rural areas, and there were many servants
and porters available for hire, to assist the ‘tourists’.

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Transportation was still not easy. One travelled on foot, horseback, by coach or by boat. Poor
roads and crossing mountains demanded a lot from the traveler and villains and thieves posed a
constant threat. The steam boat and rail roads were still to be invented.
Travel in the Industrial Age
During the industrial age, many countries shifted from being a rural agricultural society
to becoming an urban industrial society. The structure of employment and affluence also
changed and eventually, more and more people were able to travel for health- and pleasure
purposes. In Europe and United states, initially the wealthy travelled to spas, to experience the
curative effects of hot mineral springs. Over time, spas expanded their facilities and become less
exclusive and more accessible to the common traveler. And health reasons gradually become less
important: most people come to entertain themselves and to meet new people.
The most important travel developments during the industrial age were no doubt in the
area of transportation.
The expansion of the coach system was, besides developing the postal service, also very
much a response to the demands of tourism and business travel. By 1770, nearly all cities in
England were connected by coach service, roads had been fairly well developed and there were
many inns, where travellers could eat and rest.
More pleasurable than travelling by coach was to travel by water. Transportation via the
oceans and seas by ship-first sailing ships, later steamships-become well developed in terms of
technology, safety, speed and convenience.
Several European countries were developing trade routes and colonizing land and many
people migrated to new continents in this period: to Africa, North and South America and Asia.
Ship travel was a necessity to the expanding European powers, which needed to be in touch with
their colonies.
Also during this period, the development of the steam engine made rail roads the symbol
of mass travel by land. In a relative short period of time, many cities in Europe and the United
states were connected by rail and trains become a quick and comfortable means of travel. Many
middle- class citizens in Europe flocked to the sea side resorts by train and as a result of this,
hotels, restaurants, shops and other tourist attractions settled themselves.

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 The industrial revolution brought about major changes in the scale and type of tourism
development. The increase in productivity, regular employment, and growing urbanization gave
more people the motivation and opportunity to go on holiday.

1.2.1.3. Travel in modern times

A series of important technological, political and social events during the first 50 years of the
20th century finally made tourism a major worldwide business. During the two world wars, travel
was understandably limited, but the desire to travel did seem to increase. Following each of the
two wars, people were anxious to travel. First, mainly by ship and train, later also by automobile
and airplane. Both become reliable means of travel for large groups of people.

The automobile revolutionized travel and tourism across the world. As early as 1903, an
automobile crossed the United States in 52 days and it becomes a landmark reflecting freedom of
choice for the individual traveler. Distance was no longer a huge obstacle for travellers. More
automobile use after the world wars generated the need for more and better roads and
accommodations. Local and national, governments began to expand and improve the quality of
road systems. Holiday camps came to see the light, providing reasonably priced accommodation
and entertainment. These camps were the forerunners of the motels and all inclusive resorts.
Airplaneswere at first mainly used during the wars and for limited business travel.
Especially in the United States, air travel becomes a serious means of travel for both citizens and
the military. In only a few decades, the aircraft industry developed very extensively and many
types of airplanes were developed- amongst which the modern ‘jet’- and airline- companies
started their businesses.
Air travel blossomed after the Second World War. Planes become more comfortable and
were fitted with tables, chairs, sleeping berths and food service.

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 In the 20th century, partly due to the further development of democracy and civil rights for all,
companies and industries granted holidays for their employees. More free time become available
for the masses to travel, relax and be away from work. Throughout the history of Tourism, it has
been the case that the rich were first able to travel, the middle class second and the working class
last. The public only began to travel when paid vacations and holidays become available for all
classes of workers. In late 1800s, a laborer could work as many as 70 hours per week. The 40-
hour work week was not established until 1938.
Mass tourism was generated by another event; the boom of prosperity following World
War II. In the 70s and 80s, tourism grew like never before and it has become an incredibly big
business for many countries.
It is also a vulnerable business however; the oil crisis of the late 70s has affected the
volume of tourism greatly and also economic recessions of later date and acts of terrorism have
an immediate effect on tourism and the many economic areas it involves. This is why in many
countries; the government is actively involved in the development and promotion of tourism and
tourism policies.
As we can see, the history of tourism was formed by a series of social, economic and
political developments, which have moved the industry forward over time. But, we have also
looked at people’s motivations for travelling and we have seen that facilities and attractions need
to be available in order to make tourism possible.
Generally, in the oast transportation was far more primitive than today and travelling
was difficult, far from being a pleasure, travel involved grate hardship and risk. Although the
development of modern transportation method has made traveling safer, easier and more
comfortable, the element of stress has not been entirely eliminated.
Summary
Era Motivation factors Ability mobility
Pre- Exploration, business, Few travelers Slow and treacherous
industrial pilgrimage, education, (wealthy and influential)
health
Industrial Positive impact of Higher, income more Lower transportation cost and
education, escape from leisure time and organized reliable public transportation
city colonial empires tour

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present Positive impact of visual Shorter works more Growth of personal
society communication and discretionary, more transportation, faster and more
escape from work routine income mass marketing efficient transportation.
and package tours
Future Vacations a right and Self catering, Alternative fuels, more efficient
necessity combined with smaller families, two transportation, greater use of
business and learning wage earners per house public transportation and
hold package deals.
Table 1.1 factors in the evolution of tourism
According to Cohen, five major historical events and social trends impacted to the development
of tourism. These are:

1. The paradigm shift in political dimension in the Soviet Union and East Europe

The socialist political ideology in Soviet Union collapsed around 1991. The Soviet Union
disintegrated into fifteen independent countries. In addition, countries like China and
Vietnam were transformed into post communist societies. i.e free market system. These two
changes brought libration of economy, i.e opportunity for the culture and social life of the
people in the region to attract inbound tourism especially from the West.

2. The economic growth and the rising of middle class societies in non western countries

The economic growth achieved in non western countries, especially in China, India, South
Korea, Hong Kong and Singapore in Asian countries and Brazil in Latin American countries
has created middle class societies who started to experience travel and tourism at regional
and international levels.

3. The Asian and global financial crisis created personal financial insecurity and
reduced spending power

The Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the global economic crisis in 2007-2008 and 2010-
2012 has created global economic instability and highly affected personal financial security
and reduced spending power of the middle class of western countries. These repeated
economic crises have reduced pace of international tourism growth.

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 4. Terrorist attacks and the growing of insecurity attached to tourism and travel

Eg. The September 1, 2001 terrorist attack on the USA. Wars on Iraq and Afghanistan
repeated attacks on tourist facilities. These increased sense of risk in travel and tourism.These
security procedures at the gates and entries of tourist destinations create discomfort, freedom and
ease in travel.
5. Natural disasters destroy the tourist destinations and the breakdown of institutional
structures

Repeated natural disasters such as Hurricane in USA and Japan and tsunami in India have
all ends up destroying tourist destinations. Created fear among tourists who plan to go to
these areas. The current issue of Ebola incidence other disease are worth being mentioned
here as a social event which directly affects the international tourism sector.

1.2.2. Reasons for the rapid development of touris m in the twenty-first century
There are different factors which contribute to the development of tourism. Some of the reasons
which leads to this rapid development are:
 Increase in income
 Increase in leisure time
 advance in the transportation industry
 Enormous growth in international business
 Improved use of package tours
 Similar climatic and weather conditions in abroad destinations
 Travel as a status of symbol
 Proliferation in MICE (meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions) tourism
 Better education has interested large section of the public in tourism
 Increase in ideological pressure groups(cultural, political, scientific, religious e.t.c)
 Increased use of automation in the travel industry. e.g. CRS
 Improved political influence
 Ease access to the international tourism market
 Market prominence and stronger branding of destinations
 Growth of government involvement
 Increase in all inclusive holidays
 Globalization and international participation e.t.c

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 CHAP TER TWO
PERSPECTIVES ON TOURISM

Brainstorm

Dear student what do you think about the perspective of tourism?

Please focus on the geographical, behavioral, cultural and sociological
perspectives of tourism.

2.1. Basic approaches to the study of Tourism

Tourism commonly is approached through a variety of methods. However, there is
little or no agreement on how the study of tourism should be undertaken. The following
are several methods that have been used. This chapter introduces the different perspectives which
describes about the factors, processes, challenges and consequences of tourism. Among them the
following are mentioned here below.

 Geographical,
 Behavioral perspectives
 Cultural and Sociological perspectives on tourism.
 Institutional Approach
 Product Approach
 Managerial Approach
 interdisciplinary approach
2.1.1. Geographical Approach
IT is a wide-ranging discipline, so it is natural that geographers should be
interested in tourism and its spatial aspects. The geographer specializes in the study
of location, environment, climate, landscape, and economic aspects. Geography has a symbiotic
and existential relationship with tourism since latter is a spatial process. As a matter of fact;
tourism geography has evolved as a research domain focusing on the dispersion of tourism on
the space, impacts of tourism on related areas, selection and justifica tion of tourism destinations
and development areas, rules of land use and planning in tourism zones, and protection of
tourism areas. Hence, tourism needs a physical geography for production and service phases
requiring a deep knowledge on geographies included in the process. For tourism industry,
geography is not only the frame work or condition (the scene) under which it ope rates, but

18
also an abundant source of input for several tourism products. For instance; lakes,
mountains, snow, sea, climate are some of the elements in physical geography which are
topics of study in geography, but these same elements are frequently exploited by tourism
industry as natural attractions to visit or as a component of other tourism products or mixed
nature (culture and nature...).

Geography; typically known for researches on spatial dispersions, climate, physical and human
characteristics of a given area is closely related with tourism science since tourism activity
occurs within the geographical limits. It has a limitative and determinative role in touristic
movements and their organization such as; 24 hour time zones, dispersion of heat (temperature)
on earth, quality and types of precipitation, topography and land shapes, characteristics of winds
and their variations on the globe and likewise, which determine the routes of planes, contents and
timing of package tours, location of hotels and airports. In addition to these factors, geography
shapes the tourist preferences and tourism demand. Human-beings seek and try to see things they
do not have in their geography, and for this reason they try to visit different geographies.
Consequently, geographical characteristics may become main attractions for tourists by
themselves.
The geographer’s approach to tourism sheds light on the location of tourist areas, the movements
of people created by tourism locales, the changes that tourism brings to the landscape in the form
of tourism facilities, dispersion of tourism development, physical planning, and economic, social,
and cultural problems. Because tourism touches geography at so many points, geographers have
investigated the area more thoroughly than have scholars in many other disciplines. Because the
geographers’ approach is so encompassing—dealing with land use, economic aspects,
demographic impacts, and cultural problems—a study of their contributions is highly
recommended. Recreational geography is a common course title used by geographers studying
this specialty. Because tourism, leisure, and recreation are so closely related, it is necessary to
search for literature under all these titles to discover the contributions of various fields.
Geographers were instrumental in starting both the Journal of Leisure Research and Leisure
Sciences. Another journal, Tourism Geographies, was launched in February 1999 with the aim of
providing a forum for the presentation and discussion of geographic perspectives on tourism and
tourism related areas of recreation and leisure studies.

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 2.1.2. Behavioral perspectives of touris m
 Culture is obviously critical and seeing the general in the particular is usually limited to
extrapolations within one culture or at least between very similar cultures. Thus there exist
different levels of generality. Some forms of behavior might be characteristic of humans as a
species. More commonly, behavior is influenced by culture, and generalization is only
possible within the bounds of a given cultural context.
 Notwithstanding the attractiveness of studying ‘‘spatial behavior,’’ a third binary
distinction needs to be made in order to give full understanding of the range of behavioral
approaches that are available within studies of ‘‘spatial behavior.’’ This distinction is
between approaches that focus on behavior in the aggregate and approaches that focus on the
behavior of individual tourists. With studies of behavior in the aggregate, the goal is to
identify regularities in overall patterns. Thus, it is recognized that not all people will behave
in an identical manner but it is felt that individual differences in behavior can be thought of
as more or less random vari-ations around an average form of behavior. There is in fact a
whole family of ‘‘spatial interaction models’’ that describe such average behavior, perhaps
best exemplified by so-called gravity models which describe how the amount of interaction
between two places increases with the size of the places but decreases the further apart the
places are.
 The underlying principle in the study of aggregate behavior is that there are beha vioral
characteristics that are observable irrespective of the individuals under study. Advocates of
this approach argue that spatial behavior is so complex as to be extremely difficult to study at
the individual level. According to this view, studies of individual behavior are inefficient and
time-consuming because what is important can be seen in aggregate patterns. This is a
contentious view. Critics of this approach take a different line. According to them, studies of
aggregate behavior have little predictive power because no causal links are established
between the environment and human actions. Therefore, it is unclear whether a change in
contextual conditions would lead to a change in behavioral outcomes. For example, a new
facility, or a different advertising strategy for an existing facility, might well produce a

20
 different pattern of aggregate behavior. Moreover, the approach ignores things like cognition
and values which are undoubtedly important in human affairs but which cannot be measured
at an aggregate scale. To give a specific example, the level of patronage of a tourist attraction
might reflect almost subconscious cultural bonds such as the iconic status of national
landmarks like Buckingham Palace and the White House.
 According to many researchers, what seems to be needed in order to remedy these
shortcomings in aggregate-scale study is an approach which is focused on the individual and
which recognizes that individuals have a modicum of free will and a degree of latitude in
interpreting and ascribing meaning to the environment. In other words, researchers need to
recognize that humans are reflexive actors who reflect upon, and think about, their behavior.
At the same time, the approach should take stock of the fact that much human behavior is
constrained and that behavioral outcomes are the product of both reflexive human agency
and the structures within which humans operate. Studies of spatial behavior at the individual
level attempt to do just this. Primacy is afforded to decision- making units (usually
individuals but sometimes larger units such as families) and consideration is given to acted-
out or measurable behavior as well as to what goes on in the mind of the individual, all
within the context of constraints of one sort or another.
 These approaches are sometimes known as micro-scale behavioral approaches or, more
commonly, actor-oriented approaches. In essence, micro-scale behavioral approaches have
their origins in models of micro-economic behavior which assume that individuals are
rational economic actors. Such an approach is normative in intent in that it specifies what
will happen, in terms of behavioral outcomes, in any given situation. This is possible because
individuals are hypothesized to be omniscient, fully rational actors who seek to maximize
economic gain. Such a view is of course overly deterministic because it allows for only one
logical behavioral out- come (the one with the highest economic value) in a given situation. It
is also
 unrealistic because humans are complex beings who are motivated by much more than
economic gain. Some attempts to model behavior from an actor-oriented perspective seek to
remedy this situation by hypothesizing ‘‘bounded rationality’’ (the fact that individuals do
not know everything) and ‘‘satisficing’’ (the fact that individuals settle for satisfactory rather
than optimal solutions when confronted with the need to make decisions about what to do

21
 and where to go) (Simon 1957; Um and Compton 1999). It is, however, more common to
recognize that a variety of antecedent conditions (attitudes, preferences, values, beliefs,
perception, cognition) influence behavior (see Ross 1998). The rationale behind this view is
simple: ‘‘if we can understand how human minds process information from external
environments and if we can determine what they process and use, then we can investigate
how and why choices concerning those environments are made’’ (Golledge and Rushton
1976: viii). In short, the emphasis in actor-oriented behavioral approaches is usually on how
information is filtered from the environment as a result of personality, cultural forces, and
cognitive factors and how that information is used to arrive at decisions about what facilities
to patronize. There are many different models of decision- making, some of them
mathematical in nature (Golledge and Stimson 1997; Pizam and Mansfield 1999)

2.1.3.. The inte rdisciplinary approach

This approach embraces virtually all aspects of our society. We have cultural and heritage
tourism, which calls for an anthropological approach. Because people behave in different
ways and travel for different reasons, it is necessary to use a psychological approach to
determine the best way to promote and market tourism products. Because tourists cross
borders and require passports and visas from government offices, and because most countries
have government-operated tourism development departments, we find that political
institutions are involved and are calling for a political science approach. Any industry that
becomes an economic giant affecting the lives of many people attracts the attention of
legislative bodies (along with that of the sociologists, geographers, economists, and
anthropologists), which create the laws, regulations, and legal environment in which the
tourist industry must operate; so we also have a legal approach. The great importance of
transportation suggests passenger transportation as another approach. The fact simply is that
tourism is so vast, so complex, and so multifaceted that it is necessary to have a number of
approaches to studying the field, each geared to a somewhat different task or objective.

2.1.4. Product Approach

This approach involves the study of various tourism products and how they
are produced, marketed, and consumed. For example, one might study an airline

22
 seat—how it is created, the people who are engaged in buying and selling it, how
it is financed, how it is advertised, and so on. Repeating this procedure for rental
cars, hotel rooms, meals, and other tourist services gives a full picture of the field.
Unfortunately, the product approach tends to be too time-consuming; it does not
allow the student to grasp the fundamentals of tourism quickly.

2.1.5. Historical Approach

The historical approach is not widely used. It involves an analysis of tourism activities
and institutions from an evolutionary angle. It searches for the cause of innovations,
their growth or decline, and shifts in interest. Because mass tourism is a fairly recent
phenomenon, this approach has limited usefulness -----The historical approach is not widely
used. It involves an analysis of tourism activities and institutions from an evolutionary
angle. It searches for the cause of innovations, their growth or decline, and shifts in interest.
Because mass tourism is a fairly recent phenomenon, this approach has limited usefulness.

2.1.6. Managerial Approach

Managerial approach is firm-oriented (microeconomic), focusing on the management
activities necessary to operate a tourist enterprise, such as pla nning, research, pricing,
advertising, control, and the like. It is a popular approach, using insights gleaned from other
approaches and disciplines. Although a major focus of this book is managerial, readers will
recognize that other perspectives are also being used. Regardless of which approach is used
to study tourism, it is important to know the managerial approach. Products change,
institutions change, and society changes; this means that managerial objectives and
procedures must be geared to change to meet shifts in the tourism environment. The Journal
of Travel Research and Tourism Management, leading journals in the field, both feature this
approach. The managerial approach is firm-oriented (microeconomic), focusing on the
management activities necessary to operate a tourist enterprise, such as planning, research,
pricing, advertising, control, and the like.

2.1.7. Economic Approach

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 Because of its importance to both domestic and world economies, tourism has been
examined closely by economists, who focus on supply, demand, balance of payments,
foreign exchange, employment, expenditures, development, multipliers, and other economic
factors. This approach is useful in providing framework for analyzing tourism and its
contributions to a country’s economy and economic development. The disadvantage of the
economic approach is that whereas tourism is an important economic phenomenon, it has an
economic impact as well. The economic approach does not usually pay adequate attention
to the environmental, cultural, psychological, sociological, and anthropological approaches.
Tourism Economics is a journal utilizing the economic approaches

2.1.8. Sociological Approach

Tourism tends to be a social activity. Consequently, it has attracted the attention of
sociologists, who have studied the tourism behavior of individuals and groups ofpeople and
the impact of tourism on society. This approach examines social classes,habits, and
customs of both hosts and guests. The sociology of leisure is a relatively undeveloped field,
but it shows promise of progressing rapidly and becoming more widely used. As tourism
continues to make a massive impact on society, it will be studied more and more from a
social point of view. A prime reference in this area is The Tourist: A New Theory of t he
Leisure Class,by Dean MacCannell (Schocken Books, New York, 1976). Erik Cohen, of
the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, has made many contributions in this area. GrahamM.
S. Dann, University of Luton, United Kingdom, has been a major contributor to the tourism
sociology literature as well.

2.1.9. Cultural perspectives

The concept of cultural tourism is very complex and so there is a long debate among scholars
due to which we find numerous definitions for this term.
“Cultural tourism can be defined as that activity which enables people to experience the different
ways of life of other people, thereby gaining at first hand an understanding of their customs,
traditions, the physical environment, the intellectual ideas and those places of architectural,
historic, archaeological or other cultural significance which remain from earlier times. Cultural

24
tourism differs from recreational tourism in that it seeks to gain an understanding or appreciation
of the nature of the place being visited.”

It is also interesting to mention that the definition has been improved through the years of the
committee’s practice since their 1976 definition was somewhat simpler and not that precise than
the previously mentioned one: “Cultural tourism is that form of tourism whose object is, among
other aims, the discovery of monuments and sites. It exerts on these last a very positive effect
insofar as it contributes - to satisfy its own ends - to their maintenance and protection. This form
of tourism justifies in fact the efforts which said maintenance and protection demand of the
human community because of the socio-cultural and economic benefits which they bestow on all
the populations concerned.”

There are other definitions from this era which focus on one of the most important effects of
tourism on the tourists, namely the experiences. One of these definitions were set up by
Australian Office of National Tourism: “Cultural tourism is tourism that focuses on the culture of
a destination - the lifestyle, heritage, arts, industries and leisure pursuits of the local population. ”
The earlier mentioned charter of the ICOMOS describes cultural tourism as: “Cultural tourism
may be defined as that movement which involves people in the exploration or the experience of
the diverse ways of life of other people, reflecting all the social customs, religious traditions, or
intellectual ideas of their cultural heritage.”
We provide two more definitions focusing on experience during the trip: “Cultural tourism is an
entertainment and educational experience that combines the arts with natural and social heritage
and history.” “Cultural tourism defines the phenomenon of people travelling specifically for the
sake of either experiencing another culture or the cultural attractions of a place.”
2.1.10. Institutional Approach
The institutional approach to the study of tourism considers the various intermediaries and
institutions that perform tourism activities. It emphasizes institutions such as the travel agency.
This approach requires an investigation of the organization, operating methods, problems, costs,
and economic place of travel agents who act on behalf of the customer, purchasing services from
airlines, rental car companies, hotels, and so on.

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 CHAP TER THREE
IMPACT OF TOURISM AND THE SUSTAINABILITY OF
COMMUNITIES

Brainstorm
 What do you know about the benefit and costs of tourism?
 In what way we can ensure sustainability in tourism?
 Please emphasize on the impact of tourism on culture and lifestyles,
politics, ecology, economy as well as tools of sustainability in tourism

Introduction
The study of tourism’s impact, particularly its detrimental environmental and socio cultural
effects, has come to be viewed as one of the most continuous issues surrounding the industry in
the late 20th century. The rapid growth of tourism in the 20th century produced problems as well
as opportunities, on a vast scale for both developed and developing countries. The governments
of these countries have come to realize that unrestrained and unplanned tourist development can
easily aggravate these problems to a point where tourists will no longer wish to visit the
destination. In short, without adequate planning tourists may destroy what they have come to see.
More attention is now given to developing and promoting tourism in a way that is sustainable in
the long term and that involves local communities in decision making. It is invariably the
economic benefits of tourism, however, that persuade governments, local areas and commercial
operators to invest in the industry in the first place and develop its full potential. Tourism brings
with it a range of benefits and problems, which affect economies, environment, cultures and the
social interaction of communities. Tourism must strive to maximize the economic benefits of the
industry while minimizing its detrimental environmental and socio-cultural impacts, if it is to
prosper as a major influence on the world economy.
Dear students, the following general framework have to be considered in the assessment of
tourism impacts.
Examine the context-environment, society, economy
Forecast the future if tourist development does not proceed
Examine tourist development
Examine what happened when development occurred
Suggest measures to reduce adverse impacts
Analyze the impacts and compare alternatives
Present the results

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 1. Economic Impacts of Tourism
Positive Impacts
The decision by any government to pursue a strategy of developing its tourism potential is
invariably based on the industry’s positive economic impacts. Now tourism is the world’s largest
export earner and the world’s biggest industry in terms in creating jobs and generating revenue.
Positive impacts may also be categorized in to direct and indirect impacts
Direct positive impacts

 Provide employment, income and foreign exchange which leads to improving of living
standards of the local populations and overall national/regional economic development.
 Increase government revenues (through various types of taxation on tourism) which can
be used to develop community facilities and infrastructure and general economic
development.
Indirect positive impacts
 Tourism may be a catalyst to the development of other economic sector such as
agriculture and industry (including cottage industry) through the supplying of goods and
services used in tourism. The dollar spent by the tourist move from one level to the other
till the other until it percolates/reaches to the deepest part of the society. This is known as
the multiplier effect.
 socio economic benefits of improvement to transportation facilities and services and
other infrastructure necessary for tourism which also serve general community social and
economic needs
 Encourages investment and development- tourism brings about an encouragement
among the government and private sector for investments and money spent by tourists
will go for investments in to other sectors , society, infrastructure , superstructure etc,
thus tourism contributes to the development of a place.
 Tourism neutralizes and balances the balance of payment situations of a lot of countries
(if Ethiopia receives Kenyan tourists and they spend their money here, it makes no
difference as Kenya can buy some Ethiopian goods.)

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  Tourism is a vital method of developing and promoting certain poor or non industrialized
countries or regions where traditional activities are on decline
Negative Impacts
 Loss of potential economic benefits to the local area and resentments by the local residents
if tourist facilities are owned and managed by outsiders, although sometimes there is, at
least initially, no alternative to this.
 Reduction of potential foreign exchange earnings when imported goods and services are
utilized in tourism, although there are also sometimes no alternatives for this.
 Economic distortions and resentment created if tourism s concentrated in only one or few
areas of a country without corresponding economic development in other areas.
 Economic distortions created if tourism attracts too many employees from other economic
sectors such as agriculture and fisheries.
 Inflation of local prices of land goods and services because of the demand of tourism.
 Overcrowding of amenity features / shopping and community facilities and congestion of
transportation systems by tourists to the extent that residents cannot conveniently use them.

This is specifically true as tourists typically have a higher spending capability than the residents
–either because tourists have higher incomes or because they saved for the trip and are inclined
to spend more. Hence, tourists become responsible for increasing the prices of commodities as
food, transportation, and arts and crafts.

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3.2 Socio-Cultural Impacts
There is a general consensus that while tourism’s well documented negative environmental
effects can be significantly reduced with appropriate planning and management, the socio
cultural consequences of tourist activity have the potential to be far more damaging in the long
term, sometimes taking generations to eradicate. This is due to the fact that many destination
governments will not include the negative socio- cultural impacts of tourism in their policy and
mission statement. In addition to this, the factor adaptation i.e., once the society is getting
exposed to a culture which is different from its own, it is very difficult to recover. For instance,
in some developing nations, premature exposure to western ideas and technologies, especially by
the youngsters such as dressing styles, hair styles, way of communication and etc has led to
erosion of the original culture of these nations and thereby created a variety of social problems.
So, it is difficult and even will take long time to regain the original culture.
There can be both positive and negative socio cultural impacts (socio cultural benefits
and costs). These are as follows:

Cultural tourism is one of the largest and fastest-growing global tourism markets. Culture and
creative industries are increasingly being used to promote destinations and enhance their
competitiveness and attractiveness. Many locations are now actively developing their tangible
and intangible cultural assets as a means of developing comparative advantages in an
increasingly competitive tourism marketplace, and to create local distinctiveness in the face of
globalisation. The results of numerous empirical studies show that many countries and
destinations experience cultural changes due to tourism development. The larger the numbers of
tourists the more significant are the changes. This section explains the impacts of tourism on
culture and their consequences for tourist and host societies (native cultures) and shows what
happens when tourists step into hosts’ lives when each other’s value systems are different.

Positive impacts
If tourism is well planned, developed and managed in a socially responsible manner, it can
bring several types of socio cultural benefits and are discussed as follows:
 Stimulus for conservation of important elements of cultural heritage of an area because
they are partially justified and financed by tourism attractions including:

29
  Conservation of archaeological and historic sites and interesting architectural
styles
 Preservation and sometimes revitalization of traditional arts, handicrafts, dance,
music, drama and customs, ceremonies, dress and certain aspects of traditional
lifestyles.
 Financial assistance for the maintenance of museums, theatres and other cultural
facilities and activities and for supporting the organization of special cultural
festivals and events.
 Renewal of sense of pride by residents in their culture when they observe tourists
appreciating it
 Cross cultural exchange of tourists and resident, learning more about one another’s
cultures, resulting in greater mutual understanding and respect
 Tourism offers a way to revive the social and cultural life of the local population

Negative Impacts
If not well planned and controlled, tourism can generate negative socio cultural impacts
including the following:

1. Erosion of Local Cultures

It is often argued that with an increase in international travel and excessive demand for tourism
products many societies experience erosion of local cultures and traditional ways of life and
customs, including indigenous cultures. In order to keep up with tourist demand for local arts, the
non-traditional craftsmen are given tasks to create pseudo- native artifacts, called ‘‘original art.’’
The original art forms become replaced by unsophisticated mass produced forms, often sloppily
and carelessly made. As a result, the quality of the traditional artistic designs and forms
deteriorates and their artistic and symbolic values and meanings disappear. The traditional art
forms become substituted for meaningless pseudo-traditional arts promoted for the purpose of
sale.
2. Cultural Commoditization and Transformation
Traditional culture is being packaged and treated as commodity for sale over which tourists and
entrepreneurs from the tourist culture, rather than locals, have rights.

30
Superficial non-authentic art forms are produced to create quick impressions of what art once
was and provide tourists with ephemeral and superficial experiences. As a result, the local
culture is commercially exploited and the rights of locals to own cultural heritage are lost.
Examples abound of mass produced and distributed ‘‘local’’ souvenirs or artifacts that can be
found in various regions and countries, and that bear little resemblance to original and local
artwork.
3. Cultural Hostility
Since tourism often destroys traditional ways of life and local economies, creates dependency
and low-skilled unsecured jobs, and harms indigenous peoples, local hosts develop hostility to
tourists. Cultural hostility is a form of cultural rejection or denial, often associated with anger
and aggression. It refers to refusing to accept others’ views of the world and forcing others and
the world to fit their views regardless of the cost. The larger the number of tourists visiting the
destination, the greater the hosts’ hostility towards tourists. If hosts are not involved in setting
the guidelines for tourism development, they may resent tourists and tourism development.
4. Cultural Arrogance
Confronted with an influx of mass tourists, host populations often stage cultural experiences in
order to compensate tourists for the lack of real experience. Staging cultural experiences is done
by creating backstage areas, where locals continue their meaningful traditions away from the
gaze of tourists, and front stage areas, where locals perform a limited range of activities for
tourist audiences. Displaying superficial local traditions and customs to tourists is a form of
cultural arrogance. However, this is done to protect and insulate local culture from the impact of
mass tourism. Staging cultural experiences diverts tourists from authentic local culture, relieves
pressure upon it and thus helps its preservation.
Designing international hotels in Western styles and showing little respect and appreciation for
the local traditions is another example of cultural arrogance. In order to avoid being called
culturally arrogant, some hotels incorporate local features in hotel interiors, exhibit work of the
indigenous painters or sculptures, and display symbols of local lifestyle, such as crafts and dress.
5. Authenticity of Tourism Experiences
In order to satisfy mass tourism, pseudo-artifacts are produced and commoditized creating
standardized and inauthentic products. Some scholars argue that tourists like commoditized,
inauthentic products, imitations, images, and so called ‘‘staged attractions’’ (Boorstin, 1961).

31
However, it is debatable whether tourists are able to actually experience what is authentic in
foreign cultures, as most of what they are offered is pseudo-experience. In order for tourists to
experience an authentic foreign culture, they need to get away from the main streets, shopping
centers, and attractions where only staged authenticity is present. False back stage areas are often
set up to deceive tourists; they could be more inauthentic than staged front regions. Thus,
commoditization and globalization destroy the authenticity of tourist experiences). However,
some believe that what is promoted to tourists is assumed to be authentic and what is inauthentic
may become authentic over time. For example, tourism products that are initially regarded as
inauthentic (e.g., Disney World) eventually get incorporated into local culture and perceived as
authentic.

Tourists are often willing to perceive tourism products as being authentic because they are
‘‘symbols’’ of authenticity, not because they are originals or represent reality. Tourists like to
take home from Mexico sombreros with Mexican designs on them as authentic evidence of their
destinations. Although these objects are made for the mass market and promote in authenticity
traditional techniques may remain unchanged.
Many tourists are not concerned with authenticity and the origins of attractions as long as they
enjoy them and the products transformed by the commoditization remain authentic in the
tourists’ eyes. Also, many tourists accept superficiality of tourism products as long as it he lps to
protect the original culture. Tourists understand that commoditization of cultural products may
change or add new meanings to them. Most tourists accept commercialized objects as authentic
as long as they are convinced that these objects have traditional designs and have been made by
members of an ethnic group (Cohen, 1988).
6. Renaissance of Traditional Art Forms.
In some cases tourism enables a rejuvenation of particular forms of art and craft. The exposure to
other ethnic groups can often result in the adaption of their art traditions, forms, and designs
(e.g., pottery, jewelry). By borrowing from one culture, modifying and refining the original local
art, new forms of traditional art can develop. For example, refining highly demanded Indian and
Aboriginal arts and crafts allowed for developing new ideas and creating new designs. Thus, in
the process of commoditization (mass) tourism may help to maintain and revive original
traditions, and art designs and forms (Cohen, 1988).

32
 7. Marketing of Culture and Violation of Rights To Own Cultural Heritage
By treating traditional culture as a commodity for sale and making it commercially exploited,
culture is turned to paid performance. Traditional ceremonies and festivals are pre-arranged and
treated as daily entertainment rituals for sale (e.g., hula girls greet tourists at Honolulu airport;
Maori perform daily dances in Rotorua, New Zealand). As a result, the tourists see the visited
country through superficial experiences that are selective, pre-arranged, and distorted from
reality. The commercialization of culture proves that the traditional culture can be treated as a
commodity over which locals lose their rights.
The discussed above cultural practices are usually responsible for culture change.
8. Culture Change
Culture change occurs as a result of (1) evolutionary changes occurring within a society, (2)
changes in the way people live, and (3) contact between societies and groups from different
cultures (e.g., hosts and visitors). All cultures are changing in response to the changes in social
environment, institutions, technologies, politics, and ideologies. One of the major reasons for
culture change is frequent contact between societies. Cultural elements such as values, ideas, or
scientific developments are spread all over the world by travelers, immigrants, business people,
guest workers, diplomats, and students.
Culture is also carried by film and literature. The spread of these cultural elements among
societies is a two-way process. Visitors bring their ideas to the host country, and hosts expose
visitors to their values and perspectives. As a result of cultural contact between their members,
both cultures (host culture and visitor culture) influence each, and affluent society has more
influence on the non- industrialized and developing society. For example, the Western
industrialized nations have more influence on Third World countries than the Third World
countries have on developed Western nations. Those with more power significantly influence the
culture of those with less power.
Tourism significantly influences the changes induced through contact between societies with
different cultures. Many studies show that the interaction between locals and tourists creates
significant changes in cultural (as well as social, economic, and political) value systems. Tourism
is a medium for cultural transformation. In particular, tourism can initiate irreversible changes
within the cultures of host communities (Robinson, 1998). Tourists are viewed as agents of
cultural changes (Pearce, 1995).

33
 In general, unplanned tourism activities me cause the following problems.

 Resentment and conflicts within residents and families

 Overcrowding of amenity features /shopping and community facilities and congestion of
transportation systems by tourists to the extent that residents cannot conveniently use
them
 Over commercialization and loss of authenticity of traditional arts and crafts, customs
and ceremonies to suit tourists’ demand, for example, important traditional dance and
music performances may be greatly shortened and modified to suit tourists’ tastes and
schedules, and handcrafted objects of religious significance may be produced as tourist
souvenirs.
 Demonstration effects of residents, especially young people imitating tourists/ their life
style patterns.
 Deterioration of cultural monuments and loss of cultural artifacts through overuse by
tourists
 Pre-emption (right to do) of beaches and other amenity areas for exclusive tourism use
without provision of access to residents, which lead to local resentment and loss of
amenities.
 Misunderstanding and conflict between residents and tourists because of differences in
language, customs, religion, culture, values and behavioral patterns.
 Alteration to religious codes, for instance, opening shops on the Sabbath, cancellation of
religious festivals, etc.
 Violation of local dress codes by tourists for example ,women must be well dressed in
Christianity and Islamic societies
 Problems of drugs/ alcoholism, crime, prostitution which may be exacerbated (make
worse) by tourism.
 Loss of native languages- mass tourists visiting oversea resorts for extended period of
time have an impact on indigenous language
 Loss of traditional industries- traditional industries like indigenous crafts may be lost if a
tourist area substitutes local goods for imported goods
 Natives assume artificial behavior

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  Transformation of forms and types of occupation
 Transformation of values
 Modification of consumption patterns
3.3 Environmental Impacts of Tourism
Types of Environme ntal Impacts
Tourism can generate both positive and negative or no appreciable impacts, depending on how
its development is planned and controlled.
Positive Impacts
Tourism, if well planed and controlled, can help maintain and improve the environment in
various ways. For example:
 Conservation of important natural areas: tourism helps to justify and pay for the
conservation of important natural areas as well as wildlife including marine environment
via the development of national and regional parks, and reserves since these are
attractions for visitors. Without tourism, these natural areas might be developed for other
uses or allowed to ecologically deteriorate, with consequent loss of environmental
heritage.
 Conservation of archaeological and historical sites: tourism also helps to justify and
pay for the conservation of historical and archaeological sites which are important
sources of attractions or sites for tourists which otherwise would be deteriorated or
disappeared, thus resulting in the loss of cultural heritage of an area.
 Enhance ment of the environme nt: development of well-designed tourist facilities (such
as attractive, landscaped hotels) may enhance landscapes which are other wise dull and
uninteresting.
 Improvement of infrastructure : an economic and environment benefit, local
infrastructure of airports, roads, water, sewage, solid waste disposal systems,
telecommunications, etc can be improved through the development of tourism, which
uses and pays for the infrastructure, thus leading to an overall reduction of pollution
problems and enhancing the environmental quality of the area.
 Improvement of environmental quality: tourism provides the incentive to make the
environment clean through managing and controlling air, water, noise and visual
pollution.

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  Increasing environmental aware ness: in places where residents have limited interest in
and concern about the natural environment and its conservation, observing tourists’
interest in nature encourages environmental awareness.
There may be other or more specific types of positive environment impacts depending on
the particular type of tourism development and the tourism area characteristics involved.

Negative Impacts
1. Wate r pollution: proper sewage disposal system has not been installed for hotels, resorts
or other tourist facilities. There may be pollution of ground water from the sewage. There
should be planned out fall of sewage and its treatment so as to minimize the chance of
pollution.
2. Air pollution: tourism is generally considered as a “clean industry” but air pollution
from tourist vehicles and tourism development areas can result into excessive air
pollution problem. If strict emission standards are fixed and devegetated are probably
planned and landscaped, then up to some extent we can curb the problem of air pollution.
3. Noise pollution: by tourist vehicle /airplanes/tourist attractions like amusement parks/car
or motorcycle race trucks may reach irritating levels for nearby residents. Very loud noise
can result in ear damage and psychological stress.
4. Visual pollution: poorly designed hotels /tourist facility/building , non compatibility
with local architecture/ inadequate landscaping / use of large and ugly advertising signs/
mesh of overhead utility lines( electric, telephone and telegraph poles and lines)/ poor
maintenance of building and landscaping can result in an unattractive environment for
both hosts and tourists.
5. Waste disposal proble ms: improper disposal of litter and solid waste from resorts and
hotels can generate environmental and health problems, diseases, pollution and
unattractive to the destination.

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 6. Ecological disruption and environmental hazards: Ecological disruption- several
types of ecological problems e.g., overuse of fragile environment, killing of animals,
deforestation, excessive collection of corals by boat anchors, disruption of animal habits
and activities by photography etc can result from uncontrolled tourism. Environmental
hazards- poor engineering design of tourist facilities can generate landslides, flooding,
and disruption of any natural drainage channels etc may lead to earthquake, high winds,
and flooding and land slippage.
7. Damage to historic / archaeological sites: over use or misuse of environmentally fragile
archaeological sites can lead to damage of these features through excessive wear,
vibration , vandalism, graffiti writing, etc
8. Land use proble ms: tourist facilities like hotels, resorts, restaurants, etc may preempt
land that is more valuable for other types of land uses, such as for agriculture, mining
9. Congestion and overcrowding: places are so overcrowded by tourists which makes
freedom of movement difficult or impossible and which may affect the environment
negatively. This problem happen at areas like market, highway or traffic area, hand icraft
or souvenir shops and other facilities

Reducing Mechanisms for negative impacts

There are a number of examples of environmental impacts of tourism, and a few
illustrations of how the problems might be managed. Some argue that it is not enough for
individual authorities to tackle the situation; that it should be tackled on a global scale. The
negative impacts can be tackled using the following mechanisms:
 Constructing adequate drainage system to prevent flooding and standing out water
causes for health problem around the tourist attraction
 Application of land use zoning
 Installation of internationally accepted standards of water and sewage disposal system
for all tourist facilities
 Use of non polluting vehicles such as electric carts or shuttle buses
 Application of appropriate designing standards and controlling ugly advertisement
 Development of electric power system to provide adequate and reliable power and also
to prevent air and noise pollution.

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  Establishment of controls on spear fishing, mining or beach sand for construction,
cutting of trees for fire wood, etc
 Maintenance of environmental health and safety standards for both tourists and residents
 Using negative entropy for solid waste
Here are some of the recommendations and which are taken from (guideline for sustainable
tourism by WTTC) and will help to reduce the negative environmental impacts of tourism
 Identify and minimize product and operational environmental problems, paying particular
attention to new projects
 Pay due regard to environmental concerns in design, planning, construction and
implementation
 Be sensitive to conservation of environmentally protected or threatened areas, species or
scenic aesthetics, achieving landscape enhancement where possible
 Practice energy conservation, reduce and recycle waste, practice fresh water management
and control sewage disposal
 Control and diminish air emissions and pollutants
 Monitor, control and reduce noise levels
 Control, reduce and eliminate environmentally unfriendly products, such as asbestos,
CFCs, pesticides and toxic, corrosive, infectious, explosive or flammable material
 Consider environmental issues as a key factor in the overall development of travel and
tourism destinations

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 CHAP TER FOUR
NEW TRENDS IN TOURISM

Brainstorm
Students please define the following terms on your own words before you are
going read them: Sustainable tourism, ecotourism, community based tourism as
well as the issues of fair trade, ethical tourism, and pro-poor tourism

Sustainable touris m

The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) identifies a sustainable tourism destination as
a country, region, or town that has shown dedication to and success in tourism
development that maximizes benefits to the natural environment and local communities
and minimizes negative impact. WTTC states that a sustainable tourism destination supports
preservation of the destination’s natural and cultural heritage, local character, and sense of
authenticity. It brings direct and tangible economic benefits to the local people and educates
tourists and local communities about the importance of supporting sustainable tourism practices.

Sustainable practices are defined as low-impact, environmentally sensitive tourism operations

(e.g., sound environmental management, green building design, alternative and renewable energy
use, recycling, etc.), conservation of natural habitat, support for cultural heritage, and local
community employment at fair wages.

The National Geographic Society Center for Sustainable Destinations (CSD) defines
sustainable tourism destination planning as a key way to develop the most beneficial and least
dis ruptive form of tourism that highlights the natural, historic, and cultural assets unique
to a destination. According to CSD, sustainable tourism requires businesses and other tourism
stakeholders to “anticipate development pressures and apply limits and management techniques
that sustain natural habitats, heritage sites, scenic appeal and local culture. It aims for quality
tourism, not quantity.” Sustainable tourism can be reflected by the following characteristics.

Hence, Sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

Evolution of Sustainable Development and Sustainable Touris m

A number of global institutional initiatives based in Europe began to arise in the 1970s that
shaped subsequent sustainability directions. The first United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972. It established a place on the global
39
agenda for environmental issues, for a “point has been reached in history when we must shape
our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental
consequences”. In addition, the 1972 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) Convention established guidelines for the protection of global natural
and cultural heritage and required states to participate in the protection and conservation of
officially designated World Heritage Sites.
Important contributors to the subsequent discussions and initiatives were the Club of Rome’s
report. The Limits to Growth (for details, see, and the World Conservation Strategy, 1980, was
developed jointly by International Union for Conservation of Nature, United Nations
Environmental Program and World Wildlife Fund . The notion of sustainable development (SD)
was forwarded by the United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development
(UNWCED) in the seminal Brundtland Commission’s report Our Common Future.

The report raised global awareness among public and private sector institut ions for the need to
consider a long-term conservation horizon, as well as societal considerations, such as:
(i) intra- generational and inter- generational equity in the use and conservation of
environmental resources; and
(ii) (ii) north-south equity, i.e., bridging the development disparities between the
developed (Western) world and the lesser developed and poorer regions.

This important initiative provided further momentum to growing concerns about long-term
resource conservation and use. Similar to sustainable development, sustainable tourism
development, defined as a sub-set of sustainable development, witnessed some joint global
institutional initiatives to direct it towards a balanced path even prior to the UNWECD
(1987) initiatives. In the 1970s, UNESCO and the World Bank made an alliance for tourism
development, the former supporting heritage preservation with expertise and the latter
financing tourism-related infrastructure development. In 1976, these organizations jointly
convened a seminar “to discuss the social and cultural impacts of tourism on developing
countries and to suggest ways to take account of these concerns in decision- making”.
However, the importance of addressing tourism as an important player in sustainability was
not well recognized in the early initiatives mentioned above. Hall, Gossling and Scott note
that tourism was hardly mentioned in the UNWECD (1987) report. The notion of

40
 “sustainable tourism” only later became engrained in the policy statements and planning
documents of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), World Travel and
Tourism Council (WTTC).
The role of tourism did arise at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
held in 1992 (also known as the Rio Summit), which sought to help operationalize sustainable
development through concrete, but non-binding actions. The Agenda 21 action plan that resulted
from the Rio Summit was adopted by 182 governments present at the UNCED conference.

Hence, sustainable tourism development related to three “pillars ” of sustainability: economic,

social and environmental;
1. Economic sustainability, which means generating prosperity at different levels of
society and addressing the cost effectiveness of all economic activity. Crucially, it is
about the viability of enterprises and activities and their ability to be maintained in the
long term.
2. Social sustainability, focuses on respecting human rights and equal opportunities for all
in society. It requires an equitable distribution of benefits, with a focus on alleviating
poverty. There is an emphasis on local communities, maintaining and strengthening their
life support systems, recognizing and respecting different cultures and avoiding any form
of exploitation.
3. Environmental sustainability – refers conserving and managing resources, especially
those that are not renewable or are precious in terms of life support. It requires action to
minimize pollution of air, land and water and to conserve biological diversity and natural
heritage.

Overview of the Sustainable Tourism Industry

Today, tourism is widely recognized as the largest industry on earth based on its
contribution to global gross domestic product, the number of jobs it generates, and the
number of clients it serves. Tourism is one of the top five exports for 83 perc ent of all
countries and the number one source of foreign exchange for 40 percent of countries
(United Nations World Tourism Organization, UNWTO). In 2006, the travel and tourism
economy generated more than 10 percent of world gross domestic product, outpacing all

41
other economic sectors (World Travel and Tourism Council, WTTC). In 1950, there were
25 million international travelers. By 1990, there were 450 million annual tourism
arrivals globally, and 2006 saw an all-time record of 842 million tourists — an increase
of more than 3,000 percent over 1950. The UNWTO forecasts that over the coming 15
years, the number of tourists will rise to 1.5 billion, twice the current total.

In terms of job creation, travel and tourism employment is expected to reach 231.2
million jobs in 2007, representing 8.3 percent of total employment worldwide, or 1 in
every 12 jobs on the planet (WTTC).

Tourism can be an opportunity or a threat to the people and places where tourism
growth occurs. This is amply demonstrated in dozens of case studies around the world. If
global tourism were represented as a country, it would consume three times the amount
of fresh water contained in Lake Superior in a year (10 million cubic meters) and produce
the same amount of solid waste as France (35 million tons per year) (United Nations
Environment Program, UNEP). How tourism grows and develops is therefore of great
consequence to the future of the environment; to national, regional, and local economies;
and to the local peoples whose lives tourism growth will impact.

1. Ecotourism
Ecotourism, defined as “responsible travel to natural areas that protect nature and sustain the
well being of local peoples” (International Ecotourism Society), emerged as a response to the
rapid growth of tourism into wilderness areas where large-scale projects were having negative
impacts on the lives of local people and the natural environment.

It was more than an environmental effort. The birth of ecotouris m reflected the emergence of
a ne w tourism market that took shape in the late 1980s and early 1990s . More tourists
became interested in experiencing nature, visiting communities that retained their traditional
character, and helping to protect remote wilderness areas and local ways of life.

Community ecotourism is a particular fact of community based tourism, where at least some of
the experiences are natural resourced-based. Community ecotourism benefits both environmental
conservation and local communities, the former generating financing for the management of the
natural resource area.

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Today, the principles that were first associated with ecotouris m have evolved into what is called
sustainable touris m. Sustainable tourism includes environmentally sensitive resort operations,
direct and tangible economic benefits to local communities, and enhancing the cultura l and
natural heritage of the destination.

Principles of Ecotourism

Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This

means that those who implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow
the following ecotourism principles:
 Minimize impact
 Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect
 Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts
 Provide direct financial benefits for conservation
 Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people
 Raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climate
 Support international human rights and labor agreements
Successful characteristics of ecotouris m include:
 Minimizing the negative impacts on nature and culture that ca n damage a destination.
 Educating the traveler on the importance of conservation.
 Stressing the importance of responsible business that works in cooperation with local
authorities and people to meet local needs and deliver conservation benefits.
 Directing revenues to the conservation and management of natural and protected
areas and biological diversity.
 Emphasizing the need for both regional tourism zoning and visitor management plans
designed for either regions or natural areas that are slated to become eco-destinations.
 Emphasizing use of environmental and social base- line studies, as well as long-term
monitoring programs, to assess and minimize impacts.
 Maximizing economic benefit for the host country, local business and communities,
particularly peoples living in and adjacent to natural and protected areas.
 Supporting the economic empowerment of communities through training and hiring
local people, paying fair wages and benefits, buying supplies locally, and supporting

43
 local ownership or joint ventures with outside business or NGO partners of tourist
facilities and concessions.
 Ensuring that tourism development does not exceed the social and environmental
limits of acceptable change as determined by researchers in cooperation with local
residents.
 Relying on infrastructure that has been developed in harmony with the environment:
minimizing use of fossil fuels, conserving local plant and wildlife, and blending with
the natural and cultural environment.

Types of Ecotourism
Ecotourism is a broad term encompassing many types of travel that share the goals of
cultural and environmental awareness and respect, minimal environmental impact, and
the preservation and betterment of local populations worldwide . The following are the
main types of ecotourism:

Ecolodging
Ecolodging involves accommodations that have been built with environmental awareness
and conscientiousness or that are simply in natural settings. Ecolodging options vary
greatly, from hotels or hostels built with sustainable or alternative mate rials to "eco
resorts" in remote locations with access to activities such as bird-watching, sea kayaking
and tours of local outdoor attractions.

Agro tourism
Agro tourism is a type of ecotourism that capitalizes on rural farm communities as tourist
attractions. Some agro tourism venues serve to encourage and protect threatened agrarian
communities in disadvantaged countries. Others offer demonstration sites for sustainable
farming methods. Many agro tourism sites offer volunteer opportunities and feature the
cultivation of animal and plant species well-known in the particular region.

44
Community Development
Some ecotourism opportunities focus on protecting the land and live lihood of
communities threatened by industry, deforestation and other byproducts of
modernization. Such organizations offer opportunities for ecotourists to interact with the
local population by planting trees, learning local trades or building homes. Community
development projects not only increase awareness and respect among visitors and locals
but also offer financial benefits to struggling communities.

Eco Treks
Eco treks involve excursions to exotic, endangered or otherwise appealing locations.
Treks might include rafting, rock climbing, swimming, caving, hiking, sailing or bird-
watching for the purpose of increasing awareness about a particular region and its
associated environmental threats or habitats worth preserving. Eco trek organizations
may or may not provide monetary support to the local population.

Ecotourism's idealistic goal is to improve the world through responsible travel; while its
effects will probably never match its ideals, travelers can offer very real benefits to local
communities.

3. Pro poor tourism /PPT/ (Tourism as an Effective Tool in Fighting Poverty )

Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) is tourism that results in increased net benefits for poor people.
PPT is not a specific product or niche sector but an approach to tourism development and
management. It enhances the linkages between tourism businesses and poor people; so
that tourism’s contribution to poverty reduction is increased and poor people are able to
participate more effectively in product development.
Links with many different groups of ‘the poor’ need to be considered: staff, neighboring
communities, landholders, producers of food, fuel and other supplies, operators of micro
tourism businesses, craft-makers. The poor can also benefit by the use that they may be
able to make of tourism infrastructure (e.g. roads) and resources (e.g. water).

45
There are many types of Pro-Poor Tourism strategies, ranging from increasing local
employment to building mechanisms for consultation. Strategies for Pro-Poor Tourism
can be divided into those that generate three different types of local benefits: economic
benefits, other livelihood benefits (such as physical, social or cultural improvements), and
less tangible benefits of participation and involvement. Each of these can be further
disaggregated into specific types of strategies.

Strategies focused on economic benefits

In general, staff wages are a massive boost to those few that get them, small earnings help
many more to make ends meet, and collective income can benefit the majority, but can
often be misused. Thus, all three types are important for reaching different poor families.
Strategies to create these benefits need to tackle many obstacles to economic
participation, including lack of skills, low understanding of tourism, poor product quality
and limited market access.
Strategies to enhance other (non-cash) livelihood benefits
These strategies can often begin by reducing negative impacts – such as cultural
intrusion, or lost access to land or coast. But, more can be done to then address these
issues positively, in consultation with the poor. Opportunities to increase local access to
services and infrastructure often arise when these are being developed for the needs of
tourists, but with some consultation and adaptation could also serve the needs of
residents. Strategies for capacity-building may be directly linked to boosting cash

46
income, but may also be of more long-term indirect value, such as buil ding the
management capacity of local institutions.
Strategies focused on policy, process, and participation
Implementing these strategies may involve lobbying for policy reform, involving the poor
in local planning initiatives, amplifying their voice through producer associations, and
developing formal and informal links between the poor and private operators.
Tourism, like other industries is not immune to certain negative implications. Exploitation of
labor the natural environment, foreign investment orientation, co modification and the resultant
degradation of the local culture, are just some of the unsavory effects of tourism practices, which
can result in its un-sustainability (Brown & Hall, 2008). Conversely, tourism can expand local
economies by providing supplemental income whilst rejuvenating the culture, social capital, and
sense of community pride. PPT can contribute to the “realization of social equity” through the
linkages that the approach places an emphasis on. The following are the reasons why tourism can
be an effective poverty alleviation mechanism.

1. In tourism, cons umers reach the product (as opposed to the reverse) facilitating a
ripple-effect in purchasing of tourism related goods and services
2. Touris m is a diverse industry that can promote strategic linkages with other sectors and
thus generate multipliers . Linkages between tourism and the agriculture (food sales,
farm tourism, etc.), entertainment (theatre, music, local festivals), and transportation
industries are inextricable. When effectively harnessed, these can facilitate synergy
between a destination’s commercial and public sector.
3. Touris m is labor intensive therefore has the ability to employ sizeable portions of the
local population.
4. Tourism can also promote gender equality through the employme nt of women in the
service sector and in the informal sector.
5. Touris m can facilitate micro-entrepre neurship through the formal or informal
economies. For instance, it can promote traditional skills amongst women, thus
enhancing their sense of empowerment and capacity to participate in decision- making.
6. Touris m can lead to infrastructure developments in terms of improved roadways,
public transport systems, water supply, electricity supply, etc. These would benefit
tourists and locals alike.
7. Tourism allows the poor to leverage natural resources, which in some cases are the
primary assets that they possess.

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The conceptual diagram (Figure 1) depicts key linkages between tourism and poverty alleviation
and highlights tourism’s scope as an effective vehicle for poverty alleviation. The parallels
between the linkages depicted and the Millennium Development Goals are evident.

Figure 1. Linkages between touris m and poverty reduction - Source: UNESCAP, n.d.

Expanding opportunities for the poor necessitates a comprehensive strategy, one that
incorporates economic, environmental, political, and socio-cultural preservation dimensions.

Pro-Poor Tourism is about changing the distribution of benefits from tourism in favour of poor
people. It is not a specific product and therefore is not the same as ecotourism or community-
based tourism. Any kind of tourism can be made pro-poor. PPT can be applied at different
levels, at the enterprise, destination or country level.

PPT initiatives comprise of practical strategies that direct the underlying principles that the
approach is based on:

 Expansion of business and employment opportunities for the poor

 Addressing of the environmental effects of tourism
 Addressing social and cultural effects of tourism
 Building a supportive policy and planning framework
 Developing pro-poor processes and institutions

4. Community Based Tourism (CBT)

CBT has been used to describe a broad range of different tourism models but usually
refers to tourism that involves community participation and aims to generate benefits for
local communities in the developing world by allowing tourists to visit these
communities and learn about their culture and the local environment. Community

48
participation in the tourism initiative is central to all the definitions, ranging from
cooperative or individually owned and managed businesses to joint ventures between the
community and the private sector. Other common themes are the involvement of external
support from a donor agency or NGO, the generation of individual and collective benefits
within the community and a triple bottom line approach.
CBT schemes have raised great optimism among international development agencies and
were widely adopted over the last 30 years. CBT was born as an alternative approach to
the excesses of mainstream or mass tourism, such as repatriation of profits from
developing economies by multinational companies and the negative impact on
destinations. It is consistent with alternative development and sustainable livelihood
approaches, which focus on grassroots development and embrace participation, equity
and empowerment ideas. Its interest resides in the fact that CBT projects are small or
medium sized ventures that have the potential to generate a range of positive economic
and social development impacts in rural areas, where other types of development may be
inadequate. Through local control of tourism businesses and activities, CBT is thought to
contribute to cultural and environmental conservation and to the redistribution of
economic benefits among the most vulnerable groups, such as indigenous communities.
A range of studies about CBT initiatives have confirmed its potential benefits to
communities, especially ‘commercially grounded’ initiatives.
A community by definition implies individuals with some kind of collective responsibility, and
the ability to make decisions by representative bodies. Community based tourism is tourism in
which local residents (often rural, poor and economically marginalized) invite tourists to visit
their communities with the provision of overnight accommodation. The residents earn income as
land managers, entrepreneurs, service and produce providers, and employees. At least part of the
tourist income is set aside for projects which provide benefits to the community as a whole.

Community based tourism enables the tourist to discover local habitats and wildlife, and
celebrates and respects traditional cultures, rituals and wisdom. The community will be aware of
the commercial and social value placed on their natural and cultural heritage through tourism,
and this will foster community based conservation of these resources.

49
The community may choose to partner with a private sector partner to provide capital, clients,
marketing, tourist accommodation or other expertise. Subject to agreement to the ideals of
supporting community development and conservation, and to planning the tourism development
in partnership with the community, this partner may or may not own part of the tourism
enterprise.

Community-based touris m is travel to local indigenous communities that have invited outsiders
to experience their customs, food, lifestyle, and set of beliefs. These communities manage both
the impacts and the benefits of this tourism, strengthening their self- governance, economic
alternatives, and traditional ways of life in the process. Community tourism (sometimes called
community-based tourism) is a form of tourism which aims to include and benefit local
communities, particularly indigenous peoples and villagers. Villagers might host tourists in
their village, managing the scheme communally and sharing the profits.

Key Characteristics of Community-based Touris m

Community-based tourism is defined by three characteristics: indigenous leadership,

sustainability, and cultural immersion.

A. Indigenous Leadership: Community-based tourism is managed by indigenous

communities. This means the community assumes collective responsibility for all aspects
of your stay, including accommodations, internal travel, local food, and cultural
activities. Communities reap the benefits from tourism revenue, making community-
based tourism a sustainable alternative to many travel organizations, which often do not
work in solidarity with the communities and environments they use. Through
community-based travel, collective wellbeing is valued over corporate or individual
profit.
B. Sustainability: Communities will only accommodate as many people as they are able,
keeping in mind long-term sustainability, and avoiding unnecessary strain on their own
resources. Meals generally draw on local agriculture, and communities will not take on
more guests than their housing and energy resources can effectively support. Aside from
physical resources, revenue from community-based travel helps to sustain indigenous
cultures and traditions in a rapidly changing world.
C. Cultural Imme rsion: Travelers are able to experience the diversity and customs of
another culture, and to interact with the community. Unique lodging, cuisine, and
activities form a foundation for increased knowledge and awareness of another culture,
different set of beliefs, and social norms.

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Community Based Tourism is a form of sustainable tourism that allows visitors to connect
closely with the communities they visit. This emerging form of travel gives tourists authentic
experiences, while allowing revenue generated b y tourism to remain in the often rural, poor, or
economically marginalized community. These communities run these tourism enterprises that
provide services such as village tours, nature walks, performances, and meals on their own
initiatives.

Community tourism not only encourages cross-cultural understanding between host and visitor
but also embraces the bottom line of environmental protection, cultural conservation, social
responsibility, economic health, and the enhancement of livelihoods. Because communities are
the owners of these tourism enterprises, they have the incentive to establish standards for
international tourists and invest in a quality tourism product. As such, Community Tourism has
been promoted as a means of development where the social, economic, and environmental needs
of local communities are met through the offering of a tourism product. Benefits of community
based tourism:

The community:

Brings recognition and attention to the community

Adds value to a community’s economy
Diversifies economic activity in a community
Provides an alternative to unsustainable forms of income such as poaching or logging,
thus helping safeguard the livelihoods and well being of both locals and indigenous
peoples
 Natural resource-based conservation, where the main product is wildlife or natural-
resource related
 Promotes cultural conservation
 Tourism income is more likely to remain in the community
 Encourages community pride and protection of community resources
 Involves and encourages the participation of women
The tourist:

 Receives an authentic experience and learns first- hand about the community from a
local guide
 Has an opportunity to create a deeper connection to the destination
 Knows exactly where the money will go and can feel good about it
 In the case of ecotourism, achieves a win-win benefits for supporting natural heritage
conservation
 Gets a unique look at a particular destination
 Receives personal tour, individualized service, and attention
5. Ethical Tourism

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Ethical tourism simply means tourism which benefits people and the environment in different
destinations. It can offer a better income to families living in the area, by sourcing products and
services locally. Ethical tourism and responsible tourism mean thinking about the consequences of
your actions as tourist on the environment, local people and local economy. Some places in the world
really benefit from tourism and for some communities the tourist trade is the main source of income and
jobs.

6. Fair Trade Tourism / FTT /: the mark of a good holiday

The aim of FTT is to make tourism more sustainable by ensuring that the people who
contribute their land, resources, labour and knowledge to tourism are the ones who reap
the benefits.
This is done through growing awareness about responsible tourism to travelers; assisting
tourism businesses to operate more sustainably; and by facilitating a Fair Trade Tourism
certification programmes for example across southern Africa. Tourism businesses that
adhere to the FTT standard use the FTT label as a way of signifying their commitment to
fair and responsible tourism. This includes fair wages and working conditions,
fair purchasing and operations, equitable distribution of benefits and respect for human
rights, culture and the environment.
By selecting an FTT-certified business, travellers are not only assured that their holiday
benefits local communities and economies, and that the business is operated ethically and
in a socially and environmentally responsible manner, but they will also have a more
fulfilling holiday experience.
Travellers can also book a fully certified Fair Trade Holiday. A Fair Trade Holiday is
developed by tour operators committed to sustainability and Fair Trade; benefit workers
and owners of tourism businesses by requiring long-term trading relationships, full
prepayment and binding cancellation agreements; and a set contribution is paid to the
FTT Development Fund.
Fair Trade Tourism Development Fund
One of the cornerstones of the Fairtrade system, on which Fair Trade Tourism has been
modeled, is the Fair-trade premium. The Fair-trade premium is a sum of money paid on
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top of the agreed Fair-trade price for investment in social, environmental or economic
development projects, decided upon democratically by producers within the farmers’
organisation or by workers on a plantation. In 2011, the Fairtrade system paid EUR 65
million to producers worldwide.
The FTT Development Fund works in a similar way: each time a tour operator sells a Fair
Trade Holiday, they will deposit a set amount into the FTT Development Fund. This
Fund is managed as a separate legal entity, and FTT-certified businesses can apply for
assistance with development projects from the Fund.
Fair Trade in Tourism context includes:
 Equitable consultation and negotiation taking into account the interests of local
community stakeholders, including tourism enterprises, and indigenous residents
not involved in tourism; taking into account the interests of local community
stakeholders, including tourism enterprises, and indigenous residents not involved
in tourism;
 Transparent and accountable business operations through environmental and social
audits;
 Employment of local resident and indigenous people to develop human potential;
 Training and development at local community level for managerial positions, if
appropriate as part of a public, private and civil society partnership;
 Investors aware of and adhering to national, regional and local planning and
environmental regulations;
 A fair price, negotiated in partnership with local suppliers;, negotiated in
partnership with local suppliers;
 Fair competition between foreign and domestic investors to enhance opportunities
for domestic investment and competitiveness;
 Shared tourism revenues to ensure that the return from the use of public assets for
tourism, benefits and enhances public social and environmental resources in the
destination;

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  Use of local products and materials where appropriate (ecologically sustainable if
possible);
 Compliance by foreign investors with destinations’ tax regulations. Present
transfer pricing policies of transnational corporations should be reviewed to

54
 CHAP TER FIVE
TOURISM POLICY AND PLANNING

FOCUS
 Tourism and public policy,
 local and regional policy and aims of regional tourism
 The Situation of Tourism policy in Ethiopia

5.1. TOURISM POLICY

Tourism is among the economic and social sectors that are registering rapid growth in the
world, and nowadays it has been found to be making its contribution in supporting and
accelerating national development. Tourism makes a tremendous contribution servi ng as
a source of foreign exchange, promoting micro and small-scale enterprises, creating
employment opportunities, and ensuring sustainable development.
Tourism Policy – refers to an overall, high-level plan that includes goals and
procedures. Policies are generally found in formal statements such as laws and
official documents and statements. Tourism Policy is generally considered to be an
area of a nations overall economic policy. It is a “public policy desig ned to
achieve specific objectives relevant to tourism established at the municipal, state or
federal level”.
More generally, tourism policy should reflect the overall development policy of the
country or region so that tourism is well integrated with it. Policy also evolves from the
survey and analysis of present tourism development patterns and infrastructure, tourist
attractions and activities, and the tourist market.

55
The tourism policy involves three basic conditions to be included:
A. Who Formulates Tourism Policy?
Defining tourism policy as a “public policy…” means that it is formulated by the
public sector, which comprises “ central government and local authorities (general
government), together with the nationalized industries or public corporations”. And
although tourism is an activity sustained mainly by private initiative, governments
have traditionally played an essential role in its development and in the promotion
of their countries as a tourist destination through the activities of National Tourism
Administrations (NTAs). For example the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is the upper
body responsible for tourism development in Ethiopia. Under the ministry, there are
many organizations (NTAs) specifically working on tourism in Ethiopia. These
organizations undertake a lot of activities including:
 Coordinate many national policies that are vital for tourism (taxation,
consumer protection, social and labour legislation, environmental policy,
general education policy, etc.)
 Maintain a close link between tourism development policy and promotion abroad.
 Avoid the over-supply of private or public facilities (marinas, hotels, etc.)
which leads to the proliferation of competing projects and which results in
lower occupancy rates and smaller profits.
 Provide backing for certain innovations (new tourism product policy) so as
to facilitate their distribution nationally and their placement on the market.
 Gather statistics and monitor economic activity nationally for purposes of
international comparison and domestic comparison with other sectors and, if
need be, for directing policies in the right direction.
 Deal with and manage tourism crises (of either human or natural origin).
 Represent its country in trade and consume shows and expositions.

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 B. What are the Objectives of Tourism Policy?
Tourism affects many areas – the economic, socio-cultural and environmental. This is
the principal reason for governments’ involvement in tourism development. Various
economic reasons may induce the public sector to foster tourism development. Among
them:
- Improved balance of payment situation.
- Regional development.
- Diversification of the economy.
- Increased income levels and state revenues.
- New employment opportunities.
- Community participation and benefit sharing schemes
- Stimulation of non-tourism investment.
Social considerations are another important reason. Governments participate in
tourism development in order to maximize the socio-cultural benefits of tourism
(such as: cultural exchange, revival of traditional crafts and ceremonies, rural
development, etc.) The state may also have a general responsibility to protect the
social well being of individuals by minimizing tourisms adverse socio-cultural
effects (such as: deterioration of important historic and archeological si tes, social
degradation, overcrowding by tourists, loss of convenience for local residents, etc.).
Community participation and benefit sharing schemes are also the aims in tourism policy.
Another reason is the need for controlling the environmental impact of tourism, such
as pollution and other environmental hazards and land use problems resulting from
poor planning, setting and engineering of tourist attractions and facilities.
Besides the above-mentioned reasons, government may encourage the development
of tourism to further political objectives. It was suggested that the Franco regime

57
in Spain had encouraged tourism development among other things in order to broaden
the regimes political acceptance.

C. How are the Objectives of Tourism Policy Achieved?

In order to achieve the policy objectives, NTAs are involved in many activities
aiming to coordinate or encourage tourism development.
Clearly, a significant number of countries around the world are still in an early
stage of tourism development, particularly in developing countries and in countries
where tourism is in a transition stage. But the European Union, North America and
significant parts of East Asia and the Pacific countries have reached an advanced
stage of tourism development. Thus, the degree of government involvement in the
tourism sector differs from country to country, and so do the reasons of this
involvement.
Legislation and Regulations
Legislation, stipulating regulations and terms under which activities related to tourism
take place, is a state responsibility. Tourism legislation includes the basic tourism
law. This law typically sets forth the policy for developing tourism and establishes
the functions, structure and sources of funding of the national tourism organizations
(or regional tourism office).
However, the most important aspect is the enforcement of regulations. The State,
through public mechanisms, has the duty to ascertain that all regulations which
deal with tourism and tourist services offered to the consumer whether he is a
foreign citizen or a national of the country are followed, and to impose the
appropriate sanctions in case of breach of the regulations in order to ensure proper
protection of consumers.
In addition to the aforementioned points that are important in achieving tourism policy,
tourism taxation, marketing and education and training take the highest place in tourism
policy.

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5.1.1. Reviewing The Prevailing Situation of Tourism Industry: Global State of the Tourism
Industry

Tourism has become one of the economic sectors registering rapid growth worldwide. The UN-World
Tourism Organization, in its statistical publication, Tourism Barometer, of June 2009, indicating the
growth of international tourism reported that international arrivals and receipts, which respectively were
25.3 million visitors and 2.1 billion U.S. dollars in the Year 1950, had reached 922 million in terms of
visitors and 944 billion dollars in terms of receipts by the Year 2008. According to the same source, the
picture in Year 2008 compared to Year 2007 showed an annual growth of 1.9 % in arrivals and 1.8 % in
receipts.

Based on past average annual growth rates of 4.1 percent and 1.8 percent, respectively for international
tourist arrivals and receipts, the World Tourism Organization has projected that by the Year 2020
international arrivals would reach 1.6 billion and receipts would amount to 2 trillion U.S dollars. It
should, however, be underlined that, while the projection had taken many relevant factors into
consideration at the time, it had not fully foreseen other global conditions that would, as it turned out
challenge the growth of the industry.

In general, the industry has remained resilient in the face of adverse conditions, and it is now one of the
leading sectors in international export trade. It forms 11 percent of world GDP, and creating about
100,000 new jobs annually, it accounts for more than 11% of total world employment, according to data
from the World Tourism Organization.

The above examples show the importance’s of tourism on national economy, socio -
culture, environment and political conditions. It is, therefore, important to put into place a
guiding, directing and even managing public policy in tourism development and to
minimize its negative at the same time maximize positive impacts as well.
The following are the main causes cited for the level of growth attained by international tourism:

a. Strong expansion in travel for the purposes of knowledge, research, business, religious worship,
medical treatment, adventure, or relaxation, etc. during long vacations made possible by sustained
economic growth and improved standards of living in developed countries as well as the
emerging countries of the Far East that are registering outstanding performance among
developing countries.
b. The rapid improvement and expansion of international air transport and other modes of transport
and infrastructure;
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 c. The fact that the exchange of information has been made easy and efficient by the steady progress
of communication technologies and services; and
d. The expansion of unhindered trans-national trade and investment and the fact that the tourism
industry too has taken on this same international character.

Tourism makes substantial contributions by expanding micro, small-scale and medium-scale enterprises
for the production of goods and services, creating considerable employment opportunities, promoting
sustainable development and eliminating poverty. Tourism has a great role in accelerating development
and eradicating poverty, which is the major enemy of developing countries, and in this its impact is no
less important than those of other main economic and social sectors. The following are among the basic
reasons that responsible and sustainable tourism is preferred as an effective engine of development for
African and other developing countries.

A. Tourism is a typical source of foreign exchange, which is helpful for importing various inputs
for development and maintaining the balance of payments of a country;
B. These countries possess diverse and authentic, internationally renowned, wonderful cultural,
historical and natural attractions, most of which are located in rural arras;
C. Because tourism is inherently labour intensive and creates employment opportunities
specially for the poor, the young, women and the physically handicapped, it plays a
significant role in the poverty alleviation of these countries by creating jobs and income;
D. The infrastructure built for tourism development can greatly benefit the economically
disadvantaged sections of society and in addition can create opportunities for growth and
development of agriculture, industry, construction, transport and communication as well as
other economic and social sectors;
Above and beyond its economic advantages, tourism promotes better and reciprocal understanding and
closer relations among peoples, thereby fostering a culture of peaceful coexistence and mutual respect.

5.1.2. Prevailing Situation of Ethiopia’s Tourism Sector

Since 1965, when the first development plan was announced and tourism was recognized as a sector for
economic growth, tourism grew at an average annual rate of 12% until 1974. In the four years from 1970-
1973, the average number of tourist arrivals to Ethiopia was 63,833 per year, while the average annual
income was 10.2 million dollars. The average annual growth rates achieved during this period were 18.2
and 13 percent, respectively.

During the seventeen years that the Derg was in power, tourism declined drastically because of the
adverse conditions created by war, recurrent draught, strained political and diplomatic relations with

60
tourist generating countries, restrictions in entry into and travel within the country. In the years 1989 to
1992, records show that the country received on average 80,246 tourists and 23.2 million U.S. dollars
annually. The average annual growth rates during those years were 2.1 percent for arrivals and 6.1 percent
for receipts.

The basic measures taken after Year 1991 in order to realize the country’s economic and social
development have created favorable conditions for the nation’s tourism development as well. In the four
years from 2005 to 2008, average annual tourist arrivals were 324,664, while average annual revenue was
167 million dollars. Reports of the sector show annual growth rates of 21 percent for tourist arrivals and
19.5 percent for revenue for those four consecutive years.

UNWTO’s current analysis of tourist arrivals puts Ethiopia’s average annual growth in international
tourist arrivals at 5.6 percent for the period 1990-2000, and at 15.4 percent during the period 2000-2008.
The average growth rates achieved during the more recent years represent an encouraging trend indeed.
Yet the fact that, for instance, Ethiopia’s share of the tourist flow to the East African Region of seventeen
countries in 2007 was 0.7 percent demonstrates the very low stage of development the country is at,
despite its numerous historical, cultural and natural attractions.

5.2. Tourism Policy in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian tourism had not been in a position to provide full benefit for the wider
public and for the country mainly there was lack of coordination among the government,
the private sectors, local level community and stakeholders in the tourism development
maneuver. This due to lack of a clear policy in the country.
This was basically a compelling factor for the government to establish a federal
government organ responsible to coordinate the fragmented activities in tourism sector.
Therefore, Ministry of Culture and Tourism was established under Proclamation Number
471/2005, enacted to redefine the powers and duties vested upon the organs of the
Federal Government.

The policy has been structured under five sections:

Section One: A Review of the Prevailing Situation of the Tourism Industry,
Section Two: The Need for an Ethiopian Tourism Development Policy,

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 Section Three: Main Policy Issues and Strategies,
Section Four: Roles and Responsibilities of Those Taking Part in Implementing the
Policy
Section Five: Sources of Finance for the Implementation of the Policy.
This policy gives due attention to:

 Guiding the sector in a broad based development framework,

 Developing the existing and new tourism attractions and products,
 Expanding the infrastructure and tourist services that are vital for the growth of the sector,
 Ensuring that the country benefits from the sector by being sufficiently competitive in the
international tourism market, and
 Solving the serious limitations in capacities which are apparent in the industry.
5.2.1. Domestic Opportunities of the Sector
The favorable domestic opportunities of Ethiopia’s tourism sector are reviewed under two main topics as
follows:

5.2.1.1. Ethiopia’s Possession of Varied Attractions

It is known that Ethiopia is full of varied historical, cultural and natural attractions; it is the
possessor of eight world heritage sites and many fossils attesting that it is the cradle of
humankind; and on top of all that, its people are hospitable and their cultures diversified a
combination which makes it suitable for tourism development.

5.2.1.2. The Country’s Political and Economic Foundations

Ethiopian conditions that are favorable to the growth of the sector are reviewed as follows in
relation to constitutional principles, as well as overall development policies, strategies and
programmes.

Domestic Challenges Facing the Sector

A look at the concrete situation of the sector at present reveals a number of challenges confronting the
sector. The fundamental limitations of the sector are presented below, grouped under two main headings:

A. Limitations in Supply Basic to the Growth of the Sector

The current situation, relating to shortfalls in basic tourism supply in terms of destination
development, products and services offered, and expansion of infrastructure and tourist facilities is
reviewed as follows:

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  Although the country possesses vast potential in varied historical, cultural and natural
attractions, this has not been adequately protected, developed and used as tourist attraction.
 There is a serious shortage in number and type of tourist facilities at existing and potential
tourist destinations and vicinities; moreover, the quality of service is poor and unsatisfactory to
tourists.
 Interpretations of tourist attractions are not based on credible facts and knowledge; they are not
consistent; and their presentation is disorganized.
 Handicrafts, other local creative products, performing arts and entertainment services, which
could have helped to lengthen the stay and increase the spend of visitors at every destination,
are not offered in sufficient variety, quantity and quality.

B. Limitations in Implementation Capacity of the Sector

With respect to competence of trained human resources, operating system, and institutional
capacity that the sector demands, the following weaknesses are observable:

 Human resources already deployed in the sector and those needed for new deployment are
limited in terms of type, number and quality.
 There is a shortage of highly trained and moderately trained manpower that is crucial to the
development of the sector.
 Branding and market positioning based on timely studies are not in use.
 There are capacity limitations among tourism stakeholders, and mutual support and
coordination of efforts among them have not been strengthened.

5.2.2. External Opportunities Favoring the Development of Tourism

The following are opportunities favoring Ethiopia’s tourism development:

 International tourism shows growth year after year.

 The use of modern information and communication technologies is expanding the
dissemination and efficiency of information in tourism.
 Among international tourists, interest in authentic, indigenous and organic products is
increasing highly from time to time.

5.2.3. External Challenges Affecting the Development of Tourism

The main challenges are the following:

 Ethiopia’s image on the international scene is widely associated with draught, famine and
war.

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  The Horn of Africa in seen as a region of instability and terrorism.
In general, Ethiopia’s tourism sector is found under the conditions indicated above. Overcoming the
serious observable shortcomings of the industry by coordinating and utilizing the capacities of the
principal stakeholders to lead the development of tourism on a sustainable basis is therefore the focus
of direction at the moment.

5.3. The Need For An Ethiopian Tourism Development policy

Enhancing the development impacts of tourism by properly developing and utilizing the tourism potential
with which the country is endowed is a matter deserving focus. Accordingly, in order to realize the
development of tourism and to enable the sector to effectively contribute to the country’s current effort to
eliminate poverty, it is necessary to lead the development of the sector within appropriate policy and
strategic framework. Hence, this policy has been formulated.

5.3.1. Vision for Tourism Development

To see Ethiopia’s tourism development led responsibly and sustainably and contributing its share to
the development of the country by aligning itself with poverty elimination.

5.3.2. Main objectives of Tourism Development

a. To ensure concretely the country’s full benefits by sustaining competitiveness in the
international tourism market, by turning Ethiopia into a particularly preferred destination in
Africa, and by maximizing direct and indirect economic benefits.
b. To build a tourism industry that makes important contributions in earning and conserving
foreign exchange, and integrates into the economic growth of the country.
c. To create extensive employment opportunities for communities at tourist destinations and to
ensure community benefits through a wider distribution of income, and to enhance community
participation in decision making on development.
d. To realize a tourism industry that builds a positive image of the country, carries on the sector's
development in a responsible and sustainable manner, with the capability of growing without
disrupting peoples' culture and life styles and the natural environment.
e. To build an industry that can lengthen the tourist’s stay by solving observed limitations in
service in the sector and provide for the progressive growth of capacity in tourist facilities
deployed in the field.

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5.3.3. The Basic Principles of the Policy
A. Respect for Pluralism
Because diversity in history, culture and natural resources is Ethiopia’s beauty and
distinguishing endowment, the assets have to be equally recognized, respected and developed
as tourist attractions.

B. Guaranteeing Community Participation and Benefits

With respect to the sustainable development and promotion of existing and new attractions,
encourage communities at destinations in particular and the public in general to participate in
and benefit from the development.

C. Instituting Management Transparency and Responsibility

As the development of tourism requires the involvement of many parties across sectors, the
institution of good governance is necessary in order to ensure that all stakeholders meet the
ethical demands of tourism.

D. Creating Partnership
By forming strong links and creating cooperation and partnership among actors in the sector at
destination, regional, national, sub-continental, continental and global levels , foster the
practice of working together for common objectives. In particular, encourage small and
medium enterprises (SME’s) in the sector to create for cultivating a culture of exchanging
experiences and best practices, and working in partnership.

E. Enhancing the Implementation Capacity of the Sector

To ascertain that the country gets the full benefits of tourism development, enable all bodies
engaged in the sector to effectively render quality tourism services by enhancing their
implementation capacities.

5.3.4. Main Policy Issues And Strategies

A. Integrating tourism development into key development policies and strategies of the country
B. Developing the existing and new tourist attractions in variety, scale and quality
C. Expansion of infrastructure and tourist facilities essential for tourism development
D. Undertaking promotional work through the creation of strong market ties in order to become
competitive on the international market
E. Strengthening the collaborative relationship among actors participating in tourism development

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 F. Overcoming the serious capacity limitations observed in the industry
5.3.5. Responsibilities and Roles Of Participants In The Implementation Of The Policy
A. Government Organs
It includes organs of the federal and regional governments and local administrations, and is
charged with the responsibility to perform the following major tasks in the implementation of
the policy:

 To create conducive environment for national and local tourism development and to put to
use the enabling environment,
 To indicate the directions of the national and local tourism development and spearhead the
development,
 To expand, improve and lead the development of infrastructural networks essential to
tourism development,
 To successively build the implementation capacity of development participants at each
level,
 To coordinate the capacities and efforts of the main participants in development at each
level and to create collaboration and provide leadership,
 To participate in investment when private investment is not forth coming to fill investment
gaps,
 To capably coordinate and lead vigorous marketing and promotion activities and enhance
the positive image of the country,
 To ensure the psychological and physical well-being of visitors and the security of their
properties and to coordinate and lead the bodies involved in maintaining safety and
security,
 In collaboration with local communities to develop, maintain, protect and manage existing
and new attractions falling their jurisdictions, To ensure that tourism development
activities are in line within sustainable environmental and social safety, and to act speedily
when and where safety problems occur,
 To provide appropriate incentives to participants in the development of the sector, and to
monitor the implementation of the incentives,
 To formulate and issue suitable standards in the areas of service delivery and professional
education and training and to regulate the application of the standards.
In general, the responsibilities for monitoring, coordinating, integrating and leading the activities of those
bodies with roles in the implementation of this policy for tourism development and the primary

66
responsibility for monitoring and evaluating the actual implementation of this policy and the taking of
corrective measures fall on the Federal Ministry of Culture and Tourism.

B. Development Investors
Because investors participating in the country’s tourism development are engines that drive the
industry, they have the following major responsibilities in the development of the sector:

 To participate in the forefront in the establishment of facilities and the provision of quality
tourism services in types and capacities required,
 To participate as leaders in the establishment and development of micro, small, medium-scale and
big enterprises and service giving institutions,
 To create and promote a culture of entrepreneurship that is essential for the growth of the sector,
 To participate as leaders in the effort to set up educational and training centers of the type,
number and quality required for producing professionals in various fields,
 To actively involve in the formulation and implementation of appropriate standards in the areas of
services delivery and education and training,
 To involve in the expansion of infrastructure needed in the localities of major tourist
destinations,
 To regularly enhance the capabilities, skills and ethical standards of professionals and other
workforce employed in the establishment they own and manage,
 To take part in marketing and promotional activities and to contribute their share in the endeavor
to build a positive image of the country,
 To participate in the development, protection, preservation and management of attractions found
in every area of the country,
 To participate in sectoral associations, organizations, and coalitions as well as similar national
and international organizations for mutual support and to promote its rights and interests,
C. Local Communities at Tourist Attractions
 In the development of tourist attractions, products and services to collaborate with the bodies
administering the resources as owners, and by conserving and protecting these resources
with a sense of ownership, to become direct participants in and beneficiaries from the
tourism development of the locality,

 To provide appropriate care to guests visiting the local attractions and to extend to them
hospitality in accordance with local customs, and to ensure peace and security in the locality,

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  Recognizing that visitors to attractions are customers, to supply and ensure the provision of
handicrafts, and artistic products and services which are based on visitors demand and aimed
at satisfying their requirement as to quality and quantity,

 To protect local cultural and social values as well as the natural environment from negative
influences of tourism, and to take corrective measures rapidly when negative impacts occur,
D. Civil Societies
 To cooperate with government bodies, investors and local communities that have leading
responsibilities in the country’s tourism development and to participate in the
development and management of the attractions in order to ensure that benefits are
realized,
 To undertake successively capacity-building activities for the various varies parties
engaged in the development of the sector,
 To extend support to other stakeholders operating in the sector with respect to
information, techniques, finance, advocacy, coordination, etc.
E. The General Public
 To strengthen the culture of touring either as individuals or as tour groups and participate
in domestic tourism in order to know and appreciate the attractions of the country,
 To actively involve in the development activities of the country’s tourism and partake in
the benefits,
 To build a positive image of the country by extending to visitors traditional hospitality,
 To protect and preserve with a sense of ownership the heritage and other resources used
for tourism development.

Sources of Finance for Implementing the Policy

As tourism is a sector that develops through the leadership of the government, the driving force of private
investors and the community, and the participation of other stakeholders, the combined and
coordinated efforts of all sides is necessary for the rapid growth and development of the sectors. To
invigorate these efforts and realize the development of the sector by applying the implementation
strategy of the policy, there should primarily be adequate sources of financing. On this basis, this
tourism development policy will be implemented with investment funding from varied sources falling
under the following two headings:

5.1. Regular Financing Sources

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 The following are the main sources of finance included under this heading:

 Ordinary and capital budgets allocated annually by the federal and regional governments
and other administrative levels for investment and operational activities connected with the
overall development of the sector,
 Bi-lateral and multi-lateral support and loan funds to be obtained for the implementation of
programs and projects related to the growth and development of the industry,
 Other financing sources as appropriate.

5.2. Extra-Ordinary Financing Sources

Tourism development fund is a fund to be established on the basis of a study with the consent of
the main stakeholders, with the key aim of mobilizing the resources and capabilities of actors in
the implementation of the policy and creating the condition whereby the burdens of marketing
and promotion and capacity building, hitherto fully borne by the government, are gradually
shared by supporters. As far as the establishment and application of the fund are concerned, they
will be determined by a study and supported by law. The fund will be collected mainly from the
following sources:

 Voluntary contributions in the form of money or in kind from direct stakeholders and
supporters to finance activities that are vital to the growth and development of the sector
and various other activities to be undertaken at different levels; cost sharing mechanisms
also,
 Small contributions to be made out of annual incomes on the basis of an agreement to be
reached with the main stakeholders, who as managers of tourist attractions and providers of
goods and services directly benefit from tourism, constitute a key source. Implementation
shall be determined with the participation of all stakeholders concerned on the basis of a
detailed study to be conducted.
 Various gifts, royalties, endowments, etc. intended to enrich the fund and voluntarily
bestowed by those that benefit from the growth and development of tourism as direct
participants and others,
 Income from fund raising programs organized at various levels to boost the fund,
 Other funding sources to be identified by detailed future studies.

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5.4. TOURISM PLANNING

Fulfilling the requirements of tourism policy, minimizing its negative impacts, and
reaping the rewards, are the primary goals of Tourism Planning. Planning is particularly
important for tourism development because of two characteristics of the tourism industry.
First, tourism is a complex industry that stretches across many different sectors and
businesses (therefore, it affects a wide-range of areas); second, tourism development
usually requires both the public and private sectors to undertake major capital
investment projects (hotel accommodations, public works infrastructure,
transportation links). Because of these two characteristics, a lack of planning can
result in mistakes that cannot be corrected (or are extre mely costly to rectify), and
which the host community will have to endure for many years.
5.4.1. Concepts Of Touris m Planning
Effective tourism planning utilizes those general planning concepts that have proven to be
effective in meeting the challenges facing modern development processes, but adapted to the
particular characteristics of tourism.
In its broadest definition, planning is organizing the future to achieve certain objectives. It is a
general term which signifies a proposed method of action or proc edure to achieve a
predetermined goal or objective. Planning is the process of identifying objectives and defining
and evaluating methods of achieving them. Planning now applies the comprehensive and
integrated approach, which recognizes that all development sectors and supporting facilities &
services are interrelated with one another and with the natural environment and society of the
area. The systems approach to planning requires that sufficient information be obtained about
the system in order to understand and analyze it.
An important aspect of planning is community involvement in the planning process and
decision making. This is based on the concept that planning is for the residents of an area, and
they should be given the opportunity to participate in the planning of its future development and
express their views on the type of future community they want to live in.
5.4.2. Stages In The Tourism Planning Process

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 There are 8 basic stages in the tourism planning process, applicable to any national or
regional planning situation.
1. Study preparation: The first stage is careful preparation of the study so that it achieves its
main aim of providing appropriate development guidance. It is identifying the project (to
plan for something to be done). This stage involves agreement on the project terms of
reference, selection of the team members, and appointment of steering group to oversee
the project, and organizing the study activities.
2. Determination of development goals and objectives: It involves setting the objectives of
the project. The precise objectives of the tourism development must balance the
economic, environmental and socio-cultural impacts that the development will generate,
and should stress the priorities where there is potential conflict. Although the goa ls and
objectives are agreed at this early stage, the development process must be sufficiently
flexible as to allow further focusing and alterations as the project proceeds.
3. Surveys: It is an inventory of the development area in terms of prevailing situat ions. It
involves collecting data, both quantitative and qualitative, on the characteristics of the
development area and the current demand/supply situation in terms of tourist activity.
Working from the general to the specific, this stage of the planning process will entail the
analysis of global tourism patterns and trends, any existing data on current tourism
arrivals, an inventory of al the elements of the existing and planned tourist infrastructure
and facilities, plus coverage of the economic, environmental, social and cultural aspects
of the plan.
4. Analysis and synthesis: It involves a structured analysis and synthesis of the data
collected at stage 3 to arrive at a number of important outcomes, including:
 Market analysis-this will detail the expected level and type of demand, and should
include target numbers of tourists.
 The required supply of tourism facilities- from the market analysis, it will be
possible to plan the number and type of accommodation, transportation and
attractions, plus manpower levels.
 Infrastructure requirements- improvements to existing infrastructure and the
development of new infrastructure can be e determined from the data collected at
stage 3.

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  Environmental, social and cultural effects-this will involve establishing carrying
capacities and proposing mechanisms to limit detrimental impacts while at the
same time maximizing tourism’s beneficial effects.
Analyzing (breaking down into deferent components) and synthesizing (putting together the
components having the same nature) of the survey outcome is essential as to know what kind of
approach is required.
An important part of this stage is the identification of major opportunities and/ or constraints for
developing tourism. This provides a focus for formulating recommendations and identifies how
to maximize the opportunities and overcome the constraints.
5. Plan formulation: It is formulating a policy for development along with operational
aspects. This stage is best approached by preparing and evaluating alternative
development scenarios, since there is seldom one ideal set of principles, but rather
optimal choices that balance costs and benefits. The alternatives are evaluated according
to a range of factors such as how they meet the development objectives, maximizing
economic returns, reinforcing positive tourism impacts and minimizing the detrimental
environmental and socio-cultural effects of tourism development.
6. Recommendations: It is seeking technical expertise from different disciplines. In other
words, it is the formulation of the institutional recommendations, drawn up with due
regard to the views of the project steering committee.
7. Implementation- Addresses how the plan will be in action. It is putting the plan and the
recommendation in to action/operation.
8. Monitoring- Address the detection of any problems that arise (e.g. through continuous
feedback on implementation), so that appropriate remedial action can be taken.
Plans generally need to be adjusted over time due to changing goals, changing market conditions
and unanticipated impacts.
5.4.3. Significance Of Tourism Planning
As we have seen in chapter three, tourism generates both positive and negative
environmental, socio cultural and economic impacts. The purpose of all tourism planning activity
is to guide future tourism actions in order to meet predetermined objectives in a way that reduces
potential conflicts and maximize benefits. The tourism sector objectives can be achieved more

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effectively if carefully planned and integrated in to the country’s total development plan and
program. Specifically, tourism planning is necessary for the following reasons:
 As modern tourism is a relatively new type of activity in many areas, a tourism plan and
development program can provide guidelines in those areas for developing tourism.
 Tourism is a complicated, multi- sector and fragmented activity involving other sectors
such as agriculture, fishery, manufacturing, etc. planning and project development
coordination are necessary to ensure that all elements developed in an integrated manner
to serve tourism as well as general needs.
 Much of tourism is essentially selling a product of an experience comprised of visitor use
of certain facilities and services. There must be careful matching of the tourist markets
and products through the planning process.
 Tourism can bring various direct and indirect economic benefits that can be best
optimized through careful and integrated planning.
 Tourism planning can be used as process for optimizing the socio-cultural benefits and
prevention or lessening of the problems.
 Careful planning is required to determine the optimum type and level of tourism that will
not result in environmental degradation and to tourism as a means to meet environmental
conservation objectives.
 Satisfying the manpower needs of tourism requires careful planning and programming
and, in many cases, developing specialized training facilities.
5.4.4. Touris m Planning Approach
The basic tourism planning approach is aimed at practical application in the formulation of
tourism development policies and plans. The basic planning process expressed previously
provides the general planning framework. The approaches of tourism planning are as follows:
 Continuous, incremental and flexible approach- tourism planning is seen as a
continuous process with adjustments made as needed based on monitoring and feedback,
but within the framework of maintaining the basic objectives and policies of tourism
development.
 Systems approach- tourism is viewed as an interrelated system and should be planned as
such.
 Comprehensive approach- a holistic approach.

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  Environmental and sustainable development approach.
 Integrated approach- related to systems and comprehensive approaches, tourism is
planned and developed as an integrated system with itself and overall plan &
development patterns of the area.
 Community approach- community involvement in the planning, decision making,
development and management of tourism.
 Implementable approach- the tourism development policy, plan and recommendations
are formulated to be realistic and implementable, the implementation techniques being
specifically identified and adopted throughout the policy and plan formulation.
 Application of a systematic planning process.
This approach is applied conceptually to all levels and types of tourism planning, but specific
form of application will, of course, vary depending on the type of planning being undertaken.
5.4.5. Levels And Types Of Tourism Planning
Tourism planning is prepared at various levels, with each level focusing on a different
degree of specificity. Although not always possible to achieve, the planning should be prepared
in sequence from the general to the specific, because general levels provide the framework and
guidance for preparing specific plans. The various levels of tourism planning and design are
described below.
Inte rnational Level
This level of planning is concerned mostly with international transportation services, the
flow and tour programming of tourists among different countries, complementary development
of major attraction features, and multi country marketing and promotion programs. Some limited
tourism planning, marketing and cooperative activities generally take place at the international
level through organizations such as UNWTO, IATA, and ICAO.
The international planning level is weak because it depends on the cooperation of
individual countries.

National Planning
The national level of tourism planning is focused on several elements as listed below:
 Tourism policy

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  The general amount, types and quality level of accommodation and other tourist facilities
and services required.
 The major tour routes in the country.
 Overall tourism marketing strategies and promotion programs.
 Tourism organizational structure, legislation and investment policies.
 Education and training institutions.
 Facility development and design standards.
Regional Planning
The regional level of tourism planning is for one region of a country, often a state or
province, and formulated within the framework of the national tourism policy plan, if such
exists. Regional planning focuses on the elements of:
 Regional policy
 Regional access and the internal transportation network of facilities and services.
 Type and location of tourist attraction.
 Amount, types and location of tourist accommodation and other tourist facilities and
services.
 Regional level of environmental, socio-cultural and economic considerations and impact
analysis.
 Regional level training and education programs.
 Marketing strategies and promotion programs.
 Organizational structure, legislation, regulation, and investment policies.
Sub Regional Planning
In some countries or regions, there is a need for sub regional planning, which is more
specific than the regional level, but not as detailed as development area or resort land use
planning.
Development Area Land Use Planning
Tourism development areas designed for integrated tourist resorts, resort towns, urban
tourism, and tourist attractions require land use plans. This more detailed level of planning
indicates the specific area for hotels and other types of accommodations, retail shops and other
tourist facilities, recreation parks and conservation areas, the transport system of roads,

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walkways and other elements such as local airport or rail way line and station, and the planning
for other infrastructure of water supply, electric power, etc.
Facility Site Planning
Site planning is very specific planning for individual buildings or complexes of buildings
such as hotels, commercial centers, and visitor facilities. The actual location of buildings and
other structures, recreation facilities, streets and walkways, parking, landscaping areas, and other
land uses & their interrelationships are shown in map form.`

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 CHAPTER SIX
TOURISM LANDSCAPE IN ETHIOPIA

 Cultural landscape, ancient civilizations, religion and tourism, and socio-

economic impact of tourism on communities

6.1. Introduction

Ethiopia is one of the countries with the richest histories in the African continent; it is with
a land of contrast and surprise of remote and wild places, home to cultural and friendly people.
It is the birth place of coffee; Lucy, the world’s oldest known almost complete hominid skeleton
more than three million years old was discovered here. Ethiopia has so much to offer visitors, the
historic route covering the ancient towns of Axum , with its amazing curved oblisesk,
Christians festival, Gondar with castles and palaces, Lalibela with remarkable Rock
Hewan Churches , Negash, one of the earliest Muslim centers from the Prophet Mohammed’s
era with the Negash Mesgid , the old cities of Harar, and Lega Oda near Dire Dawa where you
can see cave paintings considered to be thousands of years old.

There are a number of national parks and several sancuturies where 277 species of wild life and
more than 8050 species of birds can be seen in Ethiopia. The Semen Mountain Nat ional park is
registered by UNESCO as a world heritage site and is home to three of the endemic mammals
Walia ibex, Gelada Baboon and Abyssinian wolf. Ras Dashen, the fourth highest peak in Africa
with an altitude of 4620 meters is also located within this national park. Ethiopia is the mosaic of
people with more than 80 languages, different life style, customs and cultures. Peoples
livelihood vary from pastoralists and farmers to factory workers, business people and
academics.

6.2. Historical Development of Tourism in Ethiopia

Tourism was formally launched when it was recognized as an economically visible sector, and
bureau was opened in 1961 under the auspices of the prime minister’s office. The
Ethiopian Tourism Organization (ETO) was established in September 1964 by order No.
36/1964 as an autonomous public authority of the imperial Ethiopian government acting under
fthe supervision of the prime minister.

Towards the discharge of its function, ETO was given broad power, including the entrance into
contrast with private, government and semi – government bodies and agencies in the country or
abroad, establishing branch offices in Ethiopia and abroad, coordinating and outraging the
operation of tourism facilities, services and attractions within Ethiop ia, and other powers. In the
following years (i .e. in 1966), the supervision of ETO changed from the prime minister to that
of ministry of information. The relationship of ministry of information and ETO was lasted up

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to the middle of 1969 issued by minister of commerce, industry and tourism . Thus ETO
continued to be increasingly active; its tourist promotion activities and efforts was considered
to be aggressive and dynamic. In the process, it had contributed a great deal towards the
improvement of hotels, and other entertainments and many other tourist service facilities.
During this initialization of the tourism industry, the chain activities, tour operation,
resort services and hotels, were privately owned, this incapacitated ETO in its direction, control
and regulation of plans and procedures. At that time, tourists arrived at Ethiopia significantly
increasing showing an average growth rate of 12% through 1964-1978. In 1974 a revolution took
place and Marxism – Leninism became the state ideology.

A few years after the revolution(1978), tourism was again reorganized and the umbrella
of the Ethiopian tourism commission nationalized tourist class hotels, and already
government owned ones reorganized in different hotel chains (National Hotels Cooperation
(NHC)), the National Tourism Operation (NTO), the only tourist operation in the country,
and Ethiopian Tourism Trade corporation (ETTC).

In 1991 the EPDRF took power and consequently the Ethiopian Tourism Hotels Commission
was separated from NHC, NTO and ETTC as separate economic entities and granted
management autonomy; most of hitherto government owned tourist services giving organizations
are being privatized.

In addition, 11 tourism bureaus are being set up to facilitate tourism promotion and development
in their respective region. Exploring the favorable opportunities of the new economic
policy, construction and service giving capacity of private tourist class hotels and number
of tour operators increased dramatically. There are new hotels and tourist visiting the country
also increasing likewise. For example in 1997, 114732 tourists are estimated to have visited
Ethiopia and 178.2 million birr is assumed to have been collected as revenue excluding
the income generated by the private sectors.

6.3. Role and Performance of Touris m in Ethiopia

Tourism has significant economic and social benefits for the country, which includes among
others, foreign exchange earnings, creation of employment, generation of revenue for the
government, integration of the national cultures and societies and the like. These days, tourism
sector is one of the major economic sectors in the world.

As stated earlier Ethiopia is endowed with exotic natural and manmade historical attractions,
which could be the basis for a vibrant tourism industry, if complimented with
standardized supporting services. Ethiopia stands among the countries of the world which
possess great and unique tourist resources.

Recognizing the crucial role of the sector in economic development, the present government of
Ethiopia gives due emphasis to the sector. It is clearly stated in the policy document that there is

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a need for creating conducive environment for the sector’s expansion and growth. In line with
various supportive proclamation, regulation of the sector has been issued. On the basis of
the general policy, the government has designed strategies to facilitate the rapid
development of tourism in the country. These strategies include:-

 Study, protect and develop the country’s tourist attraction.

 Improve, develop and expand tourist facilities, infrastructure and promote the country’s
tourism resources.
The proper utilization and administration of these resources had been affected due to:-

 Lack of integrated policy

 Lack trained man power

 Lack of financial and material support that are vital to the development of the sector

 Lack of peace and stability

 Drought and famine etc that can change the image of the country from tourist attraction

to tourist frustration.

6.4. Tourism Arrivals

Ethiopia’s tourism industry had suffered from the adverse effect of a prolonged civil war,
drought and famine , limited government relation with tourist generating countries, and
restriction on entering and movements of tourists during the years of DERG government from
1974-1992. With culmination of the civil war and the introduction of new economic
policies by the new government, tourism is experiencing a more conducive climate for growth
and development as evidenced by statistics compiled by the Ethiopian Tourism Commission .

International tourists arrivals in the year 1997 were 115,000 as compared to 79000 in
1990 representing a 46% increases since the last fall year of DERG regime . In terms of origin
the 1997 figure showed that 36% come from Europe, 33% from Africa, 14% from the Americas
and 12% from the Middle East. Analysis also shows that holly day makers, business travellers,
and conference participants made up 60% of the arrivals.

The total number of international tourist arrivals in Ethiopia, although growing, is by no means
commensurate with potencial of the countries attraction. The present constraints to grow are
identified largely as shortage of tourist facilities and limited promotion. The main tourist
destination at the moment is the northern historical route encompassing Bahir Dar,
Aksum, Gonder, Mkelle and Lalibela. Adds Ababa, the principal get way to Ethiopia being a
business center and a conference venue as well, is in its own right of the major destination.

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The other destination chiefly include the wildlife center along the great ritually and the
southwest, and the eastern historical areas.

6.4.1. Tourist Facilities and Services

A. Accommodation:- the stock of hotel rooms in the country has sharply increased over the
last few years, with imputes coming from the market led economic policies and the
liberalized investment policy of the present government , which encourage private, foreign and
domestic entrepreneur effect . Reasonable tourist accommodation services are already available
at all major attractions. But improvements as well as new constructions are taking place currently
in accordance with a newly promulgated classification and standardized system. There are
attempts to attract major international hotel chain to the country in addition to the Hilton and
Sheraton that are already in.

B. Tour and Travel Operation:- tour operation and travel agency has shown a dramatic
growth in the last six years, reaching a record number of 160 firms in 1997. This line of business
had been a state monopoly during the previous regime.

C. Transportation:- the chief mode of travel to Ethiopia for tourists is by air, and the
main carrier is the Ethiopian air lines which deservedly has a fine reputation for services.
Major international carriers such as Lufthansa, Alitalia and Saudi land at Addis Ababa, the
principal get way to Ethiopia. Several other air lines are at various degrees of negotiation to fly
to Ethiopia. Land transport is generally used for short haul in the locality of the tourist attraction.

D. Tourism Facilitation Measures: having identified major constraints relating to visa

and customs regulation and banking services, the federal governments has taken
liberalizing steps which will help to facilitate tourism trade. One would also note that the
Regional Tourism Bureau, Tour Operators Associations and Hotel Association, has a
pivotal role in bringing together the private sector and government regulatory authorities in
services of tourism

6.5. Historical Sites and Potential Tourism Areas of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is endowed with different tourism products though the country has earned little
benefit from the sector due to partly, the sector has not developed to the state that can
attract and accommodate tourists visiting the these tourism destinations. Until very
recently, the tourism sector had lacked coordination and clear policy that could lead the
sector to a condition of internationally competitive economic backbone, socially viable
and environmentally sustainable endeavor.

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We can generally group the Ethiopian tourism landscape in to two major types:
1. Cultural landscape Tourism
2. Natural Area landscape Tourism

Cultural Landscape Tourism

The cultural landscape tourism is based on the legacies of past histories and current
cultural sites, traditional songs dances, religious places and practices and ethnic group
cultures in Ethiopia. Most of the cultural landscape tourism in the country includes the
following:

Axum - Mysterious Monoliths

Axum: is located in Northern tip of Ethiopia. It was believed to be founded in the second
Century BC after the decline of Yeha, the site of an empire which extended across the Red Sea to
Arebia. Axum has a history that goes back more than 2,000 (possibly 3,000) years. It used as the
center when Christianity was adopt as a state religion. It has been said that Queen of Sheba was
one of the famous Axumite rulers whose capital and residence was the town of Axum itself.
Today in remains of the quee’s palace, one can see among other things, the bathing room ,
the throne rooms, a large kitchen of brick opens.The greatest significance, however, is as the
epicenter of the Queen of Sheba dynasty, upon which rests the notion of the sacred kingship of
the Semitic peoples of Ethiopia - a notion that links the recent past to ancient times in a most
unambiguous fashion. Among all the different narratives, the Ethiopian Legend - where Sheba's
name becomes Makeda - is the richest and the most convincing.

Axum is renowned for the world's tallest monoliths, or obelisks, carved from single pieces of
rock. Some experts believe they were erected to mark the passing of some ancient royal
personages; others say that they had an astronomical function. In ancient times seven of the
tallest obelisks stood in what is today known as the 'Park of the Stelae' just north of the modern
town square. The largest obelisk, measuring over 33 metres, fell long ago and now lies in p ieces.
Another, 24 meters high, which was in Rome, was returned to Ethiopia in April 2005 and a third,

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23 meters high, remains standing. All three of these stelae (obelisks) were neatly carved with
'doors' and 'windows' to give the appearance of very tall buildings.

Lalibela: Eighth Wonder of the World

Even if the fame of the Seven Wonders of the World has been outworn and the word "wonder"
itself has been misused too often, the visitor will rediscover its true meaning, when faced with
the rock churches of Lalibela. Ever since the first European to describe Lalibela, Francisco
Alvarez, came to this holy city between 1521 and 1525, travelers have tried to put into words
their experience, praising it as a "New Jerusalem", a "New Golgotha", and the "Christian Citadel
in the Mountains of Wondrous Ethiopia"

The inhabitants of the monastic township of Roha- Lalibela in Lasta, Province of Wollo, dwelling
in two-storied circular huts with dry-stone walls, are unable to believe that the rock churches are
entirely made by man. They ascribe their creation to one of the last kings of the Zagwe dynasty,
Lalibela, who reigned about 1200 A.D.The Zagwe dynasty had come to power in the eleventh
century, one hundred years after Queen Judith, a ferocious woman warrior, had tribes up from
the Simen Mountains to destroy Axum, the capital of the ancient Ethiopian empire in the north.

The charming Ethiopian folklore pictures telling the story of King Solomon and the Queen of
Sheba, which are sold in Addis Ababa, give a popular version of how not only the dynasty of
ancient Axum (and present-day Ethiopia) descended from King Solomon,- but also the medieval
Zagwe dynasty. The Queen of Sheba gave birth to Menelik, who became the first king of
Ethiopia. But the handmaid of the Queen, too, gave birth to a son whose father was King
Solomon, and her son was the ancestor of the Zagwe dynasty.
The Zagwe kings ruled until the thirteenth century. When a famous priest, Tekla Haymanot,
Persuaded them to abdicate in favor of a descendant of the old Axumite Solomonic dynasty.
There are three basic types of rock churches in Ethiopia:
Built-up cave churches, which are ordinary structures inside a natural cave (Makina Medhane
Alem and Yemrehanna Krestos near Lalibela are examples of this style). Rock-he wn cave

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churches which are cut inwards from a more or less vertical cliff face, sometimes using and
widening an existing natural cave (Abba Libanos in Lalibela).
Rock-hewn monolithic churches which imitate a built -up structure but are cut in one piece
from the rock and separated from it all round by a trench. Most churches of this type are found in
or near Lalibela (Bet Medhane Alem, Bet Maryam, Bet Giorgis, and others). Nowhere else in the
world are constructions of this particular kind found.
The foreign influences, apparent in Lalibela, i.e., the Persian ogee-arch, may already have been
absorbed into the pre-Christian and early Christian Axumite culture.
Authorities contend that the rock churches were not constructed all at one time, and it has even
been conjectured that the oldest are the more refined ones strictly adhering to Axumite style.
While the first rock churches may originate from the late Axumite period and the newer ones in
Ethiopia certainly were constructed after Ahmed Gragn's devastating wars in the sixteenth
century, the most important ones, in particular in Lasta, which includes Lalibela, were all created
during the Zagwe period.
It is also assumed, though not proven that at least the senior craftsmen came from other regions,
e.g. Egypt or Jerusalem. A nineteenth century traveler is said to have seen a manuscript
according to which King Lalibela hired foreign craftsmen, and a similar document is said to be in
the possession of Bet Maryam But here, too thorough research is required to clarify the problem.

The paintings in the churches are all from a later date some originating in the fifteenth century,
some in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Byzantine motifs are found in fifteenth century
paintings proving long standing contact with the Byzantine world.

The rock churches thus reflect the blending of Axumite tradition and early east ern Mediterranean
Christianity: Yet they are an entirely new creation of early Christian art on Ethiopian soil

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Gondar: The Camelot of Africa

The oldest of Gondar’s many imperial structures is the impressi ve 17 th century

palace of Emperor Fassiledes. Many other fascinating historical buildings and
relics can be seen in the area. Gondar, once the Ethiopian capital, was home to a
number of em perors and warlords, courtiers and kings. The graceful city of
Gonder, founded by Em peror Fassiledes, become the capital of the Ethiopian
empire around 1635. This settlement, which become Fassiledes principal
headquarters, grew into an important town, and remained Ethiopia’s capital, and
most popular city, for over two centuries. Fassiledes endo wed his capital with a
sizeable palace, kno wn as the fasil gemb, or Fasil building. It was larger and
more impressive than any structure in Ethiopia up to that time.

Fasilidas, who reputedly constructed many other buildings and bridges in the city, was
succeeded by his son, Emperor Yohannes (1667-1682), and later by his grandson, Iyasu1
(1682-1706), both of whom built more palaces in the vicinity of fasil gemb. Iyasu’s most
lasting achievement was the church of Debre Berhan Selassie, the light of the Trinity,
which stands, surrounded by a high wall. The inside is marvelously painted with great
scenes from religious history.
It is set the middle of a large rectangular bath, reminiscent of a modern swimming-pool,
which was traditionally filled with water brought by pipe from the nearby Qaha River. It
was intended from the Timket Celebrations which commemorated the Baptism of Christ -
a use to which the bath is put to this day.Several more palaces were raised by both
Yohannes 1 and Iyasu 1. They later built a large two-storey crenellated structure beside
that of their grandfather Fasilidas.
The reigns of the first three Gondarine rulers thus witnessed a steady expansion of the
city, in the course of which an imperial quarter came into existence.

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Gondar is a town of fairy-tale medieval castles and is noted from the design and
decoration of its churches, masterpieces, which were constructed from stone in the form
of crenellated castles, are of a significant distinctive design.

Flanked by twin mountain streams Gondar retains an atmosphere of antique charm

mingled with an aura of mystery. The city was once a vigorous and vital centre of
religious learning and art. Painting and music, dance and poetry, together with skilled
instructions in these and many other disciplines, thrived for more than two hundred years.
Fassiledes and his successors saw their elegant capital as a renaissance of Ethiopian
culture and so patronized the arts. The fascination with painting, mainly expressed
through church murals, icons, illuminated manuscripts and scrolls, has remained.
Religious themes dominate all but the most recent Ethiopian art.

The palace compound was surrounded by a 'high outer-wall;' which was about a mile in
circumference, with outer precincts all occupied by soldiers, laborers and out -doors
servants. Quesquam is wonderful and historic place.
Because of its extensive population, and the considerable patronage offered by both state
and church, Gondar emerged as a major handicraft center. Many of the city's principal
artisans come from minority groups. Falasha (Jewish) craftsmen include blacksmiths,
weavers and masons, and their womenfolk are potters. Muslim craftsmen are mainly
weavers and tentmakers, some of whom also served as tent carriers and carpenters.
Bahirdar: located at Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia. It is about 578km from
Addis Ababa to the north west of the country. It is located on the southern shores of Lake Tana
on an elevation of 1840m above sea level. This is the source of the Blue Nile with its most
spectacular features, the Tis Esat Water Falls. It is one of the leading tourist destination
in Ethiopia with a variety of attraction in the nearby Lake Tana and Blue Nile River. The city is
also considered as one of the most beautiful, well planned and safest.

Ye ha: is on the road going from Axum to Mekele. The Tample was built on hill which lies at a
foot of a mountain. It is here that you may see the towering ruins of yeha’s temple of the moon,
an imposing rectangular edifice built more than 2500 years ago. The temple speaks eloquently of
the works of an early high civilization, although little is actually known about the people who

85
biult these great edifices. The reminant of yeha, sabeans scripture can still be recognized based
on the types of sabean writing, the temple has been dated around the 5th century BC.

Harar: the historic walled city of harar in eastern Ethiopia was a major trading center of islamic
learners. Fortified agaist enveders, its protective wall was built between the 13th and
16th century. The wall or Jegol which is still intact is about 4m high and pierced by 5 gated.
The wall was built during the time of Emir Nur Ibinmujahid the successor of Ahmed Ibinibrahim
Al-gazi also known as Ahmed Grang.

Negash : Negash, a village in the Tigray is known as the earliest muslim settlement in Africa;
a 7th century has been excavated inside the villge boundaries. Negash is also known for Negash
Amadin Mesgid(mosque). The fisth hijra occured in 615 when a band of muslim were councilled
by Prophet Muhammed to escape from Mecca and travel to the kingdom of Aks um, which was
ruled by a christian king and they settled with him.

Tiya Ancient Stones

It is found 90km south of Addis Ababa. The Stele site of Tiya in Gurage Zone is registered
in the UNESCO world heritage list as world heritage sites in 1980. Tiya is distinguished by 36
standing stones or stelae. They are marking a large, prehistoric burial complex of an ancient
Ethiopian culture. According to UNESCO, this is the remains of an ancient Ethiopian culture
whose age has not yet been precisely determined. The errection megalitic of such monnuments
is very ancient tradition in Ethiopia .
The site contains more than 40 ancient steles. The largest of which stands up to 3.9m high. They
form only one cluster and are intriguing and mysterious. Almost nothing is known about the
monoliths carves or their purpose. Most of the stones are engraved with enigmatic symbols,
notably swords. French excavations have revealed that the stele mark mass graves of individuals
aged between 18-30 years
Hadar (lucy) : in 1974, the 3.2 million years old remains of the ancestral
Australopithecus Afarences were found in Hadar area of Ethiopia by a team lead by Donald
Johanson of Chikago , popularly known as lucy in Ethiopia called ‘ Dinknesh’. This is
only one of the many major scientific discoveries in the area. After 20 years, in 1994
scientists discovered new fossil of 4.4 millions old at 45 miles south where lucy was found
known as Ramidas Kadaba.

Sof Ome r: The Sof Omer is the unique tourist attraction of its kind in the country. It is
a complete system of originally developed large and small passages holes and grottoes. The river
which formed the cave cut its gorge up to 120metres deep on the plateau, underground 1345m.
The flowing water has formed a multitude of small cavities columns, dams and other shapes that

86
make the wall of the cannon so pikaresque. The total length from the upstream point where it
disappears underground to resurgence is 1.2kms. River passage is as large as 25-40m wide
gallery with vertical 10-50m high wall. Sof Omar can be reached from Addis Ababa by road or
by first fly to Goba then 140kms from Goba to sof omar. There are no hotels or any sort of
tourist infrastructure around the cave. These situations have hampered the tourist movement to
the area.

Konso Cultural Landscape

Konso Cultural Landscape is a 55 square km arid property of stone walled terraces and fortified
settlements in the Konso highlands of Ethiopia. It constitutes a spectacular example of a living
cultural tradition stretching back 21 generations (more than 400 years) adapted to its dry hostile
environment. The landscape demonstrates the shared values, social cohesion and engineering
knowledge of its communities. The site also features anthropomorphic wooden statues - grouped
to represent respected members of their communities and particularly heroic events - which are
an exceptional living testimony to funerary traditions that are on the verge of disappearing. Stone
steles in the towns express a complex system of marking the passing of generations of leaders.

The cultural properties including the traditional stone wall towns (Paletea), ward system (kanta),
Mora (cultural space), the generation pole (Olayta), the dry s tone terracing practices (Kabata),
the burial marker (Waka) and other living cultural practices are reasons for the precipitation of
the Konso cultural landscape to be listed on UNESCO world heritage sites list. All the necessary
requirements have completed including, field studies, data collections, nomination file/document
and management plan of the Konso Cultural Landscape.

Terrace: The Konso have adapted a terrace agricultural system and the core Konso area is
characterized by extensive dry stone terraces. Theses terrace retain the soil from erosion and

create terrace saddles that are used for agriculture. The terraces are the main features of the
Konso landscape and the hills are contoured by the dry stone terraces that could reach at some
places up to 5m high. The terraces retention walls are built with heavier blocks at the base. The
saddles that are prepared for agriculture are between four and eight meters wide at most places

The walled town (Paleta): The Konso live in dry stone walled towns (Paleta) located on high
hills selected for their strategic and defensive advantage. The Knoso villages remarkable for the
beauty and simplicity of its workmanship, constructed entirely from natural materials, cultivated
or constructed from the surroundings. The village is ringed by dry stonewalls, at least a meter
thick and three meters high.

Mora: Cultural space of Konso located at the center of the main central enclosure and at
different locations within the walls, and sometimes outside the walls. Paths from all gates lead to
these Moras. The individual walled town (Paleta) has up to 17 Moras, which are connected to
one other by footpaths. The Moras retain an important and central role in the life of the Konso.

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They usually have one or two-story grass thatched houses, called Pafta. The Mora comprise an
open sided sitting area beneath a huge thatched roof with a heavy wooden ceiling and above the
ceiling there is therefore an; ittic’ the ground floor of the Mora is expertly paved to form a public
area where the men gather to govern the village life. It is also a place for recreation, the youth
may gather here to play chat and relax during the day when they are not working. The attic of the
Mora meanwhile is where all the adult men are obliged to slip at night. They have a
responsibility to protect the villages from various an expected incidences such as fire and any
other attack.

Natural Area landscape Tourism

The agro ecological variations and different landscape in Ethiopia have contributed for the
natural resources endowment of the country. Accordingly, Ethiopia is home to numerous
biological diversities, including the most precious species of plants and animals. At times when
global biodiversity vanish from the earth surface, Ethiopia has stro ngly preserved its resources
that would otherwise face the threat of extinction. These natural resources including fauna and
flora species are conserved and protected by the communities, local administrations, regional
governments and the federal governments. The indigenous culture of societies at wildlife habitats
is very important in the strive to the sustainability of these resources. The important natural
sceneries in Ethiopia includes the culture and tradition, politics, the issue of land tenure, c laim of
benefit from protected areas that close access to the resources and conflict arising between
tourism developers as well as local communities, the long term conservation plan and the human
wildlife conflict that put the tourism and conservation planning under pressure.
In Ethiopia there are different wildlife conservation areas both at local regional and federal
levels. Accordingly, there are national parks, sanctuaries, game reserves and community
conservation areas.
National Parks and Sanctuaries
In Ethiopia there are 11 national parks and two sanctuaries being conserved under the Ethiopian
Wildlife Conservation Authority. These national parks have been established at different times in
different regions. However, these national parks share many things in common. These include
lack of legal boundary that would help to make easy the development and management of the
parks and the tourism development viable. The absence of legal boundaries in these parks is said
have produced greater obstacles for park managers as people simply intrude into the park and
disturb the wildlife habitat, which highly impact tourism images. The local communities claim

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access right to these resources because their ancestor belonged there and t hey have used the
parks area for decades. This is almost common to every park in Ethiopia. This park- community
hostility is worsened by lack of economic returns accrued to the local people as the tourism level
is at its infancy stage. The national parks in Ethiopia include:
1. Semein mountains national park
2. Bale mountains national park
3. Nachisar national park
4. Omo national park
5. Abijata-Shala Lake national park
6. Gambela national park
7. Yangudy-Rasa national park
8. Kafta Sheraro National Park
9. Alatish National Park
10. Geraile National Park
11. Awash National Park

From these national parks only few national parks have so far managed to attract tourists. Simen
Mountains National Park, Nech Sar National Park, Bale Mountains National Park, Awash
National Park and Abijata Shalla Lakes National Park are among very few national parks being
visited by international tourists.

With regards to their local socio economic impacts only Simen and Bale Mountains National
Parks are on the track of good community participation and benefit sharing. The local
communities are benefited from different sources such as guiding, horse lending porting
handicraft selling and cooking.

Sociological studies are required in tourism sector in Ethiopia, especially the impact of
tourism on the local impacts roles of community in tourism development as well as benefit
sharing claims.

Bale Mountain National Park: is located in the southern highlands of Ethiopia, in

Oromia region, 425kms from Addis Ababa. The mountain rise a height of over 4000m, with
Mount Tulu Dimtu, the second highest pick in Ethiopia raising to 4377metres high. The
Bale Mountain National Park which covers an area of 2470squres kilometers, is one of

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the best to see the endemic Ethiopian Wolfe, the Mountain Nyala, Minilik’s Bush Buck and
Semen Red Fox. Other animals to be seen include Anubis Baboons, Columbus, Monkeys, Giant
Forest Hog and most colorful birds. The foot of the mountain covered with dense forests
from which streams and rivers are flown down into different directions.

Awash National Park: located in lowlands, 22km east of Addis Ababa. The south boundary of
the park is formed by Awash River which swings north soon after leaving the park and
eventually disappears in to the Afar Region. The park covers an area of 827 square
kilometers. In the middle of the park is the dormant volcano, fantale reaching the height of
2007m. The slopes of the volcano comprises an extensive area of ponds, crater lakes and
numerous mineral hot springs. Temperature in the park is hot and can reach as high as 40
degree Celsius. The wild life of Awash National Park reflects its dry nature at times and all
places; it is possible to its population of mammals such as the Beisa Oryx (sala), Bat-Eard
Fox , Soemmerrings Gazella and Wild Pigs which are common there. Zebra, Cheetah,
Serval, and Leopards are also there. One can also see Crocodiles and Hippopotamus in the
Awash River. About 350 species of birds are also recorded in the park, Awash Fall along
the valley is also one of the spectacular feature attract the eyes of visitors in this park
including its lodge.

Semen Mountain National Park: is found in North Gonder Administrative Zone. It is Located
in 13o 11’N and 38o 4’E on 140 Km North of Gonder Town. This park is kown for its
interested wild life such as Wilia Ibex, Semen Fox , Gelada Baboon and many species
of birds and plants. The Ras Dashen Summit with height of 4620m is also found in this
park. Due to these spectacular features the park has been declared as World Heritage site by
UNESCO.

Abjata-s halla Lakes National Parks : located in the Great Rift Valley, only 200 km south of
Addis Ababa. With Lake Langano Recreational area, the Abjata Shalla Lakes National
Parks attract numerous visitors. There are over 400 bird species recorded here, especially large
number of flamingos are gathered here. One can also see different mammals like Grant Gazelle,
Oribi Warthog, and Golden Jackals. Hot springs are also common in this park.

Mago and Omo National Parks: both are found in Southern Nation and Nationalities Peoples
Regional State of Ethiopia. On 770kms and 870kms South West of Addis Ababa respectively.
Both parks are enriched with spectacle game animals(wild life’s) such as Buffalo,
Elephants , Giraffe, Cheetahs, Lion, Leopards, Zebra Hartebeests, and many other
mammals. Over 306 species of birds can also be seen. The area is one of the most culturally
diversified part of the country to be visited. However these parks are one of the least visited
areas in East and Central Africa.

Nechsar National Park: it is located 505 km south of Addis Ababa in SNNP region. It covers an
area of 514 sq km and established in 1974.The Park is home of the endemic Swayne’s Hartbeets,

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Hippos, Zebra, Crocodile and more than 250 species of birds. Unique physical feature like Lake
Abbyaa, Chamo and Forty Springs are all found along this park.

Gambella National Parks: is found in Gambella Region 777km away from Addis Ababa. The
park lie in the west part of the country along important River Baro , near town of Gambella. It is
one of the Ethiopian’s least developed parks. The natural environment of the park has
contributed to the presence of wide variety of wild life, including big mammals such as White
Eared Kob, Roan Antelope, Topi Elephants, Nilechwe Buffalo, Giraffe, and the unusual Whale
Headed Stork and birds. Unique physical features are largest wet land in the country including
big 4 rivers.

Yangudi – Rassa National parks: it is located in Afar Region 430 km away from Addis Ababa.
It is covered areas of 4737 sqkm. km and established in 197. Key species are Sommerrings and
Dorcas Gazzelle. Unique physical features are Awash River and mount Yangudi.

Sanctuaries of Ethiopia

1. Babile Elephant Sanctury

2. Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary

Babile Elephant Sanctury: is located in Oromia Region at about 557km away from
Addis Ababa. It is the largest wild life conservation area in the country, here are found the
diminishing endemic sub – species of African Elephants (Loxodenta Aftricana)and different
species of birds unique physical feature here is Gobele and Erer Vally , Jurassic Rocky
Limestone appearances.

Senkelle Sanctury: it is found in Oromia And SNNP regions 300km away from Addis Abbaba.
The sanctuary was established for endemic subspecies o f the Hertebeet (Alcephaus
Buselphus Swayne) to save it from extinction. Here one can also see Oribi Warthog,
Greater Kudu and many different species of birds. Unique physical feature to view here is the
lalima/borena hills.

Guassa Community Conservation Area - The first African community conservation area.
The Guassa Community Conservation Area (GCCA) is one of the oldest known common
property resource management in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is located 80 km off the main highway
from Addis Abebe to Dessieat the Menz Gera Administrative District of Northern Shewa in
Amhara regeion. The area is home to numerous endemic birds and wildlife species, including
the iconic Ethiopian wolf and the Ethiopian Gelada. The high altitude Afro-
alpine Festuca grassland, or ‘Guassa” grass gives the area its name.

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It has been the focus of an indigenous natural resource management institution, known as
“Qero,” system for over 400 years. The Qero system is organized by two formally elected chiefs
who oversee the beneficiary communities to ensure equitable resource distribution, and enforce
the bylaws protecting the common property resources. Based on traditional tenure patterns, rules
of protection and utilization as well as enforcement are essential aspects of the Qero system.
Further organization of the user community into parishes ga ve the Guassa area the status of
consecrated land, under the protective patronage of the parish, which reinforced the Qero system
with the prestige, power, and authority of another important local level institution. In the process,
the Guassa common property resources became a kind of sacred entity. Following the 1974
popular revolution, the government nationalized all rural land in the country, disbanded all local
level land tenure and common property natural resource management institutions. This agrarian
reform destroyed the functionality of the Qero system and the Guassa area was turned into an
open access resource, which resulted in extreme decline of natural resources in the area.

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