Ivan Waterman • Janey Fisher

3rd Edition

Social Studies
Social Studies

SOCIAL STUDIES FOR CSEC® EXAMINATIONS

®
for CSEC Examinations

Social Studies for CSEC® Examinations 3rd Edition has been completely restructured, Ivan Waterman, a former tutor at the
®
revised and updated in line with the current CXC syllabus requirements and in response
to feedback and advice from Caribbean classroom teachers. The new larger format,
Barbados Community College, has been
a tutor and examiner in the UWI Dip.
Education Programme. He is the author
for CSEC Examinations
improved colour and design and more accessible text make the book easier for students
of Principles of Business for CSEC®
and teachers to use.
Examinations.

Janey Fisher is a teacher and writer

This 3rd Edition includes new material on the family, social groups, cultural patterns, specialising in the field of Social Studies.
elections, the judiciary and security systems, government and citizens, renewable and Advisers: This text has been developed
non-renewable resources, population, preparation for the world of work, Caribbean with the support of a team of advisers who
integration, the development of human resources, challenges facing the Caribbean are all experienced Caribbean teachers
region including HIV and AIDS, the Regional Development Fund, CEHI and CMC, the role and examiners:
of individuals and businesses, communication media, consumer demand and protection,
Ms Vashty Gooding (Trinidad)
and tourism.
Ms Agatha Joseph (St Lucia)
Mr Vassel Reynolds (Jamaica)
Mrs Salomie Ramsay-Williams (Jamaica)
Key features: Mr Dwight Dean (Jamaica)
• NEW 3rd Edition follows revised syllabus order and objectives, with headings Ms Michelle Rhone (Jamaica)
signposting syllabus objectives and bold emphasis of key syllabus terms
• NEW photos and up-to-date statistics aid understanding of current trends
• NEW activities provide opportunities to develop important skills such as interpreting
tables, graphs, diagrams and photographs, carrying out surveys, doing research on the
internet and in libraries, and detecting bias
• NEW end of chapter summaries provide easy reference points of what has been

Waterman • Fisher
learned
• NEW SBA section provides guidance and a sample project for students to practice
research skills
• Information boxes and case studies provide an alternative or complementary approach
to the topics
• Debates and discussions encourage students to think about the challenges faced by
individuals, communities and nations in the 21st century
CSEC® is a registered trade mark of the
• Evaluation exercises at the end of each chapter enable students to check their Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC).
knowledge and understanding Social Studies for CSEC® Examinations
3rd Edition is an independent publication
• Revision tests at the end of each section reflect the examination format, including both and has not been authorized, sponsored or
multiple choice and structured questions. otherwise approved by CXC.

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 Social Studies
for CSEC® Examinations

3rd edition

Ivan Waterman
Janey Fisher

CSEC® is a registered trade mark of the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC).

SOCIAL STUDIES FOR CSEC® examinations 3rd edition is an independent
publication and has not been authorised, sponsored, or otherwise approved by CXC.

9780230427693_text (23.02.13).indd 1 04/03/2013 16:46

macmillan Education Caribbean Development Bank p88;
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 CONTENTS

Acknowledgements iv
Preface iv

SECTION A – Individual, Family and Society

1 Interaction within the family 2
2 Family law and social issues 31
3 Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions 65
4 Government 105
Section A End of term test 136

SECTION B – Sustainable Development and Use of Resources

5 Human resources 140
6 Physical resources 190
7 Regional integration, trade and cooperation 224
Section B End of term test 256

SECTION C – Options
8 Communication 260
9 Consumer affairs 292
10 Tourism 319
Section C End of term test 348
Appendix 1 School Based Assessment (SBA) 351
Appendix 2 Private Candidates’ Paper 03/2 361
Appendix 3 The Choose-a-Job Flowchart 363

Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions 369

Further reading 370
Index 371

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 acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank all those who have contributed in some form or other to the
production of the first edition of this book. Special thanks are owing to the following persons
and organisations:
Mr I Douglas of the Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce
Dr R Buckmire of the Caribbean Development Bank
The Caribbean Development Bank for the use of their library
The Statistical Office of Barbados
The Caribbean News Agency
Mrs L Carruthers and Miss E Parris who helped Ivan Waterman by typing manuscripts
Miss C E Fisher and Mr M J Fisher who helped Janey Fisher with research
Charonne Prosser who copy-edited the manuscript and read the proof on behalf of the publishers.
The publishers would like to thank David Gilbert, Michelle Rhone, Vashty Gooding, Agatha
Joseph, Vassel Reynolds, Salomie Ramsay-Williams and Dwight Dean for their assistance in
compiling this edition.

preface

CSEC Social Studies is designed for students in the upper forms of secondary schools in the
Caribbean, especially for those studying for the CXC examination in Social Studies.
While the topics covered in this book follow, as closely as possible, those set out in the syllabus
for the CXC Social Studies, it must be remembered that Social Studies is a dynamic discipline
reflecting changes in the social, political and economic environment which are taking place
constantly. Individual research and awareness of current affairs are important aspects of the
subject which students must employ in order to cover the whole syllabus adequately.
The teacher of Social Studies should be a guide and facilitator rather than a mere giver of
information, since students need an opportunity to find things out for themselves if they are
to understand the topics fully. The activities in this book are intended to foster the required
skills, attitudes and values for Social Studies and to act as a stimulus for further enquiry.
ILW
JF

iv

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 SECTION A

Individual, Family and Society

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 1 Interaction within the family

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• explain and use correctly concepts and terms associated with the family
• describe the major functions of the family
• identify and compare different family types and unions in the Caribbean
• examine the roles, relationships and responsibilities of adults and siblings in Caribbean
families
• explain the causes and effects of changes in the roles of family members in Caribbean
society
• describe factors that assist in the preparation for parenthood
• examine the characteristics of effective parenting
• use and interpret statistical data on aspects of the family.

Terms you should know

bigamy marrying someone while still legally married to another person (the term bigamy is used where this
practice is illegal)
consensual union sexual union outside marriage
divorce complete ending of a marriage according to divorce laws
extended family family pattern involving several generations of a family living as part of one household: this may
include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews and nieces
joint-family household household consisting of more than one family of the same generation
kinship blood relationship within the family
marriage legal union between a man and a woman, permanent unless dissolved by divorce
matriarchal family pattern in which the mother is the head of the family
matrifocal family pattern in which the mother carries responsibility for the family; common in matriarchal societies
matrilineal inheritance system in which property and status are acquired through the mother not the father
monogamy marriage pattern in which a man may have only one wife and a woman only one husband
nuclear family family consisting of father, mother and their unmarried children
patriarchal family pattern in which the father is the head of the family
patrifocal family pattern in which the father carries responsibilities for the family; common in patriarchal
societies
patrilineal inheritance system in which property and status are acquired through the father
polyandry marriage pattern in which only women are permitted more than one spouse
polygamy marriage pattern in which men and women are permitted more than one spouse

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 1   Interaction within the family

polygyny marriage pattern which allows only men to have more than one spouse
procreation the conception of children through sexual intercourse
sibling brother or sister
sibling household household consisting of siblings without parents or grandparents
single-parent family family patterns involving a lone parent (male or female) and his or her children
socialisation the process by which children learn social norms
spouse partner in a legal marriage, i.e. husband or wife; often used for partners in consensual unions too
status relative rank within family or society
visiting union a long-term sexual relationship between a woman and a man who is married (either legally or
consensually) to someone else

The family
Almost everyone is born and raised
within a family unit of some kind.
Throughout history, the family has
been seen as the foundation of human
society. The family may be defined as a
group of related people living together in
one household. They live together, care
jointly for the children of the household,
and share their income in order to
provide for the family’s economic needs.
The family is the primary group with
which individuals identify.
There are a number of different types of family. You will learn about these
in the next section (page 8). We also need to remember that the family
and the household are not necessarily the same thing. Some households
are made up of groups of unrelated people who have chosen to live
together. Families are always related to each other, either by blood or by
marriage (including common-law marriage or consensual union) but
the members do not always live together.

How families are formed

Most people are born into a family, or adopted into one. A new family
can be formed:
• when a man and woman choose to get married and have children
• when a man and woman choose to live together and have children
without getting married
• by an arranged marriage between two families when the parents
choose the partners of their children, a marriage takes place and they
have children
• as a result of a visiting union
Most people move away from their families of origin and form new
families once they are adult.
3

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 1   Interaction within the family

Functions of the family

A family has four main functions: to produce children; to rear and socialise children; to
meet basic needs and to satisfy emotional needs.

The family as a unit of procreation

Most families begin with the marriage or sexual partnership of a man and a woman,
FACT which in the majority of cases produces one or more children. The word we use for this
The fertility rate is the is procreation. The average number of children each woman has is called the fertility
average number of rate. The table shows fertility rates across the Commonwealth Caribbean.
children that would be
born to a woman in the
population over her Table 1.1  Fertility rates across the Commonwealth Caribbean
child-bearing years if
she were to experience
current age-specific
fertility rates. It is
calculated using the
age-specific rates for one
year. Consequently it can
vary from year to year.
A fertility rate of less than
2 means the population
is not replacing itself.
A rate of 2.1 means the
population is stable.

Which of the countries

in Table 1.1 have falling
populations, which are Source: CIA World Factbook

stable and which are

growing fast? It is a good idea to plan the number of children you will have, as many parents do, by
using some form of contraception. This is called ‘family planning’.

Not all sexual partnerships

begin with or lead to legal
marriage. Quite often
a young woman brings
up her child or children
without the involvement
of their father(s).
In this case the household
is headed by a woman
from the beginning. The
man’s involvement in
parenting is restricted to

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 1   Interaction within the family

FACT the original (sometimes brief) sexual partnership. Where

parents bring up their children together, they may do so
Infertility treatment as part of a common-law marriage or consensual union
Some couples are unable to have children naturally. It is rather than a legal marriage. For many couples, legal
possible for conception to take place outside the woman’s marriage happens in mid-life rather than at the beginning
body – this is the process which produces ‘test tube babies’,
of the union. It is important, however, that both parents
where the woman’s ova (eggs) are fertilised by the man’s
sperm in the laboratory. Fertilised eggs are checked, and do take responsibility for their children, since parents play
one or more healthy ones are then implanted in the womb, an essential role in the socialisation of their children.
where the embryo grows normally until it is ready to be
born. The technical term for this is in vitro fertilisation. It is
usually used to help couples where the female partner is The family as a social unit for rearing children
infertile. Where the male partner is infertile, a child may
be conceived using sperm from a ‘sperm bank’, which
– socialisation
holds stored sperm donated by a fertile man. In most human societies, parents are responsible for
In vitro fertilisation may also be used where the couple are the care and socialisation of their children. As well as
trying to avoid having children with a serious inherited providing for their physical and emotional needs, parents
disease such as cystic fibrosis. This is an area of controversy act as role models for their children, showing them
since many people believe that human life begins at how to behave. Young children learn as much from
conception and embryos should not be discarded even if observation and experience as from direct training. In
they are faulty or damaged, as happens during the in vitro
process.
the family young children learn how to behave, what
others expect from them and what to expect from others.
They learn the social norms and values which people in
RESEARCH This their society use in order to live together. They model
ACTIVITIES

their own behaviour on that of the adults around them.

1 Investigate changing family size in your family and Other family members also have an important role to
community. Interview older people to find out how play in passing on values, norms and expectations and
many brothers and sisters they had and how many acting as role models.
aunts and uncles. Compare your findings with
As the child grows older the family is the first educator,
numbers of siblings for yourself and your peers. Have
families changed in size over the generations? teaching basic knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.
Once the child goes to school the family encourages and
supports learning. It provides us with our identity, passes
2 Can you suggest reasons for any changes in family on family traditions and cultural heritage. The family
size over time? rewards and disciplines children and controls their
behaviour well into teenage years. It helps children to
3 Why might some young people today prefer to delay
develop as useful independent members of society, aware
the age at which they have children?
of their culture and able to contribute to society.
Other groups and institutions which help to socialise
children include school, community, church and the media.
ACTIVITIES

The family as an economic unit to meet our

1 Make a table to show the things you have gained basic needs
through socialisation from your family under the
headings: values, culture, knowledge, skills, behaviour.
We have seen how the family acts as a social unit,
satisfying our emotional and psychological needs and
2 Observe, with permission, a family of parents with being responsible for the socialisation of children. The
small children for an hour and list the aspects of family also acts as an economic unit, providing for the
socialisation you can see taking place.
basic needs of each individual. This economic activity
may be shared out among family members, so that each
person works in a number of different ways in order to
meet the needs of the family as a whole and the needs of

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 1   Interaction within the family

each of its individual members. All households need to provide the following in order
to meet their basic needs:
• Income to pay for services and goods which the family need. This includes the
money required to pay bills, buy food and clothes and pay for services which the
family cannot provide for itself. The money may be earned by one or more members
of the family. Where none of the adult members of the family is employed, income
may come from welfare or from a relative.
• Domestic work, such as cooking, cleaning and laundry, whether done by a family
member or paid for (for example, by employing a maid).
• Childcare where there are young children in the family. As with domestic chores,
this may be done by a family member or members, or the family may pay for some of
the childcare it needs, whether in the home or at a day-care or other centre.
• Care of elderly, infirm or
disabled family members who
cannot look after themselves. This
is often done by a family member
who is not employed outside the
home, but, as with domestic chores
and childcare, it is possible to pay
for such care.
The way different family members
contribute may change during the
time the family unit is in existence.
For example, older children in the
family may start to earn money as
they reach their mid-teens. Older
members of the family may have
been economically active in the
past but are now retired. They
may be able to help with childcare,
but if they are not in good health
they may need one or more family
members to help them with
everyday tasks. In some families
the mother may have provided
childcare when the children were
young but now earns income from
a paid job.

Ways family members can help

children to grow up. Can you identify
each important stage of socialisation
shown in these pictures?

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 1   Interaction within the family

Figure 1.1  The family as an economic unit.

care of young children, elderly or disabled

income for goods FAMILY AS AN

and services earned domestic work
ECONOMIC UNIT
or from welfare (paid or unpaid)

food, medical care, rent, bill payments, etc.

RESEARCH This RESEARCH This

ACTIVITIES

1 Carry out a survey of friends and older family members 2 Draw up a profile of your own family as an economic
and ask how members of their families contributed to their unit. Find out the answers to as many as possible of the
social, physical, intellectual and emotional development. following questions:
If possible, carry a portable cassette player or digital a How many members of the family are economically
voice recorder and record their memories of these active? What proportion of the family income does
important influences. It is better to talk directly to the each member earn?
people you are surveying, rather than using questionnaires, b Who does the domestic chores in the household? How
as this will help those you question to remember key is the work divided between family members? Work out
family influences. This could be a group activity, with the approximate number of hours spent on domestic
recordings shared and discussed in class later. chores by family members. How much work (if any) is
done by paid workers from outside the family?
c Who (if anyone) provides childcare or care of the
elderly, infirm or disabled family members? Does this
person do domestic chores as well?
EITHER write a description OR draw a table showing
how your family functions as an economic unit.

3 Find out what changes have occurred in the balance of

RESEARCH This

economic contribution made by family members in your

family unit. If possible, draw up a profile of your family as
an economic unit five or ten years ago and note how the
profile has changed during that time.
DISCUSS This

4 Hold a class discussion on the importance of the family

in contemporary Caribbean life.

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 1   Interaction within the family

The family as a social unit to meet our emotional needs

Young human beings need protection and support for many years before they are ready
to be responsible for themselves. During this time the influence of members of their
family, particularly parents, has a profound effect on their development. For example:
• The level and quality of care we receive when we are young influences our physical
and emotional health throughout life.
• The interest and encouragement shown by family members fosters intellectual
development and educational achievement.
• The love and sense of personal value shown to a child by family members is vital in
creating his or her self-esteem.
ACTIVITIES

• A positive approach to discipline for young children inculcates self-discipline in the

Describe three ways child as he or she grows older.
in which your parents, • The values and beliefs which children learn from members of the family affect the
guardians or other way in which they behave as adult members of society.
adults have met your
emotional needs. Other family members also have an important role to play in meeting children’s
emotional and psychological needs.

Different types of family and unions

Not all families are the same. Different societies and different cultures develop their
own patterns of family life. There are many varieties of family within Caribbean society.
Most of these can be grouped into the following categories:

Nuclear family
This type of family is often seen as the ‘norm’ for every society, although this is a
view imposed on Caribbean society by European colonialists. In the nuclear family
parents and their unmarried children live together in one household. The parents may
be married or unmarried.
A nuclear family where the parents living together are not legally married is often called
a ‘common-law’ marriage, ‘common-law union’ or a ‘consensual union’. This type of
nuclear family is very common in the Caribbean. The relationship may be just as stable
as a marriage, although statistics show that more consensual unions than marriages end
in breakdown. In many Caribbean societies common-law unions are treated in law in
a similar way to married unions to provide for support and inheritance rights for the
children. However, in some Caribbean societies children born to common-law unions
are illegitimate, with no inheritance rights. Children of these unions may also have no
right to support from one of the parents if the union breaks up.
Nuclear families may be less well supported by other relatives who may live some way
away. On the other hand parents have the privacy and independence to raise their
children as they see fit and they do not have to help support the wider kin.

Extended family
Typically this type of household consists of three generations of the same family
(grandparents, parents and children) living together. The extended family may also
include the siblings of one of the parents, and their children (see joint families, below).

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 1   Interaction within the family

Sometimes the term is used to describe a family which maintains close, frequent
contact between its members even though they do not live under the same roof. Many
Caribbean families are of this type.
Extended families have the advantage of additional adults who can provide care and
support for children and older members. However, housing may be overcrowded with
little privacy or autonomy for young married couples.

Single-parent family
In the single-parent family or one-parent family (or household) there is only one parent
in close everyday contact with the children, rather than two. Some single-parent
families are also part of an extended family, because they have grandparents or siblings
living within the household.
There are a number of ways in which this type of family can be formed:
• as a result of the death of one partner
• because a marriage or consensual union has broken down through divorce,
desertion, or separation
• because one partner has migrated to another town or another country, perhaps in
search of work
• as a result of a deliberate choice to have a child or children without being married
or part of a consensual union; in this case the children may have different fathers
• because a single person has adopted a child or children
• as a result of a visiting union, since the visiting parent is not a permanent part of
the household. In some single-parent families of this kind the children share the
same mother, but not the same father.
Single-parent families may sometimes struggle to cope with raising children on their
own as the one parent has to undertake all the roles and tasks. Children may sometimes
miss out from not having a close relationship with a parent of the opposite sex to the
one they have. And sometimes single parents struggle to provide economically for the
family, meaning children growing up in poverty.

Sibling household
In this type of family both parents are absent or dead. Older brothers and sisters care
for the younger ones.
This type of family puts an enormous burden on the older children as they must undertake
adult responsibilities before they are ready. It is difficult for them to socialise the younger ones.
The family may also experience poverty. However, with the right support, it may be preferable
to splitting up the children into different foster homes or them going into an orphanage.

Joint-family household
This is like an extended family except that it links families in the same generation. For example,
two or more brothers might share a household, together with their wives and children. This
type of family is traditional in East Indian society, and still exists in countries such as
Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname where there is a strong East Indian community.
This type of family has similar advantages and disadvantages to other extended families.

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 1   Interaction within the family

ACTIVITIES
Step-family or reorganised family
Write a comparison of a nuclear family and an extended This type of family is formed when one or both of the
family. Consider the following in your comparison:
parents have children from a previous relationship. The
a) structure of the family; b) family relationships;
parent or parents bring their child or children into the
c) strengths and weaknesses; d) possible responses to
new family. The children then have one step-parent and
social changes. How much does the individual interaction
within a family change the way it functions? Is this true sometimes several step-siblings or half brother or sisters.
of both types of family? The parent or parents have one or more step-children.
The adults may then go on to have further children
The proportion of these different family types in our together.
society varies quite a lot across the Commonwealth
Caribbean. Table 1.2 shows the estimated proportions Relationships in this kind of family can sometimes be
of different family types in Trinidad and Tobago. quite difficult with resentment and jealousies between
children and step-parents or children and their step-
siblings. Often there are quite a large number of children
to rear and provide for.

Table 1.2  Different family

types in Trinidad and
Tobago

RESEARCH This Size of households

ACTIVITIES

The average size of households in the Caribbean region as a whole seems to be falling,
Survey household as it is in most places in the world. In 1970 the United Nations estimated that Caribbean
sizes among members households averaged 4.5 individuals. In 1990 the figure was 4.1. By comparison, in South
of your class and and Central America (Latin America) household size was 5.1 individuals in 1970, 4.3 in
work out the average 1990. Since 1990 household size in the Caribbean has continued to decline, ranging from
household size. Is it the highest, 4.5 in Belize (2000), to 0.25 in Bermuda (2000), with St Lucia at about the
larger or smaller than
average with 3.2 (2001). Jamaica’s household size has fallen from 4.0 in 1991 to 3.2 in 2001.
the average Caribbean
household size in
1990? Is it larger or
smaller than average Family patterns in the Caribbean
household size in St
Lucia in 2001? Family patterns are not simply invented overnight. They evolve over many generations
and often reflect the traditions, cultural values and historical experiences of a group
of people. The family patterns of the Caribbean reflect the history of the region. Our
ancestors came from many different areas of the world, each with a distinctive culture
and society. When they arrived they had to adjust to a new situation and adapt their
family patterns accordingly. It is the variety of our ancestors’ historical experience which
has given us such a rich cultural mixture in the Caribbean today, including a wide range
of different family patterns. In this book we shall be looking mainly at the islands and
countries of what is called the Commonwealth Caribbean, but family patterns are just
as varied in the islands and countries where the major European language is Spanish,
French or Dutch.

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 1   Interaction within the family

DISCUSS This
ACTIVITIES

1 In groups or pairs, read the following descriptions of family situations and identify which of the six family types they belong
to. Discuss each case and give reasons for your choice of category.

2 Discuss in your group or in pairs the similarities and differences between your own family grouping and the ones below.

DISCUSS This
If possible, decide which of the family types listed on page 8 your families belong to. Discuss how living in different types of
families affects how you think and behave and the things you do together with other family members.

Amanda
Amanda is seven years old. She lives with her father,
her mother and her brother Marc in Belmopan, Belize.
Her mother is expecting a new baby next month.

Vejay
Vejay is twelve years old. He lives in a big house in
Point-à-Pierre, Trinidad, with his father, his mother, his
aunt and uncle and three cousins. His grandparents
live next door.

Derrick
Derrick is seventeen years old. He lives with his
sister Lois, who is sixteen, and their three younger
sisters, in George Town, Cayman Islands. Both
their parents are working in Florida, and send back
money to support them. All their grandparents are
also living in the USA, apart from their mother’s
mother, who lives in St Vincent.

Rhonda
Rhonda is eighteen years old and lives with her
mother in Kingston, Jamaica. She has an eleven-
month-old baby. The father of the baby is married to
another woman but visits her regularly.

Elma
Elma is ten years old. She lives with her mother and
stepfather in Roseau, Dominica. Her father died two
years ago. Her father’s parents are also dead. Her
mother’s family all live in St Kitts.

Erle
Erle is three years old. He has three brothers and
sisters, all older than he is. Each child has a different
father. Their mother has never been married. All her
relationships have been visiting unions with men who
deserted her after their children were born.
DISCUSS This

3 List each type of family you know. Give at least one reason for each type. Discuss in your group the advantages and
disadvantages of each. Identify one moral issue related to each type.

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 1   Interaction within the family

Typical examples of Caribbean festivals

The family in our ancestors’
cultures
The ceremonies, beliefs, marriage
customs, birth-related rituals and other
cultural aspects of the societies from
which our ancestors came still influence
us today. Generally, Amerindian,
African and Asian societies were
based on different forms of extended
family or kinship household. Some of
these included polygamy, especially
Muslim societies in West Africa and
the Indian subcontinent. The nuclear
family has its roots in the Christian
culture which dominated Europe by the
time Europeans came to colonise the
Caribbean in the eighteenth century.
Cultural patterns are very strong and
durable. Even when groups of people
leave their original country and travel
halfway across the world to another
continent and a completely different
situation, customs, festivals, ceremonies
and religious beliefs persist. However,
when African, Asian and European
people came to the Caribbean their
family patterns had to adapt to the
new situation in which they found
themselves. This means that the history
of the Caribbean and the people who
came here have affected Caribbean
family patterns to this day.
In some countries national groups
exist to promote the survival or
development of traditional cultures and customs. Below there is a case study of such a
group in Guyana, the Amerindian Peoples Association of Guyana (APA).

Traditional family patterns

Name some examples of Before we look at the way the history of the Caribbean region has affected modern
ancestral customs which family patterns, it is important to understand the traditions of family structure in the
have survived or been different areas of the world from which our ancestors came.
developed by cultural
groups in your country. Do Amerindian
you have anything like the ‘Amerindian’ is a word used to describe all the ancient peoples of the American
APA in your country? Are continent. (In the United States they are called ‘Native Americans’.) In the Caribbean
there groups promoting these groups included mainly Arawaks, Caribs and Tainos, especially on the islands.
Indian or African customs? These peoples were very different, not least in their family organisation. In Carib

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 1   Interaction within the family

settlements, for example, an extended

CASE STUDY family system operated which divided
the family according to gender and age.
The Amerindian Peoples Association of Guyana Men and older boys slept in one big
dormitory-type hut. The women, girls
The APA is a non-governmental organisation formed by Amerindians
for Amerindians. It focuses on the rights of the Amerindian peoples of
and younger boys lived in another. The
Guyana. The APA is registered under the Guyanan Friendly Societies Acts living-room had two doors, one for men
and is governed by a constitution. Its objectives are to promote the social, and one for women. Arawaks and Tainos
economic, political and cultural development of the Amerindian communities used a different kind of extended family
and to promote and defend their rights. It relies on different Amerindian system in which family members shared
groups working together. a house.
The APA was formed in 1991 at a conference for Amerindian leaders in There are surviving Amerindian groups
Georgetown. These leaders had been meeting to discuss various problems today in Belize, Dominica and Guyana.
affecting their communities. They decided to form an organisation called the
• In Guyana there are ten groups:
Amerindian Peoples Association to look into the problems under discussion.
The APA has been formally constituted since 1992 and is led by an Executive Akawaio, Arawak, Arekuna, Barama,
Committee. It also has a General Assembly, and works through its units Carib, Macusi, Patamona, Waiwai,
among the Amerindian communities. Wapisiana and Warao. Amerindians
are more numerous in Guyana than
The APA encourages community-level activities such as training workshops,
anywhere else in the Caribbean. Most
conferences and field visits that focus mainly on increasing the capacity
Amerindian groups in Guyana now
of communities to deal with issues affecting them. Some communities
are engaged in a history-recording project where efforts are being made share many cultural features with
to revive and preserve the traditional cultures of the communities. At the both Afro- and Indo-Guyanans.
national level, the APA monitors government policies and legislation that • In Dominica there are about 3000
affect Amerindians. Caribs, who live in the Carib Territory.
Internationally the APA works with other NGOs to help indigenous peoples They have remained more distinct
all over the world. and have retained many of their
traditional cultural patterns.
• In most other Caribbean countries the
Amerindian peoples were driven out
or destroyed by European colonists,
though evidence is emerging that even
N in some places, such as Jamaica, where
no distinct Amerindian population
survived, they probably intermarried
with the African slave populations.
This may mean that many West
Indians of African descent also have
BELIZE Amerindian ancestors.
DOMINICA
RESEARCH This
ACTIVITIES

Find out more about ancient

Amerindian family patterns in the
Caribbean, particularly in your own
country if you live in Belize, Guyana
or Dominica. In what ways do these
resemble family patterns common
GUYANA in Africa and India at the time our
0 200 400 600 800 1000 km ancestors came to the Caribbean?

Figure 1.2  Caribbean countries with surviving Amerindian groups

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 1   Interaction within the family

African
Most of our African ancestors came to the Caribbean to work on the plantations as slaves. The
majority came from West Africa. In West African societies where the main occupation
was farming, people lived in villages and tended to adopt a mixed nuclear and extended
family system, often with a number of related families living in separate houses within
one compound. Some of these households consisted of one man and several wives who
each lived in their own house with their children. Societies where the people were
nomadic pastoralists, moving from place to place with herds of cattle, tended to have a
more flexible extended family system. In West Africa many groups had adopted Islam
and these groups developed distinctively Muslim family patterns and values.
When Africans first arrived in the Caribbean as slaves, they were not allowed to form
families in their traditional ways. You will learn more about this later in the unit when
we look at the way our history has influenced Caribbean family patterns today.

European
Most European colonists
in the Commonwealth
Caribbean came from
Britain. However, some
countries which now
form part of the English-
speaking Caribbean were
once settled by French
or Spanish groups.
Their family patterns
became the ideal for
many Caribbean societies
because of the power
wielded by the colonial
settlers in government
and society.
The family pattern which
Europeans knew best was
the nuclear family, headed
by the father. Women
The Hicks family playing croquet in Mandeville, Jamaica around 1900 were subordinate to men
in the family, and boys
were usually educated
ACTIVITIES

more fully than girls who were expected to help with the domestic chores at home.
Compare African, Legal marriage was important and people expected to be married to the same person
European and Indian for life. Girls, especially in middle-class families, were expected to remain virgins until
traditional family they married and to be faithful to their husbands. Men were given more scope for extra-
patterns using a marital affairs, especially with women from a lower class than their own. Unmarried
table. mothers were disgraced in society and were often rejected by their families. Illegitimacy
also carried a stigma, and illegitimate children could not inherit family wealth, even
where their fathers had recognised them.

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 1   Interaction within the family

Indian
Many of our ancestors from Asia came to the Caribbean as indentured labourers, after
the emancipation of the slaves. The area of Asia from which most indentured labourers
came was the Indian subcontinent (some came from China). Here the main type of family
was the extended family. Marriages were arranged for young couples by the families involved.
Caste, a rigid structure of social classes, was the most important factor in choosing a
partner for your children, and quite often the bride and groom had not met before the
wedding day. Sometimes they were still young children when the marriage was
arranged, although they did not live together as husband and wife until the age of 12.
The young married couple did not
usually have their own house. They
moved into the home of the bridegroom’s
family and shared it with other members
of his family including his brothers and
their wives and his unmarried sisters.
The father of these brothers was the
household head or patriarch, in most
cases, until he retired from active work
or died, when the oldest brother became
head of the household. The family owned
the house and any other land jointly and
it was inherited by the next generation.
In the traditional Hindu family in India
men were in charge and wives and
daughters had to do what they were told.
They did not usually have jobs outside
the home or earn money of their own.
In Muslim families a man was permitted
to have up to four wives but he had to
support all his wives and their children
An Indian family at Golden financially. A wife was expected to be faithful to her husband however many other wives
Vale in Jamaica around 1898
he had. In both Hindu and Muslim families the family was organised in a patrifocal way.

Plantation societies and settler societies

These family patterns were the ones that our migrant ancestors were accustomed to
when they arrived in the Caribbean from Africa, Asia and Europe. However, when they
migrated they had to adapt to the situation in which they found themselves; a situation
which was often quite different from the one they had left. In some cases, they had to
change the patterns of family organisation they had used in their home societies. In
other cases, they were able to maintain that pattern. In the Caribbean region as a whole
there were two main types of society: plantation societies and settler societies.

Plantation societies
The plantation society was the most common type of society in the Commonwealth
Caribbean. Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, Guyana and Dominica are good
examples of countries which had plantation societies. In plantation societies the main
economic unit was the plantation, worked at first (before Emancipation) by slaves. Slave
society did not centre around the family since most slaves lived in single-sex dormitories

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 1   Interaction within the family

and were usually forbidden to marry. Children born to female slaves automatically
became the property of the slave-owner, whoever their father was. Slave societies were
matrifocal; mothers were more significant than fathers in the upbringing of children.
These family patterns continued after Emancipation, although some ex-slaves did marry
and set up their own families. The nuclear family type was, however, significant among
the wealthier classes, both during and after the slave-owning period. Social attitudes
discouraged men from these classes (particularly European men) from marrying women
from poorer classes (particularly black women). This situation led to the widespread
practice of visiting unions where higher-status men married women from their own
class but maintained girlfriends, often from a lower class, outside marriage.
Most families were matrifocal. This was partly due to African retention from African
family patterns in which women were sometimes the focus. It was also because of the
legacy of slavery, under which white slave owners and overseers frequently raped female
slaves, and then were unwilling to acknowledge parenthood, and black men were unable
to be fathers, found families or have legal relationships with women. In addition there
was poverty and a perception that marriage was for the wealthy upper classes.
Plantation societies usually operated the system of indentured labour after Emancipation,
so that these societies often contained many people of Asian descent, particularly Indians
(usually known as East Indians). Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago are examples of
countries which attracted indentured labourers. Here patriarchal families were more
common because of the influence of Indian marriage and family patterns.
Although the plantations are no longer the economic and social unit on which a whole
society is based, anthropologists still categorise some Caribbean societies as plantation
societies because of their history.

Settler societies
The second type of society was the settler society. Where the land was not suitable for
growing sugar, tobacco, coffee or cotton, settlers came to carve out a living for themselves
growing food and catching fish. Settler societies were less likely to be directly ruled by
What were the main a colonial power. Here the family, both the extended and the nuclear versions of it,
differences in the family was very strong. These societies were generally patriarchal; the head of the household
between plantation and was more likely to be a father than a mother. Belize and some of the smaller islands
and archipelagos, such as the Bahamas, the Cayman Islands and many of the Lesser
settler societies?
Antilles, are known as settler societies.

Family patterns today

Some elements of our ancestors’ family patterns still persist in modern society. However,
family patterns are not static. They change, sometimes quite quickly, in response to
new situations. The case study on the Indo-Caribbean family in Guyana and Trinidad
(page 17) gives some examples of this in those two countries. Family patterns in the
Caribbean today are changing rapidly as the roles we expect of family members change.
You will learn some of the reasons for these changes in the next section.

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 1   Interaction within the family

CASE STUDY
The Indo-Caribbean family in Guyana and Trinidad today
Indo-Caribbean people are the descendants of indentured East Indians who were transported to the West Indies in the nineteenth
century. These indentured workers brought with them their traditional Indian family patterns which at first made the Indo-
Caribbean family quite distinct. But over time various factors led to a restructuring of the original family organisation so that the
contemporary Indo-Caribbean family is very different from that of the mid-nineteenth century.
The East Indian community in Guyana and Trinidad today includes Hindus, Muslims and Christians. Their different cultural
beliefs and ceremonies have influenced the way families are organised. The growth of secular culture has also influenced the
Indo-Caribbean family. Many couples now have civil wedding ceremonies rather than traditional religious ones. Divorce is also
becoming more common. In Trinidad the extended family has largely given way to the nuclear family but in Guyana the links
between members of older and younger generations are still strong, even if they do not share the same household. For example,
a young couple may live with the husband’s family for several years, eventually establishing their own home. Guyanan Indo-
Caribbean families have retained a subordinate role for the wife to a greater extent than those in Trinidad, although even in
Guyana this is changing nowadays. This is because the younger generation in Guyana are still more strongly influenced by their
close relationships with older family members who have more traditional values and mothers tend to rule over their sons’ wives
when they live in the same household.
ACTIVITIES

1 Write a description of a festival, ceremony or other b Write a newspaper report on the changes occurring
custom which promotes ancestral culture in your country in family patterns in your country. Choose an angle
or district. How does this custom help ancestral culture or viewpoint carefully so that you portray the changes
survive in the society in which you live? as either positive or negative.
DISCUSS This

2 In groups, discuss which traditional family patterns are 3 Hold a class debate on the motion ‘The house believes
most likely to remain important. that the traditional family structure is no longer relevant
in today’s society’. Choose two class members to speak

DEBATE This
a Try to explain why traditional family patterns are
so strong, and assess which aspects of traditional on each side of the debate, discuss the topic more
family structure have already disappeared or are generally and then vote on the issue. (If you have not
disappearing. held a class debate before, your teacher will help to
organise this activity.)

Roles and responsibilities of family members

A person’s role is their position and expected behaviour. Responsibilities are obligations
to carry out certain tasks. For example a woman in the family may have the roles of wife,
mother and daughter. For each of those roles her responsibilities may be slightly different.
Within the family, different family members take different roles and responsibilities.
For example, one member of the family is usually seen as the head of the household.
This person usually makes decisions about important family matters, though he or she
often consults with other family members before the decision is made. He or she may
often (but not always) also be the main breadwinner (that is the person who earns most
of the family income). Other family members may take specific roles, too.

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 1   Interaction within the family

Mother’s roles
Traditionally mothers carry children through pregnancy, give birth to them and then
care for them when they are small and until they leave home. They have been responsible
for child care and for ensuring children are fed, clothed and looked after, physically and
emotionally. In some families mother’s role includes cooking and caring for the other
adults in the household too.
In many Caribbean families mothers are also breadwinners and may be the household head.
Where both parents live together, parenting today is often seen as a shared responsibility.

Father’s roles
Traditionally fathers have been seen as the head of a nuclear family, providing for the
family’s needs economically, but in the Caribbean family they have sometimes been a
visitor or outsider, but still providing a male role model. Increasingly fathers are taking
on a more caring role, involved in domestic chores and child care.

ROLE PLAY Auntie’s and uncle’s roles

Aunties and uncles play an important part in socialisation,
ACTIVITIES

1 Divide into groups for role play. Pretend you are a

passing on culture, and sometimes also in child care.
family of parents and children deciding how each of They can fill gaps in parenting caused by busy parents
you will help in the family. Draw up a list of who will and act as an older friend for the children. They can also
do what. help to support parents.

2 Discuss in class or with a group or partner the Grandmother’s roles

following questions: How important is it that families If all the young adults are working outside the home, a
cooperate in order to give each family member a fair
DISCUSS This

grandmother may take on the task of cooking meals or

share of the work involved in meeting family needs?
doing the laundry. She may look after young children too,
What happens if the tasks are shared out unequally
and one person ends up working much harder than while the mother is working. She may be the custodian
the others? of wisdom and tradition, passing on family history, songs
and sayings and advice on parenting. In some matrifocal
families the grandmother is the head of the household.
3 Think about the roles in your own family. Does one
member take the role of head of the household? How
does he or she make decisions? What happens if a Grandfather’s roles
member of the family challenges or is unhappy with
Often grandfathers help with childcare and with teaching
the decisions which are made for the family? What
children important skills and knowledge. They can help
other roles can you identify within your family? Has
to maintain discipline and support teenagers. They can
this changed over the last few years? Is it likely to
change in the future? give sound advice to parents.

4 Role play. In pretend family groups deal with Children’s roles

ROLE PLAY

problems of misbehaviour, finding out who has Children should have their responsibilities in a family too.
misbehaved, what he or she has done and find a way They need to know early in their lives that everyone in a
of dealing with that bad behaviour. family should play their part in helping each other. Even
small children can help in simple tasks and older children
5 Discuss how much freedom or choice we each have should be given specific roles; helping with jobs in and
to accept or reject traditional family roles. outside the house, caring for younger siblings when they
are old enough to take that responsibility. For example,
DISCUSS This an older sister may have some responsibility for childcare.

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 1   Interaction within the family

If children fail to take their share of family jobs when they are young, they are less likely
to grow up as caring people who know they should look after others as well as themselves.
Some families do not give individual family members specific roles in this way; instead
they share collectively in decision-making and in providing for various family needs.
Individual families organise themselves in their own way. There are many different ways
of making sure that the needs of family members are met and that the family functions
properly both as a social and an economic unit. The roles and responsibilities of family
members will vary according to the type of family structure a particular family has.

FACT Changing roles and responsibilities – causes and effects

We saw earlier in this chapter that different members of a family often have different roles
Women’s rights and responsibilities. These roles and responsibilities change, not only as the individual
Women’s rights are set family changes and develops, but also as our wider society changes. For instance, in the
out in a special document last 30 years or so the status of women has changed enormously and this has affected
called the United Nations the way of life of most women in the Caribbean region.
Convention on the
Elimination of all forms
of Discrimination Against
The status of women
Women (CEDAW). Any
government which The status of women has been profoundly affected in the last 40 years by a strong
ratifies the Convention challenge made by women themselves to the relations between the sexes which have
commits itself to prevailed for much of our history. This movement has become known internationally
undertake particular
as feminism, but in the Caribbean we usually call it the Women’s Liberation Movement.
measures to end
discrimination against There are a number of NGOs which exist to foster equality for women, for example
women, including International Women’s Rights Action Watch. Feminist groups have worked, argued
establishing tribunals and campaigned to get greater equality for women in every aspect of life, including
and other institutions to education, status in society and the family, and income. However, the movement has
enforce the Convention. benefited women in some countries more than in others.
The Convention has
not been ratified by all
governments worldwide Equality
but 189 countries had
ratified or signed the Equality for women began with their getting the vote. This happened at different dates
convention by July in different countries, but by the end of the 1960s all women in the Commonwealth
2011, including most Caribbean had the vote. You will learn more about our electoral system in Chapter 4 of
Caribbean countries. this book.
Historians have noticed that women in countries which had plantation societies were
more often economically active than those in settler societies. This is probably because
women in these societies were more often the household head and also more likely to
be the main breadwinner for a family. However, the difference in income between men
and women – where men earned more money for a similar job – and the relative lack of
educational opportunities for women occurred in both plantation and settler societies.
There was also a class difference in the economic and social experiences of women.
Middle-class women were expected by their families and friends to marry and stay at
home running their households and caring for children. For example, in Trinidad and
Tobago married women teachers were not employed unless the authorities failed to find
a suitable unmarried female candidate for the post. In Jamaica women could only take
lower-level posts in the civil service and the entry qualifications were higher for them
than for men. By contrast working-class women were more often in paid employment.

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 1   Interaction within the family

Women are gaining ground in more traditionally male occupations. Women’s changing status
The changing status of women has been an
important factor in more general changes in
family life. As women have developed roles
outside the home, others in the family have had
to accept responsibilities different from those
of their parents. Men have had to take more
responsibilities (sometimes reluctantly) within
the home. They have had to take on a greater
share of work within the house and in caring for
children. Some have had to accept their spouses
earn more than they do. Some have become
‘house husbands’, taking over the majority of
former women’s work to allow their wives to go
to work and earn more than they could.
Such changes do not come without difficulties.
Some men have found it hard to accept what
Factory manager
they see as a lesser role in family life. Some
women have become very absorbed in their life
outside the home and more reluctant to give the
necessary time to those family responsibilities
which should remain important.

Post-war changes
After the Second World War even middle-
class women began to be more accepted in
the paid labour force and more girls graduated
from secondary and tertiary education. The
worldwide women’s liberation movement
encouraged this move, and the trend towards
women’s equality has continued. Women are
still more likely to take jobs in teaching and
Dentist
the ‘caring’ professions (such as nursing) but
are gaining ground in more traditionally male
occupations. Girls now outperform boys at
school and university, although they have not
yet achieved what is called ‘income parity’
(equal pay for the same type of job). In St
Vincent there are as many women graduating
from law school as there are men, where 20
years ago the proportion was 20 per cent. In
St Lucia more girls than boys are enrolled on
courses at Sir Arthur Lewis Community College
(the main tertiary educational institution).
Yet in many countries unemployment among
women who have completed secondary school
is much higher than among men with the same
level of education.
Radiographer

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 1   Interaction within the family

Discuss with other Factors leading to change

members of your group As well as the changing status of women in the Caribbean, many other factors have had
or class how attitudes an effect on the structure, patterns and function of the family in the Caribbean. Some
examples are:
in society have changed
towards women. Do you • industrial development in the region, including improved employment opportunities
think these changed • political, economic and cultural developments such as the expansion of tourism
attitudes have affected • the increase in the use of television and radio
your family? • improvements in general education.
These changes have made life for some families much easier, but have created conflict
in other families.

Education for everyone

ACTIVITIES

Educational opportunities for women

1 What are the traditional roles and responsibilities of men and women?
have become more widespread in the
2 How have changes in the status of women improved justice and last 30 years but opportunities for
equality in the family (or not)? education have also increased for all
children and young people. This has had
3 Discuss whether work in the home, such as child care and housework, a profound effect upon our society and
should be paid. helped social attitudes to change. Access
to and participation in good educational
DISCUSS This programmes is vital for economic
and social development and for the
prosperity of our society as a whole.
The United Nations declaration on
Education for All has encouraged many
Caribbean governments to reassess their
educational provision and improve it.
You will learn more about education and
training in Chapter 5.

Technology
In the last 30 years there have been
extraordinary developments in the
field of technology, particularly what is
called information technology. The most
important of these is the development
of the computer. In the 1980s the first
PCs (personal computers) appeared for
sale. They were heavy, limited and slow
in comparison with modern PCs, laptops
and pads but they quickly revolutionised
the workplace. With the coming of the
A web page
internet, which allows computer and
smart phone users to connect to a web of information and communication across the
world, information and communications technology both at work and at home have
changed out of all recognition. Mobile phones (cell phones) have also revolutionised
communication. You will learn more about modern communications in Chapter 8.

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 1   Interaction within the family

It is not only information and communications technology

Find out how computer technology
that has been revolutionised. Industrial, agricultural
is used in these machines. and domestic machinery has also become much more
sophisticated and can replace much of the back-breaking
labour endured by past generations. Computer technology
has also helped these developments, for example in
the ‘chips’ contained in automatic washing machines,
pop-up toasters and CD players. Computers can also be
programmed to run a modern milking parlour or a car-
making facility in a factory.
Changes in technology have affected the type of
employment opportunities people have (see below, in the
next section on employment). It also alters the time spent
in doing domestic chores, especially for women, and the
way we spend our leisure (see below in the section on
leisure activities).

Employment choices
With the development of secondary and tertiary
industries in the Caribbean over the past 20 years or so,
including an exponential increase in tourism in most
Caribbean countries, the range of employment choices
has become much larger.
• In some countries, for example the Bahamas and
the Cayman Islands, offshore financial institutions
have transformed society, providing prosperity and
opportunity both for individual workers and their
societies.

Lloyds Bank, Nassau, Bahamas

Almond Beach Club resort, Barbados

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 1   Interaction within the family

• In others, for example Barbados,

the growth of tourism has had both
positive (mainly economic) effects
and negative (mainly environmental)
ones. You can learn more about
tourism in Chapter 10 of this book.
• One or two Caribbean countries,
particularly Trinidad and Tobago and
Aruba, have developed profitable oil
industries.
In both ex-plantation societies and ex-
settler societies, people no longer depend
on agricultural or primary economic
activities for their livelihoods. Indeed,
the trend has gone so far in the other
direction that many Commonwealth
Caribbean countries import most
of the foodstuffs required for their
Oil refinery at Willemstad, Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles populations. The growth of those
populations, and the urbanisation of
them, has also created problems in terms
ACTIVITIES

of employment as well as the economy

Write a letter to the manager of a large company explaining the need for and the environment. (You can learn
them to provide child care for their workers’ families. more about the environment, use of
resources and population in Section B of
this book.)
Changes in employment opportunities
affect the roles and responsibilities of family members. We saw earlier that the lives of
women have been profoundly affected by such changes and this in turn affects the way
women see their role in the family.

Leisure activities
Leisure activities have been revolutionised
by the advances made in technology over
the past 30 years or so. The explosion
in numbers of mobile phones and
televisions, for example, shows that more
and more people, particularly the young,
are using their leisure time in ways that
tend to lessen direct social interaction.
Thus young people may communicate
readily (often using text-messaging)
on mobile phones from home or as
they walk along the street, or on social
networking sites, without necessarily
meeting up with their friends in person.
However, other more traditional leisure
activities, including music, continue to
be important.

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 1   Interaction within the family

Television
Television has assumed great importance
in many Caribbean households, especially
in view of access to American TV
channels, although it has not replaced
radio as a popular way of receiving
news and entertainment. Constant
bombardment by American culture in
the form of popular TV programmes has
altered the aspirations and expectations of
a generation of Caribbean young people.
However, local TV programmes are also
popular, although they are often compared
unfavourably with similar US broadcasts.
Sport, too, is covered by the broadcasters,
with Test cricket and baseball being
particularly popular among viewers.
Wide access to television, and the
A family enjoys watching TV popularity of watching it, have brought about changes in family relationships. People
together
tend to stay at home to watch TV rather than going out to meet their friends, although
sporting broadcasts are more likely to attract group viewing. This may bring families
close but it may also cause conflict over what is to be watched! Research in most societies
worldwide has found that watching television tends to restrict the amount of time family
members spend talking to each other and taking part in other leisure activities together.

Effects of these changes on Caribbean families

ACTIVITIES

1 Which of the factors discussed here do you think have

We can observe a number of ways in which these changes
affected your own family most? Explain how and why. have affected Caribbean families. There is a widespread
public debate about these issues and any discussion is
2 How has technology improved people’s lives? bound to be affected by the participants’ pre-existing
ideas and prejudices. Below are some ideas about the
possible effects of the social and economic changes of the
DISCUSS This

3 Discuss the effect on young children of watching TV

past 20 or 30 years. Do you agree with this analysis?
for several hours each day.

Identity crisis
RESEARCH This

4 a Copy and fill in the questionnaire on television-

We gain our sense of identity to a large extent from our role
watching.
in the family, as well as our roles at school or work and in
the wider community. For example, being a mother gives
b As a class, collect the completed questionnaire a sense of identity and personhood to a young woman. ‘I
and analyse the results. am a mother’ is a way of identifying herself as a person. ‘I
c Create a survey report and discuss, in groups, the am X’s mother’ (X being the name of her child) is another
findings you have made. way of saying where she belongs in the family and in her
own immediate circle of friends and relations.
When family roles change in response to social and
economic change, some family members may experience an identity crisis. Thus, if
a father has been brought up to think that he should be the head of the household
(particularly if his father was head of a patriarchal or patrifocal household), and he
then finds that his wife or partner has a career and income of her own and wants to

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 1   Interaction within the family

share decision-making, domestic chores,

Questionnaire on television-watching and so on, then the father may not find
it easy to adjust to his new role. He
Tick the box that applies. Tick only one box for each question.
may be less certain of his identity, since
1. Do you have a television at home?
fatherhood in the traditional sense was a
major part of it. Similarly, in a situation
Yes No where a mother is working full-time
and hands her baby to a day-care centre
2. How many hours of television do you watch each day? every day on the way to work, she may
feel less positive about her identify as a
Less than 1 hour 1 – 3 hours
mother, particularly if her own mother
3 – 5 hours More than 5 hours stayed at home to bring up her children.

Marginalisation
3. Do you choose which programmes to watch or do you watch whatever is on?
The improved status of women has in
Choose programmes Watch whatever’s on 
some societies led to men becoming
marginalised. This means that instead of
feeling at the centre of the family and
4. Do you prefer US and other overseas programmes or local programmes?
society, they believe that the women
Overseas programmes Local programmes in their lives have ‘taken over’. While
No preference women have become more successful
in traditionally male occupations such
as medicine or the law, men have found
it difficult to compete in traditionally
female occupations. As we saw earlier, statistically girls are now outperforming boys
ACTIVITIES

in secondary and tertiary education. Thus some sociologists believe that the success of
Discuss how we feminism may be creating a crisis in the way men see their role in society.
can improve the
marginalisation of This is particularly true in societies and class groups where the man was traditionally
men without reducing central. In matrifocal societies or societal groups, women were always central to the
the independence and family and men were more marginal since visiting unions and non-permanent unions
equality of women. were more often the norm. In these groups, there is less evidence of identity crisis and
marginalisation among men within the family structure but their identity as dominant
DISCUSS This beings in society has certainly been threatened. Thus, the overall picture in Caribbean
societies, as elsewhere in the Western world, is that as women have become better
educated and more able and willing to take up careers in previously male-dominated
occupations, men have come to feel less certain of their role in the family and society.

Independence of women
Which male-dominated
occupations have women The opportunities women have gained in education and careers have given them an
enhanced sense of self-worth, especially since their share of the family income has
started to enter in your
risen to match their higher status in society. For many women this is a matter of simple
area? Can you think of any justice. The higher status and greater independence enjoyed by women in the new
reason why they should do century should not, however, be seen as wholly without problems even for the women
these jobs less well than themselves. Changes in the woman’s role within the family can lead to conflict (see
men? below). It may also impose a greater workload on women, particularly those who are
working mothers. It has always been the case that single mothers bore a greater workload
unless they were well-supported by the extended family; but today even wives or women
in consensual unions who are working, unless they can persuade their husbands or
partners to share the domestic chores, may end up overburdened by their responsibilities.

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 1   Interaction within the family

Conflict
Conflict is part of human life and strong disagreements can occur in every family and
every group of people. Some disputes can be serious and can lead to the breakdown of
the family, with distress for everyone.
The section above shows how some conflicts arise out of the changing roles of men
and women. This is linked to social and economic changes which have allowed women
greater access to education and higher-paid, higher-status jobs. Teenage children are
also less willing to take part in the domestic chores of the household and some now see
their peer group as more important to them than their family. They no longer recognise
their traditional position within the family and this can lead to conflict with parents or
other siblings.
It is important to learn how to resolve conflict before it causes damage to a relationship
or family.
There are a number of different kinds of conflict we may experience within the family.
Here are some of them for you to consider.
1. Conflict between marital partners (including couples who are living together in a
consensual union). This kind of conflict may arise from all sorts of causes, including:
• sexual problems between partners
• one or both partners committing adultery
• financial problems in the family unit or disagreements about the way money
should be spent
• disagreements over the upbringing of children
• disagreements about the family role(s) taken by each partner or the way in which
domestic tasks are allocated
• unwillingness of one partner to take his or her share of the family responsibilities.
Sometimes this type of conflict leads to violence. Women may be ‘battered’, and
sometimes injured or even killed. It is less common for women to attack their spouses,
but it is not unknown. (You will learn more above domestic violence in Chapter 2,
on page 53.) Usually, however, conflict between partners is either resolved, and the
union remains stable or the situation deteriorates, in which case the union may
break down. The box on page 62 ‘Breakdown of marriage’ in the section on family
law, explains what happens at this point.
2. Conflict between parents and children. This is often known as ‘the generation
gap’, where parents and children have different values or standards of how to behave.
• Older children, in particular, tend to rebel in adolescence and feel the need to assert
their desire for independence. At this stage their peers may become a more important
influence on them than their parents and this may not be accepted by parents.
• Younger children may be disobedient and resentful of their parents’ authority,
especially if they feel that their parents are not listening to them.
• The generation gap may also affect relationships between children and their
grandparents, or between grandparents and their adult children, in an extended
family situation.
This type of conflict may also lead to violence, for example where parents beat or flog
their children. Violent beating is a form of child abuse. There is a section on child
abuse in Chapter 2, page 53.

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 1   Interaction within the family

3. Conflict between siblings. It is very common for

ACTIVITIES
brothers and sisters to quarrel. The cause may be:
1 a Make a list of social and economic changes that
have occurred in the last 20 years or so in society • what is called ‘sibling rivalry’; brothers and sisters
which have particularly affected women. Note how want to keep more of their parents’ attention for
these changes have affected men. themselves and resent the demands made by siblings
b Evaluate whether the overall result of these changes • different personalities simply clash, giving rise to
has been of benefit to women or not. Do you constant bickering between siblings
think men will benefit from the changes as well in
the long term or not? • in families (particularly step-families) with many
c Why is pre-school education so important? Do
children, siblings may divide into two or more
you think there are any disadvantages in providing antagonistic groups.
every small child with such activities? Sibling rivalry can also affect extended families, for
d How have older children been affected by the example where two brothers live in the same house with
DISCUSS This

wide-ranging social changes? Discuss this with their parents and their own wives/girlfriends and children.
other teenagers in your own family or at school. Do
you think these changes have benefited teenagers These different kinds of conflict may lead to unfortunate
or not? results.
e Make a list of ways in which conflict can be
• Conflict between marital partners may lead to a
prevented and dealt with.
breakdown in the relationship. Where the couple is
legally married there may be a separation or divorce.
2 Read the section on pages 24 – 27 which discusses This has a powerful and usually negative impact on the
the effects of recent social and economic changes on children of the couple. (You will learn more about the
Caribbean family patterns. Discuss these ideas in your
DISCUSS This

law relating to divorce and separation in Chapter 2.)

group or in class with reference to your own country or
island. • Conflict between parents and children may lead to
children running away or leaving home before they
are ready to do so. The children may end up as street
3 Write an essay on the topic ‘Changing roles and
children, prostitutes or criminals.
family relationships in the Caribbean’. In your essay,
consider how Caribbean family roles have been • Conflict between members of an extended family
affected by social, economic and technological may lead to major divisions within the family, where
changes in the region. one section of the family is permanently in conflict
with another. This can cause the breakdown of the
family, or occasionally the isolation of one or two
members, sometimes the grandparents, who are ‘out
of step’ with the younger generations.
Conflict can be reduced by good communication between the people concerned.
When people talk calmly about their differences, rather than shouting at each other
or fighting, these can often be resolved, and living patterns may be changed in order
to reduce tension and make the relationship work better. Sometimes talking to a
person from outside the family, such as a social worker, doctor or counsellor, may
be helpful.

Preparing for parenthood

As we have already seen, one of the most important roles in the family is that of parent.
Father and mother are equally important, although one may spend more time with
the child than the other, depending on family circumstances. For example, if mother
is working outside the home, but father is unemployed, a young child will be likely to
see more of the father than of the mother. Before we become parents it is important to
prepare ourselves in various ways.

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 1   Interaction within the family

1. Physically, we need to be in good health. Ill-health in either parent can affect

the child at conception, although the mother’s role in pregnancy means that
her health will have more direct effect. Doctors recommend that both parents
(and other family members too) refrain from smoking, because even passive
smoking can damage the health of young children. The incidence of cot death
or infant sudden death syndrome goes up sharply in households where family
members smoke. Sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV and AIDS can be
passed on from mother to baby during pregnancy, so it is wise for the mother
to be tested, if possible, at the beginning of her pregnancy.
2. Both parents need to be emotionally and psychologically ready for their
role. Many young people embark on parenthood (sometimes unintentionally)
before they are mature enough to do so. Bringing up a child is a very
demanding task which should be thought through carefully beforehand. It is
all too common for a young man, when he discovers his girlfriend is pregnant,
simply to desert her because he does not want the responsibility of helping to
care for their child. Similarly, a young woman can find that a baby limits her
opportunities in education or for social activities with her peers.
3. In order to be ready, parents need to discuss beforehand the way they will
bring up their child or children. They need to bear in mind the characteristics
of good parents and talk about such matters as educating and disciplining the
child, developing a structure for everyday life, their aspirations for the child and
how best to achieve these, and so on.
4. The family into which the baby will be born needs to be economically
viable, that is it should function as a successful economic unit. Many
children are brought up in poverty because their parents did not give
sufficient thought to their economic circumstances. This does not mean that
the family has to be wealthy, but it has been shown that children brought
up in poverty are disadvantaged in a number of ways. Families that begin
with a teenage pregnancy are particularly
vulnerable to poverty.
In some Caribbean countries, there are
special courses in parenting, both for new
parents or parents-to-be and for those who
have small children. For example, in Antigua
and Barbuda there are Early Childhood
Educational Training Centres which offer
parenting courses, with sessions on child
development, discussion on interpersonal
relationships within the family, personal health
and hygiene, nutrition, budgeting, sexual
diseases and their transmission, child abuse
and childhood diseases. The United Nations
International Children’s Emergency Fund
(UNICEF) has sponsored parent workshops
at the centres, where parents helped to make
educational equipment, or discussed ways they
could play with their children at home to help
them develop.

Posters promoting breastfeeding

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 1   Interaction within the family

FACT
How to be a good parent

• Show your child unconditional love, i.e. love that is not

dependent on behaviour, looks or achievements.
• Encourage your child by praising him or her; keep
criticism to a minimum.
• Ensure your child has a balanced diet including meat and
fish or other proteins, together with energy giving foods
like rice and maize with added fruit and vegetables.
• Talk to the other parent of your child about parenting.
He or she may have good ideas about how the two of you
should treat your child.
• Be calm, firm and consistent when setting standards and
enforcing them. Discuss beforehand with the child’s other
parent the standards you expect and the sanctions you
will apply when the child misbehaves.
• Be loyal to your child when discussing him or her with
other people. Never tell to anyone else secrets which the • Don’t make your child too different from others, for
child has confided to you, unless the child gives permission. example in the clothes they wear or their hairstyle; it can
• Avoid talking about your child to others when the child is cause them to feel isolated.
present, unless you are praising him or her. • As your child grows older, listen to what he or she has to
• Evaluate your child’s education at every stage to make say and discuss any problems or difficulties rather than
sure that his or her learning needs are met. Some brushing them aside.
children need more help, others more stimulus, than they • Be aware of possible pitfalls, such as drug abuse or
are receiving at school. underage sexual experimentation, and take steps to
• Teach your child the management of money by helping prevent the problems that may arise. Communicating
him/her understand how you work out what you can with your child is the best way to spot the early signs
safely spend without getting into debt. of trouble.

GROUPWORK
ACTIVITIES

1 Groupwork. Read the text in the box entitled ‘How to be c Join with another group, or with the whole class,
a good parent’. and share your booklet of parenting tips with them.
a Compare these tips to the way in which your own Notice where your booklet is different from the
parents brought you up, or to the way you would like others, and evaluate the differences. Did the other
to bring up a child. (You may do both if you wish.) group have some good ideas you missed? Did they
b In the group, put together your own advice on good take a different view on, say, discipline or education?
parenting. If you have access to a word processor Ask the members of other groups what they think of
or a computer with a word processing programme, your booklet.
type up your work and lay it out with bullet points, 2 Pretend your daughter is expecting a child and write
boxes and borders to make an attractive booklet. her a letter to advise her about the need to make
Alternatively you may create a handwritten booklet. sure her baby has constant love and attention during
its childhood. Be careful not to give orders but advise
gently, quoting how it worked for you.

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 1   Interaction within the family

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• The family may be defined as a group of related people living together in one household.

• A family has four main functions: to produce children; to rear and socialise children; to meet basic needs and
to satisfy emotional needs.

• There are different types of family: nuclear family, extended family, single-parent family, sibling household,
joint-family household, step family or reorganised family.

• There are different family patterns in the Caribbean based on legal marriage, consensual or common-law
unions, visiting relationships, monogamous and polygamous relationships.

• These family patterns reflect the history of the Caribbean region.

• Family members have different roles and responsibilities.

• Many factors contribute to the changing roles and responsibilities of family members: the changing status of
women, education, technology, employment, leisure activities, television.

• The effects of these changes include identity crisis, marginalisation of males, increasing self-esteem and
independence of women and conflict within the family.

• It is important to prepare for parenthood – physically, emotionally, economically and psychologically.

• Being a good parent involves many skills.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Write definitions of the following terms and 3 a Use the information given in this chapter
then use each one correctly in a sentence. and your own research to write notes for
a arranged marriage essays on the following:
b extended family i the changing status of women in the
Caribbean
c female-headed household
ii the function of the family in the
d identity crisis
socialisation of children
e step family
iii the advantages and disadvantages of the
f sibling household extended family form
g matrifocal family pattern iv recent rapid economic and
h patriarchal family pattern technological changes.
I polygamy
b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
j socialisation your notes as an essay paper of between
k visiting union. 1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
structure your essay properly, giving it an
2 Imagine that you have a child in school. One introduction and conclusion as well as the
day he or she comes home from school to central part including your main points.
say that he or she has gained a low mark in a
recent test or examination. How would you
deal with this situation?

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 2 Family law and social issues

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• suggest ways of dealing with contemporary social issues that influence Caribbean family life
• assess the reasons for laws to protect the family in social situations.

Terms you should know

alcoholism addiction to alcohol

alimony part of a husband’s or wife’s estate or income which a court of law orders to be paid for his spouse’s
support after divorce, or during legal separation
annulment ending of a marriage so that legally the partners have single rather than divorced status
custody protection and care provided for an individual child by parents, foster-parents, or guardians
desertion occurring when one partner in a marriage leaves the other (and any children of the marriage)
drug trafficking buying and selling illegal drugs
family law laws and regulations governing relationships, disputes and inheritance within the family
illegitimate born when your parents are not married to each other
incest sexual relationship between two persons who are closely related, for example father and daughter,
brother and sister, aunt and nephew
inheritance property which passes to someone (the inheritor) when the original possessor dies
juvenile delinquency criminal acts such as petty theft and vandalism committed by young people (the age of juveniles is
defined by legislation in individual countries)
legal separation legally recognised separation of wife and husband; not as final as divorce
money laundering concealing illegally gained money by converting it into apparently legitimate profit
suicide ending one’s own life
sexually transmitted disease in which infection passes mainly by sexual intercourse
disease (STD)
substance abuse misuse of any substance which affects the body and its well being

Contemporary social issues and the family

What are contemporary social issues?

The word ‘contemporary’ means occurring at the time of writing or speaking. Clearly
the social issues that are of concern to people are changing all the time. When you read
the sections below, bear in mind that the situation may have changed since they were
written. It is important to keep up to date with contemporary events and social issues so
that you can discuss these in an informed way.

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 2   Family law and social issues

Social issues are important to all of us, because they affect the way we live, work and
relate to one another. In Chapter 1, we have already looked at some social issues that
affect the family, for example the problem of domestic violence and child abuse, and
the breakdown of marriage and other relations as a result of conflict. We have also
studied social issues such as the changing status of women that affect the roles and
responsibilities of family members. The following are social issues that influence family
life in one way or another. Many of them are social problems as well as issues.

Illegitimacy and teenage pregnancy

Causes and effects

Contrary to many reports, neither illegitimacy nor teenage pregnancies are new
phenomena. For example, in Jamaica the illegitimacy rate (the percentage of children
born outside marriage) has been fairly constant at between 60 and 70% for more than
100 years, largely as a result of the large numbers of women in common-law and visiting
unions as opposed to legal marriages. This is a result of historical and cultural processes,
Figure 2.1  Teenage as we saw in Chapter 1, and people disagree about the extent to which illegitimate
pregnancy rate, as a
percentage of total
children are disadvantaged in any way. In many countries the law allows illegitimate
pregnancies,1980 children who are recognised by their father as his own to inherit his possessions as they
would if they were legitimate.
In earlier centuries girls often had their children very young in a visiting union or
a common-law or legal marriage, depending on their circumstances and social
35% 29%Hindu and Muslim Indian31%
background. Both girls were often married in their early
teens. European girls married in their later teens and African girls both before and after
the slave era were seen as sexually mature in their mid-teens. Young women expected
to have children in order to fulfil their essential maternal role. Consequently teenage
pregnancy itself is not new either.
However, in modern times, where the status and independence of women is rising and
St Kitts and Nevis
their educational and career opportunities are becoming better, teenage pregnancy can
bring problems in its wake. Among these are the curtailment of education for teenage
parents, especially the mothers, the physical and emotional well being of these parents
and their offspring, and the strain put on society’s scarce resources by their medical,
29% economic and social needs.
The teenage pregnancy rate in Antigua in 1980 was 31%, in St Kitts and Nevis it was
35% and in St Vincent it was 29%. This means that in Antigua, for example, 31% of
births were to mothers aged between 11 and 19. There is some evidence to show that the
absolute numbers of teenage pregnancies and the teenage pregnancy rate have both
been declining since then in some countries, but in others they have remained stable.
St Vincent
In Antigua the rate had dropped to 15.8% by 1995, and in St Vincent it had dropped to
21.3% by 1999, while in St Kitts and Nevis it declined slightly before rising again to 36%
in 2005.

31% The number of teenage births as a percentage of all births varies from country to country.
Table 2.1 shows the spread and number of births to teenagers in Barbados’ Queen
Elizabeth Hospital between 1990 and 2003.

Antigua

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 2   Family law and social issues

RESEARCH This

ACTIVITIES
1 Find out the percentage of teenage births in your own country.

2 Draw pie charts to compare the percentage in your own country with the more recent
figures above for Antigua, St Vincent and St Kitts and Nevis.

Table 2.1  Births to teenagers at Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Barbados, 1990–2003 (selected data)

Source: Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados

Figure 2.2  Teenage births as a percentage of total births 1990–2003, Barbados

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Source: Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados

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In 2006 there were 494 teenage births at the hospital and in 2009 that had risen to
524 or 16.4%. The general birth rate declined between 2002 and 2009, while teenage
pregnancy has risen.
Research carried out by various individuals and institutions has found that:
• An estimated 75% of teenage births are to girls between the ages of 17 and 19. Only
2% are to females under the age of 15.
• Teenage mothers come, almost exclusively, from the lower-income families.
• Teenage girls may be having children because of a lack of the precise knowledge of
the relationship between sex and pregnancy and not because of a cultural legacy to
demonstrate their womanhood.
• The high level of adolescent fertility is not attributable to promiscuity or the introduction
of young girls to sexual activity by older men. Instead it arises out of stable relationships
between young men and women where the age difference is usually four to five years.
• Adolescents learn about sexuality and contraceptives from their peers and sometimes
from older sisters. Information given to teenagers by their peers or older sisters is
sketchy and centres only around the physical aspects of sex.
• The financial burden of children born to teenagers is carried mainly by the extended
kin network rather than the teenagers themselves. This often means that the maternal
grandparents of the child assume financial responsibility for him or her.
We can see that poverty is a major factor in the problem of teenage pregnancy. Research
Can you think of other done by the Caribbean Family Planning Association suggests that most teenage girls who
social and economic become pregnant are from lower-income families. These girls can then become trapped
in a vicious circle of poverty, since becoming mothers so young often limits their access
effects of a high rate of
to higher education and the paid workforce and results in their becoming dependent on
teenage pregnancy? Are welfare benefits or on the generosity of their family. This negatively affects their children.
these all negative effects?
Teenage pregnancy may be connected with other social and economic problems too.
Are there any benefits?
For example, lack of information about barrier contraceptives may mean that many
teenagers develop sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV and AIDS. The incidence of
sexually transmitted diseases in this age group has been rising sharply in recent years.
Teenage pregnancy also has serious implications for Caribbean development because
individual prosperity and economic activity are important for the overall prosperity of
a country. These are some of the connections:

Teenage girls who become mothers often drop

out of full-time education and therefore
fail to fulfil their full potential.

Teenage pregnancies tend to create a situation

The extra financial and emotional burden
where a high proportion of a country’s
imposed on the parents of teenage
population is very young. This increases
mothers may impede the general
the economic burden on the economically
prosperity of the family and thus impact
active population since they must pay extra
on the general prosperity of the country.
taxes to cover education and social benefits

The entry of teenage mothers into the

paid workforce is often considerably delayed,
and their career prospects may be damaged.

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Solutions
There are a number of measures which have been shown to be effective in reducing
teenage pregnancies, as follows:
• reproductive health education at school which encourages children to delay the
onset of sexual activity and gives clear factual information about sexual intercourse,
the risks, contraception and relationships
• health and family life education and/or life skills education which provides skills in
decision-making, negotiation, and refusal
• increasing self-esteem and motivation for students to avoid pregnancy
• providing contraceptives to those teenagers who are already sexually active
• helping students to understand the responsibility of parenthood better, for example
by providing doll type ‘babies’ for them to look after
• helping parents to talk about sexual issues with their children.
ACTIVITIES

1 Look at Table 2.1 on page 33, the bar chart on page 33 b Draw a graph or chart showing the figures for each age
and the information following the chart carefully. What group. Choose the type of graph you use carefully.
data does the bar chart show? Analyse the figures for c Compare the figures given in research point 1 with
the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in the following ways: those in Table 2.1, for the most recent year given
a Draw a line graph showing the trend in teenage births in the table. Do the hospital figures show the same
from 1990 to 1999, and in 2006 and 2009. Which is pattern for the age of teenage pregnancies?
the peak year?
b Draw another graph to show teenage births as
3 a Discuss and analyse, in groups, the implications
a percentage of total births from 1990 to 1999
of each piece of information in the list of research
and then 2009. Is the trend similar to that of the
on page 34. For example, the implication of the
absolute number of teenage births you graphed in
information given in point 2 is that poverty itself is in
1a? What does this tell you about the pattern of

DISCUSS This
some way making it more likely that girls from poorer
births in Barbados during this period? Does it show
families will become pregnant. You might discuss
that the problem of teenage pregnancy is increasing
the reasons why poverty may have this effect, and
or decreasing?
whether it is possible that other factors are involved.
c Draw a divided bar graph showing the numbers of
total births and teenage births at Queen Elizabeth
Hospital for the period 1990–1999. b Draw a table or diagram showing the implications of
d For each year, write down the age at which the most each piece of data.
teenage births occurred. What is the range of ages? 4 Start a new notebook on social problems and possible
2 a Read through the six research points on page 34. solutions. Discuss with your friends, classmates and
From the information given in point 1, work out the family members each of the social problems you study
percentage of pregnancies which occur when girls are in this chapter, and try to think of possible solutions to
15 or 16. them. Write the solutions down in your notebook.

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Street children

Causes and effects

One direct result of poverty is the growth
in the number of street children in
Caribbean cities. Generally, the poorer
the country, the more likely it is that
there will be children working and/or
living on the streets. The term ‘street
children’ is used to describe homeless
children who live in temporary shelters
or hostels or even literally in the streets.
They are often orphans or children
whose families have deserted them.
Sometimes they have run away from
home, usually because of abuse of some
kind or family break-up though some still
take their earnings home and maintain
some contact with their families. Some
Unfortunately, to many people all street children are juvenile delinquents, are very young. They live by stealing,
and these most vulnerable young people are often quite unjustly subjected to begging, doing odd jobs, and sometimes
beatings and abuse. by prostitution. They are extremely
vulnerable to abuse and exploitation by
unscrupulous adults.

CASE STUDY
Helping street children in Trinidad and Tobago
Foundation for Justice
The CREDO Foundation for Justice runs a development programme at a drop-in centre for street children. This programme started
as a family outreach programme in January 2000, aiming to provide parenting training in the hope of helping families to stay
together. Recognising how dependent some poor families are on the money brought in by street children, the programme also
offered training in skills that could provide work for adult members of the family. The government of Trinidad and Tobago donated
a building for CREDO’s use and funding from the Foundation for Justice allowed them to buy a piece of land next door to the
drop-in centre where they built a basketball court for the children and a secure car-park

YMCA
The Young Men’s Christian Association (now usually known simply as the YMCA), in Port of Spain, began a street youth outreach
programme in September 1995. They were inspired to do this by the large numbers of children living in poverty on the streets
of the city, experiencing physical, emotional and sexual abuse on a regular basis. Young people on the streets were also being
blamed for juvenile crime, and their stories were not being heard. The YMCA worked to educate the public about the true situation
of street children. It coordinated the first Child Rights Awareness Week held in the Caribbean, according to UNICEF, with the help
of the Ministry of Social Development. An important part of the YMCA’s work consists of liaising with the police, other NGOs and
the justice system on the treatment of street children. Staff members attended juvenile court proceedings and visited children
in penal institutions to assist them where possible, encouraging them to let their voices be heard.

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Statistics suggest that there are at least 7000 children roaming and living on the streets of
Jamaica, especially in the major town centres of the island. There is also a major problem
with street children in Trinidad and Tobago. These children survive by doing odd jobs,
street vending and begging.

Solutions
In some countries, efforts are being made to tackle the problem of street children. There
is a case study on street children in Trinidad and Tobago below, and the way the YMCA
is helping them.

Alternative lifestyles
Within any society there are views on what lifestyles should be the norm. These are
often thought of as:
• a family consisting of mother, father and children living together
• within the family, father and/or mother working to bring in an income to provide
for the others
• an extended family around them with aunts and uncles, grandparents and cousins
offering mutual support.
Such patterns of living are becoming less common as people move in and out of relationships,
parts or whole families move to get out of poverty and as a result of changing social norms.

Causes of changing lifestyles

People’s lifestyles change over time in
response to other changes, such as new
RESEARCH This
technology, increasing life expectancy,
ACTIVITIES

medical developments, new economic

1 a Read the case study opposite. situations and changing ideas and beliefs.
b Find out about the work of the YMCA or a similar organisation in
your country. If you can, write a case study on the work one or more
Changes in lifestyles
of these groups is doing with street children or vulnerable young
people. Could they learn anything from the work of Trinidad’s YMCA? Some of the changes in lifestyles which
affect families in the Caribbean are
c If you don’t have enough material for a case study, do some creative
listed below.
writing. Imagine the situation in a typical Caribbean island-nation
which has problems with street children and/or juvenile crime. • Emancipation and education of
Design a project to help them, drawing on the information you women has given them more
have about your own or any other country’s problems and possible independence so they are marrying
solutions. later or not at all and roles within the
family are changing. Many women
2 a Find out as much as you can about alternative patterns of living in raise children on their own.
• Contraception and aspiration for
RESEARCH This

the Caribbean. Either carry out a survey or observation in your local

area or research information on the internet. improved standards of living mean
Are there groups who live together in ways different from those that many couples have one, two or
expected in the paragraph above? even no children from choice.

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 2   Family law and social issues

ACTIVITIES
• Divorce, family break up and individual independence mean that
1 Identify those changes in lifestyles more people are living alone. This may also be a cause of woman-
which you think are negative, and headed households, and of step- or reorganised families.
those you think are positive and
say why. • Increasing lifespans and nuclear families where all adults are busy
working has meant an increase in old people’s homes for those who
2 What could the government or are frail or sick.
other agencies do to prevent or
deal with the negative effects of
• Higher education and jobs away from the family home have caused
these changes? some young people to leave home and live with their peers in shared
housing before they marry.
3 Can you identify any other lifestyle
changes affecting the family?
• Larger cities offering anonymity, less influence from religion and
faster, easier communication and transport have meant that it is easier
for people to engage in behaviour which is against the norm, such as
extra-marital affairs.
• The influence of the international media and organisations such as the
UN and its agencies has led to greater awareness of children’s rights,
but may also leave parents unsure how to discipline their children.
It is a matter of debate whether these changes to the family are positive
or negative.

FACT Substance abuse

The term substance abuse covers several
Alcohol – Recommended weekly maximum:
unrelated problems: illegal drug taking,
Men: up to 21 units   Women: up to 14 units alcohol abuse, solvent abuse and the use
of tobacco.

Illegal drug taking – causes and

effects
The word ‘drugs’ may be used to describe
medicinal drugs, prescribed by the doctor
or sold over the counter in the pharmacy
(drug store). These are legal drugs. Using
One Unit One Unit One Unit legal drugs such as painkillers or anti-
depressants not prescribed for you by
½ pint of beer 1 small glass 1 single measure a doctor, or taking more than the dose
of wine of spirits
prescribed, is very dangerous.
Illegal drugs cannot be obtained except
by illegal means: theft, black market
purchasing or fraud. In most countries
it is a criminal offence to possess, buy or
sell them. The box on page 39 gives you
some information on the illegal drugs
themselves and their effects. As you can
see, using illegal drugs, especially ‘hard
drugs’ is extremely dangerous and should
be avoided at all costs.

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FACT
Illegal drugs

• Cocaine and its derivatives • Heroin is closely related

(including ‘crack’). These to morphine, a medicinal
drugs give users a ‘high’ drug used for advanced
but in doing so they destroy pain relief. Both are derived
brain cells and alter the from the opium poppy. Like
normal brain activity. cocaine it also gives a ‘high’
Cocaine users are unaware but this tends to diminish
of tiredness, hunger or pain, after regular use. If young
and frequently feel that they people use it, it can stunt
are performing tasks better, their growth and prevent
although other people do not observe any improvement. them from becoming physically mature. Long-term use of
Large or frequent doses of the drug reduce sexual heroin even by adults almost always leads to premature
desire dramatically. Long-term exposure to cocaine death. It is also extremely addictive and the addiction is
leads to mental effects such as anxiety (including panic very difficult to escape.
attacks) and restlessness. Some users become paranoid
especially when they try to stop taking the drug or
reduce their usage. Snorting cocaine damages the nasal • Ecstasy, a ‘party drug’ used
lining and can destroy the membrane that separates by young people at night
the two nostrils. Injecting carries the risk of infection, clubs in particular (often
including hepatitis and HIV. Long-term effects also known by its first letter ‘E’
include irregular heartbeat and respiratory problems. but its street names vary
Withdrawal systems include fatigue and depression. from country to country
Cocaine in any form, taken by any method, is addictive, and include ‘love drug’, ‘XTC’ and ‘beans’). It is made
especially if used regularly (the ‘crack’ form of the drug synthetically from the chemical MDMA, rather than
is especially addictive). being derived from a naturally occurring plant source,
like cocaine, heroin and cannabis. Once thought to be
relatively harmless, this drug has been shown to cause
• Cannabis (marijuana, or ‘pot’, sudden rises in body temperature which can lead to
also known as ‘holy weed’ by dehydration (rapid loss of water from the body), and a
the Rastafarian sect). Some number of young people have died as a result of using
countries want to make this it. It can also be addictive and can cause liver damage. It
drug legal because it does works by disrupting normal brain activity, particularly of
have some medicinal uses for the neurons which use the chemical serotonin, which is
patients with certain medical important for regulating mood, sleep, sensitivity to pain
conditions. The United States and sexual activity. Because of this, ecstasy has a long-
and many other countries, term damaging effect on the brain, including depression,
however, wish to maintain its particularly if used over a long period.
illegality. It has been widely
used as a recreational drug
over the last 30 years or so • Amphetamines are used to stimulate the nervous
and is not generally addictive. system. They are used by people who want to ‘keep
However, scientists estimate that it is four times as going’ rather than taking the rest their bodies need.
carcinogenic (likely to cause cancer) as tobacco and While stimulating some areas of the brain, they depress
regular use is therefore inadvisable. It has also been the appetite and can also cause depression and mood
shown to increase the risk of schizophrenia in vulnerable swings. Like ecstasy they are dangerous because they
individuals. Most people who become addicted to ‘hard damage the areas of the brain that they stimulate. Many of
drugs’ such as cocaine and heroin begin by using marijuana. the long-term effects are similar to those of ecstasy.

One of the major health problems caused by drug abuse arises from the quality of the drugs used. Cocaine, ecstasy and
heroin can be adulterated (‘watered down’) with other chemicals, some of them toxic. The use of all illegal drugs during
pregnancy spells trouble for the unborn baby, including deformities, premature birth and low birth weight; some babies
are born addicted to the drug.

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Alcohol abuse – causes and effects

The term substance abuse can also be used for heavy drinking. This is abuse of alcohol
and is also a very dangerous practice. Many groups in society use alcohol as a social
drink, whether in the form of beer, wine or spirits, and it is seen as a useful way of
relaxing and part of normal leisure activities. It acts as a stimulant briefly then depresses
both inhibitions and anxiety. It affects the speed of reactions and use of judgement and
in many countries driving after drinking alcohol is illegal. Muslim societies ban alcohol
altogether as drinking alcohol is forbidden by Islam.
Moderate use of alcohol, according to scientists, does have some health benefits.
Unfortunately many people do not follow medical guidelines on alcohol use and drink
far too much. The guidelines are 21 units per week for men and 14 for
women, spread out over six or seven days. A unit is a small glass of wine,
or a half-pint of beer or a single measure of spirits.
ACTIVITIES

Read the box about illegal drugs on Drunkenness is an unpleasant phenomenon which many people find
page 39. Draw a table giving the repellent (except when drunk themselves!) and it can cause violent
short- and long-term effects of each behaviour in some people. Men can become quarrelsome when drunk
drug. Add to your table the short- and
or may beat their womenfolk at the slightest provocation. Others become
long-term effects of solvent abuse,
depressed and unable to make decisions. Women and girls may be more
alcohol and smoking. How far can
we compare the abuse of these
willing to have sex with strangers when drunk in situations where they
substances? would normally refuse.
Abuse of alcohol also has long-term medical effects. It can cause liver
problems (in advanced cases this is called cirrhosis of the liver) and a
range of other medical conditions, including depression. It can also be
addictive (this is called alcoholism; addicts are called alcoholics).

Solvent abuse – causes and effects

A third type of substance abuse involves the use of glue or other solvents,
including gasoline vapour, as a kind of mini-drug. The vapour is usually
inhaled, giving a brief mini-‘high’, but it can do a great deal of long-term
damage. This practice became fashionable among children and young
people in the 1970s and 1980s, but the authorities have worked hard to
eradicate it and it is much less of a problem now than it used to be.

Use of tobacco – causes and effects

One very widespread substance abuse is the use of tobacco. Tobacco may
be chewed or sniffed but is most often used in cigarettes. Many cigarette
smokers would be shocked and angry to see their habit described as
substance abuse, but the fact remains that tobacco contains harmful
substances (tar in particular lodges in the lungs and airways) and is
highly addictive (the chemical nicotine which occurs naturally in tobacco
is responsible for the addiction). It is also, as many smokers have proved,
very difficult to escape the addiction which is why many people try to
stop smoking but return to it either immediately or as soon as they are
exposed to any kind of stress. Long-term medical problems include much
higher rate of heart disease, cancer (especially lung cancer) and chronic
bronchitis, among other diseases. Cigarette smoking in pregnancy stunts
the growth of the foetus and may cause premature birth.

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One of the main problems associated with cigarette smoking is that non-
smokers may inhale the cigarette smoke (called ‘passive smoking’) and this
causes the same medical problems for them. This is particularly damaging
for people who work in hotels, bars and other places where people smoke.
In some countries smoking is banned in public places to counteract this
problem. The children of parents who smoke are also at risk of passive
smoking. Many countries put health warnings on packets of cigarettes and
ban cigarette advertising to try to discourage people from smoking.

Solutions

Why do these carry a health warning? Tackling abuse of illegal drugs

Police forces devote a large amount of resources and time to the task
of catching drug dealers and preventing or reducing drug trafficking.
They work together with the police force in other countries, since the
drug trade is an international one. In some countries the coastguards are
ACTIVITIES

responsible for preventing the arrival of illegal drugs. There is evidence

Look carefully at the table showing that the problem is on the increase.
seizures. What trends do you think
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report on Caribbean Drug
it shows? Can you suggest reasons
why seizures have gone down in
Trends 2003 showed increases in seizures of marijuana and cocaine
Guadeloupe, and down for marijuana between 1994 and 2001 as shown in Table 2.2 for selected countries:
in Trinidad, but up elsewhere? Cannabis is grown in some Caribbean countries, both for export and for
home use, though this is prohibited by law.
Over 70% of the cocaine seized in the Caribbean comes originally from
Colombia, whereas over 70% of the marijuana comes from Jamaica. Most
drugs are transported by ship.

Table 2.2  Seizures of marijuana and cocaine in selected Caribbean countries, 1994 and 2001 (in kilos)

These drugs are mainly being couriered to the USA (90%) and Europe
(about 10%), but some are used in the Caribbean countries themselves.
Cocaine and cannabis are the two most commonly abused drugs in the
Caribbean. However, there is some evidence that ecstasy and heroin are
becoming more popular.
There is a UN Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances (dating from 1988), and CARICOM leaders
have set up the Inter-Governmental Task Force on Drugs (IGTF). Most

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CARICOM countries have been supporting the Caribbean-Wide Project on Drug Abuse
Prevention and Child-Oriented Policies (see box below). There is also an information
network called Caridin, launched in July 2001, which seeks to share data about drug
enforcement and the prevention of drug abuse (some of the information in this section
of the chapter came from the Caridin newsletter). Efforts in the Caribbean to combat
the spread, trafficking and use of illegal drugs have been fostered by the USA, but the
so-called Shiprider Agreement is also causing disagreement at the regional level. It is
seen by some as a one-sided arrangement which allows US drug enforcement officials
to pursue suspected drug traffickers, on land, sea or in the air, including the power to
detain and search their vessels, without allowing a similar arrangement for Caribbean
countries in US territory, airspace or waters.
ACTIVITIES

Detoxification
Make a list of the Many countries now offer some kind of detoxification programme for drug users, in an
difficulties law- attempt to help them escape from their addiction and re-enter mainstream society. This
enforcement
may revolve around local primary health care clinics, trained counsellors and specialists
authorities face
and residential centres. For example, in Jamaica there is a detoxification unit attached
in reducing the
demand for drugs to the hospital of the University of the West Indies, Mona, and a chemical addiction unit
and preventing drug at the Cornwall Regional Hospital.
traffickers from
profiting from the
Drugs in school
trade. Suggest some
ways in which they All Caribbean countries are trying hard to prevent schoolchildren from becoming
can combat these involved in drug use and drug trafficking since ‘prevention is better than cure’. As part
problems. of this project, a number of countries, including Barbados, Guyana and St Vincent and
the Grenadines, are undertaking surveys of their school populations to find out to what
extent children are involved in drug use. This kind of information is very useful to
government when they are planning anti-drug policies, so do take part in such a survey
if your school is asked to cooperate.
FACT
The Caribbean-wide project on drug abuse prevention and child-oriented policies
Representatives of the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the
Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago, met every year from 2000 to 2004 to review the project and move it forward. In
2003 the delegates reviewed what had been done in the third phase of the Project and reached the following conclusions:

1. The Caribbean-Wide Project has established a regional 5. Caribbean professionals who benefitted from the regional
mechanism for training drug abuse prevention professionals and national training workshops and the distance education
and community leaders. The Project should continue. course were able to increase national training activities.
2. The Regional Plan for Training Drug Abuse Prevention 6. The Regional Network recognises that there were
Professionals, created during the Third Regional Meeting several constraints which held work back. They were:
of the Caribbean-wide Project, was initiated and insufficient human and financial resources; inadequate
coordinated efficiently. communications infrastructure; and delays in the process
of information exchange and discussion.
3. Participating countries in 2002 have incorporated the
training activities of the project into their regular 7. The meeting also made some recommendations for action
programming in the effort to reduce the demand for drugs. which should be implemented as part of the fourth phase
of the Project. These included the suggestion that the
4. Participating countries in 2002 reported that drug
Caribbean-Wide Project should be expanded to include
prevention agencies in their own areas were willing to
other Caribbean countries and non-OAS Member States
accept the ways of working suggested by the Project.
including Dependent Territories (for example Haiti,
Bermuda and British Virgin Islands). However the project
was discontinued after 2004.

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DRAMA SKETCH – Who’s addicted now?

Dead by the time you’re 30, if you’re lucky. And
you’ll have the police after you. Keep me out of it,
that’s all. (Turns to go)
Anita: Damian! Shut up, if you can’t be more helpful.
I’m trying to persuade Serena to try one of these
government programmes to help addicts. Do you
know anything about them? I don’t know who to
ask about it. Do you think our teacher would help?
Damian: (pausing): Teacher wouldn’t be such a fool as to
get involved. Drug addicts deserve all they get.
(Shocked pause)
Serena: (goaded): And what about you, Damian? I don’t see
why you’re so smug about it. What about all the
cigarettes you smoke? What about going out and
drinking on a Saturday night? That’s just as bad.
Damian: Don’t be stupid. Everyone smokes cigarettes, ‘cept
Miss Virtuous Anita here. And all my mates get
drunk sometimes – it’s a ‘boy’ thing. Just having
fun. No-one’s going to die of it.
Serena: How do you know? What about the pedestrians
On stage are two teenage girls. One is looking extremely you might hit, coming home on your motorbike
miserable, the other very concerned. afterwards? And I heard last week about someone
who got drunk and died of alcohol poisoning. He
Serena: (sighing, head in hands): Oh, I wish I’d never seen
died!
that dealer. I can’t live without the stuff now and
every shot costs so much. I stole from my mother’s Damian: That’s not going to happen to me. I can take care of
purse last week and I felt so bad about it. But how myself.
else am I to get the money to pay the dealer? Vejay
got me into this, and now he won’t help me. Anita: You all right, Serena? You’ve gone terribly white.

Damian: (entering the room and catching the end of the Serena: (doubling up in pain): Ah! Oh! Anita – I must have
sentence): What you feeling bad about now, another shot. Now! Now! Please!
Serena? Boyfriend left you again? Damian: (turning his back in disgust): An addict. My own
Serena: (turning her face away): Go away, Damian, I was sister. Let her go cold turkey, Anita. That’ll sort her
talking to Anita. out.

Damian: (sneering): Yet another cosy little chat, is it? You Anita: (incensed): And what about you, Damian? What if
girls are always going on about something – you tried to stop smoking? You couldn’t do it! You’d
telling each other your little troubles. be gasping for a cigarette after half a day. You’re
just as addicted as Serena is. And smoking causes
Anita: (firing up in her friend’s defence): It’s hardly a little people to die young too. It might take a bit longer,
trouble, Damian! I think you could be a bit more but it’ll get you in the end. And smokers damage
sympathetic. the people round them who have to breathe in the
smoke – which is more than heroin does. You’ve
Serena: (quietly): Damian doesn’t know about it, Anita.
no right to criticise her when you’re just as bad.
Damian: (aggressively): I don’t know about what? What Tobacco – heroin – what’s the difference?
aren’t you telling me, Serena? You in trouble? If it’s
Damian: (looking struck by this but trying to dismiss it):
Vejay…
That’s stupid, Anita. Smoking isn’t like taking
Serena: Not that kind of trouble, Damian. It’s (very quietly) heroin. You can’t mean that. Heroin’s just for fools.
heroin. And smoking’s legal, anyway. Like I said, it’s no
big deal. Everyone smokes.
Damian: (turning on his sister): Heroin? Did you say heroin?!
You stupid girl, what d’ya want to get into hard Dramatic pause, to allow this point to sink into the audience.
drugs for? End of the road, that is. No way back. Sketch ends.

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ACTIVITIES
Read the box on the Caribbean-wide Project on Drug Abuse Prevention and Child Oriented Policies on page 42.
a How long did the Project run for?
b Make a list of the people who have been trained or have otherwise benefited directly from the Project.
c Make a list of the countries represented at the meetings each year. Which Commonwealth Caribbean countries were not
represented? Was your country represented?
ACTIVITIES

a Read the drama sketch on page 43. make some copies for you) and assign the different
i What kind of social issues are being considered parts to group members. One group member may be
here? named director, and make suggestions about how
ii How would you advise the people involved? the parts should be played and the overall effect of
the sketch. Another may be given the role of stage
iii Does the dialogue startle you in any way?
manager, which involves organising the performance,
iv Why does the sketch end with the words
arranging scenery and making seats available for
‘Everyone smokes’?
the audience. Rehearse the sketch properly – drama
v Discuss in your group or in class whether the always has the greatest impact when it has been
sketch is justified in linking hard drugs and well-rehearsed.
tobacco in this way.
c Instead of (or as well as) performing the sketch on
b A group of students in your class could present the page 43 you could try writing your own sketch about
sketch to the others, or to the school as a whole, one of the other social problems we have studied in
as a short piece of drama. You will need to copy this chapter.
the parts (your teacher may be able to arrange to

Money laundering
One reason why drug trafficking is so attractive to criminals is that it is very lucrative
(which means that you can get a lot of money by doing it). In most countries it is illegal
to profit from criminal activities, but criminals have found ways of hiding their illegal
income by money laundering. This is a way of converting illegal profits into legitimate
money. It is, however, a crime in itself.
‘Offshore’ financial centres are particularly favoured by criminals because it is relatively
easy to convert illegal profits into legal ones using offshore investments. This has created
problems for Caribbean countries such as the Cayman Islands, the Bahamas and Antigua
and Barbuda where there are legitimate and prosperous financial businesses dealing
with offshore investments. The governments of these countries have had to bring in
measures to combat money laundering in order to protect their offshore financial
centres. There are no international agencies which exist to combat money laundering
and other types of financial cover-up operation.

Juvenile delinquency and juvenile crime

Causes and effects

The term juvenile delinquency covers petty crimes such as theft and vandalism,
though in many countries criminal offences committed by juveniles are more serious,

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 2   Family law and social issues

Look up the term ‘juvenile including murder, robbery with violence and serious assault. For example, Interpol (the
organisation that links police forces worldwide) reported that in 1998 juvenile crime
delinquency’ in the section
made up 3.11% of all criminal cases in Trinidad and Tobago. Juveniles are in a different
entitled ‘Terms you should
legal category from ordinary criminals because of their age. Young children who commit
know’ at the beginning crimes cannot be prosecuted, and their parents are held responsible for their behaviour.
of this chapter. Look up
Some juvenile delinquents and juvenile criminals are street children or have dropped
the word ‘delinquency’ or
out of school very early, perhaps because of some family problem. Others are addicted
‘delinquent’ in a dictionary. to drugs or other illegal substances. Very occasionally this kind of criminal behaviour
Why do you think this term seems to arise out of boredom and alienation from the family or from mainstream
is used for this kind of society, sometimes involving young people from higher social classes who do not have
young criminal? the excuse of poverty for their actions, but this is unusual.

Solutions
RESEARCH This
Juvenile delinquency is often linked to the growing problem of indiscipline both at
ACTIVITIES

school and at home, which occurs in many countries not only in the Caribbean but also
a Find out to in North America and Europe. In Jamaica schools are encouraged to report crimes to
what extent the police, particularly theft and assault, and these statistics are released to the press.
street children Ranking schools according to their record on juvenile delinquency appears to have
and juvenile
resulted in a decline in crime at schools countrywide.
delinquency are
serious social Juvenile delinquency is often blamed on parents, who, it is said, do not teach their
problems in your children to respect them in early life. However, heavier chastisement of children, for
country or island. example severe beatings, does not appear to solve the problem since this creates fear
Government rather than true respect. Children are more likely to respect their parents because they
literature, local admire them and think them good role models, particularly if they have been given love
libraries and the
and kindly discipline in early childhood.
internet websites
or organisations Throughout the region violence in schools is an increasing problem, with children
which try to and teenagers bringing weapons such as knives and guns into schools and violence
alleviate the occurring both between students and students and against teachers. UNICEF, the OAS
problems are all and the Caribbean Association of Teachers have taken the initiative to try to prevent
good sources of
and combat this problem and a policy of no tolerance of violence in schools (including
information on this.
any physical punishment of students) has been advocated. In recent years CARICOM
b Write a report for has introduced a Health and Family Life Education Framework curriculum with an
a newspaper, or an emphasis on life skills which aims to combat violence in schools.
internet article, on
the extent of these
problems and what Sexually transmitted diseases
is being done to
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are a growing problem in the Caribbean. To a
find a solution. Are
certain extent these diseases (like syphilis and gonorrhoea) have been with us for many
there government
initiatives or centuries; since the Europeans first came to our shores, if not before. Most of these
programmes in STDs can be treated if the person infected consults his or her doctor quickly. Recently
place, or is the the problem has become more serious, mainly because of the increase in HIV and AIDS.
work being done by
private individuals
What are HIV and AIDS?
or organisations
alone? HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. It is a virus which affects the immune
system preventing the body from fighting other diseases. It leads to a condition called
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). At present there is no cure for HIV or
AIDS but anti-retroviral drugs can slow the progress of the disease. Someone who has
HIV (we say they are HIV positive) can look and feel well for years. Eventually HIV

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 2   Family law and social issues

affects the body’s immune system and people who have AIDS suffer from opportunistic
diseases such as cancers and tuberculosis. If HIV and AIDS remain untreated the person
will usually die of a bacterial disease such as bronchitis or pneumonia or a virus such as
measles or influenza. However, today, modern anti-retrovirals and other medicines can
ensure that a person can live healthily for many years with HIV.

Causes
Figure 2.3  Categories of transmission in reported AIDS cases in CAREC HIV is passed from person to person in
member countries (CMC), 1982–2002
several ways:
Homo/Bisexual • most commonly through sexual
11% intercourse which can be heterosexual
(between men and women) or
homosexual/bisexual (man to man)
Unknown • from mother to child (in the womb,
17% during delivery or by breastfeeding)
• by contaminated blood, sharing
Heterosexual needles to inject drugs into the blood
Other
0.2%
64% stream or sharing other unsterilised
instruments like razors.
IVD
1.5%
As you can see from the pie chart, the
Blood Trasf. main route of infection has been by
0.3% heterosexual intercourse, and as cases of
Mother to Child transmission from mother to child and
6%
by other routes have been reduced since
2000, heterosexual intercourse is today
Source: B Camera, 20 years of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the Caribbean, PAHO, 2002 even more the predominant method of
transmission.

AIDS-related mortality declining

Estimates of AIDS-related deaths in the Caribbean show a considerable fall in numbers:
in the region of 12,000 in 2009 compared with 19,000 in 2001.
The virus takes quite a long time (months or years) to become active so that it is difficult
to know how many people are infected. It is impossible to tell if an individual is infected
without taking a blood test. Many people are reluctant to be tested because they still
feel that shame or stigma is attached to having HIV or AIDS or are wary that others will
discriminate against them if it becomes known they have the disease. The most reliable
statistics come from antenatal clinics where pregnant mothers can be routinely tested.
There is a special United Nations agency, called UNAIDS, which collects and publishes statistics
on HIV and AIDS, conducts research into the disease and provides educational programmes.

Statistics on HIV and AIDS

UN research shows some encouraging signs for HIV and AIDS in the Caribbean. There
is still too high an infection rate for HIV (about 1% of the adult population), but the
number of people with HIV per thousand of population is small compared with sub-
Saharan African countries. However, AIDS remains the leading cause of death for adults
aged between 20 and 59 in the Caribbean.

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 2   Family law and social issues

The total number of people living with HIV and AIDS (PLWHA) at around 240,000 has
remained fairly constant since around the year 2000. There are huge variations in the
incidence of infection in different parts of the Caribbean, from about 0.1% of adults in
Cuba to around 3.1% in the Bahamas. Places with a high rate of infection include:
• Haiti, where 12% of pregnant women known to clinics in some urban areas are infected
• Dominican Republic where there are very high rates of infection among women near
the sugar plantations (bateyes).

Table 2.3  Adult HIV prevalence, 2001–2009 Figures can only be

estimates because not all
cases are known to health
authorities but figures
which are available show
new infections declining
from around 21,000 in
2001 to 18,000 in 2009. In
the Dominican Republic
and Jamaica the number
of new infections went
down by 25% and in Haiti
they went down by 12%.
However, in Trinidad
and Tobago there was no
Source: UNAIDS Global Report 2010 change in the number of
new infections between
2001 and 2009.
FACT There is strong evidence
HIV in the that the greatest danger of contracting HIV comes from having unprotected sex (without
Caribbean a condom) most often between men and women. The disease disproportionately affects
female sex workers and men who have sex with men. Having unprotected sex with
Adults and children
living with HIV anyone puts you in danger if any of their previous partners has been infected. Use of
– 240,000 drugs including alcohol can result in impaired judgement and can therefore increase
risky sexual behaviours.
Children living with HIV Studies in Bermuda and Puerto Rico have looked at the effects of unsafe injecting drug
– 17,000 use. They found that such activity does help to spread HIV. In Puerto Rico, the figures
were particularly worrying as the use of contaminated needles was a factor in 40% of
Adults and children males newly infected in 2006 and 27% of females.
newly infected with HIV
– 17,000 The Caribbean is the only area outside sub-Saharan Africa, in which there are more
women and girls with HIV than men and boys. In 2009, an estimated 53% of people
with HIV in the Caribbean were female.
% adult prevalence
(15 – 49 years) 1.0%

AIDS related deaths

among adults and children
– 12,000

Source: UNAIDS Global Report 2010

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Table 2.4  Incidence of HIV

and AIDS in Barbados, 2001–
2011 (estimated figures)

Source: CIA World Factbook

reported on Indexmundi.com

Table 2.5  Incidence of HIV

and AIDS in Jamaica, 2001–
2011 (estimated figures)

Source: CIA World Factbook

reported on Indexmundi.com
ACTIVITIES

a Look at Tables 2.4 and 2.5. Work out what proportion of people suffering from AIDS
died each year i) in Barbados, ii) in Jamaica.
b Draw graphs to illustrate the figures on people living with HIV and AIDS and AIDS-related
deaths and use them to compare the trends in Barbados and Jamaica.

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 2   Family law and social issues

Figure 2.4  Age group 31.4%

distribution of reported
30% 28.2%
AIDS cases in CMC,
1982–2007 26.7%

25%

20%

15%

10.9%
10%

6.1% 6.8%
5%
2.7%
0.75%
0%
0–4 5–14 15–24 25–34 35–44 45–49 50+ Unknown
age
ACTIVITIES

1 Try to find out what the HIV and AIDS situation is in your country. Has the incidence of

research This
AIDS risen or fallen in the last three years? If possible, find out what the government
estimates (or confirmed data, if available) are for HIV infection in your country. Compare
these with the data in Table 2.4.

2 Draw a diagram to illustrate the effect an AIDS ‘epidemic’ might have on your country.

Figure 2.5  Reported HIV HIV cases AIDS cases AIDS deaths
and AIDS cases and AIDS Number of countries reporting HIV cases Number of countries reporting AIDS cases
4500
deaths in CMC – annual
incidence 1982–2010 4000

Source: CAREC AIDS and HIV data 3500

for CAREC Member Countries,
1982–2010, www.carec.org 3000
Number of cases

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010

Years

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 2   Family law and social issues

Figure 2.6  Annual AIDS 50

incidence per 100,000
45
population and region
2000–2009
40
Source: Pan American Health 35
Organisation (PAHO)
30
(No data for Latin Caribbean
25
2009)

20

15

10

Figure 2.7  Gender 0

distribution of people 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
living with HIV, 2009 Years

Source: Pan American Health North America Central America Latin Caribbean Non-Latin Caribbean
Organisation (PAHO)

The increased rate of infection among women is causing great concern. Initially in the
1980s in the Caribbean, HIV and AIDS was thought to be a disease of homosexuals and
other marginalised groups such as prostitutes and drug users. There seemed to be more
men than women affected. However, in Africa HIV has always been mainly transmitted
between men and women. It is clear in the Caribbean now that transmission here is also
mainly heterosexual. The pie chart shows the estimated distribution between men and
women.

Paediatric HIV (transferred from mother to baby)

Figure 2.3 on page 46 shows that an estimated 6% of HIV infections occur during
pregnancy or at birth. Table 2.6 shows the numbers of young children affected by AIDS
in Jamaica between 1998 and 2007.
The number of children with HIV and AIDS
Table 2.6  Children living rose and then declined, largely because of the
with HIV (age 0–9 years) in prevention of transmission from mother to
Jamaica, 1998–2007 baby. It is estimated that transmission from
mother to child has declined from 25% in 2002
to around 5% in 2010. Not only that, but more
infected children now survive beyond infancy
because of improved medication.
The alarm caused by an apparent lack of
control over the increasing numbers of HIV
and AIDS sufferers has decreased as prevention
and treatment have improved. There are still
countries where HIV and AIDS affect a large
proportion of the population (for example
over 25% in a number of African countries).

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 2   Family law and social issues

In poorer countries where anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) are not available for free and
health care is poor, many people still die. Enormous social problems still result since
those affected by AIDS need to be looked after and scarce resources spent on medicines.
The people who die are most often young adults who are part of the economically active
population. These adults leave large number of ‘AIDS orphans’ with little or no financial
support, throwing further burdens on grandparents and extended families. However,
hard work by government health departments and health personnel ‘in the front line’
seems to be having an effect. Latest figures released by UNAIDS do give some grounds
for hope that the epidemic in the Caribbean can be controlled.

HIV myths
There are a lot of myths about HIV
and AIDS and ways in which it can be
transmitted. For example:
ACTIVITIES

Design two posters on AIDS awareness. Use colour carefully b In the second, highlight the myths surrounding HIV
to bring out the message you are trying to get across. and AIDS. For each myth, put the truth in big bold
a In the first, include information about how HIV is letters.
transmitted, and what precautions should be taken
to protect yourself and others.

Solutions – Reducing the transmission of HIV and AIDS

Great efforts have been made in all parts of the region to educate people about HIV
and AIDS. Prevention is the only way of reducing the incidence of the disease. As well
as prevention there are important programmes to provide care and treatment. The use
of anti-retroviral drugs to prevent mother-to-child transmission is reaching more and
more pregnant women.

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 2   Family law and social issues

Since the HIV virus which causes AIDS is generally transmitted through sexual activity,
the main focus of preventative action is to protect people who are sexually active. In
many countries a programme known as ABC (and sometimes D) is put forward vigorously.
A stands for Abstention, B for Being faithful, C for Condomise (use a condom for every
sexual encounter) and D is for getting any sexual Disease treated quickly.
• In some countries, abstention from sexual activity except in a lifelong partnership
such as marriage has been recommended by some bodies, in particular the churches.
This is the safest way to avoid HIV especially for young people who can delay the
start of sexual activity.
• Faithfulness to one partner is also a good way to reduce the spread of the disease.
However, it only works if both partners are faithful and neither has been infected
before their relationship begins. Before embarking on a sexual relationship, both
partners should get tested for HIV and discuss their relationship.
• In North America and Europe, and elsewhere in the West, government medical
advisers recommend using condoms to prevent infection. Condoms are also an effective
contraceptive and many men in Western countries use them routinely. Their use has
been promoted by the governments of some Caribbean countries. A large number of
Caribbean men are resistant to using these methods, while at the same time they
want to continue with their normal sexual activities. This combination of preferences
makes it difficult to control the rate of HIV infection since a great deal of sexual
activity, with many sexual partners, produces the highest risk of infection unless
condoms are used routinely. Condom use lowers the risk of transmission significantly.
• It is important to get any diseases, including those which are sexually transmitted,
treated quickly as other STDs can increase the likelihood of contracting HIV.
• Anti-retroviral drugs can easily prevent most transmission of HIV from mother to
baby. There are, however, problems:
-- Diagnosis can occur too late.
-- Some mothers are reluctant to be tested for HIV.
-- The treatment is costly and, until recently, involved a complicated regime
involving several drugs.
-- Some mothers do not receive the necessary drugs. Of 7400 pregnant women with
Table 2.7  ART coverage
in selected Caribbean HIV in 2009, it is estimated that only 4400 received the necessary treatment to
countries, 2010 prevent mother-to-child transmission.

Living with HIV and AIDS

A diagnosis of HIV is no longer a death sentence. Anti-retroviral drugs
allow HIV sufferers to remain well and live a healthy life for many years.
Some people who have been HIV positive since their twenties are now
coming up to late middle age. The use of ARVs is not without difficulty
and some people find it hard to keep to the necessary pattern of taking
their medication. Others suffer from side effects. Costs are coming down
as is resistance to their use. Governments, international bodies, NGOs
and agencies have increased their contribution towards the cost of the
drugs and continued research is likely to make the treatment simpler and
easier for the person with HIV to keep to the necessary doses. Work is
underway on vaccines but they are not available yet.

Source: UN AIDS/PAHO, 2010

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 2   Family law and social issues

In the Caribbean many countries do not yet have universal access to anti-retroviral
therapy (ART). Only Barbados, Cuba and Guyana have universal coverage (over 90%).
By increasing treatment and reducing deaths, governments hope not only to improve
people’s lives but also reduce the effect of HIV and AIDS on their economies, and reduce
the fear of the disease. In order to reduce the disease still further, it is necessary to
reduce the stigma and discrimination experienced by people living with HIV and AIDS.
This will encourage people to get tested and once tested be able to access treatment.
While vulnerable groups, such as sex workers, are afraid to get tested or get treatment,
a reservoir of the disease will remain in the population and spread.
ACTIVITIES

Social issues within the family

1 a Read the sections in this The issue of conflict within the family was introduced at the end of
chapter on teenage pregnancy,
Chapter 1. Family breakdowns concern everyone with an interest in
STDs, poverty (page 55), street
maintaining a stable society. Breakdowns can occur for many reasons.
children, juvenile delinquency and
substance abuse. Write down
any connections you can find
Domestic violence, incest and child abuse
between these six social problems.
Draw a diagram to show these
connections more clearly. Causes and effects
Conflict which involves physical attack by one member of the family on
b Which of these problems another is a very serious matter. This type of attack is known as domestic
particularly affect the family? violence, and it is on the increase in the Caribbean. Domestic violence
DISCUSS This

Discuss in your group how you may take the form of beating or rape (sexual relations with someone
think these influence family life without their consent). The authorities are particularly concerned about
in the Caribbean. the levels of violence against women and children which are being
reported. Child abuse by fathers and stepfathers is also on the increase,
2 In groups, choose one or two
including incest (sexual relations between closely related members of
other social issues to discuss the same family). Sometimes mothers are not willing to challenge this
and research further. Share your child abuse even though they know it is occurring, because they are afraid
findings and conclusions with the of losing their relationship with the man concerned.
rest of the class.
A survey conducted by the Washington-based Organisation of American
research This DISCUSS This States’ Pan American Health Organisation, which questioned 8100
schoolchildren in four English-speaking Caribbean islands, suggested
that 42% experienced sex before the age of 10. By the time children are
aged 12 the figure rises to 62%. These figures almost certainly include large numbers of
children who are being abused by adults. Given the growing problem of HIV and AIDS
in Caribbean countries, this problem is a threat to the physical health of children as well
as their emotional and mental well being.
Social attitudes towards the corporal punishment (flogging) of children when they do
wrong also affects the level of violence towards children in the home that is tolerated by
society. In some countries children are still beaten routinely for doing wrong.

Solutions – Tackling child abuse

Clearly child abuse, whether physical or sexual, is a serious problem. The case study on
page 63 shows how this is being tackled in St Vincent and the Grenadines.

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 2   Family law and social issues

ACTIVITIES
All conflict in the family makes it more difficult for the family to function. Sometimes people who are not involved directly in the
conflict can be as badly affected as those who are.
a Read the statements made by the people in the pictures. What effect is family conflict having in each case?

Derrick leaves too much of the

My Mom and Dad are always
My mother is always household work to me. I have my
quarrelling. It makes me feel I
interfering and telling me what schoolwork to do for CXC, and he just
don’t want to come home from
to do. I’m old enough to live lazes about all day. It isn’t fair. The
school. I’m lucky I can visit
my life the way I want to. girls help where they can, but they’re
Grandma when things get too bad.
too young to do much. I wish Mom
and Dad would come home.

I feel like I don’t belong in my My stepfather is always angry with me. I can’t cope with the children
family. My parents always take my I never seem to be able to please him. quarrelling all the time. Why can’t
brother’s side and say I’m wrong. He has an old belt he uses to flog me they leave me out of it? I feel like
It’ll be worse when the new baby when he says I’ve been naughty. My walking out and leaving them
comes. No one will be interested mother tries to stop him from beating all to manage without me. That
in me at all then. me, but she is afraid of him too. would teach them a lesson!

b Imagine you are a social worker trying to help these families resolve their conflicts. How would you advise the person
speaking in each picture? Write down the course of action you would suggest to the families in each case. Should any of
these cases involve the police?
c Do you know any families or relationships that are suffering from conflict? How do you think the conflict could be
resolved? Is there any way in which you could help, perhaps by listening to someone explaining the difficulties they have?
(NB Be careful not to interfere, which can make conflict worse! Talk to your parents or teacher before trying to help.)

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 2   Family law and social issues

Poverty
CASE STUDY
Causes and effects
Poverty in St Lucia Poverty can be defined as the situation of being poor, usually in relation
St Lucia is categorised as a medium- or to the wealth enjoyed by other people in the same situation. Poverty in a
middle-income country, yet a UNICEF wealthy Western country such as the USA might seem like comparative
study in 2006 found that nearly half wealth to someone in one of the poorest countries, such as Ethiopia in East
the children in St Lucia did not always Africa. Most Caribbean countries are in the middle of the international
have enough to eat. Poverty prevented income scale. They are known as middle-income countries. Poverty here
people from accessing services such as may mean few new clothes, a small home or part of an extended family
education, health care and law or justice.
home, and little spare cash to spend on luxuries. But most lower-income
19% of people in St Lucia are thought
families in the Caribbean own a television, although some do worry
to be poor, but poverty is much more
common in rural areas than in the towns.
about having enough food to eat. Poverty is most often associated with
unemployment or underemployment, or with very low incomes people are
To address this poverty, it was able to generate on small rural farms.
intended to increase the school feeding
programme, increase income generating However, even relative poverty often has an effect on children and young
projects for parents and allocate more people. In some parts of the Caribbean the obvious disparities of wealth
funds to the problem nationally. between the very rich, including tourists from Europe and the USA, and the
poor, has an effect. People feel deprived in relation to visitors and to their
peers. This can cause young people to feel frustrated. Some young people
Source: UNICEF A Study of Child Vulnerability
in Barbados, St Lucia and St Vincent and the
brought up in poverty are inspired by the experience to break out of the
Grenadines, 2006 vicious cycle of poverty and succeed in their chosen career or in business.
Others are simply resigned to poverty and feel that they are used to coping
with it. Others become street children as a way of earning money. Some,
Attempt the Picture study however, react resentfully or desperately and are drawn into crime, whether as drug
dealers, petty thieves or muggers. You will learn more about poverty and measures taken
activity on page 56. Do
by governments to combat it in Chapter 7.
you think it is better to
be poor in a high-income, Poverty is the main causal factor for many of the other social issues in this section. For
middle-income or low- example, children living in poverty and especially in overcrowded conditions are more
at risk from abuse, maltreatment, sexual abuse and incest. Poverty causes poor health
income country?
and increases the likelihood of drug misuse.

Solutions
Poverty is an intractable problem with few easy solutions. The following measures can help:
• increasing access to secondary and higher education for all
• access to free health care and school feeding programmes
• income generation programmes
• financial help for needy families
• good quality low income housing
• skills training in vocational skills for both children and adults.

Desertion
Desertion usually refers to a parent leaving the family. This may be a mother or father.
The remaining parent and children then suffer from the loss of any income the person
brought in, along with loss of their care and work in the home, often leading to poverty.
Desertion also has emotional effects on the children.

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 2   Family law and social issues

ACTIVITIES

Picture study
Look at the photographs below carefully.
a Describe what you see in the pictures.
What do they tell you about what
poverty means in each country? Is
there anything specific you can say
about the poor people in the pictures?
b Can you estimate from the photos
whether they were taken in a high-
income, middle-income or poor country?
c Pick out some similarities and
differences between the features of
poverty shown in the photographs.
d Why do human rights organisations
want to eradicate poverty, and
especially child poverty, worldwide?

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Suicide

Causes and effects

Another major killer of young people and young men in particular, is suicide. In some
Caribbean countries suicide rates are as high as or higher than those of deaths from
AIDS. The growth in the suicide rate is a worldwide phenomenon and no one quite
knows why it is happening, although much social and medical research is being done
to try to explain this.
Most Caribbean countries use mental health programmes to try to help potentially
suicidal patients. One country which is tackling the problem more directly is Guyana.
The case study below tells you more about government strategies in Guyana.
In some Caribbean countries a new phenomenon, murder-suicide, has emerged in
recent years. Here someone commits a murder, often of another family member or a
sexual partner, and then commits suicide. Here are some real-life examples, taken from
reports in various Caribbean newspapers.
• March 2005, Olympic Gardens, Jamaica. A dispute between a 32-year-old man and
his 15-year-old live-in girlfriend ended in a shooting incident. The man killed the girl
and then turned his gun on himself.
discuss This • June 2006, Cunipia, Trinidad. A man poisoned himself after strangling his wife in
ACTIVITIES

their bedroom.
1 Read the case • June 2006, Sangre Grande, Trinidad. A father poisoned his children and then killed
study on Guyana’s himself after the children came to spend Father’s Day with him.
approach to suicide
prevention and
discuss in groups Solutions
whether similar
measures should
be taken in your
country or island.
CASE STUDY
2 The Report Suicide prevention initiatives in Guyana
suggested a
telephone helpline In the face of reported suicide rates of 16 per 10,000 people, a study entitled ‘The Shadow
for potential of Death – a recent study of suicides in Guyana – Incidence, Courses and Solutions’ was
suicides. An carried out by the Centre for Economic and Social Research (CESRA) in the autumn of 2000
organisation and published in July 2001. Its main observations were:
known as the
Samaritans (see
• Young men, East Indians and Hindus were the groups with the highest suicide rates.
information box • The Berbice region of Guyana was more affected than any other.
on page 58) runs • It appears to be seasonal and is especially noticeable during the months of August,
such a helpline September and October.
in the UK, USA The Report listed a total of 31 possible reasons for suicide and called for further research into
and some other the problem. It recommended setting up a telephone helpline for people contemplating suicide.
countries. Does
this kind of In response, the government declared suicide a major public health issue. The government
organisation exist set up a National Committee for the Prevention of Suicidal Behaviour to try to combat the
in your country? If problem and drafted its first National Suicide Prevention Strategy. This has been revised and
not, do you think it up-dated and a crisis telephone line has been set up and some training has been undertaken.
would be helpful? In 2010 the Minister of Health announced further education and training including a public
awareness campaign.

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 2   Family law and social issues

FACT
The Samaritans
The Samaritans was started in November 1953 by a young
clergyman named Chad Varah. He was working in a city
parish in London and was worried by the number of people
he spoke to who were distressed or suicidal. He came to the
conclusion that what was needed was a telephone helpline
that people who were depressed or considering committing
suicide could contact for help and advice. Chad soon found
that the volunteer receptionists who came to help him deal
with the people who phoned in or came to his vicarage could
help people simply by listening to them and he eventually
handed over the organisation to the volunteers.
Samaritans now have a helpline manned 24 hours a day by
trained volunteers who listen to the suicidal and depressed
encouragingly but offer no comment or advice. The
conversations are completely confidential. This listening
service has a surprisingly high success rate in giving comfort
and help to people suffering from all kinds of depression,
and is credited with preventing many suicides. The
Samaritans also work in prisons where many prisoners are
at risk of suicide. There are Samaritans in some Caribbean Chad Varah
countries, for example Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago and
St Vincent and the Grenadines.

People trafficking

Causes and effects

In the Caribbean, human trafficking is mainly for domestic work, forced labour and
sexual exploitation.
There has always been constant movement of people within and to and from the
Caribbean. There are few language problems as people move within the region.
Coastlines are hard to police. People can live without much contact with authority.
Many people are prepared to move from poverty in the hope of a better life somewhere
else in the region or in Europe and the USA. There is a more recent movement of people
who have been deported from the USA or Europe for criminal activity. There is constant
movement into the more prosperous tourist resorts in the region. Some is for legitimate
work, some for the sex trade.
All illegal migrants are open to exploitation by those offering transport and by employers
who pay low wages in return for not reporting to the police. Women and girls are the
most likely group to be exploited, with promises of proper jobs, only to be forced into
debt and prostitution.
The Caribbean islands are also used as stepping stones for transit, particularly to the
USA. Larger vessels bring people to islands closer to the United States, such as the
Bahamas, and small boats are used to take them on.
Haiti, Guyana and the Dominican Republic are the source of many migrants, some of whom
are illegal and, of these, some end up in the sex trade within and outside the Caribbean.

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FACT Solutions

Statistics on people There are a number of initiatives by different agencies to try to prevent
human trafficking and to catch those responsible for it. The International
trafficking Organisation for Migration (IOM) works with government agencies such
Reliable statistics on people trafficking as immigration departments, police forces, and with non-government
are very hard to obtain because of its organisations such as businesses and charities. The IOM works with
criminality. According to the United
agencies in Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,
Nations, an estimated 2.5 million people in
the world are in forced labour (including Curacao, Guyana, Jamaica, Saba, St Eustatius, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia,
sexual exploitation) at any given time as St Maarten, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago. It provides technical
a result of trafficking. Of these: assistance and training, promotional materials and direct assistance to the
1.4 million – 56% – are in Asia and the
victims. Other organisations involved in trying to combat human trafficking
Pacific include the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking,
the Commonwealth Caribbean and the Organisation of American States.
250,000 – 10% – are in Latin America and
the Caribbean
Care for the elderly and those with special needs
Two groups whose members often struggle with poverty are the elderly
230,000 – 9.2% – are in the Middle East
and Northern Africa
and those with special needs. Meeting the needs of these groups is an
important responsibility, borne jointly by the family and society. In the
Caribbean, most elderly people expect their families to support and look
130,000 – 5.2% – are in sub-Saharan
after them. Many families have a resident grandmother or grandfather
countries
who performs important functions in the family such as childcare and
shopping or cooking. Elderly people may also give helpful advice to their
270,000 – 10.8% – are in industrialised children and grandchildren based on their experience of life, whether or
countries
not they are part of an extended household.

200,000 – 8% – are in countries in Elderly people need financial support, especially in their retirement or
transition extreme old age. Society, in the form of the government or state provision,
often helps elderly people with the costs of health care or social support.
For example, in Jamaica, there is a programme called Drugs for the Elderly
which allows senior citizens to obtain low-cost medication for some common
diseases through participating pharmacies. There is also a National Health
Programme for Government Pensioners, in which the government and
the Blue Cross of Jamaica provide some of the cost of health care.

RESEARCH This
ACTIVITIES

1 Find out what provision is made by government agencies 3 In class, make up a combined list of suggestions for
for elderly people and those with special needs in your improved or new services, and discuss how these
country. Do you consider it to be adequate? How much might be implemented. Think about the possible costs
are their families involved in the care of the elderly and involved and whether the services could be delivered by
those with special needs? volunteers in the community.

4 Rank the list with the services at the top that you would
most like to see put into effect. Take into account the
2 Carry out a survey of a) older people and b) people with
desirability of the service and the cost of providing it.
RESEARCH This

special needs in your community or the area around your

school. Ask what provisions made by the government are
RESEARCH This

the most useful to them, and collect any suggestions they 5 Investigate the feasibility of members of your class
may have for other services which they would find helpful. or school providing some voluntary services to elderly
people or those with special needs.

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 2   Family law and social issues

Children with special needs

Family support is also vital for those with special needs. These include people with
mental and physical disabilities, both children and adults. These disabilities are
sometimes called ‘challenges’, so that instead of thinking of people who suffer from
them as ‘handicapped’ or ‘disabled’ we think of them as ‘challenged’. However, the
terms used vary from one region to another, and over time. It is important when we
are talking to people with special needs, or about them, to be sensitive to their feelings
about the words we use.
As with the elderly, people with special needs of this kind require financial,
emotional and social support. A report on the position in Jamaica says:

Persons with disabilities

There are no laws prohibiting discrimination or mandating accessibility for
persons with disabilities, and such persons encountered discrimination in
employment and denial of access to schools. Health care and other state
services were reported to be universally available.
The Ministry of Labor has responsibility for the Jamaica Council for Persons
with Disabilities (JCPD). The JCPD distributes Economic Empowerment Grants
to persons with disabilities to help them embark on small entrepreneurial
ventures such as vending or furniture making, or to provide them with assistive
aids, such as hearing aids. The Ministry of Labor also has responsibility for the
Early Stimulation Project, an education program for children with disabilities,
as well as the Abilities Foundation, a vocational program for older persons
with disabilities.
Source: US Department of State, 2010 Human Rights Report, Jamaica

The Barbados Family Law Act In many countries pressure groups are working to gain these people better
An Act to reform the law relating to access to employment opportunities, public facilities and amenities.
the dissolution and nullity of marriage,
judicial separation and restitution of
conjugal rights and to certain other
Family law
related matters and to provide for
counselling with a view to facilitating The ‘umbrella’ term family law covers many different aspects of the legal
reconciliation in matrimonial causes system. In general, laws which regulate relationships within the family
and, in relation thereto, for matters (such as inheritance, custody and care of children, legal separation and
connected with the parental rights and divorce and domestic violence,) come under this umbrella. One example
the custody and guardianship of children. is the Family Law Act passed in Barbados in 1981, see the box on the left.
As you can see, legal language is often quite difficult to understand!

Laws concerning inheritance

One complicated area of inheritance law is whether children born outside marriage can
or cannot inherit their parents’ property. Family law in the Caribbean was originally
derived from the law of European countries where the family structures and patterns
were very different. These laws assumed that the nuclear family was the norm which
had the effect of making non-nuclear family forms deviant in the eyes of the law. This
began to change in the independence period, however, particularly with regard to
illegitimacy. In some Caribbean countries, for example Jamaica and Barbados, laws
have been passed to remove the distinction between legitimate and illegitimate children

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 2   Family law and social issues

with regard to inheritance. Although paternity must be established, the parents of the
Legal aid child do not have to be married in order to make the child able to inherit the father’s
Legal aid is financial help property. In other countries, for example St Lucia, illegitimate children only inherit
given to poorer families to
when no other heirs (brothers, sisters, parents, etc.) can be found.
enable them to afford the
services of a lawyer, Family law is a special area of legal expertise. There are specialist family lawyers who
particularly if they have
to go to court. In Barbados
spend all their professional lives working with families who are affected by problems
the Family Law Act also set such as divorce or domestic violence that affect the rights and needs of children.
up a Family Law Council
to advise the Attorney-
General about the Laws concerning custody and the care of children
operation of the Family Law
Act and any other laws In 1959 the United Nations drew up a list of rights which children should enjoy. This has
relating to the family, and to become known as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, or
provide legal aid in any the Children’s Charter. Many countries have incorporated these rights into their family
cases arising from the Act.
law. According to this Declaration:
• Every child should have a name and a nationality, and the legal protection he or she
needs from cruelty, neglect or exploitation.
ACTIVITIES

• A child’s physical needs should be met, such as appropriate care (including special care for
Read the provisions disabled children), adequate housing, medical care, education and opportunities to play.
of the United Nations • A child’s emotional and psychological needs should also be provided for, such as love
Declaration of the
and affection from their parents or caregivers. Wherever possible, a child should be
Rights of the Child.
cared for by his or her parents.
Should these rights
be enshrined in law • There should be no discrimination shown to a child because of his or her race, colour,
in every country? Are sex, nationality or social class.
there any rights you
Many of these rights have been taken into our own legal system and whenever the needs of
think are missing from
the Declaration? children are under consideration, our own laws and these rights provide the guiding principles.

The law on divorce and separation

Table 2.8  Divorce rates
Divorce is on the increase in many parts of the world, including the Caribbean. Table 2.8
per thousand people in gives some recent figures. The information box on page 62 gives some details on the
selected countries, 2005–6 legal position where marital relationships break down.

Breakdown and desertion in common-law marriages and consensual unions

Disputes over inheritance and the care of children are comparatively simple when parents
have been legally married, whether one spouse dies or when a couple decide to separate or
divorce. In such instances there is a set body of law which can be used to make decisions.
Difficulties occur when couples who have been living together by consent without
marriage split up. There are often no such clear guidelines. When these partnerships
break up, there may be obligations on the main breadwinner to continue to support the
family but the legal position is more complex than where a marriage has broken down.
Laws on the rights of partners and their children in a common-law union differ from
one Caribbean country to another. For example, in Antigua partners who have lived
together continuously for five years or more have some rights to each other’s property. In
most countries the partners in a visiting union have no protection, though the children
Source: United Nations of such a union may be entitled to support. Very often the mother, sometimes the father,
Department of Economics and is left alone to struggle and bring up the children.
Social Affairs. Population Division
(2009) World Marriage Data 2008

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 2   Family law and social issues

FACT
Breakdown of marriage
When a married couple find it impossible to live
together we say that the relationship has broken
down. In a legal marriage there are four main
solutions to the problem. These are similar in all
Caribbean countries.

1. Desertion: one partner leaves the other to live

elsewhere, either alone or with someone else.
The main wage-earner is still legally
responsible for supporting the abandoned
partner and his or her family (the payments are
known as alimony).

2. Legal separation: the couple can apply to the

courts for a separation which, if granted, means
that neither is allowed to interfere in any way in
the life of the other. The courts decide how the
joint property shall be divided and how much
maintenance shall be paid.

3. Divorce: the marriage is officially declared by the courts to be at an end. Divorce

is granted only for ‘irremediable breakdown of marriage’, which may include
adultery, cruelty or desertion. Financial arrangements in divorce are similar
to those for separation. When granting a divorce to a couple the courts have to
decide who is to be given custody of the children. Divorce rates are increasing
worldwide. Table 2.8 on page 61 gives some recent rates per thousand in some
Caribbean countries, with comparable rates for the UK and USA.

4. Very often divorcing and separating couples make their own arrangements
to care for their children. When the arrangements are reasonable, without
competition for the children’s affection, they can work well in the interests of the
child. When a divorce or separation is full of dissent then the children can suffer. Sometimes the courts have to decide between
the competing claims of the parents. The first duty of courts in such situations is to act in the best interests of the children.

RESEARCH This
ACTIVITIES

1 Find out what the legal position of common-law spouses 2 Discuss in pairs or with a group of friends whether the
is in your country when a relationship breaks down. Is greater commitment of marriage is worth the advantages
discuss This

the main breadwinner obliged to give his or her common- it brings legally and morally. Think about both the
law spouse financial or other support? What happens to situation where the marriage works well, and also the
the children in such a situation? position when it breaks down. Who benefits most from
being part of a family headed by a married couple?

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 2   Family law and social issues

Changing family laws

Social situations can change and family law is sometimes slow to adapt to the changes.

Changing laws on domestic violence

In the Eastern Caribbean and St Vincent and the Grenadines attempts have been made
to change the laws to meet concerns about the increase in domestic violence.

CASE STUDY
Family law reform in the Eastern Caribbean
Family law in the Eastern Caribbean has benefited from the Family Law and Domestic Violence Legislative Reform Project. This
project aims to make justice more effective and partly to deal with the legal aspects of domestic violence and family issues.
The project builds on previous reviews of family law undertaken by the Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action
(CAFRA) in some member countries of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).
Domestic violence legislation has been enacted in Antigua and Barbuda, the British Virgin Islands, St Kitts and Nevis and St
Vincent and the Grenadines. These laws are based on various international conventions which have been signed and ratified by
member states. For example, under the Women’s Convention member countries promise to recognise the common responsibility
of men and women in the upbringing of their children. They also promise to eliminate discrimination against women in all matters
related to marriage and family relations.

CASE STUDY
Domestic Violence in St Vincent and the Grenadines
Domestic violence and child abuse (violence and sexual) increased during the 1980s. Most of the violence was inflicted by male
partners in consensual unions, rather than husbands. In 1994 the National Committee against Violence was formed to raise
awareness about domestic violence, incest and abuse of step children.
In 1995 the Domestic Violence Act was passed, giving married and unmarried spouses legal protection against domestic violence.
At the same time the Family Court was created to deal with these cases. It could evict violent spouses from the home, and prevent
them from returning, issue orders to provide maintenance, and help victims to find a place of safety. However, it has insufficient
powers to be able to enforce its decisions, victims often withdraw their complaints and police officers encourage victims to settle
by mediation. Many victims do not even go to the police because they have no confidence that anything will be done.
The country has very high rates of murder and rape, and in the last decade many women have sought asylum abroad, in countries
such as Canada, in order to escape their violent spouses.

RESEARCH This
ACTIVITIES

1 Find out more about family law in your own country. Council in Barbados. What do they do? What kind of
discuss This

There are likely to be laws relating to divorce, custody people are members of these organisations?
of children, and inheritance. Other areas of family c Discuss whether family law in your country needs to
relationships may also be covered. be reformed.
a Make a list of the Acts of Parliament which relate to
the family.
2 Revisit the work you did in the previous section on
b Find out whether there are any special legal
domestic violence. Assess the contribution made by
organisations in your country like the Family Law
legislation and the justice system to tackling this problem.

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 2   Family law and social issues

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Social issues are important to all of us, because they affect the way we live, work and relate to one another.

• Social issues that affect the family include domestic violence and child abuse, and the breakdown of marriage
and other relations as a result of conflict.

• Other social issues that affect family life include teenage pregnancy; the problem of street children; alternative
life styles; substance abuse; juvenile delinquency; sexually transmitted diseases including HIV and AIDS;
poverty; desertion; suicide, incest; people trafficking; and care for the aged and those with special needs.

• Family law covers many different aspects of the legal system and includes laws which regulate relationships within
the family, such as inheritance, custody and care of children, legal separation and divorce and domestic violence.

• Family law develops and changes as a result of changing social issues and problems.

Check Your Knowledge

1 a Define the term ‘street children’. 3 a Use the information given in this chapter
b Outline two domestic situations which and your own research to write notes for
may be responsible for the number of street essays on the following:
children in urban areas of the Caribbean. i care for the elderly and those with
c Give three reasons why it is important for special needs in your community, area
Caribbean countries to reduce the number or country
of street children. ii the work of the Caribbean-Wide Project
d Suggest ways in which a welfare on Drug Abuse Prevention and Child-
organisation may help street children. Oriented Policies
iii the problem of juvenile delinquency
2 Imagine that you are a social worker trying iv the connection between teenage
to increase the number of young couples who pregnancy and poverty
enter into legal marital relationships.
v family law in your country as it relates
a Present three reasons why you would advise to marriage, divorce and legitimacy.
young couples to marry rather than forming
b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
consensual unions.
your notes as an essay paper of between
b Suggest two ways in which parents might 1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
work with their children to help them structure your essay properly, giving it an
understand the importance of legal marital introduction and conclusion as well as the
relationships. central part including your main points.
c Write a plan for a session or sessions with
a young people’s club or school club on the
subject of legal unions.

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 3 Our cultural diversity, social
groups and institutions

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• understand and explain the reasons for cultural diversity in the Caribbean
• explain and use correctly the terms and concepts relating to cultural diversity, social
groups and institutions used in the text
• understand different cultural patterns, customs, ceremonies, religions and festivals in the
Caribbean region
• identify ancestral customs, art, craft, language, music, dance and folklore promoted by
national organisations and groups
• describe the different social groups found in the Caribbean
• outline the characteristics of primary and secondary, formal and informal groups
• describe the basic requirements for cohesion (unity) in social groups and institutions
• explain the different types of interaction within and among social groups
• describe the characteristics of institutions
• evaluate the functions of institutions in society.

Terms you should know

culture patterns of behaviour, social interaction, creative and performing arts and crafts developed over many
generations
customs shared behaviour patterns which are regarded as the established way of the people belonging to a
particular group or society
folkways cultural traditions and patterns of behaviour established among a group of people living together over
a long period of time
formal/informal group formal groups have written rules and sanctions; informal groups do not
hierarchy group structure which provides leadership at several levels
institution secondary group or organisation set up to satisfy basic needs or for a special purpose in society
institutionalise change to an organisation or movement dominated by formal institutions
interaction communication and shared activities that link people
interest group group whose members share a common interest
involuntary group where one does not choose to be a member of the group; this happens as a result of factors beyond
membership one’s control
law a rule of conduct given by someone in authority (usually the state) and backed by sanction
legitimate lawful or socially acceptable
mores norms strongly held by society which are considered essential for moral behaviour and carry severe
sanctions if they are violated

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

norms rules, standards or patterns that guide behaviour

peer group group consisting of all persons of a similar age in a community
primary group group (usually small and informal) in which close personal ties are a dominant feature
sanction punishment
secondary group usually formal group in which interaction is cool and businesslike and focuses on specific common goals
social control the regulation of society by means of groups and institutions to enforce norms and mores
society collective group in which individuals live together as members of a community for their mutual benefit
and protection
voluntary group where persons can choose whether or not to belong to the group
membership

Introduction
In the first chapter we looked at socialisation: the process whereby a young person learns
how to relate to other people in society. We considered especially the role of the family
in this process, and how that role has changed over time. In this chapter we shall look
at the way we interact with each other in groups, and how social institutions regulate
and guide our behaviour. The term social group covers a very wide range of groups and
institutions, many of which are usually given other labels, such as economic, religious or
cultural institutions. Because they exist as part of society and link people together, however,
they are social groups in a wider sense. In this chapter we concentrate on the basic concepts
connected with social groups and institutions, and look at social, religious, cultural and
recreational institutions. In the next chapter we study economic and political institutions,
in particular government and the systems of government found in the Caribbean.

What is culture? Cultural diversity in the Caribbean

• One way of defining culture is that We are fortunate to live in a region with such a rich cultural heritage. We
it is the sum total of a community’s have a mixture of races, with native Caribbean, African, Asian, Middle
customs. If sufficient numbers of Eastern and European origins. We have different religions, including
people act in a certain way or as a
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam and Rastafarianism with
result of certain beliefs, this folkway
or belief becomes a general custom. many different sects or denominations. We have a fascinating history from
All such customs together make up our original inhabitants to colonialism, slavery and independence which
our culture. influences our beliefs, traditions, festivals, arts, crafts, sports, music and
• Another way of defining culture is literature. We have groups which continue customs from one tradition and
to see it as the symbolic foundation groups which integrate customs from different traditions. All these strands
upon which a community is based are reflected in our religious services, our family values and our many
and from which it develops its ways different festivals.
of acting and thinking (that is, its
customs). This foundation reaches
into the history of the community
and may have both religious and
Caribbean culture
social aspects. Every region of the world has elements of a distinctive historic culture
Culture has also been described as the
and elements taken from a modern globalised world. This is truer in the
way of life of a people, and includes all Caribbean than in many other regions of the world. In most parts of the
behaviours, beliefs, values, customs region, little remains of the culture of the original inhabitants of the
and artefacts. region, the Amerindians, but our existing culture is derived from all those
who have come to the region since Amerindian times.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Caribbean culture is unique and gives the region a distinct identity. The Caribbean is
the only region in the world which has its particular mix of ethnic groups and history.
The cultures of the various ethnic groups which migrated to the region have fused or
melted together to create our Caribbean culture. We call this cultural integration and
it is the reason why we often talk about the Caribbean ‘melting pot’.
Our culture is changing and developing all the time. Those elements which we retain
from the past we call cultural retention. For example, the drums we commonly use
have their origins in Africa.

Cultural penetration
As you read the next
sections, think about Caribbean culture has been the result of cultural penetration. This is when one
culture influences another, for example when enslaved Africans influenced the planters’
whether the aspects of
culture, or when East Indians arrived and influenced the predominantly Creole culture
culture you are reading that existed before. Cultural penetration may also happen by force, such as when the
about are examples planters prevented Africans from practising their religion. This can result in conflict.
of cultural retention,
Throughout Caribbean history different cultures have influenced each other. We call this
penetration, assimilation acculturation, when two or more cultures merge without losing their traditional elements.
or commercialisation. An example of this might be the way all the people of Belize celebrate Garifuna Settlement
Day, not only the Garifuna people. Assimilation is when two or more cultures influence
each other very strongly and mix or merge together to form a new culture. Reggae and
soca music are both examples of new cultural elements coming from assimilation.

discuss This Commercialisation of culture

ACTIVITIES

Commercialisation of culture is when cultural elements are used to make money.

Discuss:
For example, traditional dances may be performed mainly for tourists, musicians
Is commercialisation
sell commercial CDs across the world and companies make Jamaican jerk sauce.
of our culture positive
or negative?
Commercialisation may not necessarily be a bad thing, sometimes it helps to keep
cultures alive, to boost economies and provide jobs.

Language and literature

The Caribbean has a rich culture of different languages from different continents:
Europe, Africa, South America and Asia. The Maya of Belize had their own written
language before the Europeans came, and today there are three distinct Maya languages
in Belize. The Garifuna people have their own language, which is a mixture of Taino
and African languages. The various kinds of Creole found in the region are the result of
the mixing of African and European languages. For example Jamaican Creole results
from West African languages mixing with English and some words and expressions
from elsewhere. Like Jamaican Creole, Trinidadian Creole is predominantly English-
based, but in other parts of the region Creoles are based on French or Spanish. Haitian
Creole, for example, is based mainly on French and African languages but also includes
some Spanish, Taino, Arabic and English. Creoles are generally the mixture of African
languages with those of the colonising powers in each particular country.
More recently Hindustani, Urdu and Chinese were brought with indentured labourers
from Asia, and Arabic has come from the Middle East.
All the various ethnic groups also brought with them their oral traditions of proverbs
and storytelling, folk tales and oral games such as riddles. The African tradition is
particularly rich in this respect.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Today our Caribbean literature draws upon all these

influences to produce novels, plays, poems, songs and
other forms which speak to modern Caribbean people
and find success at the international level through
Commonwealth Writers’ and other international
competitions. Writers such as Derek Walcott and V S
Naipaul are famous world-wide.

ACTIVITIES
1 Collect examples of proverbs, riddles or sayings from
different ethnic groups or traditions in your country.

2 What differences do you notice? What do they have

in common?

Food and medicine

Each ethnic group which has come to the region has
brought its favourite dishes, recipes and foods and
contributed them to Caribbean culture. The indigenous
people grew beans, chilli peppers, allspice, maize and
other vegetables. Many crops now grown here, such as
rice, sugar cane and plantain have been brought from
elsewhere by migrants. Tea drinking, for example, was
brought by the British but also the Chinese and Indians.
Over the years cooks have fused different traditional dishes
to create Caribbean dishes such as jerk chicken and curry
goat, and these are now exported to other parts of the
world. Food festivals are common throughout the region.

Part of a calendar used by Maya priests

RESEARCH This
ACTIVITIES

1 Interview someone who is knowledgeable about

herbal remedies.

2 Make a booklet about medicinal plants which may

interest tourists.
Traditional foods on display at the Ocho Rios Seafood Festival

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Just as recipes and cooking methods are passed down through families, so too are herbal
remedies and other traditional medicines. Various plants such as ginger, mint and
Ornate Hindu temple, Shri arrowroot have medicinal uses and grow in West Africa, so were familiar to the enslaved
Shankar Mandir, Trinidad Africans when they arrived.

Visual arts
Early art forms were influenced by belief in gods,
in the trees, water and all our surroundings and
were often clay, stone or shell carvings. In the era
of slavery crafts reflected European and African
influences, supplying practical utensils for daily
life: cooking pots, baskets and straw hats. Now
craftsmen are producing articles for local and
tourist consumption including calabash bowls,
handbags, carved coconut turtles and bird feeders.
Basketry, weaving and jewellery making are all
important. The development of such crafts is an
important part of Caribbean culture, reflecting
our multi-ethnic background.
Since independence many Caribbean countries
have had their own national galleries with the aim
of displaying and conserving national art treasures,
both old and new. For example the National Gallery
of Jamaica in Kingston has a wealth of visual arts
by potters, painters, sculptors and other artists.
Archaeological research shows that our Maya,
Taino and Arawak ancestors were potters and
sculptors as well as skilled craftsmen and women.
Artists today often blend ideas from the different
ethnicities in their heritage, some looking to their
African or indigenous roots for inspiration.
Architecture clearly shows our heritage and
culture through our buildings. Some of the
earliest buildings are the impressive Maya stone
temples of Belize, Mexico and Guatemala, such
Huiros and guitars made as Altun Ha. In places there are a few examples of Taino buildings made of wattle and
from gourds in Cuba
daub with thatched roofs. Then there are the European planters’ houses, known as
Great Houses, such as Devon House in Kingston, Jamaica. There are Spanish buildings,
RESEARCH This most notably in the old part of Havana, now a protected UNESCO world heritage site.
There are some wonderful Hindu, Muslim and Chinese temples, and modern buildings
ACTIVITIES

in an international style. Organisations such as the Trinidad National Trust preserve

Visit a local gallery,
and protect important buildings and educate others about the heritage.
craft market or artist
and find out about the
things which influence Music, song and dance
visual arts today.
Our music reflects the roots of our African ancestors and their need to survive harsh
conditions and achieve freedom from colonial domination. It has also absorbed elements
of the European music of the planters and settlers, both classical and folk. Folk and
religious music reflect the mix of Christianity and earlier religious practices. More
recent influences include jazz, soul, rock and roll, and punk.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

From this has developed unique Caribbean contributions to music including reggae,
RESEARCH This calypso, chutney, parang, meringue, soca, zouk and compass. Underpinning all of them
ACTIVITIES

is the rhythm of drums which we owe to our African traditions. In Trinidad Pichakaree
Do some research is a combination of Indian and Trinidadian sounds.
about a style of music
There is a wide range of musical instruments available in the region. Flutes, reeds and
from a Caribbean
some percussion instruments come from indigenous peoples. From Africa come drums
country other than
your own. Share your and other percussion instruments, also thumb pianos and some stringed instruments.
findings with the class. From Europe we have guitar, banjo, violin, double base, piano and wind instruments
such as the clarinet and trombone. From India has come the sitar and tabla. The
Caribbean’s most famous instrument is the steel pan which was invented in Trinidad,
originally making use of old oil drums, but is nowadays a sophisticated instrument of
which there are many different types.
Dance is a very important part of
musical tradition in the region and
CASE STUDY reflects all those influences above. For
both indigenous peoples and Africans
Antigua dance was part of religious worship or
Carnival celebration. Europeans brought their
The Antigua Carnival own folk dances, such as the Maypole
is an annual event dance and quadrille still seen in adapted
of music and dance. forms in Jamaica. Other traditional
Brass and steel bands dances include Bongo in Puerto Rico,
play and the events Bellair in Trinidad, Flounce in Guyana
are attended by most and the Beguine in Guadeloupe. Visit
people on the island. It http://w w w.cocojams.com/content/
celebrates local culture. caribbean-folk-dances to see videos of
It brings people together some of these dances and others. Indian,
and attracts tourists.
Chinese and Middle Eastern immigrants
This is a ten-day festival have also brought their own dance
at the end of July and traditions to the region.
the beginning of August.
There are colourful Modern communication means that
costumes, talent and there is a common culture in music
beauty competitions especially for young people worldwide.
and many different Caribbean music influences the rest of
music and dance shows. the world but is itself affected by every
Some of the highlights other musical fashion.
include the choosing of
the Caribbean Queen,
the best steel band and Festivals
the Calypso monarch. Festivals such as Carnival are a very
They take prominent Stilt dancers at the Antigua Carnival important part of Caribbean culture. They
positions in the parades. encompass elements of music, song and
Apart from the main events, the festival caters for minority interests on a dance along with literature, folklore and
smaller scale with concerts, food exhibitions, parades, fashion shows and sometimes religion, see the case study on
cultural exhibitions. Antigua Carnival. The different countries
The festival celebrates freedom from slavery and includes elements from the and territories all have their own slightly
traditional Antiguan Christmas festival, such as Scottish dancers in kilts, and different traditions and customs, but
stilt dancers, alongside modern steel bands, calypso and soca music. common festivals include Christmas,
Divali, Independence Day and Carnival.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

RESEARCH This Promoting our culture

ACTIVITIES

There are both national and international

Choose one aspect or area of Caribbean culture to research, such as groups working to promote Caribbean
dance, song or visual arts. Find out more about this aspect of Caribbean culture. At the national level, Ministries
culture in a number of territories. Then answer these questions. of Culture or Education provide education
1 Identify one aspect of this which is uniquely Caribbean. and spaces for events and exhibitions,
and encourage cultural exchanges. Most
2 For any three aspects, identify and explain the influences of different
countries have national museums and
ethnic groups.
some have galleries. There are many
3 How has your area of culture changed over time? national groups both promoting and
4 How do different groups and individuals promote this area of culture? performing different arts and crafts, and
at the local level smaller organisations
enabling people to come together to
preserve and celebrate their culture.
For example Haitian cultural exchange

CASE STUDY works to foster cultural appreciation and

understanding in Haiti.

Craft in the Caribbean CARIFESTA is the Caribbean Festival

The Caribbean Artisan Network aims to preserve traditional craft practices, of Arts organised by CARICOM and
inspire a new generation and move forward, training and encouraging the provides a showcase for many different
development of new designs and work in new materials. kinds of artists: musicians, writers,
craftspeople, film makers, actors,
As a group, the members want to expand regional and international
painters, sculptors, chefs and others. It
markets encouraging craftsmen to join together, sharing experience and
learning from each brings together people from across the
other about market region and is usually held in a different
trends, sources of country every three years or so.
raw materials and new
techniques; developing
more sophisticated
discuss This
production and
ACTIVITIES

marketing.
1 Discuss:
They are developing
their links using internet a the cultural diversity within
websites and data your class
bases. The Caribbean b the need for equality for
Arts and Crafts Festival all cultural groups in the
is just one of their joint Caribbean
enterprises. They also c how culture is affected by
organise inter-island modern developments and
workshops to develop outside influences
new skills and train d our choice, whether to follow
younger craftsmen. the culture we were born in or
The 2011 festival to change with changing times
was organised e the ways in which different
cooperatively by the cultural groups come together
Caribbean Artisan Network, the British Virgin Isles Tourist Board, Chamber in your community.
of Commerce, the islands’ hotel association, the Moorings, and the LIAT
Airline. It was the seventh year of the festival and aimed to bring together
2 Write a calypso about some
artisans from throughout the Caribbean to show and sell craft products in
aspect of your own life.
various parts of the British Virgin Islands.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

discuss This
Religion
ACTIVITIES
Religion may be defined in several ways. Here are two of them:
Discuss these two
• a system of beliefs about the individual’s place in the world which provides an order
definitions of religion
in class or in your
to that world and a reason for existence within it
group. Do you agree • a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things; beliefs and practices
with them? How would which unite its members into a single moral community.
you modify them? Can
you create a single Functions of religion
definition with which
Religion has a major influence in Caribbean societies and affects such institutions as the
all the members of
your group or class family, as well as bringing about general social changes. The diagram below shows some
agree? of the main functions of religion in society.

Traditionally religion gives a sacred Believers may see religion as a means

authority to society’s rules and by which humankind can escape the
values, so that, for example, from suffering and oppression brought
a religious viewpoint stealing not about by conflict and difficulties.
only breaks society’s rules but is This view is particularly strong in
also a sin against God. Caribbean societies because of the
importance of such religious comfort
in slave societies of the past.

Religion links different FUNCTIONS OF Religion may serve to

sectors of society and as RELIGION legitimise the power and
such is an important material advantage enjoyed
conservative force which by the dominant groups
Figure 3.1  Functions of provides social stability. and rulers of society.
religion

Religions in the Caribbean

There are five main religions in the Caribbean today. These are Christianity, Hinduism,
Islam, Judaism and Rastafarianism. Other religions such as Vodum (Voodoo) also exist.

• Christianity is the major religion of the Caribbean,

and is divided into several denominations. Common
beliefs among all Christians are that Jesus Christ
is the Son of God; that he was crucified, died and
rose again on the third day; that after 40 days he
ascended into heaven; and that he will come again
at the end of the world.

Young girls attending first communion

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

• Hinduism is a highly organised social system and way of life as well

as a religion. The central beliefs of Hinduism revolve around two
key concepts: Dharma and Moksha. The first demands that human
destiny is to uphold and preserve the physical world and society as
a whole. The second refers to the ultimate release from the world
(salvation) which can only be obtained by transcending all physical
and social limitations.

Diwali – the Hindu festival of lights

• Islam refers not only to the religion but also to the entire group of
believers. The followers of Islam (Muslims) believe that Mohammed
their founder was the Prophet of God. Followers of Islam follow a
number of simple clear-cut affirmations which guide their lives.

A mosque in Port of Spain, Trinidad

• Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. It includes both a world

view and a way of life. The Torah (Old Testament) is the primary
source of both. Judaism is not primarily a creed or a system of beliefs
upon which redemption rests but a way of life to follow which will
bring out the best in a person.

Two rabbis saying Mincka prayers

• Rastafarianism is a movement of black

people who hold that Africa was the birthplace
of mankind and revere the Ethiopian Emperor
RESEARCH This
Haile Selassie I as a divine manifestation in the
ACTIVITIES

twentieth century. Rastas follow the teaching

of the black Jamaican nationalist Marcus
With a partner, or
Garvey, who preached a message of black self- in groups, do a
empowerment and founded the Back to Africa research project
movement which called on black people to on any religious or
return to their ancestral home. Rastas are cultural festival or
peaceful people who reject materialism. other cultural activity
that occurs in your
community or area.

A Rastafarian

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Social groups
A social group consists of a number of persons interacting with each other. This interaction
takes place within a particular context, for example a family, a household or a school. A
A group of students in social group may have as few as three members or it may have thousands. The word
Pointe-a-Pitre, Grande-Terre, ‘group’ does, however, imply interaction among a fairly small number of persons, all of
Guadeloupe whom are known to each other, and many social groups have fewer than 100 members.
We have already mentioned the family
as an important social group to which
we all belong in one way or another.
Another important group is your peer
group. Other examples include interest
clubs such as a school chess club or a
cricket club, the local 4H Club, your class
or year group, the group of friends you
go out with after school, professional
associations, trade unions and the local
church choir.

Types of group
We can categorise groups in a number
of ways. Some of these categories are
mutually exclusive or contrasting, such
as primary and secondary groups, or
formal and informal groups. However,
the different categories often overlap.
Some primary groups are formal and
some are informal; membership in some
is voluntary and in others involuntary.
This is also true of secondary groups.
Figure 3.2  Venn diagram showing how types of groups overlap. Which
groups can you put in the overlapping areas? The diagram makes this overlap clearer.
Groups are often divided into categories:

Informal
groups Primary groups
These are groups in which the
relationship is warm, intimate and
personal, and where matters of sentiment
Primary Secondary and everyday interaction bind the group.
groups groups
This interaction takes place face to face
and is generally spontaneous. Everyone
in the group makes an important
contribution to its operation. Primary
Formal groups may be formal, for example in a
groups
classroom situation where the primary
group consists of the class members; or
informal, for example your peer group.
Membership of a primary group may be
voluntary, as it is in a group of friends
meeting on a Saturday morning, or
involuntary as in the school year group.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Secondary groups
Relationships in these
groups are more cool,
formal and businesslike
than in primary groups.
Our participation in
secondary groups is not
central to our existence
like membership of the
family and peer group
but partial; a kind of side
issue to our lives, however
important in itself.
Secondary groups are
usually larger than
primary groups and meet
intermittently rather
than daily. Most of them
are interest-oriented and
An example of a secondary group members seldom meet
each other outside the
group. Examples include
uniformed groups such
as the Scouts and Guides,
the Boys Brigade or the
police force, sports clubs
of all kinds and musical
organisations such as
choirs or orchestras.
Secondary groups are
generally formal rather
than informal, depending
on the size of the group.
Some large formal
secondary groups such
as churches and school
are also categorised as
institutions. We shall look
at institutions in more
detail later in this chapter.

Is the family a primary

or a secondary group? Is
membership voluntary or
involuntary? Discuss in
groups or in class whether
the family should be seen
as a formal or an informal
group.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Formal and informal groups

Formal groups have a formal structure, and usually this includes membership requirements,
elections of officers, a code of conduct or rules and specific objectives. Leaders are usually
elected or chosen according to a set formula. Community associations and chambers of
commerce are good examples of formal groups. Some school clubs have a formal structure
but because such clubs are small it is difficult to make the structure very rigid.
Informal groups have no formal structure. There are no set rules and no membership
requirements and activities are spontaneous. Examples of informal groups include the street-
corner group, consisting of boys or girls living on the same block, or a drop-in youth club. In
these groups leadership is spontaneous, if it exists at all.

Peer groups
One good example of a primary group is the peer group. A peer group consists of
everyone of about the same age in a community. It is an important agent of socialisation
and also exerts social control over its members. The group gives members a sense
of belonging. It also gives them social
experience away from the family and
helps to prepare young people for other
relationships. It is essentially both an
informal and an involuntary group.
Among peer group members there is
a strong sense of loyalty, cooperation
and social interaction. The peer group
continues to be important for many
people throughout their lives. Many
of their friends and acquaintances and
those they meet in other social groups
also belong to their peer group.

Interest groups
Many groups can be called interest
groups in that the members share a
common interest. That might be sport,
a hobby such as photography, a need to
keep up to date in a trade or profession,
a need to influence others as in a trade
union wishing to get better conditions
What other interest
from an employer.
groups can you think of?
Some interest groups are campaigning
groups on specific issues such as the
environment, local planning decisions
or human rights, while others may raise
money for charity, or are social groups
concerned with a common activity such
as sports clubs or choirs. Interest groups
are voluntary.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

ACTIVITIES

Picture study
Look at the picture on the right carefully, and then answer the
questions below.

1 Explain why the group in the picture is called a social group.

2 a Is this group a primary or a secondary group?

b Is it a formal or informal group?
c What information does the picture give you which helps
you categorise the group as primary/secondary and
formal/informal?
d Could you argue that this type of group has both formal
and informal elements? (You may want to discuss this
with a partner or in class.)

3 Membership in the group shown in the picture is voluntary.

Explain what this means with reference to the type of group
shown. Could any members of the group be said to be
involuntary members?

Characteristics of groups
A group forms a distinct
Figure 3.3 shows some of the identity and gives members
major characteristics of groups. a sense of belonging. Some
have badges of membership
We shall be looking at these in
or uniforms.
some detail later in this chapter.
Group members
Group members
are aware that
cooperate in order
they have similar
to achieve goals.
goals and
interests.

Competition between
Members of a group
group members acts
have needs, interests SOCIAL
to help the whole
and values in GROUPS
group achieve
common.
excellence.

Groups have rules Groups tend to

which regulate develop distinctive
members’ behaviour rituals and customs
both within the which distinguish
group and outside it. them from each other.
Roles, rights and duties
develop within the group.
These influence the nature
of interaction within
the group.
Figure 3.3  Characteristics of groups

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Structure
Formal groups have clear formal structures which control the behaviour of their
members. There is usually a leader, perhaps a club president, who has the ultimate
authority. There is often a hierarchical structure with some members having more
influence on decisions than others, perhaps as committee members. These members
may also have certain privileges or badges to show their status. There are usually clear
lines of authority within the organisation.
Informal groups have little or no structure and informal leadership may change or even
be non-existent.

Common goals
Members of both formal and informal groups usually share some common goals. In
formal groups common goals are explicit, sometimes contained in a constitution, and
group members spend most of their group time working towards them. In informal
groups members usually share some common interests, such as a peer group enjoying
the same music, but they do not have explicit objectives.

Membership
Membership of a group may be voluntary or involuntary. Membership is voluntary
in groups such as clubs and societies; we can choose whether we belong or not. But
membership is involuntary in the family and in your peer or school year group. Some
professional associations carry automatic membership for people who are qualified in
that particular profession.

Marks of identity
Most groups have some way of marking out their members from people
who do not belong to the group. For example, your school uniform
marks you out as a member of your school. If you belong to the Scouts or
Guides or are a volunteer with the St John’s Ambulance, you will wear a
uniform to distinguish you from other people. In the case of the St John’s
Ambulance this is very important, since in an emergency people can
easily see the uniform and know that they can get help from the person
wearing it. Other groups often have a badge or other label that can be
attached to clothing to show membership.
Uniforms and badges are normally worn only when you are functioning
as a member of a group, for example at school, at a Scout or Guide
meeting, or when singing in your church choir. However, some religious
and cultural groups have styles of dress which are worn all the time.
Sikh men usually wear turbans on their heads. Muslim women often
wear specifically Islamic dress which distinguishes them from other women. There
are several different versions of Islamic dress for women and these give other people
information about the type of Islamic group to which the woman belongs. Generally,
the more completely covered up the woman is, the stricter the Islamic code she follows.
Some Muslim women wear more or less Western styles of dress, perhaps with a simple
head scarf. This does not mean they are less sincere or genuine in their beliefs, merely
that they (or their men folk) do not demand as much isolation from mainstream society
as those who wear the burkha or niqab.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Muslim woman wearing a niqab

There have been problems where ‘uniforms’ conflict.

Some schools have banned the hijab from the classroom,
saying that it departs from the school uniform that all
pupils must wear.

Common needs, interests and values

Muslim woman wearing a burkha Some social groups such as the family
share common needs, while others
such as an informal dominoes group
have a common interest but may not
share needs and values (except a need
to play dominoes and perhaps a value of
friendship and not cheating).

Keeping the rules

Members of groups are expected to keep
to the rules laid down by the group or by
its founding members. These rules may
be chosen and instituted by the members
themselves (for example, members of a
newly formed dance troupe might decide
on styles of dress, rules on punctuality,
who chooses the director and the
repertoire to be performed and so on).
In some groups the rules are chosen by
a higher authority (as in a sports club where members
have to follow the laws of their sport) or are already in
existence (as in the Rotary Club).

There are rules to follow when playing cricket

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Patterns of behaviour in groups

Other marks of identify include special rituals or celebrations. For example, Christians
join with each other in the communion service, sometimes called the Eucharist or Lord’s
Table. Non-Christians would not expect to take a full part in this service, although the
Find out if there are any
Church does not ban them from being present.
groups in your area with
their own patterns of Many groups outside religion have practices unique to themselves: greetings to each
other, titles to be used in addressing each other, order of speeches on formal occasions,
behaviour.
sashes and emblems which distinguish more important members.

Competition and cooperation

Within the group, members may
compete with each other to attain
excellence. So in a chess club individual
members have chess matches against
each other, partly for enjoyment and
partly to improve their level of expertise.
When the club takes part in an external
match, however, individuals compete for
the club against members of other clubs.
School ‘houses’ may field a cricket,
basketball or athletics team to compete
in a house match at a school sports day.
But members of these house teams will
play together as one team when the
school competes against another school.

Roles and responsibilities

In Chapter 1 we learnt about our changing roles and responsibilities in the family. These are
good examples of the kinds of roles groups give their members to fulfil and the way those
members have responsibilities towards each other and towards the goals of the group as a whole.

Functions of groups
A social group performs the following functions:
• to give members a sense of security
• to help members to feel a sense of companionship and belonging
• to provide an opportunity to share experiences and interests and work towards
common goals.
Members get a sense of security from knowing that others share their values, interests
and aims. Families and friendship groups may support each other in times of trouble, as
may community groups or groups of work-mates. By doing things together and sharing
experiences, they gain companionship and a sense of belonging, they are able to discuss
their interests, help each other and perhaps solve problems together. By working together
with others, individuals can accomplish more than they could on their own. They also
enjoy the social interaction and feel validated in their common beliefs. For example in a
singing group or band, the sound produced by members all singing or playing together
is much better than they could produce as individuals.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

brainstorm
ACTIVITIES

1 Have a brainstorming session in which you explore some b Explain how this group fulfils the functions listed on
ways in which groups can perform these functions. In page 80.
order to do this, choose one person to be the leader c Assess how marks of identity and/or common rituals
standing out at the front to record every contribution, help the group to fulfil its functions.
preferably as a single word. At the end of the session he d What roles and responsibilities are expected of
or she can sum up the ideas you have all put forward. members of this group? How do these foster
Your teacher will be able to help you do this. cohesion within the group?
e Describe a situation in which you competed with
2 Choose one group to which you belong. This may members within the group or cooperated with
be a primary or a secondary group, with voluntary or members of the group in order to work towards a
involuntary membership. (Read the questions below common goal. How did this affect the group as a
before you choose the group, as some groups will be whole?
easier to use than others.) f Evaluate your experience in this social group. Taken
a Describe the characteristics of this group with overall, would you say membership of this group is a
reference to the spider diagram on page 77. rewarding experience? Give reasons for your answer.

Groups need cohesion (unity)

In order to function harmoniously and achieve its aims, the group needs to be united
with common agreement on those aims and how they can be achieved.
Unity needs strong leadership to deal with and control any divisions within the group,
a spirit of cooperation among members, commitment of the membership to the group’s
aims and loyalty from each member to the leadership and to fellow members.
Even in informal friendship groups and in families, unity is important in supporting
other members. If one individual goes against the group or acts selfishly, then this can
affect all the members. For example if a member of a family sells the family furniture to
buy drugs, all the members suffer and conflict is likely.
Unity is also important in large formal groups. For example in a trade union it is usual
to take a ballot before taking industrial action such as going on strike. Once the votes are
counted, it is important that all members go with the majority and they unite behind
their decision. If the strike goes ahead and those who did not vote for it refuse to strike,
then the purpose of the union is defeated.

Leadership
To be a good group leader a person must be knowledgeable, honest, sincere, responsible,
self-confident, cooperative, tolerant and firm and must possess a sense of humour. He or
she also needs to command the respect of other group members.
In formal groups, leaders are often elected by secret ballot or a show of hands, depending
on the size of the group. Sometimes leadership is automatic, for example in a school the
leader is automatically the Principal. The leader of a rock band is often its main vocalist
or lead musician. However, individual classes may elect a class president and a pupil
leader such as the cricket captain is usually chosen by the staff of the school for a specific
role. Although a sports team captain is usually chosen by those in authority, rather
than being chosen by his or her peers, the sports captain must be able to command the
respect of his or her team-mates.
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Sometimes a leader may emerge from an informal group. He or she may be the person
whom the members trust the most or the best organiser or the most experienced member
or the strongest personality. If it arises at all, it is likely to be a spontaneous election.
This type of leadership is also liable to change hands without much warning.

Types of leader
There are a number of different types of leaders:
• Democratic leaders believe in listening to their members’ views and may take
decisions based on what the majority think. They accept suggestions and make use
of members’ skills and abilities. This may be good for group cohesion and motivates
members.
Think of a group of which • Authoritarian leaders take decisions on their own without consultation and use
you are a member. What their power to get things done. They are focussed on achieving objectives rather than
type of leadership is on the needs of members.
exercised? What are • Laissez-faire leaders do little and simply let members do as they please, often
the advantages and resulting in chaos and goals not being achieved.
disadvantages of this? • Charismatic leaders lead by inspiring others. Often they are good speakers and set
an example which members follow willingly.

Characteristics of a good leader

As we have seen, all leaders must be able to command the respect of the group. This
respect, however, may arise from a number of different characteristics. These include:
• Strength of character: group members feel they
can rely on the leader and trust him/her in times
of difficulty, for example a strong prime minister
or president when the country is under threat from
enemies or from internal rebellion.
• Good judgement: group members trust that the
leader will be able to decide the best way forward
in any situation, for example a cricket captain who
makes wise decisions on selection of the team and
uses good tactics on the field with choice of bowler
and field placements.
• Charisma: some leaders are able to become popular
because of a natural ability to draw others to them and
influence them, for example an evangelist or popular
imam who establishes a new church or mosque.
• Special knowledge or competence: group
members will respect a leader’s competence in
the special field in which that group operates, for
example a scout leader who is trusted and followed
on an orienteering or adventure expedition.
• Experience: group members respect the wisdom of
a leader who has a great deal of experience of the
type of activity shared by the group, for example a
top consultant heart surgeon who leads a team of
surgeons specialising in heart surgery.
Viv Richards, captain of the West Indies between 1980 and 1991

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Control
Social groups control the behaviours of their members in a number of different ways.

Rewards and punishments

ACTIVITIES

1 Suppose you wish There is more on how groups reward and punish their members on page 84 but it is
to invite some worth mentioning here how even membership itself may be considered a reward by
people to form a some people. Being accepted into an exclusive group can be a lifetime aim. Equally,
group. exclusion from or the withdrawal of privileges within a group can be deeply humiliating.
a Describe the
steps you will
take in setting Cooperation
up a group. The aims of the group can be attained only if members cooperate with each other to
b Say whether achieve them.
the group is
a primary or Characteristics within cooperation include:
secondary one • regular attendance
and explain why.
• sharing of duties and responsibilities
c Explain what
criteria you • taking part in group activities willingly and without criticism of fellow members.
would use in
choosing a
leader for the Authority
group. What Decisions need to be taken within every group, whether it is a family or a church. They
type of selection should ideally be reached through consultation between members but leadership needs
process would to be used to make decisions between a variety of possible actions. Those decisions might
be appropriate?
be made by one leader or by consent within a group. Strong leadership is then necessary
to ensure the body of members carry out those decisions without disagreement.
2 Look at the list
of characteristics
Commitment
that make a good
leader. Discuss in Membership of any groups entails commitment to that membership and to the aims of
groups or in class the group. It is shown by regular attendance at group functions, a willingness to take
whether a leader part in decision making and to take a role in group activities, offering skills and perhaps
needs all these labour on agreed tasks.
DISCUSS This

characteristics.
Does it depend
on the type of Loyalty
group he or she Many groups suffer from internal conflict just as families do, as described in Chapter 2.
is leading? Can
When members have conflicting views and/or aggression towards each other it is very
you think of
difficult for the group to achieve its aims. Members need to be loyal to their leaders
other leadership
characteristics?
once decisions have been made in a reasoned manner. They need to be loyal to all other
members too to ensure the group works harmoniously for the benefit of everyone.

Social interaction within and among groups

Every group is subject to the normal characteristics of human nature. Within most
people there are elements which might be described as good: generosity, affection, care
for others, a wish to be liked, a willingness to work with others, to compromise and to
see the best in others. These are all useful and help the group come to accepted decisions
and to make progress towards agreed aims.

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ACTIVITIES
There are other elements in human nature which can lead to difficulties within the group:
1 Provide two competitiveness, jealousy, mutual dislike, stubbornness, an inability to see someone else’s
examples of each point of view. One or more members might be jealous of the leader and minority groups could
of the following: form in competition with the leader. Then he or she finds the task of leadership more difficult.
a cooperation within
a group When decisions have to be made between possible courses of action, some might find it
difficult to go along with a majority decision. Then there is less sense of purpose within the
b cooperation
between groups group. Human nature can include greed and even dishonesty and these can cause extreme
c interdependence
difficulties within groups and in institutions, which are considered later in this chapter.
between Some officials of groups have used their positions for personal gain, using group money for
individuals in a themselves, making it impossible for those sums to be used to forward the group’s true aims.
group Similar aspects of social interaction take place between groups. There is often competition,
d interdependence for example between schools playing sport, and sometimes conflict, as between street
between groups
gangs. However, it is also possible for groups to cooperate with each other and compromise
e changing norms to further shared aims.
within a group.

2 Explain how
conflict can have Social control
both positive and In every society it is necessary to regulate human behaviour. This is known as social
negative results control. Social control is exercised by society in general, but also within groups. Some
within groups. examples of the way groups attempt to control their members include:
3 Explain why we • making clear what is socially acceptable
need to have
• preventing the build-up of tensions in the group that result in conflict
referees and
umpires in sports. • reinforcing the desire to conform to the ‘normal’ way of behaving by rewarding
conforming behaviour
• discouraging deviation (behaving differently) by using sanctions
• modifying social patterns over time to accommodate, as far as possible, the deviating
behaviour of members of the group.
Social control also works to prevent conflict between groups getting out of hand and
disrupting society.

Making clear what is socially acceptable

Society makes it clear what is socially acceptable through social norms. Social norms
are rules of conduct used as standards, by reference to which behaviour is accepted (as
good) or disapproved of (as bad). Associated with norms are customs, folkways and
List examples of some mores. Folkways are traditional social customs, shared by groups, such as festivals. Social
of the norms, customs, mores are accepted traditional customs and attitudes usually relating to moral values,
folkways and mores some of which have become enshrined in our laws, for example that to steal is wrong.
that are found in your
community, and in a group
Rewards and sanctions
that you know.
In order to reinforce conforming behaviour and discourage deviating behaviour,
groups use rewards and sanctions. An example of a reward might be inclusion in
social activities; those who conform to normal behaviour are welcomed at social events
and their friendship is sought by other members of the group. Deviating behaviour
is discouraged by the use of sanctions such as ostracism (being ignored or avoided by
others). For example, if you break the school rules you may be punished by being given
extra homework or being kept late after school. The final sanction of a group is usually
to be cast out of it.

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Some of the sanctions society uses are legal ones;

for example where someone breaks the law they are
prosecuted through the justice system and may be
imprisoned or fined. These societal sanctions can help to
control behaviour among groups.

Modifying what is acceptable

As society’s values change, so behaviour that was once
seen as deviation becomes acceptable. Societies tend to
modify what is acceptable according to the social changes
taking place. For example, illegitimacy carries less stigma
in those Caribbean countries where the father’s name is
As more women choose included on the birth certificate of a baby whether or not he is married to the baby’s
to work at a career, this is mother (Jamaica is an example of a change in the law in this matter). This modification
becoming more accepted in tends to make consensual rather than legal unions more acceptable, even though the
Caribbean countries
norms of society may still look on legal marriage as an ideal.
In a similar way group norms may change over time depending on what is happening
in the wider society. For example, discipline in school may be less rigidly enforced today
than it was 30 or 50 years ago, especially with awareness of the rights of children.
Whether or not a modification in norms takes place may depend on the way in which
deviating behaviour is viewed as harmful to society or to the group, as well as on the
numbers of people who are prepared to accept it. Modification of what is socially
acceptable behaviour takes time to come into effect. This is largely because older people
tend to retain the norms and values of their youth. Social modifications happen as
younger people become adults and society in general adopts their mores instead. Such
modifications may also be hastened by the actions of pressure groups working on behalf
of those seen as deviants by the major part of society.
Legal modifications may come
ahead of or run counter to socially
acceptable mores. For example, in
2001 the British government,
under pressure from the European
Union Convention on Human
Rights, repealed anti-sodomy laws
affecting its Caribbean colonies. In
Anguilla, the British Virgin
Islands, the Cayman Islands,
Montserrat, and the Turks and
Caicos Islands, the colonies
affected, this change in the law is
deeply resented by religious
organisations which oppose the
legalisation of homosexual acts.

Society in action: a demonstration

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The importance of social control

Social control is important within groups to ensure the group’s norms and rules are
obeyed. If not, then conflict is likely. The group may break down completely and
disband, or breakaway groups may form or there may be anarchy, where everyone does
what they please. In any case it will not be possible to work constructively towards the
group’s aims.
It is essential for the good of society and all its members that our laws and
social norms are respected and obeyed. A breakdown of law and order, or
ACTIVITIES

a situation where individualism leads people to forget that they are part
1 Write down two or three social
of a wider social structure, causes harm to everyone.
groups to which you belong.
Identify the ways in which these
groups exert social control over
you and other members. Institutions
Institutions are usually defined as secondary groups set up for a particular
2 In class, or in your group, discuss purpose. This purpose may be social (including educational, religious,
the way in which society adapts recreational or cultural), political or economic. Some institutions have
its norms, mores and values been part of human society for thousands of years. Others are relatively
to changing social situations. new. One or two institutions, such as the family, are primary groups
DISCUSS This

Identify one behaviour which you rather than secondary ones. Institutions form an essential part of modern
would like to see become more social, political and economic life.
acceptable by society and one
which you think should remain
banned or discouraged by the use Origin of institutions
of sanctions.
When humans lived by hunting/gathering or simple agriculture there
was no need for formal institutions. As life became more complex there
developed a need for greater organisation of the essential parts of life:
religion, trading and government. Priests no longer operated separately.
They became part of organised religious groups and churches. Trade was
FACT no longer done by barter. Money was used in selling and buying. Trade
Characteristics of institutions associations, companies, banks and stock exchanges became necessary for
the smooth running of economic life.
Institutions are large organisations with
the following characteristics: Government was no longer done only at the level of village chiefs or
• They have an established hierarchical elders. Complex services like education, health, defence required the
structure. setting up of institutions, collecting money and providing those services.
• They have a specific function or Even leisure activities can have their own institutions which organise
functions which is useful for society. games and tournaments and set national and international rules.
• They help to meet individuals’ basic Institutions became a normal part of life. Each had its purpose:
needs in some way. • Religious institutions provided for people’s spiritual needs.
• They have written rules and formal • Wholesale and retail companies, banks and insurance companies
rewards and sanctions. provided an economic framework.
• They endure over several • Government institutions collected taxes and provided services. Each
generations.
of these services was provided by its own institutions: schools, colleges,
• They socialise members. hospitals, armies, police forces, even prisons.
• They have traditions, rituals and Sport and recreational activities were organised into teams, leagues,
symbols.
national and international associations. Within those institutions a
• They can change over time. common structure developed.

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ACTIVITIES
Each institution needed leadership, a definition of aims and means to achieve those
For any institution you aims. Within them hierarchies developed under an accepted leader, with department
know, give examples heads, deputies, assistants and their staff. They operated by set rules so that each person
of each of the within the organisation knew what was expected of him or her. They had set tasks and
characteristics listed these could be checked to ensure they had been carried out.
on page 86.
Many institutions have existed for centuries: religious organisations, trading groups,
parliamentary systems. As well as a common hierarchical structure, each developed its
own characteristics, robes, uniforms, traditions. Churches have set patterns of services,
their priests and officials wear robes which set them apart from their congregations.
Parliaments often follow ancient patterns of behaviour and have dress codes, some
of which were set down many years ago. Even commercial firms develop their own
way of distinguishing themselves from others and they have ceremonies of their own.
Sporting institutions have their own rituals of behaviour before, during and after their
competitive events.

Types of institutions
We can identify six different types of institutions in the Caribbean:
1. The family regulates the procreative and biological relations between individuals
in society and is responsible for the initial socialisation of the new members of each
generation. The family is perhaps the prime example of a social institution, though
others exist: educational, recreational, cultural and religious institutions (see below)
are also examples of social institutions.
2. Educational institutions such as schools and colleges deal with the socialisation of
children and young adults and the transmission of the culture and heritage of a
society from generation to generation. They also foster positive attitudes towards
learning and the acquisition of skills and knowledge. The University of the West
Indies is an example of a regional educational institution. Another is the Standing
Conference of Ministers responsible for education.
3. Cultural institutions provide conditions which facilitate the creation and
conservation of culture (including religious, artistic and historical artefacts) and
foster our cultural heritage. This type of institution includes recreational institutions
The crest of the University of
such as national Athletics Associations and the West Indies Cricket Board, as well as
the West Indies
national bodies to promote or safeguard African, Amerindian or East Indian culture.
4. Religious institutions such as churches, Islamic groups and other religious
organisations retain and nurture religious belief and morality. Many of these
organisations are worldwide ones, such as the Roman Catholic Church.
5. Economic institutions such as banks, airlines and port authorities regulate the
production, distribution and consumption of goods and services within any society.
You can read the mission statement of the Caribbean Development Bank on page 88.
6. Political institutions such as political parties and trade unions seek to implement
The LIAT Airline logo
various goals for the benefit of society as a whole. The difference in the goals often
determines the character of the institution. There are few, if any, political institutions that
can be described as regional, with the possible exception of CARICOM (see Chapter 7).

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CASE STUDY
Caribbean Development Bank
CDB’s mission statement
CDB intends to be the leading catalyst for development resources
into the region, working in an efficient, responsive and collaborative
manner with our borrowing members, and other development
partners, towards the systematic reduction of poverty in their
countries, through social and economic development.

We looked in detail at the family in Chapter 1 of this book, and we shall study political
and economic institutions in Chapter 4. Here we concentrate on educational, cultural,
economic and religious bodies that have the status of institutions.

Functions of institutions
Different institutions have different major functions or purposes which are covered
above. For example, the family produces and rears children, socialises them, provides
education and care and provides for the basic needs (food, shelter, clothing, safety) of
all its members.
Institutions also have some functions in common. They all do the following:
ACTIVITIES

• socialise their members

For each major type of • have values, norms and mores which help in social control
institution, make a list
of its main functions. • provide a sense of belonging for members
• encourage cooperation between members to reach common goals
• help to meet basic needs of their members.

Educational and recreational institutions

Earlier in this chapter we mentioned that education deals with the socialisation of the young
into adults and the transmission of the culture and heritage of a society from generation
to generation. But education embraces much more than that. It involves, for example:
• acquiring ‘academic’ skills and subject matter
• mastering occupational and practical skills (training)
• the development of aesthetic appreciation and analytical modes of thinking
• the formation of attitudes, values and aspirations
• the assimilation of pertinent knowledge and information of many sorts.
Education is a continuing process starting from earliest infancy and continuing through
adulthood. Educational institutions are involved in only part of that process, though
their role is an important one. Recreational institutions such as sports associations and
councils and other organisations providing leisure activities also have their part to play
in the process.

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Informal education
Informal education refers to the lifelong process whereby
every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and
knowledge from daily experience and the influences and
resources in his or her environment, such as family,
neighbours, play, work, the market place, the library and
the mass media. Informal education allows children to
learn a substantial vocabulary at home before going to
school, pick up occupational skills from their father and/
or mother and learn to attend to younger children by
assisting and observing their parents. Children also learn
from their peer group. The process does not come to an
end when we leave school but continues into old age.
Since leisure, particularly in a social context, is an
Children learn through play important part of this process, recreational institutions
are deeply involved in informal education.

Formal education
By formal education we
mean the structured,
chronologically graded
educational system,
running from primary
school through to
university and including
a variety of specialised
programmes and
institutions for full time,
technical and professional
training.

Non-formal education
Non-formal education
includes any organised
A formal secondary school classroom setting
educational activity
outside the established
formal system that is intended to serve identifiable learning
ACTIVITIES

groups and learning objectives. Some examples are:

Review your overall education over the past year or so • pre-school day care centres and nurseries
and divide the learning experiences into formal, non- • adolescent and adult literacy classes
formal and informal. Estimate the percentage of your
learning that was done in a formal setting. • school-based extracurricular activities such as maths
clubs, choirs and musical instrument lessons
• young farmers’ clubs, sports and recreational groups
• occupational training for adolescents in agriculture,
construction, etc. carried on outside the formal school
structure.

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A number of educational institutions exist whose remit

is Caribbean-wide and we shall look at these briefly here.

Regional educational institutions

Regional educational institutions exist to foster education
throughout the Caribbean region and to provide a link
between national educational institutions. For example:
• The Standing Conference of Ministers responsible
for education meets once every two years to consider
various programmes of regional education. They also
oversee the distribution of textbooks, the improvement
of facilities for secondary schools and education for
physically and mentally challenged children.
• The University of the West Indies (UWI), which
admitted its first students (to a MB degree) in 1948.
Students at UWI, Kingston, Jamaica Today it has campuses in three Caribbean territories.
As well as learning on campus, students also have the
option of ‘distance learning’ though the university’s
Open Campus.
• You will learn more about UWI in Chapter 5 of this
book (page 178).
• The Council of Legal Education is responsible for
providing the education and training of persons
wishing to qualify for the legal profession.
• The Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) was
established on 29 April 1972, with 14 participating
territories. It aims at providing relevant secondary
school examinations to replace, or as alternatives
to, those traditionally set by Overseas Examination
Boards and to ensure that the standard of those
examinations is regionally and internationally
recognised. This textbook is designed to help students
studying for the CXC Social Studies examination.
You will learn more about this and other regional
Textbooks for CXC students organisations in Chapter 7 of this book.

RESEARCH This DISCUSS This

ACTIVITIES

1 Research and write a case study about one or more of 3 a Identify some recreational institutions in your own
the regional educational institutions listed above and country or in the Caribbean region as a whole.
evaluate its importance as an educational institution in b Discuss in class the importance of recreation
the Caribbean. in the learning process and assess the value of
recreational institutions as vehicles for social
interaction.
2 Draw an organisational structure of your school. Include
the functions of the governing committee, the head
teacher and all staff.

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Changing the culture of the classroom

A report to UNESCO of the International Commission on many students feel invalidated but, with the pressure of
Education for the 21st Century identified four pillars of examinations, large classes, less compliant children,
education: less cooperative parents and less supportive Ministries,
many teachers also feel harassed and unappreciated. The
• Learning to know
pressures of this environment may result, in turn, in a host of
• Learning to do destructive, dysfunctional responses developed as copying
mechanisms by both teacher and student.
• Learning to be
One nineteenth century writer, Tryon Edwards, suggests
• Learning to live together
that ‘the great end of education is to discipline rather than
The exceptional and traditional success of the Caribbean to furnish the mind; to train it to the use of its own powers,
education system would seem to rest largely on the first rather than fill it with the accumulative of others’. Such a
two pillars but in view of the increasing aggression and the view would seem to support a broader idea of education as
promotion of anti-social role models in our society it is surely a means of empowering a child to develop, within himself,
time for educators in the Caribbean to give equal emphasis the personal, social and other skills needed to create a
to the other two pillars, namely: Learning to be and Learning successful and rewarding life within his environment.
to live together.
We have seen that the culture of the classroom in many (From W.W. Wiltshire Interim Sub-regional Report on ‘Changing the
Caribbean educational institutions is one in which Culture of the Classroom in the Caribbean’. UNESCO/CARNEID, 1999)

Recreational institutions
ACTIVITIES

Read the extract from the report ‘Changing the culture of Recreation or leisure is an essential activity for human
the classroom’. beings. Although many recreational activities are
informal, such as spending time with friends and family,
Discuss in groups whether you agree that the culture of
or going to the beach, others require organisation.
discuss This

the classroom needs to be changed. Consider whether

teachers’, pupils’ or parents’ attitudes are most in need Recreational institutions include all those major
of change if the changes recommended by the Report organisations providing leisure activities. Some of them
are to happen. are institutions with other functions, such as churches or
schools, or cultural institutions, but some have recreation
as their sole or main purpose. They include theatres
and drama groups, literary organisations, national and
international sports organisations such as Athletics
Associations, Scouts and Guides, conservation and
heritage organisations, and companies providing leisure
facilities.
Recreational activities are increasingly being
commercialised, with people paying to enjoy leisure
activities. People join leisure clubs providing sports
facilities such as gyms, swimming pools or golf courses.
Many people say their main leisure activity today is
shopping, and people often see eating out or getting take
away meals to share with friends as a leisure activity.
Cinemas, music and other leisure activities are all large
businesses, and tourism is a major leisure or recreational
business for the Caribbean.

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Recreational institutions provide leisure activities and facilities so that

ACTIVITIES
people can relax after work. They help to improve people’s mental and
1 Make a list of the various
physical health and also encourage cohesion in society, as members
recreational clubs and other
activities available in your interact together with common interests and goals.
community.

2 Use the checklist of the Religious institutions

characteristics of institutions above
Over the years many religions have become institutionalised, resulting
to decide whether the things on
in powerful religious organisations such as the Catholic Church which
your list are simply social groups or
whether they are institutions.
has been in existence for many centuries. Other Christian religious
institutions include Protestant denominations like the Baptist Church,
the Methodist Church, the Presbyterians and the Anglican Communion.
Their belief systems vary from those of the Catholic Church in detail but
they are also worldwide religious bodies. These often act as ‘umbrella
organisations’ for national denominational institutions. For example, the
Baptist Association of Belize has over 50 churches with 1965 members
and is part of the Baptist World Alliance.
One important religious institution is the Caribbean Conference of
Churches. You can read about the Conference in the case study on page 93.
There are also smaller-scale regional, national and local churches and
religious movements, some of which exist as independent religious
groups without the status of institutions. Many independent, evangelical
and Pentecostal churches fall into this category. One particular faith,
ACTIVITIES

Rastafarianism, is a cultural and religious movement rather than

Study some religious institutions in becoming institutionalised and has no central organising body.
your own country. Ask some of these
questions:
a Does the institution exist
Institutions in other world religions
purely for religious purposes or
is it involved in social, political Islam
or educational affairs? Islam has been institutionalised in a slightly different way from
b Does the institution exist Christianity. The Organisation of the Islamic Conference, set up in
independently of the religious
1969, links Islamic countries rather than religious groups within them.
group to which it is affiliated?
However, smaller, more localised institutions also operate, such as the
c Does the institution allow only
Central Islamic Organisation of Guyana (CIOG), formed in 1979, which
believers to work for its purposes
works to help poor Muslims in Guyana. The Trinidad Muslim League,
or is it open to non-believers?
founded in 1950 to support Muslims, has built a number of mosques
and schools in Trinidad and Tobago. Port of Spain, Trinidad, is also the
headquarters of the Caribbean Islamic Secretariat.

Hinduism
Hinduism has a World Hindu Conference, held every few years (one was held at the
UWI, St Augustine in Trinidad in 2000), at which matters of importance to Hindus
are discussed but few religious institutions as such. Hinduism has not attracted many
religious adherents outside those of East Indian descent. It is a world religion because
of the spread of East Indian people to different countries, particularly in the Caribbean,
but is a cultural belief system rather than an institutionalised religion. Hindu religious
institutions in the Caribbean are mainly cultural ones, for example Sanatana Dharma
Maha Sabha in Trinidad, though Hindus as a group are committed to the social and economic
development of their countries and are particularly involved in educational provision.

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CASE STUDY
The Caribbean Conference of Churches • Priority Regional Initiatives (PRIs), including: Drug
Demand Reduction; Youth, Family Life and Gender Affairs;
The Caribbean Conference of Food Security; HIV/AIDS Response; Uprooted People; and
Churches (CCC) was established in Violence Mitigation.
1973. It is the main ecumenical or
interdenominational organisation • Sustainable Socio-Economic Development Programmes,
currently covering Poverty Reduction, and Disaster
of the region and includes
Management with a focus on Disaster Mitigation,
Christian churches and groups
Preparedness and Response.
from across the whole Caribbean
region, not just the Commonwealth • The Regional Advocacy and Communications (ADCOM)
Caribbean. It is also a major Programme which seeks to bring to the forefront of public
development agency. It comprises awareness the many critical issues facing the region’s
33 member churches, from a wide range of denominations. people. The CCC also acts as an advocate for vulnerable
Its mandate is Promoting Ecumenism and Social Change in groups whose voice is not heard and works to enhance
Obedience to Jesus Christ and in Solidarity with the Poor. inter-denominational dialogue between and amongst
different denominations and faith groups.
The CCC has three sub-regional programme centres:
1. The Trinidad Programme Centre in Curepe, Trinidad (which
• The International Relations Programme arising from
CCC’s awareness of the plurality of ethnicity, religion,
is also the location of its Head Office) looks after the language, culture and social institutions that comprise
southern territories of the Caribbean including Guyana, the Caribbean region. The CCC approach to international
Suriname and the Leeward Netherlands Antilles. relations is to work with professionals and with other
2. The Antigua Programme Centre in St John’s, Antigua groups to promote the concept of integration as a way
covers the north-east area of the region including the of illustrating the unity in diversity which is an aspect of
French-speaking territories of Guadeloupe, Martinique ecumenism.
and St Maartens.
• The Caribbean Ecumenical Institute focuses on the
3. The Jamaica Programme Centre in Kingston, Jamaica following major areas: Theological Issues, including issues
covers the north-west area of the region, including the of social justice, faith and order, and interfaith issues;
non-Commonwealth Caribbean countries Cuba, the Development including the exploration of new paradigms
Dominican Republic, Haiti and Puerto Rico. of development appropriate to the region; Praxis Issues
The organisation is governed by a general assembly made such as equipping church personnel and development
up of representatives of member churches, including workers with managerial and motivational skills; and
women and youth representatives. The assembly appoints Culture as it is linked with theology and development.
a Continuation Committee which meets twice yearly. The CCC works with many other organisations on
The Continuation Committee is headed by a Praesidium development and social issues, in particular with CARICOM.
consisting of three presidents (one of whom must be a For example, the organisation is participating in a number of
woman). There is also a Secretariat headed by the General HIV/AIDS-related projects; holds membership on CARICOM’s
Secretary, who is responsible for the day-to-day management Pan Caribbean Partnership Against HIV/AIDS (PANCAP); and
of the organisation. is committed to implementation of the Caribbean Regional
Strategic Framework on HIV/AIDS 2007–11.
CCC’s work focuses on a number of programme initiatives.
These are: If you have access to the internet, you can find out more
about the CCC by going to www.ccc-caribe.org.
ACTIVITIES

Read the case study on the Caribbean Council of Churches b Identify the norms and values associated with the
carefully. organisation.
a Draw a diagram showing the structure of the CCC. c In what way is the motto a specifically Christian one?

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Cultural institutions

Three levels of culture

Culture can be divided into three levels:
1. Elements such as objects or artefacts, which constitute the material achievements of
a culture (towns, buildings, clothing, utensils, etc.).This is material culture.
2. The science, ideas, and values which constitute the spiritual and mental
accomplishments of a culture (music, dance, customs, ceremonies and rituals, myths,
religion, etc.). This is non-material culture.
3. Modes or standards of conduct, behaviour and relationships, which constitute the
social achievements of a culture (the family, marriage, social division of labour,
maintenance of good health, etc.)
These three levels are inter-related. They are also related to the economic and political
aspects of a particular culture or society which underpin the maintenance of a healthy
culture. Culture represents the total way of life of a people. It involves the way they eat,
look, speak, plant and reap crops, produce goods, enjoy recreation and so on. Any
change, such as the introduction of new technology, for example, may disrupt this
balance and lead to a cultural adjustment.

Creole cultural institutions

Caribbean culture is a Creole culture. This means that it is derived from African, East
Indian, Chinese and European cultures which have fused to give a new culture. The
formal institutions, such as government, are mainly European in nature, while the
family, kinship patterns and many religious beliefs
owe more to our African ancestors. For example, the
Material achievements
matriarchal family has its roots in African kinship;
religious practices such as Obeah and Vodum are direct
descendants of African animist beliefs; and our ideas of
self-help and exchange, such as Su Su, also owe much
to our African heritage. The presence of East Indians,
Chinese and other minority groups have all had
considerable influence on the culture of the region.
Cultural institutions include organisations which look
Spiritual and mental achievements after our material culture, such as museums and art
galleries and heritage organisations, such as the Trinidad
National Trust. They also include sports organisations,
such as the West Indies Cricket Board, festivals such as
CARIFESTA, and organisations which promote and
organise dance, music and other aspects of culture. Their
functions are to preserve and promote our Caribbean
culture, encouraging young people to participate and
Social achievements encouraging high standards.

Economic and political institutions

We shall study these two types of institutions together
because they are often linked in reality. Some institutions,
for example trade unions, fall into both categories

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

because they fulfil the functions of both an economic institution and a political one.
Others may serve political ends, for example economic think-tanks may carry out their
economic research from a political viewpoint, either right-wing or left-wing.

Economic institutions
Purely economic institutions are responsible for regulating and facilitating the
production, distribution and consumption of goods and services within society. In every
society people have needs and wants which must be satisfied. In order to satisfy these
they must rely on the natural resources available in the society. You will learn more
about the use of resources in Section B of this book.

What is an economic institution?

Economic institutions include banks, cooperatives, produce markets, superstores, port
authorities, electricity, water and telephone companies, and national or regional airlines.
Economic institutions include both public-sector and private-sector firms and organisations.
(The box below explains the difference between the public sector and the private sector.)

Functions of economic institutions

The main function of economic institutions is to enable people to satisfy their basic
needs for food, water, clothing and shelter. Different economic institutions also have
specialised functions. For example, banks exist to enable people to borrow and save
money. Manufacturing companies produce goods we need from raw materials and
provide jobs and incomes for workers. Shops enable people to purchase items they need,
provide distribution for manufacturers and provide jobs.
ACTIVITIES

Public-sector institutions
1 List the types of economic institutions in your Most public-sector economic and financial organisations
nearest town. would be seen as institutions as they are part of our
2 For each type say what its functions are. national life. The case study on the Caribbean Utilities
Company in the Cayman Islands shows how a public-
sector utility company, for example, can be heavily
involved in national life.
• National banks. Many commercial banks in the
Caribbean are multinationals with head offices in
FACT the UK or USA. National banks such as the Central
Bank of Jamaica work closely with the government
Public sector and private sector and service smaller banks rather than dealing direct
The public sector is controlled by the state. The private with customers.
sector is owned and controlled by private individuals. For
example:
• Most port authorities. The case study on the BVI
Port Authority gives some idea of their work.
Public sector Private sector • Utility companies, i.e. water, electric and telephone
companies. These do not have to be in the public
Nationalised industries Small businesses and
sector; there is a move towards privatising these
partnerships
bodies to encourage competition in utility provision.
Public corporations Cooperatives (See case study on Caribbean Utilities Company Ltd,
page 97.)
Municipal undertakings Limited liability companies

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Private-sector institutions
Private-sector companies may be established enough and respected
enough to become economic institutions.
• Many insurance companies, for example, are seen in this way, even
when they are privately owned.
• A long-established airline such as Virgin Atlantic would also count.
• Cooperative movements are economic institutions too (see Chapter 9).
• Retail organisations linking shops and distribution companies may
be classed as economic institutions. However, a small store or market
stall would not in itself be seen as an institution, only as part of a
group institution, the retail outlet.

The Central Bank of Jamaica in Kingston

CASE STUDY
British Virgin Islands Port Authority
Mission statement History
The provision and maintenance of the required sea transportation The British Virgin Islands Ports Authority
infrastructure for the British Virgin Islands, and the efficient and effective was established by the British Virgin Islands
handling of the related cargo and passenger operations. Ports Authority Act 1990. It is solely owned
by the Government of the British Virgin
Islands. The Authority began its operations
in January 1991. Before the establishment
of the Authority most Port Authority functions
had been carried out by the Ports and Marine
Services Department.

Structure
The Ports Authority is governed by a Board.
The members of the Board include a chairman,
deputy chairman, five other members, and
three ex-officio members. The Authority is also
a member of the American Association of Port
Authorities.
Address to write to for more information:
British Virgin Islands Ports Authority
Port Purcell
P.O. Box 4, Road Town
Tortola, British Virgin Islands

Cruise ship passengers at the British Virgin Islands port in Road Town

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

CASE STUDY
Caribbean Utilities Company Ltd (CUC) • Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) programme in
schools
The company is based in Grand Cayman, the largest of the
three Cayman Islands. It began operations in May 1966 • The 911 Emergency Communications programme
as the only publicly-owned electricity supplier in Grand • International College of the Cayman Islands building fund
Cayman. It has over 200 employees and more than 20,000
customers. It provides selected school-leavers with a five-
• Improvement of Seven Mile, North Side and East End
Public Beach facilities
week vocational training programme with the Company. It is
an official examination centre for the London-based City and • Provision of toy corners in all district health clinics.
Guilds (C&G) and the UK’s National Examination Board for CUC is working towards more environmentally friendly power
Supervisory Management. supply by implementing an Environmental Management
System and working towards the international environmental
As well as providing electricity to the people of Grand Cayman,
management accreditation standard known as ISO-14001.
CUC is involved in various projects in the community. It
New electricity substations being built are designed to look
established a Community Involvement Team in 1998 to
like a traditional Cayman house so as to blend in with the
enable employee volunteers to approach young people’s
neighbourhood.
work effectively. Here are some examples of community
projects which the CUC has supported in recent years: If you want to know more, CUC has a dedicated website at
http://www.cuc-cayman.com.
ACTIVITIES

Read the case studies on CUC and the BVI Port Authority. b Find out more about one of the institutions you

RESEARCH This
a Write down some examples of economic institutions named in section a and write a case study on it.
in your country or island. Explain why you have
chosen these.

Political institutions
As we have seen, political institutions include political parties and other political
organisations. They exist to promote political activity and involvement and to achieve
political goals.

Political parties
Political parties can be found in all the Caribbean islands. These emerged as part of the
development of representative government in the early years of the 20th century.
The main characteristic of a political party is that it has been formed to influence or
to control the political institutions of a society. All political parties are to some extent
associated with certain ideologies (ideas) that influence their ideas about which policies
are best. These ideologies are sometimes described as right-wing (conservative) or
How many parties does left-wing (socialist). Most parties in the Caribbean fall somewhere in the middle –
neither very right-wing nor very left-wing. A party’s manifesto sets out its policies for
your country have? Are
government if it is elected.
they left-wing, right-wing
or a mixture? The ideology of a particular party is often based on its history, for example whether it grew
up as part of a political movement such as a trade union or grew out of an uprising or

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

FACT
rebellion. Many political parties arose because their leaders had been active trade unionists
Political parties who decided to lead a political movement working towards independence or a fairer deal
in Guyana for workers. The case study on Jamaican political parties in the 1930s and 1940s below
• Guyana Democratic shows how party politics developed in one Commonwealth Caribbean country.
Party
• Guyana Action Party
RESEARCH This
• National Front

ACTIVITIES
Alliance
1 a Write a list of the political parties which contest general elections in your country.
• People’s National Which would you say are the main parties?
Congress *
b Beside each party on your list write a short description of the political stance it
• People’s Progressive takes. Is it left-wing, right-wing or centrist? Does it see itself as representing a
Party * particular class or ethnic group?
• Rise Organise and c Find out more about one political party and its history (how it developed).
Rebuild Guyana
• The United Force

RESEARCH This
2 Use the internet or your local public library or school library to find out more about the
• Working People’s political parties in a different Caribbean country from your own. Draw a table showing
Alliance the names of the parties, and add a second column giving the main policies of each party.
* Majority parties

CASE STUDY
The People’s National
Party and the Jamaica
Labour Party
After the Caribbean-wide
rebellions and disturbances of
1938, many people in Jamaica
decided to develop their own
political parties and press for
more representative government.
The first political party to be
formed was the People’s National
Party (PNP). This was founded
specifically to give the middle Norman Manley Alexander Bustamante
classes a voice and foster
middle-class leadership. Norman
Manley, a successful barrister, was its leader. At first the party tried to appeal to everyone, not only the middle classes.
In the end, however, their attempt to speak for all Jamaicans failed and Alexander Bustamante, one of the other leaders of the
PNP, founded a new party, the Jamaican Labour Party (JLP), in 1943. This gained support from the success of his trade union,
the Bustamante Industrial Trade Union (BITU). The PNP acted as a pressure group on the government to gain a new constitution
for Jamaica in 1944, but the JLP won the elections held in 1945 and formed the first fully representative government under
the new constitution. They won again in 1949. However, in the 1950s the voters swung the other way and the PNP was the
dominant party. In the 1960s the JLP again returned to power. At first the JLP had opposed independence, believing that it would
not benefit the black working man, but by the 1960s they agreed with the PNP that independence was bound to come. They
concentrated on ensuring that working people were not dominated by the middle classes in the new independent Jamaica.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Trade unions and employers’ associations

These are often seen as counterparts: trade unions acting for and representing working
people who are their members while employers’ associations do the same for the
employers. However, there is a real sense in which trade unions are much more political
in their outlook than employers’ associations. Both are also important social groups.

Trade unions
In the Caribbean, trade unions have played and continue to play an important part in
the economic, political and social lives of people in all walks of life. Trade unions were
in the forefront in the struggle for independence in many countries for both political and
economic reasons, as we saw in the case study on the development of Jamaica’s political
parties (page 98). Most of today’s political leaders have had some connection with a
trade union. The majority of the labour force in every territory belongs to a trade union.
A trade union is an organisation of persons employed in an industry or following a
particular trade who have joined together in order to improve their wages and working
conditions. The trade union is a complex body with many levels of activity, as you can
see in the diagram below.

Figure 3.4  Complex trade union structure

Union Conference
Supreme policy-making
body

General Secretary
Executive Committee
Responsible for day-to-day
Effective leadership
running of union

Division I Division II Division III

or Branch or Branch or Branch

Division or Branch
Committees handle
Division or Branch business

Shop stewards in touch

with members at
plant

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FACT The main activities of trade unions

1. Collective bargaining: A trade union which represents a substantial
Caribbean workers’
proportion of employees in a firm (above 50%) is in the position of
education institutions a monopoly supplier of labour and therefore has greater bargaining
• Cipriani College of Labour and power than the individual workers would have if they had to negotiate
Cooperative Studies on their own for wages and working conditions.
• Butler Institute of Labour 2. Social activities: The union is the means through which employees
• Suriname Labour College (SIVIS) may express their views not only on industrial matters but also on
• Critchlow Labour College social issues. Some trade unions perform social functions by looking
after the interests of their members who are sick, unemployed,
• Barbados Workers’ Union Labour recovering from illness or retired.
College
• Trade Union Education Institute 3. Political activism: Trade unions have had in the past, and still
maintain even today, links with political parties. In many Caribbean
• Public Workers’ Academy islands the political leaders are also the trade union leaders in their
countries. Some trade unions even sponsor members to run for
political office.
4. Educational provision: Many trade unions have set aside funds for
the further education of their members and for children of members.
There are also some Trade Union Colleges in the region which offer
Why do you think some of these institutes
courses in trade union principles and practices to their members. A list
are named after prominent trade unionists? of worker’s educational institutions of this kind is given in the box above.

FACT Types of unions

Unions come in many different shapes and sizes, with different goals (see
Trade unions in Antigua examples from Antigua and Barbuda opposite).
and Barbuda, 2004
The list below is neither exclusive nor comprehensive, but it gives a
• Antigua Trades and Labour Union reasonable picture of the variety of union activity in the Caribbean.
• Antigua and Barbuda Workers’ Union • Craft unions: These are unions in which all the members, irrespective
• Antigua and Barbuda Public Services of the industry in which they work, practise the same craft or trade
Association and follow the same occupation, for example shoemakers.
• Antigua and Barbuda Union of • Industrial unions: As the name suggests, all members of such unions
Teachers are employed in the same industry, for example oil or bauxite.
• Antigua and Barbuda Meteorological • General unions: These are very common in the Caribbean and are
Officers Association unions in which the members are of many trades and employed in
• Antigua and Barbuda Nurses many industries.
Association (ABNA) • Staff unions: These are unions in which members are all ‘white-
collared’ workers (clerks and office staff.)
In many countries trade unions have joined together to form congresses
or councils, such as the Caribbean Congress of Labour which has affiliated
members in most of the Caribbean islands.
Find examples of these types of unions in
your own country or island.
Strategies of trade unions
Trade unions and their leaders have a number of strategies that they use
to promote their goals. These include:
• Negotiations, in which they put the case to the employers for higher
wages, better working conditions, etc.

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• Industrial action, including strikes (where labour is withdrawn altogether), working

to rule (which excludes overtime or any out-of-the-ordinary working arrangement)
• Demonstrations and other protests, in which non-members of the union may
join to show solidarity and support for union members.
Some of these strategies may be directed at the government rather than the employer
with whom the trade union is negotiating. They may therefore have a political goal,
such as gaining more power and/or influence for the working class in national life.

FACT
One man’s opinion: Roles of Trade Unions
A leading Caribbean economist has suggested the following roles for trade unions in the
Caribbean. As you can see, these include political, economic and social aspects.

Main goals
• The economic and political emancipation of the mass of West Indians.
• Better wages and improved working conditions for the working classes.

Future role
• To secure social justice and dignity for the masses.

Economic role
• Fostering greater economic independence and strengthening of economics by formulating
policies designed to gain national control of, and participation in, the economy and
strengthening the economies in the region.
• Stimulating initiative and self-reliance among the masses by creating productive
enterprises and financial institutions owned and controlled by unions.
• Finding ways and means of improving know-how among the people of the region.
• Strengthening a regional integration movement.
• Devising strategies and contributions to plans aimed at the reduction of the levels of
unemployment.

Political role
• To work for the political unity of the region.
• To assist in the development of an authentic Caribbean ideology of development and
social change. ‘We must stop using imported ideas and institutions and think in terms of
localising our institutions and ideas.’

Social and cultural role

• The encouragement of an authentic West Indian culture.
• Trade union movements must assist in the organisation of, and must facilitate the greater
expression of, indigenous culture.
• Trade unions must advise government of the restructuring of the educational system in the
region. Call for greater emphases on vocational, technical and agricultural education.

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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

Employers’ associations
In many countries wage negotiations are conducted by trade unions with employers’
associations. For example, in Barbados there is the Barbados Employers’ Confederation,
Make a list of some of the the Barbados Hotel Association and the Sugar Producers’ Association.
employers’ associations in
Employers’ associations are usually organised by industry and by area and serve as a
your own country. counterpart to the trade unions. They are linked through the Caribbean Employers’
Association.

Negotiating strategies
Employers’ associations take part in negotiations with trade unions over working
conditions, rates of pay and so on. When negotiations break down, they may counter
strikes and work-to-rule arrangements with lock-outs where union members are
forbidden to enter the workplace.
In some countries there are industrial courts, tribunals or arbitration schemes to help
employers’ associations and trade unions to settle their differences without industrial strife.

FACT
Stages in trade union and management negotiations
Negotiation takes place between representatives of workers (trade unions) and management.
If they cannot reach agreement and talks break down then the following may take place:
• the trade union may ask its members if they wish to take industrial action, for example
strike
• very rarely the employers may lock out workers during a dispute.
To avoid a strike the parties may seek advice, conciliation or arbitration.
1. Advice is usually when outsiders from government departments, such as the Department
of Industry or Labour, or from a Trade Union Congress, meet with one or both sides and
informally advise them how best to compromise to reach a deal.
2. Conciliation is a voluntary arrangement by which one or both sides request outside help
to try to solve the dispute. Mediation is a similar process but a mediator makes formal but
ACTIVITIES

non-binding recommendations.
Imagine a situation
where social control 3. Arbitration is used when conciliation has failed. One arbitrator or a panel of arbitrators
look at the situation and hear the views of both sides and make a judgement. The parties in
has broken down,
dispute have first to agree to be bound by whatever decision is made.
perhaps in the
classroom or the
youth club. What will
be the effect of this
anarchy and what do Anarchy
you think other bodies A situation where institutions (particularly government) do not exert social control is
might do to prevent
called anarchy. This arises either where suitable institutions do not exist or where they are
it spreading? Would
not respected by society in general. Where it happens, it brings wholesale conflict (usually
you be on the side of
civil war), economic and social disruption and a deep sense of personal insecurity. Thus,
the anarchists or the
institutions working to while it is natural in most human beings, particularly when young, to rebel against
restore order? social control – whether in the family, at school or from government/the law – we
destroy or undermine such institutions at our peril. In the next chapter, we shall look
in detail at government as an institution and how important good government is.

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ACTIVITIES

1 a Look at the list of trade unions in Antigua and 4 Read the box entitled ‘One man’s opinion: Roles of trade
Barbuda (page 100) and put them into the categories unions’.

discuss This
given under ‘Types of union’ on page 100. Explain in a Discuss these roles in class. Do you think all of
each case why you have chosen the category. Are any them are valid roles for trade unions?
of the trade unions listed difficult to place? b Pick out the political roles and goals suggested by
b Are there any types of trade unions which do not the economist.
exist in Antigua and Barbuda? If so, suggest some
reasons for this.
5 Compile a list of employers’ associations in your
c Visit a website giving details of trade unions (for
territory. Are these direct counterparts of the trade
example, the International Labour Organisation’s
unions or do their roles overlap?
Caribbean website is at http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/)
and make up a list of trade unions in your own or
another Caribbean territory. Carry out exercise a Figure 3.5  Trade union membership in Barbados
above on this list. (percentage of work force)

2 a Find out about one trade union in your own or

RESEARCH This

another territory and write a case study on the

different activities it undertakes. 50%

b Explain how this trade union carries out the various

activities listed on page 100. 40%

30%
3 a Use the graph opposite to analyse the trends in trade
union membership in Barbados in the first few years
RESEARCH This

20%
of the 21st century. By 2012 the percentage had
dropped to 30%. Can you explain why this might have
happened? 10%

b Try to find out some figures for trade union

membership in the Caribbean as a whole or in your 0%
2000 2001 2002
own territory. Draw a graph to illustrate these and
then compare your graph with the one for Barbados. TOTAL TRADE UNION MEMBERSHIP (APPROX)

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
2000 2001 2002
TOTAL TRADE UNION MEMBERSHIP (APPROX)
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 3   Our cultural diversity, social groups and institutions

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• We have a rich cultural heritage, with native • Group cohesion requires leadership, control,
Caribbean, African and European origins which cooperation, authority, commitment and loyalty.
influence our beliefs, traditions, crafts, music and
literature. There are five main religions: Christianity, • Interaction within and among groups includes
Hinduism, Islam, Judaism and Rastafarianism. competition, conflict, cooperation and compromise.

• We can categorise groups in a number of ways: • Institutions form an essential part of modern
primary and secondary, or formal and informal. social, political and economic life. They endure
However, the different categories often overlap. over time, can be modified, influence the
working of society and can form the basis of the
• One good example of a primary group is the peer development of organisations.
group. Many groups can be called interest groups.
• Institutions usually have a hierarchical structure,
• Characteristics of social groups include structure, specific functions, written rules, fixed sanctions,
common goals, membership, marks of identity, symbols and rituals.
common needs, interests and values, rules and
regulations, established patterns of behaviour, • Institutions have economic, educational,
cooperation to achieve common goals, sanctions. recreational, religious and political functions.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Write down the meaning of the following d Write a plan of action for founding the club,
terms and use each one correctly in a sentence: including buying equipment, arranging
primary group, secondary group, formal group, use of a suitable room, recruiting and
informal group, peer group, involuntary group communicating with members, and
membership, culture, society, folkways, norms, selecting a leader.
mores, laws, sanctions.
4 Use the information given in this chapter and
2 a Make a list of the characteristics of an institution. your own research to write notes for essays on
You should have at least four in your list. the following:

b Identify one example of each of the a the feasibility and desirability of a ‘classless
following, and give its functions: society’
i) educational institutions; ii) religious b the role of social groups and institutions in
institutions; iii) economic institutions social control
c Explain how an institution gives stability to c how the three levels of culture are interlinked
society. d the importance of recreational institutions
e the advantages and disadvantages of
3 You are helping to set up a new school club in
uniform as a mark of group identity
response to demand from other students.
f the criteria that should be used for selecting
a Write down the specific characteristics the a leader in different types of groups
group will have, including when and where
it will meet and what its objectives are. g the role of trade unions in today’s Caribbean
region.
b Create a structure for the club, including
rules, and the number and election of officers. Choose one of the essay titles and write up your
c Set a minimum and a maximum number of notes as a properly constructed essay paper of
members, if required. between 1000 and 1500 words.

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 4 Government

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• describe electoral processes and systems of electing governments in the Caribbean
Commonwealth countries
• describe how political parties prepare for elections
• explain what factors influence the results of elections
• describe the factors that influence voter participation in elections
• understand and explain the different types of government in the Caribbean Commonwealth
• describe the structure of government
• evaluate the functions of government
• describe the relationship between citizens and government as set out in the constitution
• identify the essentials of good governance
• interpret statistical data in the form of tables, graphs and charts related to elections.

Terms you should know

absolute majority majority which is large enough to allow the winning political party to form a government without the
help of another party
authoritarian a government which governs according to its own wishes, ignoring the wishes of the electorate
ballot any kind of vote
bicameral having two rooms or houses (of parliament)
cabinet the council which advises the executive, usually comprising the chief ministers or heads of various
government departments
candidate a person who stands for election
coalition two or more political parties working together
constitution the body of laws or fundamental principles according to which a nation is governed
constitutional monarchy political system where the monarch is a figurehead and the real business of government is carried on
by parliament and the ministers
constituency the group of voters who elect a representative to the legislature and are represented by him or her
crown colony system system of colonial government where the colony was ruled direct from the UK through the governor,
rather than having representative government of its own
democracy a government based on elections by which people can choose their representatives in that
government
dependent territory a self-governing country which does not have full independence

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dictatorship rule by one person without legal authority

electorate all persons qualified to vote in an election
executive the organ of government dealing with the everyday administration of a state or country
ex-officio belonging to a body because you hold a particular position in another organisation
first past the post a voting system in which the voters have one choice and the candidate with the largest number of
votes wins
franchise the extent of the right to vote (perhaps votes for everyone over 18 or perhaps restricted to men or
property owners only)
floating voter a voter who is not loyal to one party but votes for different parties in different elections
hung parliament the result of an election in which no party has a majority of seats in parliament
Government of national a government consisting of two or more parties (a coalition) sometimes formed to deal with an
unity emergency situation
legislature the organ of government invested with the power to make laws for a state or country
manifesto document setting out the policies of a political party
one-party state state in which only one party is permitted to field candidates for election
proportional representation system of voting where the proportion of votes won by a particular party determines the number of
seats that party has in parliament
political party a group of candidates believing in agreed policies, standing together for election, usually hoping to
form a majority government or to govern as part of a coalition
public expenditure money spent by government on goods and services to benefit citizens
referendum special vote on an important issue, in which voters respond directly rather than through their
parliamentary representatives
representative democracy government by the people of a country through their representatives in parliament
republic a country where the head of state is a president rather than a monarch
revenue income of a government from taxes, tariffs and duties, fines and other levies
universal adult suffrage situation where every adult can vote for members of parliament
voters’ list the list of people eligible to vote who have registered before an election

What is government?
Government can be defined as ‘the actions and decision-making involved in ruling a
country’. It is the process of governing and also the organisation or body responsible for
controlling and administering a state or country.
The group of people we call ‘the government’ is the body given the responsibility of
making, refining and enforcing the law on behalf of all the citizens of a country. Most
governments are also involved in the day-to-day administration of a country through
different ministerial departments. In many countries there is local as well as national
discuss This
government.
ACTIVITIES

Discuss: What is Government is the most important political institution we have. Without government,
government and why it is difficult for social institutions to continue to operate control mechanisms. In other
is it necessary? words, social control has to be backed up by law, and government creates law.

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How governments are formed

Some governments come to power through force, after a civil war or a military coup or
through colonisation by another country. These are not democratic governments.
Democratic governments are those which are elected by their citizens through universal
adult suffrage. This means that all adults have one vote in a general election. Most
governments in the Caribbean are democratic, but not all.
Identify some non-
democratic governments
in the Caribbean.
Electing a government (the electoral process)
Four types of party system in the Commonwealth Caribbean have been seen in recent
history. These systems are:

One-party system
In such a system all other parties are either completely outlawed or are permitted to
exist only on condition that they do not challenge the dominance of the party in power.
This was the case in Grenada under the People’s Revolutionary Government and is also
the case in Cuba.

Two-party system
There is a two-party system whenever the existence of a third party does not prevent
the two major parties from governing alone; in other words, where coalitions are
unnecessary. The main characteristics of such a system are:
• two parties are in a position to compete for an absolute majority of seats
• at least one of the two parties actually succeeds in winning a sufficient majority
• this party is willing to govern alone
• each party has a reasonable expectation of gaining power in the future.
The system can be found, for example, in Barbados, Jamaica, Antigua and St Kitts. It is
the most common party system not only in the Caribbean but elsewhere in the world
too. Two-party systems permit smaller, minority parties to exist, especially when a
proportional representation system is used for elections.

Multi-party system
This is a system where there are three or more parties contending more or less equally
in most or all elections. It is found in Dominica. However, Dominica’s ‘first past the
post’ electoral system prevents coalition government from occurring there as often as
one would expect in a multi-party system. Instead, power tends to pass from one party
to another with the winning party holding an absolute majority.

Predominant-party system
This is a system where one party is dominant, but other parties are permitted to exist.
Although they are rarely elected, they are truly independent of and in competition with
Which kind of party the predominant party and all parties have an equal start. The system is a truly plural
system do you have in party system; rotation simply does not occur because the policies of the dominant party
are preferred by the electorate. The same party manages to win, in every election, an
your country?
absolute majority of seats in parliament. This is the situation in Trinidad and Tobago.

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Electoral systems

Ways of voting
In most Caribbean countries there is universal adult suffrage. Every adult citizen has
the right to vote in elections for representatives at national and local levels of government
and for presidents if the country is a republic.
The electoral (voting) system determines the kind of elections we hold and lays down the
rules and procedures to be followed. There are two main types of electoral system, each
ACTIVITIES

with different voting rules. Both ask citizens to fill in a voting form, called a ballot paper,
Look at the table usually by putting a cross or mark beside the candidate or candidates the elector wishes to
below. Explain why vote for. The ballot paper is then put in a special ballot box which is sealed and may not be
the electoral system opened by anyone apart from the person given the task of counting the votes. The way the
was ‘unfair’ in each ballot paper is to be filled in varies according to the type of electoral system being used.
of the years shown.
Which parties lost
out on seats? Can 1  First past the post
you suggest why In most Caribbean countries the simple majority of ‘first past the post’ system is
this might have followed. In this system, in a contest between two or more candidates for a seat in
happened? parliament, the candidate who polls the most votes wins the seat. Electors are given a
ballot paper on which the names of all candidates are listed. He or she marks a cross
beside the preferred candidates, folds the
ballot paper and puts it in the ballot box.
Table 4.1  Dominica general elections, 1995–2009
This system favours the two-party
system (see below), since it is difficult
for minor parties to win sufficient seats
to gain power. This is why critics of it
consider the system to be unfair: it is
quite possible for a party to have gained
a good percentage of the votes and yet
win only a small number of seats. Table
4.1 shows the figures for elections in
Dominica where that happened to the
opposition parties.
The ‘first past the post’ system can also
produce a result where a party (or candidate)
wins more votes than his or her rival, but
is not elected. This happened in the 2000
election in Dominica (see Table 4.1).
The system tends to create stable and
infrequently changing governments, but
when the government does change hands,
there are sometimes sudden shifts in policy.

2  Proportional representation
The other major electoral system is
proportional representation which
is used in Guyana and some other non-
The Legislative Assembly, Georgetown, Guyana

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Caribbean South American countries. This favours the multi-party

system. It is designed to give fair shares to the parties by ensuring that
the number of seats they win is more or less proportional to the number
of votes they poll; so, if a party wins one-sixth of the votes it will get one-
sixth of the seats. It tends to create fluid (critics say unstable) governments
which change frequently, since the government is formed by a coalition
of two or more parties. It is also more difficult to count the votes, so the
process takes longer.
There are several different kinds of proportional representation. The two
most commonly used are the single transferable vote and multi-member
constituencies.

Single transferable vote

This is sometimes used in individual or single-member constituencies
where one MP only is to be elected. Under this system the elector votes for
as many candidates as he or she wishes, giving them a ranking (the first-
choice candidate is given a one). The two (or sometimes three) candidates
with the most ‘I’ votes go through to a second round. The votes given to
those two or three candidates by voters whose first choice was another
candidate are then counted as well. The candidate with the most votes
overall is the winner and is declared member for the constituency.
Example: Xavier Valentine votes for several candidates on his ballot
paper. (Look at the example ballot paper on the left; in a real ballot paper,
of course, the candidates would be named individually.)
As you can see, Xavier’s favourite candidate was Candidate C. He also
voted for Candidates D, A and F, in that order. He did not want Candidates
B or E elected at all – he didn’t agree with their policies – so he did not
Example ballot paper give them any ranking.

Multi-member constituency
In a multi-member constituency a region or a whole country is treated
as one constituency, but each constituency has several representatives.
The number of MPs in a multi-member constituency varies from country
to country, sometimes according to the size of the population of that
particular constituency.
The ballot paper for this type of election asks the elector to vote for a
certain number of candidates (sometimes the number of MPs being elected
for that constituency). The candidates with the most votes are elected.
Example: Sonia Hussein is voting in a multi-member constituency
which has five MPs. Her ballot paper looks like the one on the left.
As you can see, Sonia voted for five candidates: F, D, B, J, and A. This
was the maximum number of candidates she could vote for under this
system. It is normally permitted, however, to vote for a smaller number
of candidates. It would have been possible for Sonia to vote for just
candidates F, D and B, for example, if she wanted.
Example ballot paper

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The advantages and disadvantages of The advantages and disadvantages of

the first past the post system proportional representation
Advantages Advantages
• There is a close relationship between the candidate or • There are no constituencies and so each person’s vote is
representative and their constituency. equally valuable and effective.
• Each constituency has a specific representative whom • Party strength in parliament accurately reflects the
they can hold to account. number of votes cast.
• The representative is more likely to work hard for a • Each representative has been elected to work for the whole
constituency member whom they directly represent. country, not simply those in a small area of the country.
• It tends to produce majority governments with clear cut Disadvantages
election results.
• Voters do not have anyone who specifically represents
• It avoids encouraging racial and other differences them.
between people.
• It can encourage divisions in society between racial or
Disadvantages other groups.
• Minority interests and smaller parties are often not • The balance of power in a coalition government may
represented in parliament or in government. be held by smaller parties who demand things for their
supporters which are not wanted by the majority.
• It may not be seen as strictly fair as constituency
boundaries can never be fairly drawn. • Representatives may be less willing to go against
their party leaders as it is they who are responsible
for the candidate selection instead of local people in a
constituency.
• It is more difficult to count the votes and election results
take longer, which can cause political problems.
• Governments may have to change more often, causing
instability.
• It can be argued that in the single transferable vote
system some voters get more than one vote as their
second or third choices are counted.

Rules for elections

In both types of voting system there are strict rules about the way the election is
administered. These may include the amount of money a candidate may spend on
promoting his or her candidature and they will certainly include a prohibition on
bribery or intimidation of voters. In most countries an official, with a title such as the
Chief Election Officer, or an official body such as the Electoral or Elections Commission,
is in charge of elections and the electoral system as a whole. This officer and/or official
body monitor the way the electoral system works and recommend any changes that
may be necessary.
• They arrange for ballot papers to be printed and distributed and for electoral officers
to be appointed to run the polling stations.
• They also organise the correct counting of the votes and are responsible for verifying
the final results.
• If there is a dispute, perhaps where the number of votes between candidates in a
closely fought election is very small, they will also arrange for a recount of votes.

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• They check that there has been no

corruption or intimidation of voters
by candidates and that all the correct
procedures have been followed.
• They maintain and update the list of
voters.
It is also important that electors follow
the instructions given on the ballot paper
(see previous examples). If a ballot paper
is wrongly filled in, it is discarded and the
votes not counted. For example, if Sonia
had voted for more than five candidates, her
ballot paper would have not been included
in the count of votes. Where this happens,
the ballot paper is said to be ‘spoiled’.

UN peacekeeping force load

bags containing electoral Referenda
material including voting
ballots, Port-Au-Prince, 2006 Occasionally a government may feel that a referendum is required on a particular issue
of national importance. In a referendum (plural referenda) people vote directly on an
issue rather than through their representatives in parliament.
Example: In 1998 there was a referendum on Nevis to see whether the island’s people
wished to secede from (leave) the St Kitts and Nevis Federation. The 1983 constitution
Is Nevis a separate nation
of St Kitts granted Nevis the right to do so. The people of Nevis voted to secede from the
now, or is it still part of
Federation by 2427 votes to 1498.
the St Kitts and Nevis
Federation?
Preparing for elections
Political parties who gain power in government are rarely satisfied with one term in
office. As soon as they are elected they are concerned to ensure they are elected again
in the next election.
Similar attitudes exist within parties which lose elections. They need to work at
increasing their popularity in the hope of winning next time. The winning party is
careful in deciding on their policies for their first term to keep their voters on their side.
They might modify those policies if they think this will help them win next time.
Preparations for elections may vary somewhat from country to country. However,
generally elections are held every five years, or when a vote of no-confidence in the
existing government is passed.

Parliament is dissolved
The prime minister meets with the head of state or their representative, such as Governor
General to say they are going to call an election. The Governor General or Speaker of the
House announces that parliament is to be dissolved.

Election date is announced

The prime minister in the current government announces the date for the general election.
The government usually tries to choose a date which will be beneficial to that party.

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FACT Candidates are selected

Political parties are groups which have broadly the same values and aims for government
Raising funds
and society. Each party chooses individual candidates who will fight the election
Political parties raise and represent the party views. Major parties normally select a candidate for each
funds from members who
constituency, but smaller parties may only contest a small number of constituencies
join them because they
believe in their aims. where they think they are most likely to win votes.
They may also receive
funding from businesses,
trade unions and other Campaigning
organisations. In some Parties use paid and voluntary staff in the days and weeks before the election to increase
countries there is a cap support. They put up posters explaining party policy and/or criticising other parties’
or ceiling on how much
policies. They issue leaflets and target as many voters as possible to seek their support.
money parties may
spend on elections, and There is often frantic activity from all parties in the last days before the election.
in other places political
Each party uses members and paid officials (sometimes called something like directors of
campaigns are funded
equally by the state.
communication) to work on public opinion. They are influenced by and try to influence
newspapers, and news programmes. They ensure that their party spokesmen are invited by
the media to explain their policies. They invite influential groups to give advice and express
opinions. As elections draw near all of these activities increase. Members of all political
parties try to be seen frequently on television, heard on the radio and in public meetings.
Sometimes they run smear campaigns against important members of opposing parties.
Sometimes parties try to discredit members of opposing parties by finding out about
their pasts or publicising misdeeds. At the same time they endeavour to make their own
candidates appeal to the public.

Identifying important issues

In the run up to an election political parties try to identify issues which are of most
importance to the electorate so that they can present their case on these points.

Monitoring the party in power

Throughout the term of a government it is the job of the opposition parties to monitor
what goes on and how well the government performs. They look out for any signs
of corruption, inefficiency, poor handling of issues or any other weaknesses. During
FACT the election campaign they try to remind the electorate of the mistakes the previous
government has made.
Opinion polls
During the election
campaign, and even Monitoring the electoral process
before it starts, opinion On the day of the election a party’s aim is to get as many of their likely supporters to
polls are taken to turn up to vote as possible. As the ballots are secret there is no way for a party to be sure
find out about public
how anyone has voted whatever their stated intentions.
opinion on election
issues and which way Party members may canvass for votes, by talking to people, knocking on doors etc up
voters are likely to vote.
until the last minute. They help to transport voters to the polling stations and generally
Polls normally involve
interviews with a sample encourage their supporters to vote. However, they must not go too far in this, such as by
of voters, sometimes a trying to pay for votes. There are strict rules about conduct during elections.
representative sample.
The larger the sample, Most countries have a government body which is responsible for making sure that
the more likely it is to elections are conducted properly and are free and fair, that violence and intimidation
give useful information. have not occurred. Many countries also invite observers from the UN or from other
democratic nations to monitor their elections to make sure that they are free and fair.

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Manifestos
Some weeks before the election, political parties issue manifestoes which contain their
proposals for future action. These are influenced by the parties’ views of public opinion
as well as by genuine beliefs on what policies will provide greatest benefit.

Factors influencing the results of elections

No party can ever be sure it will come out of any election as winners. Election results are influenced by many factors.

Media coverage Attitude to government

Parties compete with each other to get maximum coverage In countries where people have grown cynical and fed up
in the media, in newspapers and magazines, on TV and radio with previous governments, perhaps because of corruption
and on the web. They not only want to get as much publicity scandals or ineptitude, they are less likely to vote. This is
as possible but also to get good, persuasive publicity. In some especially true if all politicians are seen as equally self-
countries particular media, such as popular newspapers can seeking, or if all political parties are seen as irrelevant
sway their readers very effectively as people believe what to voters’ needs. In countries which have recently won
they read or watch. Reporting and editorials may be biased democracy and universal adult suffrage, people cherish their
and inaccurate. Some countries have rules about political democratic rights and make use of them.
coverage, for example on national TV, during the election
period so that each party receives fair coverage.
Increasingly web-based campaigns using social networking Past performance
sites and other methods are proving more important in Past performance is a factor too. Generally, if the economy
campaigning. appears to be doing well and people feel well off under a
A crucial factor in media coverage can be the amount of particular party, that party is likely to be re-elected. If the
money the political party can afford to spend. economy is moving into recession, voters might want a change
of government. If there has been scandal, financial or personal,
reported about members of one party then another might benefit.
Campaign advertising
Advertising takes many forms: billboards and posters, Campaign strategy
radio jingles, television ads and adverts on the internet.
Advertising is mostly used to project the party’s image and Each political party has a campaign strategy which includes:
main aims, but sometimes it can be used to give negative • the type of voters it wishes to attract most, for example
impressions of the opposition. Political parties must pay for trying to reach younger voters through the internet
their advertising so they try to achieve free publicity too.
• the kind of campaign it will fight, whether it will take
the moral high ground or try to spread stories about the
opposition parties’ bad conduct
Public opinion polls
• the constituencies it will make the biggest effort in. Some
Results from these polls are discussed in the news and political constituencies are marginal – they could go either way,
programmes and editorials and there is some indication that the and often this is where parties concentrate their efforts,
polls themselves may influence election results. making less effort in ‘safe seats’
• which issues to focus on to try to win over the arguments.
Voter turnout Whether parties get their strategies right affects the results.
The number and kinds of voters who turn out to vote can
affect the result. Generally the less educated and poorer
members of society are less likely to register or to vote Campaign spending
in elections. So for parties representing these groups it is
How much each party has to spend can influence the
important to get as many voters out to vote as possible.
outcome of the election. Wealthy parties can spend more on
advertising, canvassing and getting publicity.

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Can you suggest any Voter participation in elections

reasons for these Most modern democracies allow all adults (perhaps over 18 or over 21) to vote in local
changes? and national elections. That has been the case only comparatively recently. In the past
many people fought hard and campaigned to ensure everyone could vote. Some died in
the struggle. Yet some people do not appreciate that and not everyone uses their vote. In
a few countries, like Australia, voting is compulsory so
everyone turns up to vote. In some recently established
Table 4.2  Voter turnout in Caribbean countries democracies, like South Africa, the vote is so precious that
people queue for hours or even days to cast their vote.
In the Caribbean voter turnout varies from country to
country and also from year to year. For example in
Antigua and Barbuda turnout was high at 80.27% in
2009, up from only 38% in 1960, and at an all time high
of 91% in 2004.

Factors that influence voter participation

Campaign issues
When voters feel that issues are important to them
personally they are more likely to turn out to vote.

Candidates
Party personalities are influential too. If the party leader
or local candidate appears charismatic, trustworthy,
honest (and even good looking) his or her personal
following might be great enough to influence the result
Source: IDEA International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
of the whole election.
– figures are taken from different tables.

Voter attitude towards government

When voters mistrust the current government or feel it
has betrayed them in some way they may turn out in
force to get rid of it and vote in the opposition. Some
voters may be disillusioned with politicians and say ‘They
ACTIVITIES

are all the same’. In some countries where corruption

Look carefully at the percentages of voter turnout above. and scandal have destroyed the reputation of politicians,
1 Which country had the highest participation and some voters are not prepared to vote for anyone.
which the lowest?
Where governments are authoritarian and unwilling to
2 What else do you know about these two countries give up power, some voters see no point in turning up for
which might help to explain voter turnout? elections when they think the result is a foregone conclusion.
research This

3 Find out voter turnout figures for your country since

1960. Can you explain any variations?

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Party loyalty
Some voters are loyal to one party throughout their voting lives. They might stay with
that one party because their parents always voted that way. They might follow their
husband or wife instead of deciding for themselves.
There is a saying ‘Even a donkey would be elected there,’ applicable when loyalties to
one party are very strong in one voting area.

Voter apathy
When voters feel that all politicians are corrupt and cannot be trusted then they may
become alienated from politics and do not bother to vote at all. Sometimes particular
sectors of the electorate become apathetic, feeling that government has no relevance to
them or that their views are ignored, and then they do not vote.
Some voters see no change whichever government is in power. If poor people see no
government acting to bring them out of poverty, they see no reason to vote.

Education
The more highly educated a person is, the more likely they are to vote. Educated voters
see voting as a civil duty and take responsibility for playing their part as a citizen in the
life of their country. Voting may also be thought of as learnt behaviour, so that young
people are more likely to vote if their parents do.

Age
Can you suggest why this
Young people are less likely to vote than older people.
might be the case?

Income
Wealthier people are more likely to vote regardless of their educational background.
Perhaps this is because they feel they have more of a stake in society than the less wealthy.

Self interest
Many voters are influenced by what might be seen as self interest. Parties can be seen as
best at looking after particular groups: workers, farmers, business people, and they are
likely to retain the votes of many in that one group.

groupwork
ACTIVITIES

1 In a small group, look at the ways in which parties measures you will implement if you are elected.
prepare for elections and the factors which influence the Remember that you need to appeal to the voters and not
outcome. Imagine that you are a political party. Draw simply do what you would like.
up a strategy for what you will do in order to fight, and
RESEARCH This

hopefully win the next election.

3 Interview five adults and find out whether they voted in
the last election and why or why not. Share you findings
2 If possible, read one or more party manifestos. Then
with the class.
draw up your own manifesto with a list of those

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Different types of government system

In the Caribbean region, there are many different types of government but basically these
various types can be placed into two broad categories: democratic, and totalitarian.
Most Commonwealth Caribbean countries have a democratic system of government.

Democratic government
Democracy originated in the city-states of Ancient Greece, particularly Athens. The
word democracy means ‘rule by the people’. In Athens all citizens took part in the
government and most consented to the decisions that were made in the assembly.

Representative democracy
The modern version of democracy is representative democracy. In this system the
electorate (which usually consists of all the citizens of a country) vote for members
of parliament, who represent them in the parliament or legislative assembly. In some
democracies the electorate also elect the president. The political party with the most MPs
when all the votes are counted forms the government.
After a certain number of years parliament is dissolved
Figure 4.1  The flow of power in a democracy and MPs have to be re-elected or replaced. We shall look
at different types of electoral system later in this chapter.

GOVERNMENT
What makes a democracy?
For real democracy to exist the following must be in place:
Requests legislation
and finance in Majority party forms
• Political parties and free elections in which voters have
Reports to a choice of candidates and are not pressured by the
authorities to choose a particular candidate or party.
• A free press (the press includes newspaper and other
HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY
news media such as radio and TV). These help people
to choose among candidates for political office.
Submits to elections • Democracy implies decentralisation of power (for
every few years
Elect example, local government).
• Interest groups and associations link the individual
and the state, such as pressure or lobbying groups and
PEOPLE
trade unions.

Crown colony government

In the late 18th/early 19th century some of the British
colonies in the Caribbean lost their right to a legislative assembly elected by the citizens
(most of whom at that time were European settlers). Except in Barbados, what was
called the crown colony system of government gradually replaced representative
government throughout the British Caribbean. Under the crown colony system,
territories were ruled directly from Britain through a governor. Towards the end of
the 19th and into the 20th century, however, most legislative councils began to have
citizen representatives, even though the councils were still dominated by the governor
and his officials. Most countries gained self-government or full independence in the
1960s, 1970s and 1980s. Many continued to recognise the Queen as head of state with
a governor-general as her representative.

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Constitutional monarchy
Caribbean countries which are independent but which have not become republics owe
allegiance to the British monarch, at present Queen Elizabeth II. So do British overseas
territories which have not become independent. The type of democracy found in these
countries (and in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries retaining
their allegiance to the Queen) is called constitutional monarchy.
The system takes its name from the constitution which governs the relationship between
the monarch and her subjects. The monarch is officially the sovereign and head of state,
but she is not involved in the day-to-day government of the country, nor does she take
part in politics.

Republicanism
Commonwealth countries which have decided not to keep
their allegiance to the Queen have become republics.
Three Commonwealth Caribbean countries have done
CASE STUDY this. They are Guyana, which became a republic in
1970; Trinidad and Tobago, which became a republic
in 1976; and Dominica, which became a republic on
Dependent territories: Bermuda
independence in 1978. All three are also full members of
As a dependent territory Bermuda: the Commonwealth.
• is completely self-governing
• has a bicameral legislative assembly, a cabinet Independent or not?
system and government ministries
Most Commonwealth Caribbean countries are now fully
• has the Queen’s representative, the governor, who independent. However, there are a few territories that are
acts as head of state not a governor-general as in
administered to a greater or lesser extent by the British
fully independent Commonwealth countries.
government. These are called dependent territories, for
There has been much political debate on the subject of example Bermuda, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat,
independence in Bermuda. In 1994 the Prime Minister, Turks and Caicos and the British Virgin Islands. The
Sir John Swan, appointed a Commission of Enquiry into
detailed arrangements for each of these territories
the possibility of independence. The Report showed some
are different. Table 4.3 shows the different systems in
advantages but also many disadvantages in becoming
independent. The ruling party, the United Bermuda Party,
Commonwealth Caribbean countries.
was divided on the subject, though the opposition party, It has not always been easy for dependent territories
the Progressive Labour Party, was in favour. In the end to decide whether to become independent or remain
a referendum was held in 1995 in which the electorate dependent on the United Kingdom. The case study
voted to remain a dependent territory by 16,369 votes
opposite looks at the debate in one of these territories,
to 5714.
Bermuda, as a case study.

Table 4.3  Government systems in the Commonwealth Caribbean

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 4   Government

N
BERMUDA
Dependent and overseas Independence in the French-
territories
Independent countries speaking Caribbean
under Queen
BAHAMAS Republics Commonwealth Caribbean countries
are not the only ones that have had this
TURKS & CAICOS decision to make. Many French colonies
in the Caribbean have been faced with
CAYMAN IS. BVI
ANGUILLA
the same dilemma. Where most of the
JAMAICA
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
British colonies felt that independence
ST KITTS & NEVIS
BELIZE was important to them and their people,
MONTSERRAT
DOMINICA most of the French colonies decided to
stay with France. They have become
ST LUCIA
ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
BARBADOS
overseas departments which gives them
GRENADA
the status of provinces of France rather
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO than colonies. They are represented in
the French parliament and elect French
presidents just like all the departments
or provinces on the French mainland.
0 200 400 600 800 1000 km
GUYANA They are also supported by the French
government economically which in
general means that they are often
Figure 4.2  Government systems in the Commonwealth Caribbean
better off than their English-speaking
counterparts.

Totalitarian government
In the totalitarian system all positions of power are taken by a single ruling group or
party. This group then hands out these positions to individuals and groups who support
the ruling party. Totalitarian government aims to control all institutions. No independent
organisations or political parties are permitted. The rights and responsibilities of citizens
are not necessarily recognised in this kind of state. Cuba under Fidel Castro is a good
example of a totalitarian state.
ACTIVITIES

Dictatorships
1 Expand Table
4.3 on page A dictator is a sole ruler who has not been elected or appointed by legal process. Often
117 to show the dictators take power in a coup d’état (coup for short) in which the legitimate government
governments of is ousted – sometimes for good reasons. It is possible, though unusual, for dictators to
non-Commonwealth give up power voluntarily when the crisis that caused them to take power has passed.
countries in the The Duvaliers – François, known as Papa Doc, and his son Jean-Claude – were dictators
Caribbean. of Haiti from 1959 to 1986.
2 List the advantages
and disadvantages
of having a Revolutionary governments
constitutional During the last century or so, a few countries in the Caribbean have had governments
monarchy or a which were formed in the wake of a revolution. One example of this in the Commonwealth
republic. Caribbean is Grenada under Maurice Bishop and the PRG, in the period 1979–83 (see
case study below).

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 4   Government

CASE STUDY
Grenada under the PRG
The first premier, or chief minister, of Grenada was Eric
Gairy, who was elected in 1951, when the island gained
internal self-government. He remained in power, with a very
short break, until 1973. In February 1974 Grenada became
independent and Gairy became prime minister. In March
1979 the government of Gairy was overthrown in a violent
coup by Maurice Bishop, the leader of the People’s Alliance,
and his supporters. Between 1979 and 1983 there was a
People’s Revolutionary Government (PRG) in Grenada. The
constitutions were suspended during this time.
Conflict between two sections of the PRG erupted into violent
unrest in October 1983 and Bishop was arrested and executed
US troops in Grenada, 1983
along with a number of his supporters. A military body, the
Ruling Military Council or RMC, was put in charge of Grenada
and they imposed a curfew. The RMC was led by Bernard communist government in the Caribbean. They also wanted
Coard, the leader of the PRG faction which had arrested to protect the large number of American students who were
Bishop. They promised to restore civilian government within on the island. They were willing to send troops and gunships
two weeks, but before the deadline was up the Organisation to remove the RMC from office.
of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) decided that the RMC
was not a legitimate government and asked the USA to help Coard and other members of the Central Committee
them restore democratic rule to Grenada. were arrested in the wake of the US-led invasion and the
democratic constitution of Grenada was restored. In 1984
The USA had been very uneasy about the establishment there were democratic elections for parliament and there
of the PRG in Grenada, since they did not want another has been a parliamentary democracy there since then.

Figure 4.3  The structure of government The structure of government

The most important political institution we have is
government. Without government, it is difficult for social
institutions to continue to operate control mechanisms.
In other words, social control has to be backed up by
THE STATE law and government creates law. But what exactly is
government?
Cabinet Justice System
When we speak of ‘the government’ we often mean the
Parliament Civil Service government system rather than the actual collection
of individuals who form the executive or a particular
President or Local political party which happens to be in power. Another
Governor General Government
term for this is ‘the state’. The state includes the whole
Armed Forces system of prime minister, members of parliament, civil
and Police servants and judges which is always there whether the
individual minister or judge changes or not. The word
‘state’ suggests permanence and we expect it to last
forever unless something disastrous occurs.

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Authority and leadership

A government can only govern if its authority is recognised by the people
it governs. If its authority is not recognised and accepted, the laws it makes
are not valid. There are many different types of political system which
governments can follow, as we shall see later in this chapter. But every
political system has to ensure that the people support that system or its
rule will be short-lived. Government leaders (presidents and/or premiers
and prime ministers) provide a focus for people’s acceptance of authority.
Most Caribbean leaders win power legally by being elected. Some are
charismatic leaders whom people support whether or not they agree
with their policies. Vere Bird of Antigua and Michael Manley of Jamaica
were such leaders. However, where rulers do not have the backing of the
majority of the people they sometimes resort to other means to enforce
Michael Manley their rule, even using physical violence. This is what the Duvaliers did
between 1957 and 1986 in Haiti. Some leaders start by being charismatic
and/or popular, but events turn sour and people do not continue to
support them. This happened to Maurice Bishop in Grenada in the 1980s
(see case study on page 119).

The rights and responsibilities of citizens

The term ‘government’ implies that there are people to be governed.
These are the citizens of the nation-state or province. In the Caribbean
we can make some generalisations about the rights and responsibilities of
citizens which are true for all Commonwealth Caribbean countries and
most democratic countries worldwide. In most territories these rights and
responsibilities are clearly stated in the constitution.

Vere Bird
The rights and responsibilities of citizens
Rights Responsibilities
Every citizen has the right to: Every citizen has a responsibility
or duty to:
• protection of life and property
Read the two lists carefully. Can you add • free speech
• obey the law and respect
authority
anything to the duties you think a good • protection against disease
• pay taxes
citizen should perform? Which rights do you • freedom of worship
think it is most difficult for a government to
• vote in elections
• freedom from false
• do jury service as required
provide? imprisonment
• trial by jury
• keep our surroundings healthy

• healthful surroundings
• preserve the natural
environment
• a good education
• participate in the government
• earn a living of the country.
• join a trade union of choice.

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 4   Government

The structure of government in a democracy

In a modern, complex state the main tasks of the government have been divided among
several groups of individuals. These are called the organs or arms of government.
1. The legislature: Law-making is the function of an assembly or parliament of
representatives. This assembly is known as the legislature because it legislates (make
laws) on behalf of the people.
2. The executive: This is the name given to the prime minister, the cabinet and other
ministers responsible for running the government. Their job is to execute (put into
effect) the laws made by the legislature. They also devise new policies and suggest
new legislation to parliament.
3. The judiciary: Laws need to be interpreted. Not every law is so clearly set down
that no one is in doubt as to its meaning. There may be an argument as to whether
this law or that law should be applied. The task of interpreting the laws and settling
disputes lies with the judiciary, a body of judges who are appointed officials.
In addition, most countries have a civil (public) service or bureaucracy. These officials
are appointed by government or by a Commission and are paid employees. They do
not decide on policy though they may advise the government. They are responsible for
administering the laws and regulations and often for advising ministers. They do not
change, usually, when the ruling party changes but remain in post doing the same job.

GOVERNOR-GENERAL
(nominal Head of State representing the Queen)
GOVERNOR
or
PRESIDENT
(Republican type of government)

PRIME MINISTER & CABINET

(THE EXECUTIVE)

SENATE OR UPPER HOUSE PARLIAMENT (Legislature)

(Nominated or elected)
HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY (Elected)

Attorney-
JUDICIARY
General MINISTRIES/CIVIL SERVICE
(these may have different names)
Commissioner
of Police Education
Agriculture Health Finance
& Culture

Figure 4.4  Structure Trade &

Foreign Tourism Transport Environment
of a typical Caribbean Service Industry
government

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 4   Government

Checks and balances

Separation of
For a democracy to operate smoothly and fairly there need to be checks and balances on
powers the power of the executive. These prevent a political party in government from continuing
One of the most to hold power for longer than the stipulated term without holding an election, and
important checks and they prevent abuse of power. Usually these checks and balances are enshrined in the
balances is known as the constitution. This document explains the rules or law of government in the country.
separation of powers.
This means that the
powers of the three The legislature
arms of government:
executive, judiciary
and legislature are Structure
kept separate. Usually Legislature can be unicameral or bicameral. These words derive from Latin and Greek:
this means that the
prime minister does
uni means one, bi means two, and camera means room. So a bicameral parliament
not directly appoint has two rooms or ‘houses’ and a unicameral parliament has only one. The names for
the judges and they these Houses vary. They are usually called the Senate or Upper House, and the House
interpret the law of Representatives or Lower House, but other variations exist. In the United Kingdom,
without hindrance. for example, for historical reasons the upper house is called the House of Lords, and the
The executive cannot
lower house the House of Commons.
make laws without the
agreement and approval
of the legislature. The
The Lower House
main purpose of the
separation of powers The Lower House or House of Representatives in most Caribbean countries consists of
is to preserve civil and members who are all elected. Elections take place every five years or so. In most
political liberty and democracies each Member of Parliament (MP) is elected to represent a constituency,
prevent abuses.
which is a geographical area, and the country or island is divided up into constituencies.
In theory, each MP looks after the interests of his or her constituents, serving them in
the way he or she thinks best. In a few countries MPs do not have individual constituencies
but represent the people of a region or the whole country.

The Upper House

In many bicameral (two
house) legislatures the
Upper House is little
more than a debating
chamber. It can delay the
passing of laws but cannot
dismiss them altogether.
The members of the
Upper House are often
nominated, some by the
ruling party, some by the
opposition party and a few
by the head of state. They
are called senators. There
are government senators,
opposition senators and
independent senators.

Opening of Parliament in Trinidad and Tobago, 2003

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 4   Government

The role of the legislature (Lower and Upper Houses) is to check on the executive. The
executive makes proposals, the legislature decides on whether those proposals should or
should not become law. The ruling party (which makes up the executive) usually has a
majority in the assembly and will usually get its proposals passed there. The purpose of
the Upper House or senate is to be a check on the executive and the assembly. They can
Discuss how the structure send proposals back to be considered again.
of government can affect
the freedoms and rights of Functions
citizens. The functions of the legislature are:
• to scrutinise and discuss new laws
ACTIVITIES

• to amend any new laws and vote on them

Draw a flow chart
• to amend existing laws and repeal laws which are no longer useful
outlining the process
a Bill goes through • to discuss issues which are of great concern to people in the country
before it becomes law. • to approve the budget for the year, along with any new taxes and payments
• to ratify regional and international treaties.

How laws are made

1. The senior ministers of the government decide on the 6. When the committee stage of the Bill is finished and the
legislative programme for each session of parliament (a committee have made any necessary amendments, the
session is a bit like a school term; in between MPs have a Bill is presented to the House or Houses again, and MPs
recess or holiday). are asked to vote on it (the second reading).

2. A new law is drafted by civil servants and/or lawyers. 7. In a bicameral parliament, if the Bill is approved it then
This document is called a Bill. The drafting committee goes to the Upper House for further debate. The Upper
have to make sure that the law says exactly what was House makes any amendments it wishes to the Bill and
intended and there are no loopholes left that could be sends it back to the Lower House.
used by people to avoid obeying the intention of the law.
8. Only when it has been debated (the third reading) and
3. The Bill is debated in parliament (this is called the approved a second time does it become law. (Sometimes
first reading). The government minister responsible further amendments are made at this point and the Bill
for having the Bill drafted speaks in favour of the Bill goes back to the Upper House in a bicameral parliament
and points out why it should become law. Someone before being debated and approved yet again.) It is at
from the opposition usually speaks against the Bill and this stage that it is called an Act of Parliament and is given
tries to sway the opinion of other MPs to vote against a date and sometimes a name or number to distinguish it
it. Occasionally a Bill has the support of both sides of from other laws on the statute book.
the House and then the debate is not carried out so
vigorously, although the Bill will still be discussed 9. The head of state or his or her representative (president,
carefully. governor-general or governor) then signs the Act of
Parliament and it comes into effect on the date specified
4. At the end of the debate there is a vote, after which in the Act itself. Not all Acts of Parliament come into effect
the Bill is approved (if a majority of MPs voted for it) or immediately. There is a time lag for some legislation.
defeated (if a majority of MPs voted against it).

5. If the Bill is approved, it will then go through what is

called the committee stage during which all its provisions
are scrutinised carefully.

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 4   Government

The role of the opposition

The opposition consists of any members of the two houses of the legislature who do not
belong to the majority party. It is often said that ’the role of the opposition is to oppose’.
That seems obvious but is not completely true. All parties in both houses should be
acting in what they see as the best interests of the country. If minority parties think the
executive’s proposals are good for the country they should vote for them. Usually the
different parties have campaigned in the election with different policies. Therefore it is
likely that many of the executive’s proposals will be opposed.
The functions of the opposition include:
• opposing the government on measures with which they do not agree
• cooperating with the government where they think it is in the country’s best interests
to do so
• scrutinising proposed legislation carefully and suggesting improvements
• mobilising public opinion against government proposals which they think are against
the country’s interests
• presenting ideas and solutions for problems as an alternative government
• keeping watch on the government to ensure transparency and accountability.

Can you think of reasons You can see that having two Houses makes it much more difficult to get legislation through
why an Act of Parliament parliament. However, because of the linkage between the executive and the legislature,
it is important to have another body debating the Bill. Where the executive has control
might not come into effect
of the legislature because of a large majority, for example, the Upper House may act, in a
immediately?? sense, as the opposition and prevent the government of the day becoming too powerful.

The role of the head of state

The head of state is usually a president or monarch. In countries of the Caribbean
Commonwealth realm which have the British Queen as their head of state, the Governor
represents the Queen. Republics such as Guyana, Dominica, Trinidad and Tobago and
Haiti have presidents.
The role of the monarch and their representative as head of state is largely symbolic
and ceremonial. This is also true of presidents in Trinidad and Dominica. They act as a
figurehead for the whole nation, representing the state at home and overseas. Those who
have not been directly elected have little real power, but they are nominally in charge
of the executive branch of government. They have to sign all legislation to approve it
and they have a responsibility to guard the constitution. They usually summon and
dissolve the legislature. They also appoint government officials, accredit the country’s
ambassadors and high commissioners and may award national honours. Sometimes the
head of state is Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.
In Guyana however, the president or head of state is also the elected head of the
government. He is elected in a general election and appoints the prime minister.
The powers of a president are set out in a country’s constitution.

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 4   Government

The executive

Structure – The cabinet system

In democratic political systems the party which secures the most seats in an election
forms the government. From among the elected members of that party the member who
can command the loyalty, confidence and respect of the others becomes the prime
minister. He is generally also the leader of the party. The prime minister then appoints
the other members of cabinet, which is the group entrusted with the responsibility for
conducting the ordinary business of government. All members of cabinet are accountable
to the prime minister. They usually meet once a week or so for discussion.

Figure 4.5  Structure of the government of Barbados

Sovereign

Governor-
General

Legislature Constitutional Authorities Executive Judiciary

Director of Public
Prosecutions
Auditor General
Parliament Public Service Commission
Teaching Service Supreme Magistracy
Commission Court
Judicial and Legal Service
Commission
Prime Minister
Police Service Commission
Senate House of and Cabinet
Assembly Statutory Board Services
Commission

Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of

Finance and Education and Communications External Housing and
Planning Culture and Works Affairs Lands

Office of Ministry of Health Ministry of Ministry of Ministry of Caribbean Ministry of Labour

the Prime and National Agriculture, Food The Attorney- Affairs, External and Community
Minister Insurance and Consumer Affairs General Trade, Industry & Tourism Services

Functions of the cabinet

The cabinet decides on the policies the government as a whole will put forward to
the legislature. They are jointly responsible for the decisions made in their meetings,
whether or not an individual member agreed with these or not.

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 4   Government

An important aspect of the cabinet system is that it links the legislative and the executive
functions of government. The cabinet members are the leaders of the law-making body
(parliament) and at the same time are the heads of the executive or administration.
This means that they can pass laws and see to it that these laws are put into effect. The
cabinet is responsible to parliament and its measures may be voted out or its resignation
demanded if its policies do not please the other representatives.
We thus have ‘responsible government’ in most Caribbean countries. The executive
is responsible to the legislative body and through it to the people – the electors – and
because of this there should be no danger of the executive body and the legislative body
pulling against each other. In the USA the president and his group of advisers form the
executive, which is quite separate from the legislative body Congress. This often causes
conflict between Congress and the executive over legislation, with serious effects on the
president’s policy initiatives. On the other hand, the United States deliberately chose
to separate the legislature and the executive when they won their independence from
Britain because their leaders thought the linkage between executive and legislature
gave the executive too much power.

Government ministers
Government ministers usually head different departments such as Education or Defence.
The departmental responsibilities each minister has are known as his or her portfolio.
ACTIVITIES

Each minister has a group of civil servants to help administer the department. They
1 Explain the usually specialise in a particular area or areas such as social services or foreign affairs.
cabinet system.
What do you think The names of departments or ministries vary across the Caribbean in different countries,
is meant by the even where the actual responsibilities of the ministers are similar. The names given also
term ‘cabinet change where different combinations of responsibilities are set up. For example, a
responsibility’? minister might be Minister of Health and National Insurance or Minister for Labour and
2 In what ways does Community Services. Only senior government ministers belong to the cabinet, except
the function of the in countries with a small population, where there are only a few MPs in any case. The
executive differ diagram on page 125 (Figure 4.5) shows the structure of government in Barbados.
from the function
of the bureaucracy
The role of civil servants
or civil service?
How do they link The civil service carries out the administrative functions of the executive, running day-to-day
to function as a matters and implementing new legislation. The civil service is usually divided into ministries
government? and departments, each under a Minister of State. Within each ministry, civil servants work
for the minister and the chief civil servant is the permanent secretary. He or she usually stays
in place when governments and ministers change. Civil servants are often experts in their
fields who can provide information and advice to ministers. Civil servants may have their
own political views but they should not allow these to interfere with their work.

FACT The judiciary

Law In most Commonwealth Caribbean countries, the judiciary is separate from parliament.
The function of the judiciary is to interpret and apply the laws in particular cases and to
Definition: We can
define law as a rule of see that justice is done among members of society.
civil conduct given by
someone in authority (in
this case the state) and
Sources of law
backed by sanction. Most Caribbean laws are statutes or Acts of Parliament. These are passed by local
governments, in the case of independent nations and fully self-governing territories, or by

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 4   Government

FACT the government of the United Kingdom on their behalf, in the case of non-independent
territories such as Montserrat and the British Virgin Islands. There is also a type of law
Criminal and usually called the ‘Common Law’, which is derived from the universal custom of the land.
civil law
Laws regulate many types of conduct. For example:
Criminal law deals
with the protection of • relationships between individual persons (family law)
society as a whole, so • the rights of one person infringed by another (for example assault or murder)
for example attacking
someone or breaking
• protection of property, including corporate property (theft and fraud)
into someone’s home and • the standards applied to weights and measures, trade descriptions and price-marking
stealing things are both that people rely on for buying and selling goods.
criminal offences.
Civil law deals with
disputes between Civil and criminal law
individuals, such as Law may be divided into those which concern private matters – civil law; and those
disputes over ownership concerning public issues – criminal law. Civil cases are tried in civil courts and usually
of property.
carry a fine as a penalty. Examples are divorce, disputes of wills, claims for damages.
Criminal cases are tried in criminal courts. The penalty for those found guilty may be a
term of imprisonment for more serious crimes. These cases are separated into different
categories and tried in several ways.

Structure of the court system

The diagram shows how a typical law-court system works
Figure 4.6  System of Law Courts in a typical in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Criminal cases begin in
Commonwealth Caribbean country the magistrates’ court which deals with most prosecutions.
If the judgement given in the magistrates’ court is disputed,
an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court. Final appeals
are made to the Privy Council in the House of Lords in
Final court of appeal
Privy Westminster, England, or to the Caribbean Court of Justice
Shared by all countries
Court
except Guyana in Trinidad. You will learn more about the Caribbean Court
of Justice in Chapter 7 of this book.

Functions of the different courts

on point of law or fact
Supreme Court of of law These may vary slightly from country to country, as some
Court Appeal 3 Judges countries have specialised courts for particular kinds of
Chief Justice and 3 offence, such as gun courts and industrial courts, but
or 4 Puisne Judges generally are as follows:

High
Magistrates Court
Trial by jury
Court • tries less serious crimes such as traffic offences, petty
offences, theft and burglary
• conducts preliminary trials of serious offences
• issues licenses

Preliminary enquiry
• issues summons to appear in court and warrants for
Magistrates Petty sessions
Commits for trial or Court No jury arrest or search of premises
indictment
• conducts inquests
• issues fines and community reparation, and short
sentences.

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 4   Government

High Court
• tries more serious criminal cases such as rape, murder and fraud
• judges civil cases such as divorce and disputes over wills, child custody, debt and
compensation
• sentences criminals and makes financial and other settlements.

Court of Appeal
• hears appeals on decisions from a previous trial
• overturns previous sentences and resentences.

Privy Council
• acts as the court of final appeal for those countries which still recognise it.

Describe the uniforms

Caribbean Court of Justice
worn by the policeman and • acts as the final court of appeal for some Caribbean countries.
the judge. Do you think
The ‘law of the land’ applies to all citizens and usually to any non-citizen who is in the
they should be changed
country when he or she commits an offence. For example, if you drink alcohol in a
to fit a more modern
Muslim country you are liable to prosecution in that country even though drinking
society? alcohol is not illegal in your own country.
In Caribbean countries the ‘rule of law’
is very important. This means:
• Any infringement of individual
rights is subject to legal sanction (i.e.
it is against the law and you can be
prosecuted for it).
• An individual alleged to have
broken the law must be brought to
trial speedily and his guilt must be
established in a court of law according
to the proper procedure before he can
suffer imprisonment, a fine or other
penalties.

Carrying out the law

The way in which laws are applied to
court cases is influenced by what is
called judicial precedence. This is a set
Policeman and Supreme Court Justice, Bahamas of principles established by decisions
made by judges in important cases over
the years. These are sometimes called
‘case law’. Case law helps today’s judges to make judgements in court on today’s cases.
Sometimes a judgement is challenged, usually in a court of appeal, and this can lead to
a change of precedent where a new principle is adopted.
The security services: the police and prison service play an important role in the
administration of justice.

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 4   Government

The role of the police service

The police service acts to protect the public and keep it safe. It investigates crimes and
arrests suspected criminals, gathers evidence and takes cases to court. The police also
have a role to assist the victims of crime and to build good
community relationships with the aim of preventing
ACTIVITIES

crime. In the court, the police have a responsibility to

1 Define the following terms: bicameral parliament, present the evidence faithfully to ensure justice is done.
legislature, executive, judiciary, case law.

The role of the prison service

DISCUSS This
2 a Discuss in class whether law is the same thing The prison service’s first responsibility is to the public –
as justice. to keep criminals safely locked away for the duration of
custodial sentences and so prevent crime. It also has a
responsibility to look after and care for offenders, many
b Find out how the court system works in your
of whom are vulnerable people with major problems

research This
country and draw a diagram to show the
progression of appeals from the lower courts. such as drug addiction, mental illness and illiteracy. The
Does it resemble the diagram on page 127? prison service plays an important role is preventing future
What differences are there? crime by rehabilitating offenders and educating them so
that they can become useful members of society when
they have finished their prison terms. The prison and
3 Organise a class election either for a class captain or
probation services also monitor offenders on community
for a member of the local council.
service or who are tagged and try to prevent them from
reoffending.

The functions of government as an institution

Like other institutions, government provides leadership, a focus for loyalty and
cooperation, and social control. The main functions of government (also shown in
Figure 4.7 on page 130 are:
• creating and maintaining law and order and administering justice
• providing national defence and ensuring the security of national boundaries
• dealing with the governments of other countries (this is called foreign affairs)
• raising revenue from direct or indirect taxes and duties to fund public expenditure
• ensuring the provision of essential social services such as education and health care
• safeguarding the utilities, such as electric power and water supply
• managing the country’s finances, including the budget
• maintaining or promoting the overall health of the economy
• creating employment by attracting and developing industry and commerce,
particularly to and in areas of high unemployment.
Most government revenue is spent on social services such as education and health care,
the police, transport, national defence, cultural preservation and other necessary items.
The government also raises money from national savings schemes, investing the money
its citizens are prepared to save in government bonds and savings accounts. When
required, the government may also borrow money from abroad to fund its economic
programme, but a prudent government will wish to avoid overseas debt where possible.
What is spent and on what varies from government to government and country to country.

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 4   Government

Figure 4.7  The functions of government

Raising revenue &

managing finances

Justice, law & order Defence & security

GOVERNMENT

Support for agriculture

Social services, & business, e.g.
education, welfare, subsidies and financial
health care, assistance; promoting
maintaining utilities economic prosperity

Foreign affairs

The citizen and the government

ACTIVITIES

1 Carry out a survey (as a class or in groups) of the The most important part of any democracy is the
functions of government in your country. Using the constitution. That sets out how the state is to be
list on page 129, explain how in concrete terms the governed. If the constitution is in itself unfair there will
government carries out these functions. be no good government. When a constitution has been
accepted as fair, the citizen’s major duty is to ensure that
no elected government changes it to make it unfair. That
2 Find out more about the borrowing that the government has happened in many newly independent countries.
of your country does to fund its programme of The party voted into power changed the constitution to
research This

expenditure. How much of this borrowing is a) national

ensure it stays in power. By changing the constitution
debt, b) overseas debt? Discuss in class whether
the government can ignore the rights of citizens and
governments should borrow for such purposes and
assess the best and safest strategies for doing so.
become more and more authoritarian, taking decisions
to benefit only a small number of people, not the country
as a whole.
3 Give definitions for the following terms: democracy; If a government makes unfair proposals which go
government; public expenditure.
against the intentions of the constitution the judiciary is
the first line of defence, as a judge can declare the new
proposals as unconstitutional. Citizens can also defend
the constitution. They should be constantly wary of
changes made by government and refuse to re-elect the
party if they consider their actions to be unfair.
Commonwealth Caribbean countries have another line
of defence in their offices of the Ombudsman. He or she
is sometimes called Parliamentary Commissioner, Public
Defender or People’s Advocate.

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 4   Government

Role of the ombudsman

Any citizen can complain to the Ombudsman’s/Commissioner’s office about the work of
a government official or about the government itself. The Ombudsman is independent
from government and has the power to investigate such complaints. The Ombudsman
cannot reverse a government decision but uses the power of persuasion and publication.
He or she can declare an act of government unconstitutional or a legal infringement
of the rights of a citizen. He or she can also declare an action of the government to be
RESEARCH This
unfair even if it is not illegal. The Ombudsman’s role can only be effective if citizens
ACTIVITIES

make use of him or her. They need to be politically aware, reading newspapers, listening
1 Find out more and watching news programmes, aware of party policies and government proposals,
about the approving or disapproving as necessary. Good governance is sometimes more in danger
constitution of through citizens’ apathy than from the government’s actions.
your own country
and of at least one
other Caribbean Human rights, freedoms and responsibilities
country. Compare
the rights, The constitution has an important role in defining and protecting the rights, freedoms
freedoms and and responsibilities of citizens. Basic principles such as equality are enshrined in the
responsibilities constitution and often specific rights and freedoms, such as the right to equal treatment
given. under the law and the freedom of association or religious belief are listed. Often the
rights listed are closely related to those in the UN Universal Declaration of Human
Rights to which Caribbean countries are signatories.
2 What steps could
you take if your
When conflict occurs because of violation of rights, the constitution sets out the
human rights were principles under which the law must operate. It makes explicit the national desire to
violated? remove prejudice and discrimination and allows individuals recourse to the courts to
challenge unfair government decisions.
3 What are the
responsibilities of The constitution may also set out citizens’ responsibilities, such as to pay taxes, serve in
a good citizen? the armed forces or vote in elections.
The constitution also usually sets out who is a citizen of the country and how citizenship
can be acquired. Citizenship gives us a nationality and identity. We see ourselves as
belonging to the nation, support its teams and are proud of its achievements.
ACTIVITIES

1 Read your
newspapers, Good governance
watch or listen to The purpose of good government is to ensure the well being of its people; all of them
news programmes not just a privileged few. Its purpose is also to provide efficient, transparent government
and check on which meets the citizens’ needs.
examples of what
you consider to To make this happen it is necessary:
be good or bad • to have a fair constitution which sets out how the government should be elected,
actions by public what its duties are and how it should be organised
bodies like the
government or • that politicians should have the interests of the people at heart
local councils. • that people in government and working for the government should be honest and
uncorrupted, with systems in place to ensure this
2 Make notes and • that there is an independent judicial system to enforce law and order, separate from
discuss This

discuss what you the executive and legislative branches of government

have found in a • that people play their part in government, being knowledgeable about the policies of
full class session.
political parties and prepared to vote for the good of the country and stand for office
• that government is transparent so that citizens can see that corruption is not taking place

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 4   Government

• that government is accountable for its actions to the electorate, both financially and
in other ways
• that government consults and is responsive to the needs and concerns of citizens
• that citizens and the media have access to information about government activities
• that government uses resources wisely and prudently so as not to waste taxes and so
as to leave a sustainable future for generations to come
• to have an efficient civil service
• that there is tolerance for freedom of expression and a free media which is able to
criticise the government.
Very few governments would meet all those conditions. Some politicians are more
interested in looking after themselves and their own privileged group. Very few countries
could be considered completely free from corruption. Citizens can be less than honest,
some seeking favours by attempting to corrupt officials, voting in their own interests
rather than in the interests of everyone. Democracy is never a perfect form of government
but is generally considered to be the best form of government available to us. Every citizen
has a role in ensuring that democracy provides as good a system of governance as possible.
Figure 4.8  St Vincent and
the Grenadines general
election results 2010

Election statistics
12 Number of members
pre-election
Number of members
St Vincent and the Grenadines
10 post-election The Parliament of St Vincent and the Grenadines
has one chamber. The House of Assembly has 15
8 members, elected for a five-year term in single-
seat constituencies. There are also six appointed
6 senators. A general election was held in 2010 and
the results are shown in the graph opposite.
4

0
Unity Labour New Democratic SVG Green
Party Party Party
Political party
ACTIVITIES

1 Which party formed the government before the 2010

election?

2 Which party formed the government after the 2010

election?

3 How was the situation changed by the election?

Would this make it easier or more difficult for the
government to pass legislation?
Parliament and Court House in Kingstown, St
Vincent

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 4   Government

Table 4.4  Dominica general election results, 2009 Dominica

A general election was held in Dominica
on 18 December 2009 to elect
representatives to the House of Assembly.
The Dominica Labour Party increased its
majority to 18 of the 21 seats, thus
winning a third term in government.

ACTIVITIES
1 What percentage of the votes cast
did the Labour party get?

2 What percentage of votes went to

the opposition parties?
Source: Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica Electoral Office: 3 Is this reflected in the number of
http://electoraloffice.gov.dm/results/index.html seats won by the parties?

4 What voting system might

members of the United Workers’
Table 4.5  Grenada general election results, 2008 Party think would be fairer?

5 Draw a pie chart to show the

percentages of votes gained by
each party.

Grenada
The general election in Grenada in 2008
resulted in a change of government. Out of
a total of 15 seats in the House of
Representatives, the National Democratic
Congress (NDC) won 11 seats and the
former governing New National Party
Sources: http://www.caribbeanelections.com/grenada/results/default.asp and (NNP) won only four seats, The NDC came
http://www.ipu.org/parline/reports/2127_E.htm to power for the first time since 1995.
ACTIVITIES

1 Which two parties gained most of the votes in both the 7 How many seats were probably safe seats for the NNP?
2008 election and the previous election?
8 What additional percentage of the voters would have
2 How many parties were there in the contest? needed to vote for the NNP to change the outcome? How
many votes does this represent?
3 How many votes were wasted?
9 Use the tables above to make bar graphs of the results
4 How many seats changed hands at the election?
in Dominica and Grenada showing the election outcomes
5 How many seats each did the NDC and the NNP have in terms of number of seats. Make sure you include all
before the 2008 election? the parties.

6 How many seats could have been considered marginal

for both parties at the election?

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 4   Government

CHapter summary
• Government is the political institution responsible for making the law and administering the country
on behalf of all the citizens.

• There are four party systems in the Commonwealth Caribbean – one-party, two-party, multi-party
and predominant-party systems.

• Electoral systems include first past the post and proportional representation.

• Political parties do the following to prepare for elections – select candidates, raise funds, conduct
campaigns, identify important issues, publish manifestoes, monitor the opposition, monitor the
electoral process, commission public opinion polls.

• The outcome of elections can be influenced by media coverage, advertising, public opinion polls, voter
turnout, attitudes to government, campaign strategy and spending.

• Factors that influence voter turnout include campaign issues, popularity of candidates, attitudes
towards government, loyalty to political parties, voter apathy, education, age and income.

• Government systems include democracy, crown colony, constitutional monarchy, republicanism.

• Government structure is defined by the separation of powers of the legislature, executive and
judiciary.

• Functions of government are to raise revenue through taxation; provide social services such as
welfare, education, health care and public utilities; manage the finances of the country; maintain law
and order; create employment opportunities; maintain international relations and defend the nation.

• Most democracies have a constitution, which sets out how the state is to be governed.

• The ombudsman investigates citizens’ complaints about government and tries to resolve them.

• Characteristics of good governance are participation, independence of the judiciary, transparency,

accountability, responsiveness to the needs of citizens, access to information, prudent use of resources,
efficient civil service, consultation and tolerance of freedom of expression.

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 4   Government

CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1 Write down the meaning of the following a Which party will be asked to form the next
terms and use each one correctly in a sentence: government?
absolute majority; cabinet system; universal b Does this party have an absolute majority?
adult suffrage; constituency; constitution; c How many MPs will form the opposition?
electorate; legislature; revenue. d Do you think the election used the ‘first past
the post’ method of voting or proportional
2 Imagine that you are a member of a
representation? Give reasons why you
government ‘think tank’ or research group in deduce this from the figures given.
a dependent territory. A referendum is to be
held later in the year and you must prepare e Which type of party system do you think
information for voters to be published by Country X has? What makes you think so?
the government in a booklet given to every
4 Use the information given in this chapter and
household. The information should be fair
and accurate but, on the other hand, the your own research to write notes for essays on
government wish the electorate to vote in the following:
favour of independence. a how governments gain their authority
a Work out what relevant information should b the safeguards required in a constitution
be included in the government’s publication. where the legislature and executive are
b Write an opening paragraph for the closely linked
booklet explaining why the government c the relationship between law and justice
recommends a ‘yes’ vote. d the advantages and disadvantages of
republicanism as against constitutional
3 The following table shows the results of a monarchy.
general election in an imaginary territory,
Country X. Use the information in the table to Choose one of the essay titles and write up your
answer questions a to e. notes as a properly constructed essay paper of
between 1000 and 1500 words.

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 Section A  End of term test

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)

Revise the whole of Section A pages 1–134. Then use these multiple-choice questions to test your knowledge of Section A
topics.
Each question in this test has four suggested answers, lettered a, b, c and d. Read each question carefully and then choose
the letter that corresponds to your answer. For example, if you think that group C parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles and
cousins, is a nuclear family, write down 1c on your answer sheet.

1 A nuclear family consists of 7 The role of women in the Caribbean

a a single parent and children a has remained the same for generations
b children whose parents are living away from home b has reached the stage of complete equality with
c parents, grandparents, aunts, uncles and cousins men
d mother, father and their children or c is changing as economic and social changes occur
stepchildren. d has reversed so that men now undertake all the
roles which used to belong to women.
2 The family is both
a a formal social group and an institution 8 Common-law unions are
b a primary and a secondary social group a visiting unions
c a primary social group and an institution b civil marriages not solemnised in church
d a secondary social group and a formal social group. c ordinary legal marriages, solemnised in either a
religious or a civil ceremony
3 Socialisation describes the process by which d unmarried couples living together as though
they were married.
a children learn how to live in society
b workers are encouraged to become socialists
9 Which of the following statements is true? Conflict is
c a social group is set up and organised
a a part of every aspect of life which has to be
d social workers arrange their case load.
addressed with understanding and compromise
b unusual in family relationships
4 Caribbean culture is a Creole culture. This means that
c a term used only for major outbreaks of violence
a it was brought here by the Chinese
d resolved only with outside help.
b it is indigenous to the Caribbean
c it is derived from a mixture of cultures, mainly
10 The term ‘substance abuse’ refers to
European and African
a taking drugs such as cocaine or cannabis
d no one knows where it came from.
b the abuse of prescription-only drugs
c use of tobacco and alcohol abuse
5 Amerindian is a term used to describe
d all of the above.
a all the ancient people of the Americas
b the people who have come to the Caribbean
from the Indian sub-continent 11 Smoking
c all the people of the Caribbean islands a can help people who have breathing problems
d the Aztec, Inca and Mayan people. b is encouraged by health authorities only for adults
c is the major cause of lung cancer and a
substantial cause of heart disease
6 The term ‘generation gap’ describes
d always leads to early death.
a a disruption in electricity supply
b the gap in understanding between parents and
children 12 In most Caribbean territories the illegitimacy rate
c gaps in our knowledge about genetic disease a is rising sharply
d the difference between energy supplied from b is declining steadily
renewable and non-renewable sources. c fluctuates widely from year to year
d has continued much the same for generations.

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 Section A  End of term test

13 Teenage pregnancy c education, training and religion

a usually occurs when older men seduce young girls d community, religion and government.
b is generally caused by a failure in contraceptive
methods 20 Social control aims to
c is often encouraged in Caribbean cultures a make clear what is socially acceptable
d often affects a girl’s education and career b ensure that everyone conforms to rules set out
prospects badly. by the government
c make attendance at school compulsory
14 The Human Immunodeficiency Virus that causes d preserve a democratic form of government.
AIDS cannot be transmitted through
a sexual intercourse 21 Collective bargaining is an activity usually
b donated blood used in transfusions associated with
c shared hypodermic needles used by drug-users a cooperative societies
d ordinary social contact such as hand-shaking or b trade unions
hugging. c the stock exchange
d gangs of street children.
15 The following are examples of economic institutions
a peer groups 22 The private sector of economic activity
b political parties and activists a consists only of small businesses
c banks and port authorities b means ensuring that all business is confidential
d church organisations. c consists only of large insurance firms and banks
d means all economic activity outside government
16 Informal education in all its forms.
a takes place primarily at school rather than
university 23 Which of the following is not a function of economic
b is a lifelong process involving all our leisure activities institutions?
c uses distance-learning methods and occupational a to provide capital for investment in businesses
training for students
b to provide for citizens’ economic needs
d gives rise to paper qualifications that are useful
c to provide security for the state
in the workplace.
d to provide employment for citizens.
17 Rastafarians
2 4 Crown colony government replaced legislative
a agree with Marcus Garvey’s idea that
Christianity first arose in Africa assemblies run by planters and settlers with
b believe that the Catholic Church holds the only a full independence from Britain
correct doctrine for salvation b direct rule by the King or Queen in person
c follow Mohammed as God’s prophet c representative democracy on the Westminster model
d focus on two key religious concepts, Dharma and d a governor responsible to the British government.
Moksha.
25 The head of state of a republic is called
18 Membership of an organisation a a governor-general
a includes being willing to be on its committee b a president
b involves the acceptance of the rules and aims of c the queen
that organisation d a prime minister.
c must legally be open to anyone willing to join
that organisation 26 The cabinet is
d is only open to adults. a a group of senior ministers entrusted with the
business of government
19 The three levels of culture are b another name for the president’s office
a family life, education and leisure activities c a place where the prime minister keeps
b objects and artefacts, ideas and values, important papers
behaviour, conduct and relationships d a group of senior civil servants who advise the
government.

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 Section A  End of term test

27 Laws are divided into two main groups which are 29 The three arms of government are
dealt with in different law courts: a the executive, the legislature and the judiciary
a civil law and criminal law b the cabinet, the executive and the legislature
b offences carrying fines and offences carrying a c the Church, the legislature and the judiciary
prison sentence d parliament, the prime minister and the law courts.
c minor offences and serious offences
d enforceable and unenforceable laws. 30 The Opposition in a democratic system of
government consists of
2 8 The system of proportional representation a the Upper House
a favours the two-party system b the head of state or his or her representative
b helps small political parties to gain more votes c the members of parliament who do not belong to
c is another name for universal adult suffrage the ruling party
d allows people to vote on more than one ballot d the trade unions and members of cooperative
paper. societies.

Structured questions
The questions in this section are similar to those on examination papers set by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) for
Social Studies. Answer TWO questions. All answers must be in complete sentences.

1 ‘The family can no longer perform its socialisation function.’

(6 marks)
a State three ways that the family performs a socialisation function.
(6 marks)
b Give three reasons why the family no longer performs this function.

c Suggest one way the business community in your country may help parents and children to
(8 marks)
socialise. Explain why this would be successful

Total: 20 marks

2 ‘Indian kinship and child-rearing patterns and those found among Afro-Caribbean people are
completely different.’
(6 marks)
a Describe three ways in which Indian and Afro-Caribbean family patterns differ.

b Explain why child-rearing among the Indian and Afro-Caribbean peoples is different, giving at
(6 marks)
least three reasons.
(8 marks)
c How does this difference affect young people in today’s Caribbean societies?

Total: 20 marks

3 ‘Street children are on the increase in the Caribbean.’

(2 marks)
a i) Explain the term ‘street children’.

ii) Give two conditions at home that may lead to increased numbers of ‘street children’ in urban
(4 marks)
areas of the Caribbean.

b Explain why Caribbean countries need to reduce the number of street children, giving at least
(6 marks)
three reasons.

c Name a welfare organisation in your country and explain how such an organisation may be able
(8 marks)
to help street children in urban areas.

Total: 20 marks

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 SECTION B
Sustainable Development
and Use of Resources

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 5 Human resources

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• explain and use correctly concepts and terms associated with human resources
• describe the structure and characteristics of a population
• explain the factors influencing population distribution
• outline the factors influencing population change
• outline the sources and uses of population statistics
• explain the causes and consequences of migrations
• explain the need for developing human resources
• explain the factors that contribute to the development of human resources
• explain the factors that influence employment, unemployment and underemployment
• explain the factors and procedures to be considered in choosing a job or being self-employed.

Terms you should know

birth rate the number of babies born each year among every 1000 people in the country or region
bottom-up development development starting at the grassroots which aims to benefit the whole country by means of individual
prosperity
brain drain the loss of skilled and trained people through emigration
census survey of population carried out by the government regularly (usually about every ten years)
death rate the number of deaths each year among every 1000 people in the country or region
dependency ratio ratio of breadwinners to those who depend on them financially (their dependants)
depopulation reduction in the numbers of people in a country or region because of widespread death or migration
developed country country where economic wealth is generated mainly from secondary and tertiary industries
developing country country where national income is generated mainly from primary products
development eradication of poverty in a country or region by means of new industries, methods and technology
emigration movement of people out of a country to settle somewhere else
employment one person paid by another person or business for the work he or she does
fertility rate the number of births per thousand people in the whole population
globalisation an international order involving the growth of transnational linkages and communication over which
individual states have little control
gross domestic product the monetary value of all goods and services produced by a country in a year
human capital the skills, knowledge and abilities possessed by individuals
human resources population of a country viewed from an economic point of view

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 5   Human resources

immigration movement of people into a country to settle there

infant mortality deaths of children under one year of age
infrastructure permanent amenities necessary for development
labour force adults available for work
life expectancy the average length of life an individual in a particular country or region can expect
migrants people entering or leaving a country for permanent or semi-permanent residence
migration inward and outward flow of migrants
natural rate of population a figure calculated by subtracting the death rate from the birth rate
increase
net migration a figure calculated by subtracting the emigration figure from the immigration figure
population the number of people in any given area
population density the concentration of people in a particular region, area or country to land area, calculated by dividing
the total population by the land area; usually expressed as number of people per sq km
population distribution the geographical, age, occupational, ethnic, religious or gender structure of a population
sustainable development development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
top-down development development starting with governments, using the ‘trickle down’ effect to benefit the mass of the people
underdeveloped country a country in which standards of living are below those in industrialised countries, where poverty levels
are unacceptably high
underemployment situation where the human resources are not being used to their full capacity
unemployable lacking in the skills or personal characteristics expected by an employer
unemployment situation where workers cannot find employment
urbanisation the movement of large numbers of people from the rural area into cities and large towns
working population the number of persons over school-leaving age who work for pay or gain or are registered as being
available for work

FACT
• Renewable resources Human and physical resources
are those which nature
will renew if given the
The term resources refers to characteristics of the physical and human world we use to sustain
opportunity to do so: our daily life. When we use these resources we use the term exploitation, which simply means
soil, water, livestock, using resources to meet our needs. These resources include both the people – the population
timber and other plants of a particular place, sometimes referred to as human resources – and the physical resources
are all renewable. in our environment which include the sea, the climate, the soil and so on.
• Non-renewable
resources are those
that are finite; once
we have used them, What are human resources?
there will be no fresh In this chapter we will consider human resources of the region; in the form of people of
supply. Mineral
resources such as oil,
every race, background and belief. The concept of human resources is a way of looking
gas, gold, diamonds at human beings as an economic resource; for the work they can do and the human
and bauxite are non- capital they bring to that work. Human resources are often said to be the most valuable
renewable. In order of all resources because their ingenuity, inventiveness and courage is vital to our efforts
to have fresh supplies, to bring prosperity and well being to everyone.
we must seek out new
sites to exploit. We shall look at physical resources in more detail in Chapter 6. They will be categorised
as renewable or non-renewable.

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 5   Human resources

Using human resources

Japan, among others, has shown that it is possible to bring great prosperity to a country that
has few exploitable natural resources but whose people are hard-working and innovative.
Japan is a collection of islands in south-east Asia without oil resources or a history of
engineering expertise. The country became wealthy in the course of the 20th century
through the hard work and dedication of its people, particularly by using technology
creatively in order to produce high-quality electrical and other consumer goods cheaply.
Japanese-made flat screen
TVs Japan can be compared with our
Caribbean territories in its geographical
and historical situation. The challenge
to our own peoples is to emulate its
economic success.
In the Caribbean, the Cayman Islands
have very few resources indeed but it has
become wealthy through its financial
industries. Cuba, while not wealthy in
the traditional sense, has educated its
doctors and nurses and consequently has
a very good health service, with lower
infant mortality than even the USA.

The demography of the

Caribbean
A population may be defined as the
total number of human beings in a given
society. The technical study of human
population is called demography.
Demographers study not only the total
numbers of population and how these
numbers rise and fall but also other
aspects of population such as its density,
distribution and structure. We shall look at all these aspects of the population in this
chapter.

The structure and characteristics of population in the Caribbean

The population of any region can be described in terms of: total numbers, density,
distribution, age, sex, occupation, ethnic origin, religion, dependency ratio and in terms
of changes occurring in all of those.

Population structure
We have defined population as the total number of human beings in a society. This is
the total population, but knowing the total does not give us a true picture of what is
happening as the demography of our region changes. To get this true picture we need to
look at the distribution of the population in terms of age, sex (gender) and occupation.

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 6 5   Physical
  Human resources

• Age distribution figures show the population of a country subdivided into various
age groupings.
• Sex distribution figures show the ratio of males to females in the adult population
and/or in the labour force.
• The occupational distribution shows the major occupations of the country and
how the labour force is distributed according to these occupations.

Age distribution
The age structure of Caribbean populations is still ‘bottom-heavy’, that is, there are more
young people than elderly ones. Two simple examples are shown in the diagram below.

Figure 5.1  Age structure

diagram for Guyana and Guyana
Trinidad and Tobago
65+ Trinidad
Age
ACTIVITIES

15–64

Look at the population

pyramids for Guyana 0–14
and Trinidad and
Tobago. 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
a Which has the
highest percentage
of young people
under 15?
b Which has the
highest percentage Guyana – 2010
of people over 65? Male Female
100+
c What does the 95–99
shape of the 90–94
pyramid for Trinidad 85–89
tell you about the 80–84
age structure? 75–79
70–74
d What is likely to
65–69
be happening to 60–64
population growth 55–59
in Trinidad and 50–54
Guyana? 45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 5.2A  Population Population (in thousands)

pyramid for Guyana, 2010
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base

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 5   Human resources

Compare the age structure Trinidad and Tobago – 2010

of Trinidad and Tobago Male Female
100+
with that of Guyana. Which 95–99
would you expect to have 90–94
85–89
the highest birth rate? Why? 80–84
75–79
70–74
65–69
60–64
55–59
50–54
45–49
40–44
35–39
30–34
25–29
20–24
15–19
10–14
Figure 5.2B  Population 5–9
pyramid for Trinidad and 0–4
Tobago, 2010
65 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 65
Population (in thousands)
Source: US Census Bureau,
International Data Base

Importance of age structure

Knowledge of the age distribution is important because different ages make different
demands on a country’s resources. Here are some examples:
• The number of pre-school children this year determines the number of school places
needed in the next few years.
• The number of children who are too young to work and the number of people of
retirement age both place a burden of dependence on the economically active people
(the dependency ratio).
• A high proportion of young persons in a population means a large group of potential
parents now approaching maturity. In a territory where there is full employment,
this may mean a larger workforce to create greater prosperity for the country. But it
may also mean the diversion of resources to feed and educate a still larger number of
children in the future if birth and fertility rates stay the same.
• A large proportion of old people in a population (aged 65 +) means that in the future
provision will need to be made for an aging population, with health care, geriatric
care, retirement homes and pensions. Some countries which have increasingly old
populations are having to increase the age to which people must work before they
can retire or have a pension.

Sex distribution
The sex or gender distribution of the population also shows how many women are of, or
are approaching, childbearing age and this is related to the age distribution we have just
looked at. You can see both these on the population pyramids for Guyana and Trinidad.

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 6 5   Physical
  Human resources

Table 5.1  Population

distribution by sex in
selected Caribbean
countries, 2010

Table 5.1 shows the

population distribution
by sex in a number of
Sources: 2010 census (Belize, Bermuda), STATINs (Jamaica), worldstats info estimates 2011 (St Kitts and Nevis),
Caribbean countries. Can estimates generated by CAREC
you see any patterns in
these figures?
Statistics like these can also be shown using graphs. Graphs are particularly useful for
showing trends, for example whether the relative percentages of males and females have
changed. The graph below shows sex distribution statistics for Belize from 1990 to 2010.

Figure 5.3  Population distribution in Belize by sex (estimates except for 1990, 2000 and 2006–2010)
165,000
160,000
155,000
Male Female
150,000
145,000
140,000
135,000
130,000
125,000
120,000
115,000
110,000
105,000
100,000
95,000
90,000

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Source: Estimates generated by CAREC and US Census Bureau data for 2005–2010 (mid-year figures)

Often the age and sex distribution figures are combined, for example in a
ACTIVITIES

population pyramid like those shown on pages 143 and 144.

1 Use the sex distribution figures
for your own or another territory It is important for policy makers to know the sex distribution of the
for the last 10 or 15 years to population so that current needs and problems can be addressed. It is
draw a diagram like the one above usually better for a population to be evenly balanced between the sexes,
(Figure 5.3). but in some cultures a preference for boy children may result in girl
children being killed or aborted resulting in a preponderance of males.
2 Draw a table showing these figures.
When wars have occurred there can be a shortage of young men. In
3 Illustrate these figures using a the Caribbean differences in the numbers of males and females in the
divided bar graph. population is often due to migrant work patterns. In countries with
forestry or mining, men may migrate for work, causing more males in
places with those industries and fewer males in the countries from which
they come.

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Demography and social change

Sex distribution also looks at the number of women who are part of the working
population. The changes that occur in this figure are likely to be the product of social
changes rather than purely demographic ones. For example, a rise in the number of
married women with children in the working population may show that more mothers
are combining their home-making role with a career or income-earning work. It does
not necessarily mean that there are actually more married women who have children
of school age.

Can you think of other

Occupational distribution
social changes which
The working population includes both economically active adults (people actually
might affect population
working for gain, that is, earning income, sometimes called the employed labour
distribution figures? force) and those who are available for work but not actually earning (that is, the
unemployed or underemployed). The size of the working population depends upon the
following factors:
• the number of persons within the 16–65 age group, i.e. above school-leaving age and
below retirement age
• the activity rates within this group, especially as regards young people and female
workers who may not register as available for work
• the extent to which people over retiring age continue to work (this is influenced by
the level of pensions)
• the employment opportunities available.
The occupational distribution figures can also be laid out by sex, that is, showing which
industries are dominated by male workers and which by female. You can see such a
table below (Table 5.2) for Barbados. The bar chart in Figure 5.4 illustrates a different set
of figures, this time for Jamaica. You will learn more about employment and working
patterns in the Caribbean region later in this chapter.

Divide the sectors shown Table 5.2  Male and female workers by industry group, Barbados, 2011
in Table 5.2 into primary,
secondary and tertiary
occupations and draw
a pie chart showing the
proportions of each in the
Barbados workforce.

Source: Statistical Service Labour Force Survey, Barbados 2011

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discuss This Figure 5.4  Proportion of men and women in employment sectors, Jamaica 2008
ACTIVITIES

1 In pairs or groups, Agriculture, Fishing,

discuss how Hunting, Forestry
occupational
Mining, Quarrying women
distribution links
with other types men
of population Manufacturing total
distribution. Make
a list of these Electricity, Gas,
Water
links.
Construction

2 Why is it important Wholesale, Retail Trade,

for governments to Restaurants, Hotels
have the following
data: Transport, Storage,
Communication
a age and sex
distribution Financing, Insurance, Real
Estate, Business Services
b occupational
and Community, Social,
geographical Personal Services
distribution? 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

Types of occupation
Occupations fall into three basic categories: primary (agriculture and extractive
occupations such as mining), secondary (occupations involved in manufacturing or
processing industries) and tertiary (service jobs such as teaching, secretarial work,
nursing and financial sector occupations).
• Primary industries are those which get resources from the Earth or make use of
natural physical resources. They produce food and raw materials, and include
mining, quarrying, agriculture (crops and livestock), fishing, forestry, lumbering
and hunting.
• Secondary industries process raw materials and make them into products.
Manufacturing industries use both natural raw materials such as timber and man-
made resources such as crops and metals to make products.
• Tertiary industries provide services to people and distribute goods made by primary
and secondary industries. They include travel, tourism, banking, personal services
such as hairdressing, shops, education and health.
Demographers are also interested in occupational distribution using these categories.
This information enables economists and people in government and industry to see how
the economy is developing, whether some sectors or industries are growing or declining
in terms of the number of people employed.

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 5   Human resources

Distribution by ethnicity

The Amerindians were The first Europeans to

1
the original inhabitants 2 settle in the West Indies
of the whole region. were the Spaniards, who
All other groups are arrived in 1492 with
later immigrants. The Christopher Columbus.
earliest Amerindian Hispaniola was the
groups probably came first Spanish colony.
to the West Indies from The Spaniards were
Venezuela. They were later followed by the
called Ciboneys, Tainos Portuguese, the French,
or Arawaks. They were English and Dutch.
later followed by the
Caribs. A few hundred
of the Caribs’ descendants still survive in a reserve
in Dominica. There are also small groups in Guyana
and Belize. The next group of
3
immigrants were
Africans brought to
the Caribbean as slaves
The final wave of by the Europeans, to
4
immigrants came work on the sugar
from India and China. plantations. They came
After the abolition mainly from West
of slavery there was Africa: Mandinka from
a period of labour Senegal, Coromanti
shortage. In order from Ghana (Gold
to solve this crisis Coast), Chamba from
the landowners Sierra Leone, Whyda
once more turned to and Papaw from
imported, indentured Dahomey and Western Nigeria, Ibo from south
labour. At first, Scots, eastern Nigeria and Bahong from the Congo Basin.
Irish, Germans and
Portuguese from
Madeira were tried.
Then, between 1856 Table 5.3  Population of religious groups in the Caribbean
and 1866, 13,200
Chinese labourers
were imported into
Guyana and Trinidad.
But both these groups
were unable to provide
the kind of labour the
landowners required. Finally the solution came with
the importation of Indians from India (today they
are called East Indians). This steady immigration
began in 1838 and ended in 1917.

Source: http://caribbean-guide.info/past.and.present/religion/

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Table 5.4  Caribbean population by ethnic origin, 2000 (percentages) Religion

The main religious
groups were described
in Chapter 3 (pages 72-
73). To some extent the
religious groups in the
Caribbean population
relate to the ethnic groups
discussed above. Most
of the people of African
and/or European descent
are Christians, whereas
most of the East Indians
are Muslims or Hindus.
The different groups who
came to the Caribbean
Source: compiled from CIA World Factbook data – 2000/2001,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html brought their religions
with them, and then some
of these were converted to
Table 5.5  Religious affiliation in Belize, 2010 other religions. For example, enslaved Africans brought to the Caribbean
brought with them their ancestral religions but they were not allowed
to practise them during colonial times and most were converted to
Christianity. New religions such as Rastafarianism were the result of the
mixing of cultures.
Table 5.3 shows the approximate numbers in each group.
It is interesting to look at the distribution of religious affiliation in Belize
where there are a wide range of ethnic groups (see Table 5.5).
ACTIVITIES

Look at Table 5.5 for Belize and compare it with the Caribbean as a whole.

1 Which are the five most popular religions/denominations in Belize?

2 What proportion of the population has no religion?

3 Which ethnic groups are usually associated with Buddhism, Mennonite

and Bahai faiths?

4 Would you describe Belize as a predominantly Christian country?

5 Draw bar charts to show the figures in the tables.

6 Do the religious affiliations in Belize broadly reflect those in the

Caribbean region as a whole?

7 Explain the relationship between ethnicity and religious affiliation in

your own country.
Source: Belize government census 2010

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Imagine that you are a The dependency ratio

member of a Commission or The dependency ratio is the ratio of dependants to working adults. It is calculated
Committee drawn up by the by dividing the number of dependants (children, young people and the elderly) in a
population by the number of adults who are economically active. A high dependency
government of your country
ratio means that a small number of economically active adults are struggling to support
to suggest solutions to a
children, young people and the elderly. There are a number of quite different reasons
dependency ratio problem. for a high dependency ratio.
Work out what questions • The ratio rises if the birth rate goes up sharply, giving a larger number of children
you will need to ask in and young people to be supported by working adults.
order to determine what is • Population stagnation, where the birth rate is insufficient to replace the natural
causing the problem and loss of older people dying, can also produce a high dependency ratio. At present no
then recommend some Caribbean territory is suffering from this problem, but it is becoming a worrying trend
policies that might help. in many rich countries where the percentage of people of retirement age is growing.
• Where AIDS is becoming a serious problem, as it is in Africa, parts of Asia and Latin
America, and in some countries of the Caribbean, the death of a large number of
ACTIVITIES

adults in the period of their lives when they are economically active and have many
Look back at the young dependants throws a heavy burden on the elderly and on surviving members
population pyramids of the workforce. Population estimates in some countries are now taking account of
for Guyana and deaths from AIDS as well as projected rises in population as a result of fertility.
Trinidad on pages
• The ratio can also rise or fall as a result of migration. If working age people leave a
143–144.
country to work elsewhere the dependency ratio will go up, although the effects of
a Do they each
this may be softened if they send money home to their dependents. In other places
have high or low
where jobs are available, the ratio may fall as a result of new migrants of working age.
dependency ratios?
b Can you suggest
reasons for this?
Population totals and distribution in the Caribbean

Table 5.6  Population and population density, 1980, 2004 and estimates for 2011 for selected Caribbean countries

Source: CIA World Factbook

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Population density
ACTIVITIES

Density of population in the

N Caribbean (people per km2)
1 Draw a bar chart to
0–200
show the change
201–400
in population of BAHAMAS 401–700
five countries in
the Commonwealth
Caribbean between
1980 and 2011,
using the figures in
Table 5.6.
JAMAICA ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
ST KITTS & NEVIS
BELIZE
2 Try to find out how
the population has DOMINICA
changed since
ST LUCIA
then in these ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
countries (you can BARBADOS
use an Internet GRENADA
search engine to TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
look for the latest
figures).

RESEARCH This
0 200 400 600 800 1000 km
GUYANA

Figure 5.5  Population density in selected Caribbean countries

The population density is the ratio of people to land area, calculated by dividing
Try to find out population the total population by the land area; it is usually expressed as number of people per
density figures for the square kilometre. Table 5.6 gives some examples. You can see from the table and the
map that there is a wide variety of population density in the Caribbean. For example,
administrative divisions
large mainland countries such as Guyana and Belize have large land areas but small
(counties, parishes etc.) populations, while the islands vary in size and population densities.
in your country or island.
About 90% of the land area of the Commonwealth Caribbean is in the two mainland
Draw a map showing the
countries, which have only 19% of the area’s population. Guyana has a population
population distribution density of 4 persons per square kilometre, while Belize has a density of 14 per square
across the territory. Where kilometre. On the other hand, the islands, with 10% of the land area, contain 81%
do most people live in of the population. Some of the island territories that consist of archipelagos (lines of
your country or island? islands), such as the Bahamas, also have a low population density in comparison with
compact territories such as Barbados, St Lucia, Jamaica and Trinidad, because much of
their land area is uninhabited rocky islets.
We have to be careful to look at the concentrations of population when comparing
population densities. For example, in Guyana the population is not spread out across the
whole country, much of which is covered by dense rainforest. Instead, people congregate
in the towns and cities along the coastline. The population density per square kilometre of
agricultural land in Guyana is much closer to the average over the Caribbean as a whole.

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RESEARCH This Population distribution

ACTIVITIES

1 Research government statistics for changes in the Geographical distribution

population numbers in your own country or island
over the last 20 or 30 years. Draw a line graph to
Geographical distribution shows the way different
illustrate these figures and write a description of the sections of the population are spread across a country or
way they have changed. the way in which population density varies.
1. We mentioned above that the population of Guyana
is concentrated along the coast. Guyana is divided
2 Work out the population density of your territory at into counties so a map could be drawn showing the
each of the dates for which population statistics are population density of each county. This would give a
available. visual representation of the fact that most Guyanese
3 Choose three or four key dates from the period covered live along the coast.
by the statistics and draw outline maps of your 2. Another way of looking at population distribution
territory to illustrate the changes in population density. might be to study the extent of urbanisation, that is
what percentage of the population live in large towns
and cities. This can also be shown on a table or a map.
3. Other kinds of population distribution include
Can you think of any other kinds of geographical distribution distribution by ethnic group or religion; or by relative
demographers might study? wealth or social status. Table 5.4 on page 149 shows
the Caribbean population by ethnic origin in 2000.

Factors affecting population distribution

Very few countries have an even distribution of population across their regions. Some
parts, especially the urban areas, might have thousands per square kilometre. Other
rural, hilly, dry or swampy areas will have less than 10 people per square kilometre.
• Physical geography and relief have always been the basic influences on where
people live. On our mountainous islands population is concentrated on coastal and
inland flat lands. Steeper slopes and greater heights are much less attractive for
settlement.
• Soil fertility is an influence too. Heavy clay soils and infertile sandy soils support
smaller densities than rich sediments on river flood plains.
• Mineral reserves such as bauxite in Jamaica attract people to work the minerals
and others to support them.
• Deep water harbours and sheltered bays attract people involved in trade.
• Access to transport; roads, rivers, railways, route centres and bridging points over
major rivers also attract people who wish to trade.
• Climate has its effect too. Everyone needs water for personal, agricultural,
commercial and industrial use. Dry areas attract few people. Very wet and cold areas
might also be avoided.
• Vegetation is an influence too. Areas which are covered in dense jungle or forests
are traditionally less attractive to people than grasslands. Moving from place to place
and clearing land for agriculture is more difficult.
• These original factors set up early patterns of population distribution and density.
Once settlements were created, these developed areas became factors in themselves.
Villages, towns and cities are attractive for settlement, as described later in this
chapter. Facilities such as health and education services, and factories, offices etc.
which provide employment opportunities attract more people to live in those areas.

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Population growth and change

We can see from Table 5.6 on page 150 that in general the population of the Caribbean
region is rising. However, this is not a uniform picture. Table 5.6 shows estimated census
figures for 2011 compared with those for 2004. As you can see, in some territories, for
example Guyana, the population has actually fallen. This may, however, be as a result
of emigration or the effects of a medical epidemic such as AIDS, rather than a drop in the
birth rate. Very severe falls in population levels are called depopulation. These have
profound effects on the economy and society of a territory just as population increases do.

Causes of population change

When we speak of growth we refer to increases in the total population. An increase in
population from year to year may be due to one or two possible causes:
1. The increase may be due to natural factors, that is, the surplus of births over deaths
which is known as the natural rate of increase:
Birth rate – death rate = rate of natural increase (per thousand of the population)
2. The increase may be the result of a net gain of population from migration, that is,
net immigration (movement into the country) exceeding emigration (movement out
of the country):
Numbers of immigrants – number of emigrants = population growth due to migration.

Birth rate and death rate

Natural increase is measured using the crude birth rate which is the number of births
per year per thousand of the population, and the crude death rate which is the number
of deaths per year per thousand of the population. The crude death rate subtracted from
the crude birth rate gives a general idea of the rate of natural population growth, but
of course does not account for migration.
The birth rate is affected by improvements
Table 5.7  Infant mortality and life expectancy in selected Commonwealth
in education and health. The birth rate
Caribbean countries, 2010
tends to be high in countries which are
poor and underdeveloped. People need
to have many children to look after
them in their old age, to work on family
farms and because many of them will die
young anyway. However, when children,
and especially girls, are educated for
longer, girls tend to marry later and
the birth rate drops. Access to family
planning services and contraception,
improved health care, higher incomes
and pensions for elderly people all help
to reduce the birth rate.
The death rate is also affected by social
changes. As nutrition and health care
improve so people live longer. Fewer
mothers and babies die in childbirth or
infancy.
Source: CIA World Factbook 2012 estimates

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Apart from these two rates, however, natural increases in the population are affected by
the following factors:
• fertility rates, which measure the number of children born to each woman over
their lifetime, averaged to a rate for the year
• the infant mortality rate, which measures the number of babies under one year
who die, per thousand live births
• the life expectancy of the population, which averages out the age at which people die.
Where there is a high infant mortality rate, the life expectancy figure
falls significantly. Deaths from AIDS, which generally kills people in
their youth or middle age, also affect the life expectancy figure. Table 5.7
ACTIVITIES

(page 153) shows the infant mortality rate and life expectancy in some
1 a Write your own definitions of the countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean in 2010. These figures are
following terms: crude birth rate; used to measure development, since they should show improvement as a
crude death rate; dependency
country becomes more developed. As nutrition, health care and standards
ratio; depopulation; fertility rate;
of living improve, life expectancy also improves. Infant mortality is more
infant mortality; net migration;
closely related to health care standards, which means that even some
natural increase; population
density. relatively poor countries, such as Cuba, have low infant mortality rates
b In each case, give an example
because they have put large amounts of resources into training doctors
of how the term is used in a and nurses and into maternity and child care, and nutrition.
sentence, for example: The
population density of Belize is Effects of population change
approximately 10 persons per
square kilometre. Demographic change has a number of effects.
• Where population increases, particularly as a result of a rise in the
birth rate, this puts continuous pressure on housing, child care,
2 a Make a list of reasons health and education services and even food. If a country is densely
for population increase or populated the increase can exert pressure on land availability as well.
decrease. In groups, discuss These problems can be summarised as follows:
which factors have been
discuss This

important in the increase -- Hunger – too many mouths to feed and not enough food to go around
or decrease in population (leading to malnutrition, especially of infants and children).
experienced by your territory -- Disease – pressure on health facilities and sanitation. Malnutrition
over the last 20 years or so. makes it more likely that babies and children will become sick.
Do you predict that these -- Lack of education – enough school places cannot be found for all or
factors will continue to there may not be enough teachers or teaching equipment.
influence population numbers?
-- Pollution – waste disposal becomes a problem.
-- Lack of housing – some people may not be able to find affordable homes
b Find out what current to live in and may build shanty towns or other temporary dwellings.
government policy is on
RESEARCH This

population numbers. What • Economically, increases in population can create problems such as
measures are taken to unemployment, unequal income distribution, rising social security bills,
encourage or discourage and a fall in savings and investment. There is already high unemployment
population growth? in a number of Caribbean islands and this encourages social tension and
c Assess whether the crime. However, depopulation creates a situation where the workforce is
demographic situation is not large enough to exploit the resources available. This also prevents a
positive or negative – that country from achieving its potential prosperity.
is, whether it is assisting the
• Population decrease may increase the country’s prosperity temporarily,
people of your territory to be
particularly after a period of population increase, since it lowers the
prosperous or not.
number of people who require health care, education, and so on.
But in the longer term population decrease can also cause economic
problems because it cuts the amount of human resources available.

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• A rise in the dependency ratio reduces a country’s prosperity overall because the
economically active population is supporting a larger number of dependents who
are consuming rather than producing wealth. This situation can occur in a period of
population decrease, for example where an illness such as AIDS kills large numbers of
economically active adults, or in a period of population increase, for example where the
fertility rate rises steeply.
• The effect of an increasing population may not be all negative. For example, an increase
in the population of the region may mean that:
-- the size of the regional market may be increasing

FACT -- the mobility of labour may be stimulated

-- investment may be encouraged; this may revitalise the regional economy leading
Census to an increase in the commitment and energy of the people, more labour mobility,
higher levels of inventiveness and the willingness to accept new ideas.
A census is important
because it is the
main way by which
governments can collect
information about
Population statistics (How population is measured)
all the people in the
country. It tells them
Sources of statistics
how many people live
there, their gender
and age, their level of 1  National census
education, the work
they do and the type of
The main way in which population numbers are measured is by means of a census.
housing they live in. It Governments usually organise a census of the population every ten years. For example,
provides information the first census took place in Jamaica in 1840 and since then there have been 14 censuses.
about changes in the Since 1960 they have been held approximately every ten years to 2011. Census activities
population since the last are usually organised by a country’s statistical institute or Ministry of Information and
census, and provides
people are legally bound to give accurate information to census takers. The information
the basis for the
government’s plans for collected on individuals and families is confidential. All the information is collated and
new infrastructure such analysed and then statistical data about groups in the population is published.
as schools and hospitals.
The information is also When organising a population and housing census, the statistical office first decides
useful to companies exactly what information it needs to collect. Then it develops a questionnaire. Most
and other agencies who countries send out questionnaires to every householder, asking the head of house to fill
need to know about the it in and return it. But many countries also train special interviewers to go out with the
characteristics of the questionnaires and help people to fill them in. Once the questionnaires are completed
population and the way it
and returned, they are analysed by a team of trained statisticians using computers.
is changing.
The census does more than just count the population. It checks the number of males
and females, the way in which population is distributed across the age ranges, the
ethnic or racial composition and frequently such things as religious belief, occupation
and income. From these figures, governments (and other bodies) can work out the
population density, the dependency ratio, the age, gender and occupation structure, and
the probable needs of the population for health care and educational provision over the
next ten years or so.

2  Registration of births, marriages and deaths

The Registrar’s Office compiles statistics from the registration of births, marriages and
deaths. When a child is born, people get married or someone dies it is compulsory to
register this. This information is useful because it provides a running total for natural
increase or decrease in the population, between the census years.

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3  The Office of Naturalisation and Immigration Office

When emigrants move to a country and apply to become citizens they may apply to
the Office of Naturalisation or a similar government department. This office keeps
records of the number of new citizens and applications for citizenship, along with details
about those people. Immigration offices usually record all those entering and leaving
the country, although there may not be records for movements between CARICOM
countries with arrangements for freedom of travel and work.

4  Religious Institutions
Religious institutions such as churches perform marriages, christenings and funerals.
They keep records of these and often have records going back hundreds of years.

5  Sample surveys and polls

Government departments, including the statistics office or institute often carry out
sample surveys of the population between the census years. This enables them to estimate
population trends and needs in the country better. Such surveys may be concerned with
particular needs, such as education, skills or health care.
Businesses, political parties and the media also sometimes commission surveys and polls to
find out people’s behaviours and their attitudes or opinions to different issues or products.
Organisations which run such surveys or polls are usually expert in what they do.

Other sources of statistics we can use

Problems associated with collecting There are many sources of information on population
statistics totals, distribution and structure available to the public.
Some of these can be purchased as books or CDROMs,
• Not all the population may be literate so some from government departments or elsewhere, such as
information may need to be collected by interview the Economic and Social Survey of Jamaica 2010. Others are
rather than questionnaire. available online, using the internet and are usually free.
• Some people may not register births or deaths. Search engines like Google provide pathways into many
• Many people may refuse to give information or give sources. Care must be taken when using information on
false information for a number of different reasons, websites to distinguish between absolute facts, estimates
such as feeling alienated from government, not and opinions, and also between reputable sources such
understanding why the information is needed, or as government or UN websites, and less reliable sources.
wanting to retain their privacy.
• Some people do not wish to give information about
income in case this is shared with the tax authorities. Uses of statistics
• People who are criminals or who have something to It is impossible to plan the future of any service or any
hide may avoid appearing on the census altogether. organisation without using the appropriate statistics.
• People may be worried about confidentiality and not
wish to disclose some information, for example about
Education
illnesses or how many children they have.
Staff in schools and education offices use statistics relating
• People move about and may be away from home and not
get counted. to births and the movement of children, for example from
rural to urban areas, to plan expansion and contraction
• The information is out-of-date almost as soon as it
of schools, the training of teachers and the needs for food,
is collected. This makes it crucial that the results
of surveys and the census are analysed and made transport, books and equipment. Governments must also
available as soon as possible. look at future trends in employment and provide training
or higher education to meet the needs of the country’s

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future economy. For example, nowadays it is important for all students to gain an
understanding of ICT in order to be able to contribute within the modern global workforce.

Health care
Statistics concerning births are also of interest to health services as are figures for
fertility, life expectancy, deaths and disease. Understanding the movement of people is
important in order to provide facilities in the right places.

Housing
Again population changes in numbers, ages and movement are crucial for planning
housing. The government and building companies need to know where houses will be
needed in relation to employment, how many will be needed and what size they should
be. For example, as women are having fewer children and more people are living alone
household size is falling, so there is more demand for one or two-bedroom houses and flats.

Employment
It is not easy for governments or companies to provide employment for people. However,
they can try to predict what skills and education will be needed by employers in the
future and then provide these through educating and training young people and others.
They can also try to encourage employment by providing housing, transport and child
care facilities for workers in the right locations. To do this they need to know the
characteristics and structure of the population and trends, and try to predict or estimate
how things will change within the next five to ten years.
By collecting statistics about tourism, for example, governments may be able to predict
future trends and so put their own countries in the best possible position in terms of
attracting tourists and providing employment in the sector in the future.

Social welfare
Information about income trends and age and sex structure are important for social
welfare provision. If the population is gradually getting wealthier and most households
have reasonable incomes, then there should not be a need for big rises in welfare
discuss This
provision and spending. As life expectancy increases and populations age, there is an
ACTIVITIES

increased need for social welfare provision for the elderly, such as retirement homes
1 Discuss, in groups, and home care. Countries with high fertility and birth rates will need to spend more on
the statistical
maternity and child welfare.
needs of planners
in one sector
of government Infrastructural development
provision such as
In order to plan infrastructure development such as electricity production and
the police force or
distribution, water supply, transport and telecommunications, governments and
health clinics.
companies must know or be able to predict future needs. To do this they have to
understand how many people there will be, where they will be living and what they
2 Make a list of the will be doing. If a business park is being built outside a capital city, then there must
precise rates or be good transport links between it and the city centre and also connecting to areas of
information that housing for the workers. Companies need to be able to get deliveries of raw materials
sector would find and to move their goods out from the business park to shops or to ports for export.
useful and why.
Commerce and industry have their own statistical needs to plan expansion or contraction
of premises, or provision of services and marketing.

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Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another to live and usually to
work. It does not include visiting relatives or going on holiday. People may migrate quite
short distances such as to a neighbouring town, or internationally, to another continent.
Sometimes they migrate permanently, perhaps rarely returning to their place of origin.
Sometimes people migrate for education or work for a few years and then return home.
People move from one area to another for a variety of reasons. These factors are called
‘pull’ and ‘push’ factors, where the ‘pull’ factors are those that attract the migrant to a
new area, and the ‘push’ factors are those that encourage or force him or her to leave.

FACT
Push factors Pull factors
• Discrimination on ethnic, religious or other grounds • To find a better life for themselves and their families
• Unemployment, underemployment or low wages • To join relatives who have already made the move
• Natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic • Political stability, security and human rights
eruptions, flooding or drought
• Economic stability and job or career opportunities
• Poor education, health and housing facilities
• High wages and low living costs
• Low living standards, lack of electricity, piped water and
poor communications
• Good health care services and facilities

• War, conflict, political instability and high levels of crime • Good schools and opportunities for higher education and
training
• High inflation and high costs
• Recreational facilities
• High living standards with good housing, electricity, piped
water and telecommunications (TV, internet and cell phone
coverage)
• Accessibility to shops, banks, restaurants and other facilities
• Good transport links, such as bus services and airports
• Low levels of crime, community facilities

For many people it is a combination of these factors which causes them to migrate, but
often the most important factor is employment.
These factors influence most kinds of migration, whether it is internal, rural–urban,
regional migration between countries within the Caribbean or international migration.

Internal migration (within an island or country)

Internal migration takes place more easily than emigration or immigration because the
migrants do not have to cross international boundaries. In most countries there are no
limitations on movement of citizens within the territory, so people are free to settle,
or live temporarily, anywhere they can find somewhere to live. Many people move to
find work or a better job than the one they already have. Others move nearer to their
extended family or choose to live in a new town or city which offers more in the way of
social amenities or economic opportunities.
Most internal migration in the Caribbean is from rural to urban areas. We will look at the
cause of this in more detail under urbanisation. However, there is also some migration

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from inner city areas to suburbs (for example from inner Kingston, Jamaica, to Portmore
and elsewhere) to escape high levels of crime, poor housing and social deprivation.

Urbanisation
Many countries in the Caribbean are experiencing a special kind of internal migration
called urbanisation, whether or not they have an overall growth in population. This
is also a worldwide trend. The number of people living in urban areas in Jamaica, for
example, more than doubled in the period 1961–2001, to 1,465,318, about 56% of the
total population, according to World Bank figures.
United Nations figures show that these figures have remained much the same in Jamaica
since 2001.

Figure 5.6  Jamaica’s urban

population as a proportion of
Jamaica’s urban
the total population Jamaica’s total population
population

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
Million

Rural–urban migration
In every continent across the globe populations which were once mainly rural and
food-producing are now becoming more urban. This is sometimes called rural–urban
migration or rural–urban drift. This migration has both economic and social causes:
• Economic causes Prices paid to
food producers have fallen steeply
in recent years and there has also
been a trend away from subsistence
farming. People move to urban areas
in search of better-paid work. The
mechanisation of agriculture has also
encouraged rural–urban drift, since
fewer workers are needed on the land.
• Social causes Younger people
increasingly want the amenities and
opportunities they see available in
towns. More shops, sports facilities,
cinemas, clubs and other forms of
entertainment and leisure are to be
found in urban areas and these attract
many people who reject the more
static and traditional way of life of the
rural areas.

Traffic in a town street, Montego Bay, Jamaica This movement from rural areas into the
towns is not always direct, but follows
a pattern: from farm to village; from
village to small town; and from small

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town to city. This process is called a

‘shunting movement’ and the tendency
is always to move on to a place with a
few more urban facilities than the place
you left.
Jamaica provides us with a good example
of internal migration in the 20th century
(see case study, page 163).

Problems resulting from urbanisation

As large towns grow many problems
become apparent. These include:
• inadequate housing, leading to
overcrowding of existing housing
• poor sanitation as a result of
inadequate housing provision and
Mechanisation of agriculture overcrowding
• pollution, resulting from inadequate
housing, poor sanitation and
overcrowding in urban areas
• poverty due to the unemployment of
many who come to the city seeking
jobs but do not find any work to do
• an increase in the crime rate as a
result of unemployment and poverty
• ill health as a result of poor sanitation
and pollution (see below).
Many of these problems can be solved by
improved planning. In most territories
there are government departments
(Ministries) which work to prevent
the adverse effects of urbanisation,
including making sure the environment
remains unspoiled and unpolluted,
planning recreational facilities and
Urban shopping mall establishing parks.
Find out which Ministries in your country or island are responsible for solving the
problems of increased urbanisation. Some migration is permanent; where the individual
wishes to start a new life in a different country. Some is temporary; usually for a short
period and in order to find work. When the job is finished, or enough money has been
raised, temporary migrants return home.

Reducing the problems caused by urbanisation

Governments are trying to find ways of coping with increased urban populations and
reducing the problems caused by urbanisation in the following ways:

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• Increasing employment by providing incentives for companies to locate to their cities

and provide work, along with training for shortage skills and entrepreneurship
• Providing more facilities in urban and suburban areas such as schools, hospitals and
health centres
• Up-grading slums and shanty towns to improve housing and facilities
• Encouraging communities to develop their own facilities
• Improving public transport and telecommunications networks to reduce congestion
and pollution from vehicles.

RESEARCH This Reducing rural–urban drift in the Caribbean

ACTIVITIES

Some ways of reducing rural–urban drift include:

Research the pattern • encouraging better kinds of employment in rural areas such as white collar jobs with
of urbanisation in your higher wages and better conditions
own country or island
• providing better housing, health and educational facilities in rural areas
over a period of ten or
more years. • providing important infrastructure such as electricity, piped water, transport links
and telecommunications in rural areas
a Find out which
areas gained and • training farmers to improve their farming and business skills and encouraging
lost migrants and income-generating projects to increase rural incomes.
what ‘pull and
push’ factors were
involved. Draw External migration (between islands and countries)
maps to show We use different words to describe different directions and types of migration.
the direction of
• Emigration, or out-migration, describes movement out of a country, island or
migration.
region. Emigration is rarely opposed by governments, but is a matter of the individual
b If possible, draw gathering enough financial resources, information about the target country
up tables to show and usually some promise of employment on arrival. Emigration usually implies
the numbers of permanent settlement and application for citizenship of the new country.
migrants, and the
main periods of
• Immigration describes movement into a country, island or region. Immigration is
migration, using often controlled quite strictly by the government of the country of immigration who
government wish to prevent the arrival of undesirable residents and also often simply to limit the
statistics if numbers of people arriving. Immigration also is normally a permanent matter.
available (they are • Regional or intraregional migration describes movement between territories
usually the most within a region. This may be more likely to be a temporary movement rather than a
accurate). permanent settlement by individuals or families in a new country.
c Find out what • Internal migration describes movement within one country or island. Rural–urban
problems have migration, which is linked with urbanisation, is a major example of this.
been caused by
urbanisation and
• International migration describes movement between one country and another.
what policies the This term is mainly used for migration from one continent or region to another, for
government has example for migration from the Caribbean to Europe.
put in place to
deal with these.
Emigration and immigration
As we saw earlier, out-migration has in the past acted as a ‘safety valve’, for the population
problems of the region. Barbados and Jamaica, two densely populated islands, are good
examples of states trying to solve their population problem by emigration. In the early
part of the century, Jamaicans and Barbadians (Bajans) emigrated to Panama, Costa
Rica and Cuba. Later, when these avenues closed, they turned to the United Kingdom

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and North America. At that time these countries needed labour. Many of the Windward
and Leeward islands also temporarily released their population pressure in the same
direction as Barbados and Jamaica. Trinidad and the Netherlands Antilles islands of
Aruba and Curaçao also served as an outlet for Bajans and people from the small islands.
Migration to the UK is no longer easy. That to the United States and Canada is difficult
and only open to special categories. Countries in Europe and North America have put
up barriers to immigration from the Caribbean. As the European Union has expanded
they have favoured migrants from within their region rather than outside. However,
this has not stopped the continued migration of some specialist skilled workers such
as nurses. It is estimated that over 50,000 trained nurses emigrated from CARICOM
countries between 1997 and 2007. An IMF study (2005) estimated that 75% of trained
personnel in Guyana emigrated between 2000 and 2004.
Within the Caribbean region, only Trinidad and Guyana have been countries of
immigration until recently. However, since 1989 the CARICOM CSME has been
developing the free movement of skills initiative within the region. This gives skilled
workers the right to seek employment in any CARICOM member state without the need
for work permits or permits to stay. This initiative includes university graduates, and
those working in media, music, arts or sports. Also within the region, refugees have fled
from various natural disasters, for example after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, people
moved to neighbouring islands such as Jamaica and the Dominican Republic.
Migration may be legal, requiring visas and work permits, or illegal when people arrive
in another country without the correct papers and try to disappear into the population.

Consequences of migration
There are positive and negative consequences resulting from all forms of migration, for the
individual who migrates, for the place of origin and the host country or place of destination.

Consequences for the individual

ACTIVITIES

Read the case study on urbanisation Some people who migrate are happy and successful. Such success more
in Jamaica carefully and answer these often occurs when people move to an area where they already have
questions. contacts, friends or family. Others are very unhappy and might not have
the means to return home.
1 How many phases of migration were
there between 1911 and 1970? Emigration can also create instability of family life as people lose touch
with their kin and sometimes even with their children if they are
2 What evidence is used to measure
the direction and amount of left behind. Migrants may feel torn between loyalty to their original
movement? homeland and their new home, and undecided as to where they feel most
comfortable. Some emigrants have to live in poor conditions while they
3 Which three areas attracted most work hard to establish themselves in the new country. They may face
migrants during the whole period
discrimination and ethnic conflict.
and why?

Consequences for the place of origin

4 Is it significant that the pattern of • It can be a useful remedy for the population problems of the region,
migration was the same throughout reducing population numbers and unemployment.
the period? (Discuss this question
with a partner or in a group if you
• Migrants who are well paid overseas send back remittances to their
want.) families boosting foreign exchange.
• Skilled workers are usually those who leave. This is called the ‘brain
discuss This drain’, as discussed above.

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• Governments spend large amounts of money educating people to a high standard for
them to leave, which is a waste of resources.
• The brain drain impairs development.

CASE STUDY
Rural–urban migration in Jamaica 1911–70
Four census periods were used to measure the extent of in the parishes of Portland and St Mary, which,
migration: 1911–21; 1921–43; 1943–60; and 1960–1970. in addition to providing employment, provided
opportunities for migration from the island.
• In the period up to 1943 large numbers of people
moved from rural to urban areas. The factors which were • Between 1943 and 1970 the trend continued at an
responsible for this were: increased rate. The major destinations remained the
centres of Kingston and St Andrew and the north coast
–– the growing importance of the major urban centres of
area in the parish of St James. Tourism and mining were
Kingston and St Andrew
the most significant developments affecting migration in
–– the development of tourism on the north coast of this period. For example, the hotel industry and activities
the island and specially the increasing importance of connected with it offered opportunities which brought
the Montego Bay area. This added a new pattern of migrants from nearby parishes. The location of the major
internal movement in Jamaica. industrial complex, the bauxite industry, also influenced
–– the development of the banana industry, particularly population movement.

Figure 5.7  Jamaica:

directions of internal Hanover St.
James Trelawny
migration 1921–43 St. Ann St. Mary
Westmoreland

St
.E Portland
St.
St.
Ma

liz And
ab Clarendon rew
nch

Ca

et
h
the
est

rine
er

St. Thomas
N

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

Figure 5.8  Jamaica:

directions of internal Hanover St.
James Trelawny
migration 1960–70 St. Ann St. Mary
Westmoreland
Ma

St
.E
nch

St. Portland
St.

liz And
ab
est

Clarendon rew
Ca

et
h
er

the
rine

St. Thomas
N

0 10 20 30 40 50 km

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 5   Human resources

ACTIVITIES
Consequences for the host country
a Explain what is meant by the terms • Skilled and highly educated workers from overseas fill job vacancies
immigration, emigration, internal and help to develop the countries’ industries or services.
migration, rural–urban drift and • Immigrants are usually young and ambitious and provide the country
urbanisation.
with new initiatives, ideas and ways of working.
b Why do people migrate, either • Immigrants bring alternative cultural ideas and help to develop music,
temporarily or permanently? What the arts and other areas.
problems can migration cause?
• There is pressure on housing, health and education services. This
c What causes people to move may cause price rises in housing, for example, which affect the host
from rural to urban areas? Why citizens.
do you think this is a worldwide
phenomenon (i.e. why is it • Ethnic conflicts may occur between the indigenous people and the
happening all over the world)? immigrants.

d In what ways, if any, does

• Immigrants may be willing to work for lower pay than the indigenous
urbanisation benefit a country? workers and so bring wages down for everyone.
More generally, the people who migrate are often the more skilled and
experienced sections of the labour force – the very people needed in the
region for economic development. Emigration can also create instability
of family life as many emigrants cannot keep up their responsibility for
the children they leave at home. This means that they leave behind a
heavy burden of dependency for relatives, often elderly ones.

What is development?
Development means different things to different people. Here we use it to mean:
• reducing and eventually eliminating poverty
• reducing and eventually eliminating unemployment and underemployment
• removing inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth.

Economic development
Economic development is the goal of most countries, particularly those whose citizens
do not yet enjoy the consumer goods and prosperity achieved by others. Economic
development can only be achieved by developing our human resources.

Historical background
The term development became fashionable in the 1960s and 1970s, when the
industrialised countries recognised that many other countries were trapped in poverty.
Many of these countries were former European colonies, in Africa, Asia and the
Caribbean in particular. Their resources had been used for the benefit of the colonising
country rather than the colony itself. Other countries simply had not had the resources
or political will to develop new industries and working methods in line with those of
Europe and North America.
The legacy of European colonial policy was that former colonies were heavily dependent
on primary industries such as cash-crop agriculture and mining that had provided raw
materials for metropolitan industries. They had little in the way of secondary
(manufacturing and processing) industries of their own. The markets for their produce

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were mainly in the colonising countries rather than in their own region. When prices
for primary products fell sharply in the 1970s, these countries were left vulnerable.

Development terms
Rich, industrialised countries
thought of themselves as ‘developed’
and thought of other, poorer
countries as ‘underdeveloped’,
or (more politely) ‘developing’
or ‘less developed’. So the term
development was used for the
eradication of poverty in these
countries using new technologies
and the development of secondary
industry and infrastructure. Rich
countries lent or provided aid to
poorer countries for the purpose
of government-funded projects
such as dams (for clean water
provision and hydro-electricity
generation), factories and roads.
In time new terms replaced the
original Less Developed Country
(LDC) status. The names Middle-
The airport terminal at St Income Countries or MDCs, and Newly Industrialising Countries (NICs) reflect the
Maarten, completed in 2008 achievements some countries have made towards greater prosperity. The social and
environmental cost, however, has sometimes been high, in the form of polluted land,
coastline and river systems and a greater gap between rich and poor.

Top-down or bottom-up
We can identify two kinds of development, and economists still debate hotly which kind
is the most effective.
1. Top-down development involved aid provided to governments. The idea was
that large-scale projects would have a ‘trickle-down’ effect which eventually helped
ordinary people to shake off poverty. In other words, the whole country would get
richer, and that would help everyone.
2. In bottom-up development, aid was provided directly to communities and
individuals through charities such as Oxfam, ActionAid and Practical Action
debate this (formerly Intermediate Technology or ITDG). The idea was that ordinary people
would become more prosperous and the whole country would benefit.
ACTIVITIES

Hold a class debate

on the rival merits of Sustainable development
bottom-up and top-
down development.
Which do you think is Brandt and Brundtland
likely to be the more Two important reports published in the 1980s showed that the simple picture of
successful of the developing nations (sometimes known as the Third World) who aspired to become
two? ‘developed’ was not sufficient.

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FACT
The Brandt and Brundtland Reports The Brundtland Report, published in 1987, was named after
Gro-Harlem Brundtland, chair of the World Commission on
(1980 and 1987) Environment and Development (WCED). The Report’s real
The Brandt Report, published in 1980, first coined the term name was Our Common Future. Here the term sustainable
‘the North’ and ‘the South’ for the two groups of nations, rich development was used for the first time. It was defined like
and poor. The North included the countries of North America, this: ‘Sustainable development is development that meets
Western Europe (including Scandinavia), Russia and Japan, the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
as well as the former British colonies of Australia and New future generations to meet their own needs.’ The Report went
Zealand. The South included much of Africa, the Caribbean, on to point out that the environmental problems of pollution
Latin America and Asia. The Report pointed out that the two and degradation that were threatening the whole globe were
groups were interdependent and that the North must trade the result of the patterns of production and consumption in
fairly with the South or risk disaster. the North, compounded by the terrible poverty of the South.
It called for a new strategy towards development which
would tackle both problems.

The Earth Summit

The Brundtland Report was debated at the United Nations which called for a special
Conference on Environment and Development. This was held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
and made a number of resolutions related to environmental problems which in theory
committed both rich and poor nations to the idea of sustainable development. It is often
known as the Earth Summit. A document known as Agenda 21 was produced by the
Summit as a new strategy for sustainable development on global, national and local levels.

Technical developments
Ask at home whether In practice, it has not proved so simple to cut back the North’s consumption of resources.
the fridge and/or freezer However, technological developments have had an important effect.
you have uses CFCs or
Technologies using renewable energy can play an important role in the Caribbean by
an alternative. When limiting the use of finite and polluting energy sources such as fossil fuels.
your family buys new • The spread of computer technology has allowed some Caribbean countries to develop
refrigeration equipment, tertiary industries such as offshore banking.
remember that the old • There is a much greater awareness in the region, and elsewhere, of the need to
equipment should be develop infrastructure which does not harm the natural environment. Examples
disposed of properly if it include building dams and reservoirs which do not damage the habitat of the wildlife
contains CFCs. (Ask the and flora of the area; landscaping hotel complexes in a way that encourages a wide
company who sells you range of flora and fauna; and restoring the environment after mining operations
have been completed.
the new equipment to
advise on this.) • Successful steps have been taken globally to deal with certain pollutants, for example CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), once widely used in refrigeration units. CFCs were responsible for
damaging the ozone layer that surrounds the Earth and protects the surface from the sun’s
ultraviolet rays. Companies that make fridges and freezers have now phased these out and
are using alternatives. But when older refrigeration equipment is disposed of, the CFCs can
escape into the atmosphere if they are not reclaimed properly.

Levels of development in the Caribbean

A country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is often used to measure its development. The
term refers to the total value of all goods and services produced in a country in any one year.
For purposes of comparison these totals are divided by the total number of people in the
country. The result is known as GDP per capita (per person).

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Table 5.8  The GDP for some representative countries, 2010 Most of the Caribbean would be considered middle
ranking in terms of GDP per head although there are some
countries which would be in the lowest group in terms
of GDP and general development and others which are
in the highest group for GDP (see Table 5.8). In order
to develop GDP, countries need to develop their human
resources so that they can make best use of the natural
resources they have.

Areas of development in the Caribbean

In the Caribbean, as in other regions, development must
clearly be geared to the resources we have. These are a
good climate, attractive scenery and wildlife, abundant
human resources and (limited) mineral resources. The
main areas of development Caribbean countries have
focused on are:
• tourism (good climate, attractive scenery and wildlife,
human resources)
• specialist agricultural production such as bananas,
coffee and sugar (good climate), and nowadays more
non-traditional crops such as peppers and avocados
• offshore banking facilities and other financial
operations (human resources)
Source: World Bank
• mineral exploitation and processing (mineral
resources such as bauxite and oil).
Which of these areas
It is clear that some countries have made more progress
constitute sustainable
in development than others. In the Agreement for the Establishment of a Regime for
development? Are any of CARICOM Enterprises, drawn up in 1976, the following definitions were given (see
these areas likely to cause Chapter 7 for more information on CARICOM and the RCE):
environmental problems? • Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago were designated MDCs (more
developed countries)
• Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia
Find out whether these and St Vincent and the Grenadines were designated LDCs (less developed countries).
designations have
changed. Have any of the Factors influencing development
LDCs become MDCs? The availability of physical resources affects the level of development a country can
attain, but the quality of human resources is more important still. Two of the most
important factors influencing the progress of development in the region are health and
education, since these affect the human resources of individual countries and the region
as a whole.
In spite of the progress that some Caribbean peoples have made, the development of the
region has been plagued by:
• Low per capita income, which brings with it malnutrition, poor health, a low level
of literacy and poor housing (for example slums, shanty towns). This picture varies
a great deal across the Caribbean. Some countries, where much development has
already taken place (for example in the Cayman Islands, where offshore banking has
made huge profits), now have high per capita incomes.

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ACTIVITIES
• Inefficient agriculture, occupying a large portion of the labour force
1 Write definitions for the following but not able to supply all the region’s food needs. This has begun to
terms: a) globalisation; b) per capita change as modern technology and methods have been taken up by
income; c) subsistence economy; farmers.
d) offshore banking.
• A two-faceted economy with an urban money economy and rural
subsistence economy. The growth of urbanisation has caused the
2 Debate in class the benefits and
former to become dominant.
problems of globalisation. The • A high birth rate means a large portion of the population is very young.
motion is: ‘This House believes This maintains a high dependency ratio for the working population.
that the benefits of globalisation But in many countries birth rates are now falling, see page 153.
outweigh its problems’.
• Poor terms of trade because of over-reliance on primary products.
debate this
ACTIVITIES

Picture study
1 What kind of housing is this? What can you say about
the income of the people who live here?

2 How does this kind of machinery make agriculture

more efficient?

3 How does this picture illustrate urbanisation?

4 What crop is being unloaded here? How can over

reliance on primary products hinder development?

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Globalisation
How much do you think
More recently, the idea of development has been overshadowed by what has been termed
these problems still beset
globalisation. Countries have become increasingly interdependent, particularly as a
the Caribbean region? result of the development of the internet and widespread use of computers and other
Has the progress of electronic communications equipment.
development in the 21st
Globalisation is also the result of the growth of major international companies, many of
century alleviated any them bigger and more powerful than many smaller countries. They are able to resource
of these? How does this their raw materials from anywhere in the world and manufacture their products in the
picture vary across the cheapest places, where labour is cheap and governments provide Incentives. This makes
region? it very difficult for small Caribbean companies to compete with them either in the world
market place or even at home.
You will learn more about globalisation in Chapter 7.

General requirements for development

The need for resources has already been emphasised. It is very difficult to increase
any region’s physical resources. What can be done is to maximise human resources.
Development will not occur unless the people of a region are used to their full potential.
• They need to be healthy enough to learn and be physically active as children, and be
healthy enough to work as adults.
• They need to be literate and numerate in order to learn new skills and follow
written instructions, articulate enough to explain to others, flexible enough to adapt
to new conditions.
• They need to be open minded enough to adjust to new conditions.
• They need to be able to think and solve problems as they arise.
• They need to be able to cooperate with each other as the best results in any situation
come from the use of everyone’s different skills.
Such human skills and attitudes don’t arise by accident. There need to be systems based
on knowledge of human needs to bring out the best in all the people. These include
services for health and education, sports, and culture.

Development of human resources

Human resources lie within every person in any country but most important are those
in adults of working age. Their efforts support those too young to work and those too old
(see dependency ratio page 150).
Skills within that group can be measured in several ways including literacy levels,
and numbers who completed primary, secondary and college education of all types.
What is less easy to find out statistically is how the level of skills matches the country’s
economic needs. Is development being held up through a lack of agricultural specialists,
of engineers or computer experts?
Low levels of literacy will certainly indicate problems for modern development.
Manpower planning is the process by which education authorities try to match skills
with development needs. It is a very inexact science as development usually runs ahead
of planning. Sometimes teacher training colleges or engineering courses are expanded
when the need for them is declining.

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The basic problem is that planning provision takes so long to implement that the situation
it is meant to match has often already changed.
FACT
Factors that contribute to development of human resources

Human resources can be developed by: • Ensuring people are healthy, free from illness and
disease. Availability and access to primary health care
• Ensuring good nutrition. Malnourished people are is important here. High infant mortality rates and high
economically ineffective. Their energy levels will be low early death rates reduce the human resources available
and they take time off work. Malnourished children do in the economy. Sick people cannot use their labour and
not develop properly either physically or mentally. skills to the full. HIV and AIDS is a very good example.
• Ensuring people are educated particularly up to By providing anti-retrovirals to those who have HIV,
primary and secondary levels. A literate population is governments can ensure that they continue to have
more likely to be able to learn new skills as they become productive working lives for many years. We lose the
needed. Vocational and professional training is important skills and time of those who are sick and those who
too, as well as retraining as the needs of industry change. have to care for them. Prevention is more cost effective
Today computer literacy and ITC familiarity and training than cure, such as preventing the rise in diabetes by
are essential for a modern workforce. Moral training is encouraging healthy lifestyles.
important to ensure a workforce which behaves ethically • Ensuring people have an opportunity to engage in
and avoids criminality. People who have suffered from sport. Sports can work to develop a country’s human
setbacks such as illness, disability or a prison sentence resources. At all levels sports provide people with
may need rehabilitation to get them back into the opportunities to compete and cooperate with each other
workforce with relevant skills and help them to find a and develop their own physical, mental and social skills.
suitable job. Personal qualities such as determination, sacrifice and
• Governments can help to develop their human resources hard work carry over from sport into other areas of life.
by making sure that everyone has access to educational Sports benefit the whole community, providing leisure
opportunities, that schools and higher education and relaxation and encouraging health.
institutions are built in the right places, that distance • Ensuring there are a good range of cultural events.
learning programmes can be accessed by those in rural Culture can also develop our human resources in a
areas or who want to study while they work. In order to similar way to sports. People from small children to
make the best use of all the population, scholarships older adults can develop their skills, physical, mental
allow those from low income families to access some of and social capabilities. Events need good organisation.
the best institutions. In most Caribbean countries there Contributors need determination and skill to participate
are some scholarships available for those who want to and learn a lot from doing so. People gain in both
study overseas. confidence and transferable skills.

We need as many people of working age as possible to be economically productive in

agriculture, mining, manufacturing, tourism, commerce and all the services people
need. Those who are most useful are well fed, healthy, full of energy with skills
appropriate to the job they do. They will be able to use their skills to do a job effectively
and energetically, be able to work with others, solve problems which occur, think
creatively and be willing to retrain as the need arises.
Government, through agricultural programmes, education and health services, has to
play a major part in ensuring all this is possible but private enterprise has a role to play
too. Commercial firms have a duty to help in training and retraining and in ensuring
they get the best out of the workforce and develop it to the full.

Health care
Two different kinds of health care help us to remain healthy and take part in work
and other activities. One is preventative medicine. The other is curative medicine.
The first is just as important as, if not more important than, the second. It tries to

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prevent us from becoming sick, through good nutrition and sensible health practices
and precautions. The second aims to cure us of those diseases and conditions which
attack us in spite of the efforts of preventative medicine.

Preventative medicine
A number of different items come under this ‘umbrella’ term. Some are the responsibility
of government and approached through public health programmes. Some are the
responsibility of each individual. Preventative strategies include:
• individual personal care including diet and personal hygiene
• protective measures against diseases such as HIV and AIDS and other STDs, and
against mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever
• a comprehensive immunisation programme to prevent certain serious illnesses such
Lifestyle as polio and measles becoming endemic
diseases • maintaining a clean and unpolluted environment, sanitation and clean water.

A number of ‘lifestyle Preventative medicine begins with the individual’s self-care, and this starts in childhood.
diseases’, such as Good parenting involves teaching children to take the basic steps to keep clean and
diabetes and heart healthy. Children who have a good nutritious diet and enough rest and exercise, who
disease, are on follow good health practices such as hygiene (both personal and dental), and who avoid
the increase in the tobacco, narcotics and alcohol abuse, are more likely to grow into healthy adults. It has
Caribbean. These are
often related to poor
been shown that the effects of childhood health care can persist into old age.
nutrition (too much fat,
salt and sugar) and lack
Personal hygiene and good health habits
of exercise and are
sometimes blamed on As well as eating a healthy diet, we also need to look after our bodies in other ways.
the tendency of young This is mainly a simple matter of getting into good habits like cleaning our teeth twice
people, in particular, to a day, washing hands before meals, showering frequently and getting enough sleep.
eat junk food and lead
Good habits learnt when we are young are quite easy to follow when we grow up. Bad
sedentary lives.
habits, such as smoking, drinking too much alcohol and experimenting with or, worse
still, regularly using narcotics are also hard to ‘kick’. These are best not started at all,
however tempting it may be to see your peers trying them.

Nutrition
From conception, human beings are dependent on good nutrition to maximise their
potential for health and resistance to disease.

Babies
Pregnant and breastfeeding women must attend carefully to their diet, exercise and rest
regimes. For example, it has been learnt in recent years that a good supply of folic acid
in maternal diets, particularly in the first trimester (three months) of pregnancy, helps
to prevent the disabling neural tube disorder spina bifida.
Young babies must also have a good supply of proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals,
adapted for their immature digestions. It is rather easier to make sure that breastfed
babies (as opposed to those who are bottle-fed) get sufficient nutrients since the
mother’s body automatically includes what is needed in breast milk at various stages of
development, unless the mother’s diet is seriously deficient.

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FACT
What is a good diet?

Human beings need a blend of different foods 2. Carbohydrates contained in sugar and refined flour and
to stay healthy. A good diet contains a balanced other grain products are simple carbohydrates. Complex
carbohydrates contained in wholegrains and vegetables
intake of all of them.
such as legumes (beans, peas, lentils, etc.) contain much
higher levels of dietary fibre than refined (white) flour,
polished rice, etc. Complex carbohydrates slow down the
release of sugar into the blood and therefore control the
release of enzymes such as insulin.
3. Fats Animal fats from dairy products (cheese, milk,
butter) and meat are saturated and have been linked with
obesity and a high risk of strokes and heart attacks. Fats
from fish sources (especially oily fish such as mackerel, tuna
and sardines) are more beneficial, as they contain omega
3 which has been shown to benefit brain development and
protect against certain diseases. Vegetable oils are either
monounsaturated (for example olive oil) or polyunsaturated
(for example sunflower oil). Both are beneficial fats.
However, even the beneficial fats are high in calorific value
(the amount of energy they produce) and liable to make you
fat if you eat too much of them!
4. Vitamins and minerals These trace nutrients are found
in a wide range of foods. for example cheese is high in
calcium, but so are some green leafy vegetables; meat,
fish and wholegrains are high in iron and B vitamins.
Some of the foods that make up a good diet In general, eating a wide variety of good quality foods,
particularly fresh fruit and vegetables, will help you take
in sufficient vitamins and minerals. Some vitamins, in
1. Proteins from meat, fish, eggs, cheese and vegetable particular, do not store well and it is therefore important
sources such as beans, grains and nuts. If you follow a to eat fresh foods as much as possible.
vegetarian diet, try to eat two different types of vegetable
proteins at the same meal, for example beans and rice or
bread and peanut butter.

Children and young adults

The diet required by children (up to about 15 years of age, after the onset of puberty) is in
some respects different from that required by adults. Young children in particular need
higher levels of protein, fats, and minerals such as calcium to allow their bodies to build
the developing cells. Young adults continue to need higher levels of protein as long as they
are growing. They also need more calories if they are taking part in physical activities.
Increasingly, however, children and young adults who live on ‘Westernised’ diets (see
information box ‘What is a good diet?’ above) are becoming less physically active. Part of
this can be attributed to longer exposure to TV, which some studies have shown causes
both body and mind to slow down; this results in a slower metabolism of foods. Many
children and young people become obese (very overweight) as a result.
It is very important that babies and children get balanced nutritious diets in order to
fulfil their potential at school and in other ways. If their health is not maximised then
they will not be able to contribute to their countries’ development through work, leisure
and other activities as they grow older.

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The Western diet Some recommendations

Decide on a nutritious lifestyle using these simple steps:
• Eat fruit and raw vegetables for snacks. Dates and
bananas are much lower in calories and saturated fat than
biscuits, crisps or chips.
• Replace refined grain products, including baked goods,
with wholegrain. For example, a slice of wholemeal or rye
bread or toast, or an oatcake with a little honey or high-fruit
preserve will do you more good than a slice of iced cake.
• Eat fresh food as much as you can, including fish, meat,
eggs, dairy products and vegetables. Aim to have
five portions of fresh fruit and vegetables every day.
Try to have a variety of colours, as different-coloured
vegetables contain different balances of nutrients.
• Avoid rich, sweet desserts and ice creams, deep-fried
chips, and confectionery except for a special treat. These
are high in simple carbohydrates (sugar is bad for your
teeth as well as the rest of your body) and saturated fat.
• Take plenty of exercise; exercise prevents you storing up
too many calories as fat and becoming obese.

Over the past 40 years or so, the diet of many people in

the developed North has become a matter for concern for
nutritionists. A lack of fresh vegetables and fruit and an
over-reliance on high-carbohydrate, high-fat convenience
foods such as beef burgers, sausage rolls, chips, ‘baked
goods’ and sweets, has made the so-called Western diet
dangerously low in essential vitamins and minerals and
fibre, and dangerously high in saturated fats and simple
carbohydrates. Steep rises in the rate of heart attacks,
strokes, diabetes, obesity and cancer have been blamed on
this shift in nutrition. All these diseases are a drain on health
care and other resources, and mean that people are not able
to fulfil their potential. Governments need to educate people
to live more healthily in order to maximise human resources.

STDs and HIV and AIDS

We have already learnt that HIV and AIDS and other STDs are a problem in the
Caribbean. It is important that preventative medicine includes education and advice
on HIV avoidance, see page 52. We all need to take personal responsibility for our own
health in this area, but accurate information and advice is very helpful.

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Immunisation
Immunisation protects children, young people and adults against specific serious diseases.
The long-term aim of the World Health Organisation (WHO) is to eradicate these diseases
from the world population. For example, as a result of generations of smallpox vaccination,
this disease is no long active anywhere in the world. The paralysing disease poliomyelitis
(polio) has also now almost been eradicated. The case study looks at the initiative.

CASE STUDY
The Global Polio Eradication Initiative
The initiative monitors the levels of polio worldwide and fosters efforts to
eradicate the disease. In 2005 polio was endemic (has a constant presence)
in only four countries, Nigeria, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. However, other
countries do experience epidemic outbreaks. Polio spread from northern
Nigeria into 18 other countries across the world between 2003 and 2005.
Each week the numbers of polio cases in the countries where polio is endemic
are published and the trends are analysed. For example, in 2011 the numbers
were as follows:
There were 325 cases in total, of which
Country Number of cases 105 cases were in endemic countries.
In March 2012, after an enormous
vaccination campaign, including 2.3
million volunteers, India celebrated
having had no polio cases for the
previous 12 months. However, Angola,
Chad and Democratic Republic of Congo
have new polio cases having previously
been free of the disease, which shows that immunisation has to continue.

Young boy with polio

Source: http://www.polioeradication.org/Infectedcountries.aspx

Immunisation programmes
Find out details of your Governments and regional health organisations such as the Pan-American Health
country’s childhood Organisation (PAHO), work together to provide immunisation. In order to work,
immunisation programme, however, such programmes have to cover a high percentage of the children and young
people they usually target. For each programme there will be a minimum take-up
and check that you have
below which the disease will still be active. This is usually around 85 to 90% of the
received all the necessary
population. For example, recent controversy in the United Kingdom about the safety
vaccinations, too. of the combined measles, mumps and rubella immunisation (the MMR) caused a
significant drop in the levels of immunisation and these diseases have begun to be more
widespread again. Parents need to take their children for immunisation as advised by
government health officials and doctors. This will ensure that as many of the population
as possible are immunised.

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Immunisation programmes vary from country to country. Most Caribbean

countries vaccinate against diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough),
polio, measles and TB (the BCG vaccine). Some now include Hib vaccines
which protect against certain kinds of meningitis (a disease which causes
inflammation of the brain), and also vaccinate against hepatitis B, which
causes liver damage.

A healthy environment
In order to prevent disease, we need to maintain a healthy environment.
For this we need to:
• avoid polluting the environment with various kinds of waste
• maintain good working conditions for our workforce, for example
enough space, light and air for each employee in an office or factory
• protect open spaces, parks and other recreational areas for the use of people
in their leisure time, particularly in densely populated urban areas.
Pollution is also an issue for sustainable development. One problem with
development is that industrialisation, urbanisation and the creation or
encouragement of a tourist industry often bring with them pollution.

An information poster about yellow fever

• Industrial processes may release chemicals into the water and the air.
• Urbanisation concentrates many people in one area, which puts
pressure on sanitation facilities and waste management.
• Tourism increases the population of certain areas and puts pressure
on the environment through building works and a heavy demand for
water and other resources.
As pollution is an important matter, we will look at it again in some
depth in Chapter 6, page 216.
Table 5.9  Health care provision in selected
Caribbean countries, 2007 and 2010
ACTIVITIES

1 Compare the figures for the two dates in Table 5.9. Where have
improvements in the percentage of GDP spent on health care occurred
between the two dates? Where does health care appear to be worse?

2 Distinguish between preventative and curative medicine. In what ways

are the two connected? Which do you think is more important and why?
research This

3 Research the health care picture for your own or another Commonwealth
Caribbean country, island or territory and write a case study summarising it.

4 Draw up a healthy eating life-plan for yourself (and your family, if they
are willing to take part). Include menus for each meal and research or
invent some healthy-eating recipes to tempt your friends and relatives.

Source: World Bank

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Curative medicine
Prevention cannot always work. Even healthy human bodies are vulnerable to disease on
some occasions. Especially the very young and the very old need special care from health
professionals. It is vital, therefore, that everyone has reasonable access to the health care they
need. Primary health care is based on local clinics and often includes preventative health care
measures such as immunisation and nutrition advice. More specialist health care is usually
available at hospitals and other specialist clinics. The way in which health care is structured,
and the availability and accessibility of both primary and specialist care varies across the
Commonwealth Caribbean. Table 5.9 on page 175 shows the amount that is being spent
by a country on health care as a proportion of GDP devoted to health care of all kinds.

Education and training

Education describes the general schooling that most people undertake in childhood. It is not
geared specifically to one career or type of job but aims to help each individual fulfil his or
her own potential. Training describes the specific learning undertaken by young people and
adults that enables them to work more effectively in a particular job or field. We will learn
about the importance of job-related training later in this chapter. Here, we look at education.
Education can be either informal or formal
(see Chapter 3, page 89). Formal education, in
particular, benefits society in a number of ways.
• More educated workers tend to have
fewer periods of unemployment and
underemployment and to receive higher
wages.
• Society benefits from this by receiving higher
taxes (because taxes are levied as a proportion
of wages, and because educated workers are
more likely to be in continuous employment),
and by spending less on social welfare
(for people on low incomes) and on crime
prevention or law enforcement (since crime
levels are lower among educated people).
• Educated women are more likely to be part
of the paid workforce and also tend to have
fewer children.
• Children of educated parents tend to receive
more informed guidance and grow up in a more
Primary school children in Belize privileged environment. In most countries
the crime rate is higher among those whose
education has been curtailed at an early age.

Pre-school education
A particularly important recent development has been in the area of pre-school education
(three-to-five-year-olds). Pre-school (nursery school or kindergarten) programmes are
vital, partly because children learn very quickly and easily when they are young, and
partly because such schemes provide good childcare for young children, freeing their
mothers to enter the workforce. Over half of all Caribbean children of this age are in
pre-school programmes.

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Primary and elementary education

In the past 15 or 20 years, many countries in the Caribbean have turned their attention
to elementary/primary education. In some of the smaller countries, particularly in the
Lesser Antilles, there are moves to make education more regionally based, as a way of
pooling limited resources.

Education for All

The verdict of the Caribbean Education for All 2000 Assessment is that ‘universal access
to primary education is available but many are not participating. Up to 28% of pupils do
not complete primary school and the target of 80% of qualified teachers has not yet been
reached. Yet overall improvements in learning achievement in the Caribbean are good’.
In some countries both primary and secondary education are compulsory, up to the age
of 15 or 16. Table 5.10 shows how long compulsory education lasts, and the number of
years of primary and secondary education provided in a wide range of Commonwealth
Caribbean countries.
It is sad that some children drop out of education at the end of primary school. In St Vincent,
for example, 65% of children who complete primary education do not go on to secondary
school. However, in many countries it is a legal requirement for children to attend secondary
as well as primary school, and the law is rigorously enforced, for example in Barbados.

Table 5.10 Duration in years of education in the Commonwealth Caribbean (compulsory and voluntary)

discuss This
ACTIVITIES

Look carefully at Table 5.10. c Discuss what other criteria might be chosen for ranking,
for example, literacy levels or examination qualifications
a Work out how many years of voluntary secondary
attained by students in each country.
education are available in each country.

b Rank the countries in order of the number of years of

compulsory education given to students.

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Tertiary level education

One very important development in Caribbean education was the foundation of the
University of the West Indies (UWI) and the University of Guyana. Both were founded
during the post-war period, in 1948 and 1963 respectively. The founding of the University
of the West Indies came about partly because of the report of a government committee,
the Irving Committee, which recommended the provision of higher education in the
Caribbean, to remove the necessity for academically gifted young people to travel to the
United States or Britain for their tertiary education. (The case study gives some general
information about UWI.) The founding of the UWI was part of a much wider movement
among Caribbean countries to establish such bodies. Venezuela and Colombia, for
instance, both opened universities in the 1940s.
In the non-Commonwealth Caribbean the first university was the University of Puerto Rico,
founded in 1903. This inspired others to found universities in other parts of the Caribbean.
Today there are one or more tertiary-level institutions in most Caribbean countries. For
example, the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT) was established to cater for the much
larger numbers of students expected to go on to tertiary education in the future.
Today there is a growing demand for higher education in the region as students seek to
develop their skills and maximise their potential. This is good for the region as the more
highly educated are less likely to be unemployed and more likely to be able to contribute
to the region’s development and prosperity.

CASE STUDY
University of the West Indies
Motto: Oriens ex Occidente Lux (A Light Rising from the West)
The first campus of UWI was at Mona, in Jamaica, a University
College with a special relationship with the University of
London. The first students were admitted in 1947, but the
official opening of the College took place in 1948. The St
Augustine campus, in Trinidad (formerly the Imperial School
of Agriculture), was added in 1960. The Cave Hill campus,
in Barbados (purpose-built), was opened in 1967. There are
non-campus centres in most of the other territories that are
affiliated to the University in one way or another. Although
often in financial difficulty in the early years, the University
has provided a focus of unity among Commonwealth
University of Technology, Mona Campus
Caribbean countries, a role it still fulfils.
All the main academic subject disciplines are now covered the UWI has also offered distance-learning using modern
by the University in nine faculties with specialisms in some methods (most recently including teleconferencing), through
campuses (for example agriculture and engineering are based the Distance Education Centre. UWI’s mission statement
at the St Augustine campus, law at Cave Hill and medicine includes the words: ‘We are committed to producing
at Mona). Undergraduate courses, graduate (further degree) graduates who will become role models in the societies in
work, and various diplomas are all offered. Since 1996 which they live.’

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FACT Scholarships
Caribbean Although some level of secondary
school is compulsory and funded
scholarships by government in many Caribbean
• The Caribbean Hotel countries, upper secondary and
Foundation awards tertiary education is not fully funded
academic and other
in some countries. Some colleges and
scholarships to a variety
of tertiary institutions, educational trusts do offer scholarships,
including Bahamas Hotel however. These are either based on need
Training College, Barbados (given to those students whose families
Community College, cannot afford college fees) or on merit
Jamaican University of (given to those students who perform
Technology, and the
University of the West
very well in their CXC or CAPE/A-
Indies, as well as a number level examinations). The difficulty
of American universities. sometimes comes in finding out about
These scholarships are them. The box gives some examples of
designed for young people tertiary Caribbean scholarships.
who are either already
working in the hotel industry Scholarships of all kinds enable
or who want to make a Cecil Rhodes students to study abroad and return
career in that industry.
with new skills and qualifications. They
• Rhodes scholarships are awarded for study at Oxford University in the can contribute to development within
UK. Oxford is one of the world’s top universities and was chosen by agriculture, industry or public services.
Cecil Rhodes, the 19th-century founder of the scholarships, for its special
atmosphere and its proven record in fostering the leadership qualities
of its students. Rhodes left most of his enormous personal fortune to fund
scholarships for students from the English-speaking world, including the
United States and the countries of the British Empire. These scholarships ACTIVITIES
continue to be awarded to Commonwealth and US students. Jamaica
and Bermuda have one Rhodes scholarship each which is awarded to a
1 In pairs, do some field research on
Jamaican or Bermudan scholar each year. Other Caribbean countries
share the remaining two Commonwealth Caribbean scholarships. The pre-school education in your local
area. Find out how many pre-school

research This
award is usually for two years’ study. Most students are now graduates
from other universities who go on to read for a second degree. About a groups are available for children
third are undergraduates. Rhodes scholars must demonstrate not only aged 3 to 5 and plot them on a map
academic achievement and potential but other qualities, such as sporting of the local area. If possible, arrange
ability or leadership potential. to visit a local pre-school group and
• The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) awards scholarships for distance observe the activities provided.
learning, especially in areas of training where there are skill shortages.
Scholarships are awarded, for example, in Dominica and St Vincent
2 Visit your local library and ask for
and the Grenadines for teacher education, in Jamaica for information

research This
information about scholarships to
technology, and in St Lucia and St Vincent and the Grenadines for
hospitality (tourism) management. The first group of students commenced
local or national senior secondary
studies in September 1998. and tertiary colleges. How do
students apply for these?
• The Caymanian scholarship to St Matthew’s University School of Medicine,
Grand Cayman, is given to a Caymanian who has already graduated
from another university in a scientific or related subject. The scholarship 3 Write a letter to a college
pays full tuition and other fees for the Basic Science programme leading explaining that you are interested
to a MD degree. A similar scholarship is also offered at St Matthew’s in a particular course and asking
Veterinary School. what qualifications you will need to
take up that course.

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 5   Human resources

Caribbean cooperation in education

A number of pan-Caribbean educational organisations exist, mainly under the umbrella
or CARICOM. We shall look at these in Chapter 7, in the context of Caribbean cooperation.

Personal development
Living a healthy life and having access to education and training are important elements in
everyone’s personal development. Additionally, each person needs a personal set of ethics
if he or she is to contribute to the general welfare as well as personal needs. Many people
get this through their religion. Some don’t need a religious background. They learn through
family and community of a way of life which benefits others as well as themselves.
We help development best when our potential is realised
ACTIVITIES

through upbringing and educational opportunities.

1 a What are the major levels of education in your When people have no such advantages and lack
country? opportunities for personal development they are less
b Choose one level and say what you think its aims likely to contribute to the good of the community and
should be in terms of developing our human might even become antagonistic to the rest of society.
resources. Societies which are divided by differences in opportunities
c Assess whether you think it is doing a good job and by inequality in material possessions are more likely
and explain why or why not. to be subject to high rates of crime and even riots in
2 Imagine that you are the Minister of Sports for your the streets. Development is best helped when everyone
country. You have US$1 million to spend on sports realises that conditions are improving for everyone and
provision in a way which will most benefit human not only for a favoured elite.
resource development. What programmes would you
introduce or how would you spend the money?

3 Identify preventative health measures in your country

Sport and culture
that directly or indirectly impact on human resource Health has been described above in terms of an absence of
development. illness but a truly healthy person is one who is physically,
socially and culturally active. Sports facilities and
competition in sport complement educational facilities.
Culture in the form of music, literature, poetry, drama and dance binds people together
and allows them to develop in yet another dimension.
A person who has had access to good health and education services and is active in sport
and culture is likely to be one who is at peace with the community and is likely to be active
economically as well.

Employment and unemployment

As we have already seen, one of the things that demographers study is the occupational
distribution found among the population. It is not enough for a country to have a large
population. We must use these human resources to their full potential by creating a
situation where there is full, or nearly full, employment. Unemployment creates social
and political tensions which do not help societies to build prosperity and establish a stable
political regime. This is true particularly where some citizens come to see themselves,
or to be seen by employers, as unemployable. By contrast, full employment ensures that
the whole population has a stake in the country’s future. Their country’s well being and
prosperity has a direct effect on their own.

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Factors which affect the level of employment

• Full employment is defined as the situation where everyone between the school-leaving
age and the age of retirement who is able and willing to work has an income-earning job.
This also includes the self-employed if they are making a profit. Full employment is one
of the aims of the CARICOM CSME. Trinidad almost reached full employment in 2007
when unemployment fell to 4.5%, but since then it has risen again to 6.4% in 2010.
• Unemployment is the situation where persons who are able and willing to work
cannot find an income-earning job. Unemployment figures are often given as
percentages. These indicate the proportion of the available workforce who do not have
a job. So if the unemployment rate is 10%, this means that 10% of the population
between school-leaving and retirement age who are willing and able to work are
without an income-earning job, i.e. unemployed.
There are several different types of unemployment:
seasonal, cyclical, structural, technical and voluntary.
-- Seasonal unemployment is when people can
only find work for part of the year. They may,
for example, be employed in agriculture during
the harvest period, or in tourism during the
main tourist season. The rest of the year they
are unemployed.
-- Cyclical unemployment is caused by changes in the
trade cycle. At times of recession people have lower
wages, higher expenses and are fearful about their
jobs so they spend less on goods and services, causing
unemployment. When things improve, people begin
to spend more and unemployment falls.
-- Structural unemployment is caused by changes
in the structure of the economy. For example when
competition from world markets causes a decline in
Running coffee cherries through a roller one industry, such as sugar refining, people in that
industry or sector are unemployed. Often this is
accompanied by demand for skilled workers in other,
growing industries, such as tourism.
-- Where the economy is stagnant or struggling with
other difficulties arising from external debt, there
may not be sufficient scope for investment in new
industries to give fresh employment opportunities.
Workers may be laid off or dismissed because there is
not sufficient work for them to do.
-- Technical unemployment is caused by changes
in machinery or technology. The use of computers
has caused the loss of many jobs, but new jobs have
appeared for workers with computer skills.
-- The growth of offshore banking facilities in
some Caribbean countries owes a great deal
to the development of modern information
technology (for example computers linked with
modern telecommunications) and the ability
Roasting coffee beans using more modern equipment of Caribbean governments to make use of it.

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 5   Human resources

An industry that is not able to find the capital required to buy

Find out more about the way in which we new machinery, for example for a bottling factory, may find its
categorise different types of unemployment. operations become slower and more expensive to run than those
of competing firms in another country. This may cause workers to
be laid off or be asked to work shorter hours.
-- Voluntary unemployment is when people who are well and able
ACTIVITIES

to work, choose not to work because they are satisfied with the
1 Write a sentence using each of money they have from other sources or want to do other things.
the following terms correctly: Some people prefer to remain unemployed than take a poorly paid
entrepreneur; geographical
job, for example in farming.
mobility; human capital;
occupational mobility; self- • Underemployment occurs when people have jobs, but do not have
employment; underemployment; work that fully utilises their skills, or who are working fewer hours
unemployment. per week than they would wish. Examples might be a civil engineer
working as a bus driver or a waitress working only three days a week
2 Draw a large diagram showing
during the low season.
the factors that affect
employment, unemployment
and underemployment. Include Health of the labour force
education and health care as well
The health of the labour force and their willingness to work hard and
as economic factors. Use colour
learn new ways of doing things are also important factors in the levels of
to make the diagram clearer. If
necessary, write an explanation of employment found in a country.
your diagram underneath. • Poor health contributes to a slowing-down in the productivity of workers
and an increase in the number of days they take off for sick leave.
• Dedication to a job and enthusiasm for it mean that the work will be
3 In groups, make a list of
done well. Enthusiasm will encourage workers to find out new ways
technological developments that
of doing the work and take time to train properly for it.
have affected employment in the
Caribbean in the last 10 or 15
years. Do you consider these Entrepreneurs
effects positive or negative? Share
debate This

your findings with other members

The presence of entrepreneurs in the workforce increases the likelihood
of the class and hold a debate. that new products and services will be introduced which raises the levels of
The motion is ‘This House believes employment by increasing the number of firms in business. Entrepreneurs
that technology is the path to full find new markets for goods and as their firms expand they can employ
employment in the Caribbean’. more people. Many entrepreneurs start out as self-employed people,
perhaps in a craft workshop or selling goods from a market stall. But these
activities can lead to more formally-organised businesses which contribute
to full employment.

Income and investment

The level of income and investment in a country affects the level of
employment. If a country is prosperous and people have plenty of money to
spend, demand grows for goods and services and the money paid for them
helps to pay for increased employment in the industries that are providing
them. People also have money to save and saving leads directly to investment,
since the money stored in a deposit bank forms part of the bank’s fund that
can be invested in businesses in the form of grants. Governments use some
of the money that people save in national bonds and savings accounts to
invest in nationalised industries which employ many people. If the country
is poor and people are very short of cash, the level of savings and investment
falls and this hampers the achievement of full employment.

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Availability and creation of markets, trading patterns and preferences

Most Caribbean countries are small and therefore have small markets at home. This
makes it difficult to create new businesses producing goods or expand existing ones. To
create new or bigger markets, they have to look to other countries in the region or further
afield internationally. CARICOM CSME aims to improve this situation by creating one
large regional market accessible for all member states. However, Caribbean countries
traditionally grow and produce similar goods, which makes intra-regional trade less useful.
Most Caribbean states have good relationships with their ex-colonial rulers and this can
be an opportunity for markets in goods, such as fruits or vegetables which cannot easily
be produced in Europe.
Within Caribbean countries there is often a preference for foods and other goods
produced abroad, especially in the USA or Europe, and this means that imports are high
and the opportunities for Caribbean businesses less easy. It reduces opportunities for
employment in the Caribbean.

The supply of labour

Labour is the human effort put into the productive process. Labour produces goods
and offers services. The supply of labour is not, however,
always exactly matched to the need for it.
• In some countries there are insufficient people with
Consequences of unemployment in the specific training, for example as nurses, teachers or
region business managers. There may be too many Arts
graduates and not enough Science ones, or there may
1. Those who are unemployed or even underemployed be too many unskilled labourers and not enough
experience poverty, malnutrition, poor housing, poor skilled ones. This may be because not enough training
health and deprivation, and so do their children. in specific skills is available.
• Workers may not want to move from one area of the
2. Unemployment affects self-worth and social relationships
in families and outside, causing conflicts and mental illness. country to another in order to find work. This may
mean that there is unemployment or
3. Unemployment can lead to drug and alcohol abuse, underemployment in one area but insufficient
violence and crime. numbers of workers to fill all the jobs available
in another area. This type of movement is called
4. People who are unemployed do not pay taxes so
government revenues are lower than they could be.
geographical mobility.
• Workers may prefer to stay in the job they know
5. Human resources are not used or developed to the full rather than being willing to retrain and take up
so the region does not develop as fast as it could. different kinds of work. This type of movement is
6. People who are unemployed and their families are
called occupational mobility.
a drain on the government as they need welfare • The general health of the population affects their
payments and other help. availability for work and their ability to work hard
and in a sustained way, especially on manual jobs.
7. Children growing up in poverty do not reach their full
potential.
The information box suggests some important health
care issues related to the supply of labour.
8. People who are unemployed cannot buy many goods or • In a situation close to full employment, workers
services so they do not contribute to growing the economy.
expect to earn high wages and may be unwilling to
9. Large-scale unemployment can cause protests and take a job that offers less than they hope for.
political instability.

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Measures to reduce unemployment

Governments have made and are making many attempts to deal with and reduce
unemployment, as follows:
• Training workers and young people in new and relevant skills to meet demands.
• Encouraging foreign companies to come to the region and set up factories, hotels etc,
by offering tax incentives or cheap land and few planning restrictions.
• Encouraging the development of income generation schemes and small businesses
which will then grow and provide jobs.
• Encouraging labour intensive businesses such as horticulture to grow crops for
import substitution.
• Enabling older workers to retire early.
• Using government monies to pay for labour intensive capital projects such as building
roads, new stadia and housing.

Human capital
The skills and knowledge embodied in an individual can be defined as his or her human
capital. All individuals gain a certain stock of human capital and this is primarily
influenced by education and training. The human capital of a whole population is
therefore affected by the amount of education and training available. Since investment in
human capital, that is providing training for individual workers, increases productivity,
the major factor influencing the level of human capital is therefore the amount of
investment made in education and training. Another factor influencing human capital
is health, see the box below.

FACT
Health Care and Human Resources

A number of health care issues can affect the human prevalent in a population, many workers may have to
resources our economy can draw on. retire early rather than work to a good age. This throws
a greater burden on those who are still economically
• Malnutrition of children, often caused by poverty and/or active, as well as making it likely that those who retire
neglect, means that adults do not reach their full potential
early will have to contend with poverty as well as their
either mentally or physically.
physical infirmities.
• Smoking raises the risk of heart disease, strokes and lung • Good maternity and neo-natal care ensures that mothers
disease, including cancer. Even ‘passive smoking’ can
are able to return to the workforce without long-term
cause health problems in those who live with a smoker.
health problems and that babies have a good start in life.
• A poor diet increases the risk of heart disease, diabetes • A healthy lifestyle also helps us to keep in good health.
and obesity, especially if it is high in saturated (animal)
This includes the nutritious diet mentioned below, a
fats and refined carbohydrates.
balance of rest and activity, plenty of sleep, a quiet mind,
• Alcoholism affects the ability of a person to function and avoidance of drug, alcohol and tobacco abuse.
normally and therefore causes his or her work to suffer.
• A balanced, nutritious diet containing the main food
Many alcoholics cannot hold down a job.
groups (proteins, carbohydrates, essential oils, vitamins
• Drug abuse can affect the working as well as the social and minerals) helps our bodies to have enough energy
life of the user, especially if he or she becomes addicted. for our work and play, to combat disease, to renew cells
as they die, and to cope with the stresses of everyday life.
• If the diseases of middle age, such as obesity, heart
problems, diabetes and high blood pressure, are

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In a sense, the human capital of each person can be ‘rented out’ to employers in the
form of wages. The higher the level of skills a person has, and the more these skills are
demanded by the business environment, the higher this ‘rent’ is likely to be. Education
and training increase the human capital of each individual and make that individual
more useful to the society in which they live. They are also among the best ways to
develop our citizens as human resources and help them to achieve their full potential
both as individuals and as part of our society.
Education and training are related in that they provide learning. But their focus is
different. Education concentrates on children and young people and equips them with
general schooling. Training concentrates on people entering or involved in the workforce
and focuses on the specific skills they will need for a job.

Workforce and vocational training

We have used the word ‘education’ to mean general
schooling. The word ‘training’ usually means more
focused, often job-related, learning. There is general
training and there is specific training, both of
them provided for members of the adult workforce.
A firm who gives a school-leaver a general training in
the kind of work he or she is employed to do benefits all
firms in that particular industry. However, a firm may
also create or increase the human capital of its workers by
teaching them skills that are specific to that firm’s own
production. This is why firms are often willing to pay
for specific training for their workers because these skills
will benefit the firm that pays and not its competitors.
Some firms will allow members of its workforce to take
time off to go to college, for example, in order to learn
Women learning sewing skills skills that will help them do their jobs better. Sometimes
the firm will also pay for the training course.

Preparation for the world of work

Most young people, when they leave school or university, look for a job. The idea of
work is appealing – the young person has spent many years of his or her life studying
and now would like to earn some money. There is also the attraction of choosing a
career that will be fulfilling and use the latent abilities, skills and potential of the young
person. However, many young people end up in unfulfilling, boring jobs to which they
are not suited. This is a pity and is also a waste of potential.

Job research
Once you have decided on your career path, you need to find out what qualifications you
need in order to follow it. For example, if you decide you want to be a doctor, you will
need high grades at CXC and A-level before applying to medical school or UWI to work for
a degree in medicine. After that you will continue training on the job as a junior doctor.
All the professions have stiff examinations to pass and many years of hard work involved.

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 5   Human resources

On the other hand, you may not want to follow a career that involves these academic
demands. Many good jobs are to be found in secondary and tertiary industries, for
example, where training is given as part of the development of employees. You will
need fewer academic qualifications for these jobs, but it will take time to train and gain
promotion. If you are not even ambitious to this degree, there are many jobs which are
open to people who have completed secondary education at high school level and have
little further training. Secretaries, clerks, foremen and a variety of manual workers are
all doing useful work for our society.
The important thing is to choose the type and level of work that is right for you and do
it to the best of your ability. And don’t forget that the self-employed and the sole traders
make a real contribution to the economy. If you prefer to be your own boss, this may be
the route for you to take.

Self-awareness
Self-awareness is important in deciding on a career. Not everyone has the ability to be a
brain surgeon but we all have abilities which can be best used at a level suitable for us.
It is just as important not to lower your sights as it is to raise them too high. Some young
people do have to cope with low self-esteem. It is important to realise what your abilities
are. Some adults humiliate young people and make them feel worthless. It is important
to discard such humiliation and listen to those who say positive things about you.
ACTIVITIES

Draw up a life plan for yourself showing the kind of job you would like to do. Use the
Choose-a-Job Flowchart (Appendix 3) to help you identify the area of work you are interested
in and then list the steps you will need to take in order to find work in that area.

Choose-a-Job Flowchart
Parents, older relatives, teachers, church or community leaders and friends can all help
us choose the right job. This book attempts to contribute to your career by introducing you
to the Choose-a-Job Flowchart (see Appendix 3). This is a combination of questionnaire
and job finder and is designed to be fun. Take the Flowchart with a friend or fellow student
and help each other to answer the questions as truthfully as possible. If you answer any
questions the way you think they should be answered, or describe yourself as you would
like to be not as you really are, the Flowchart will not lead you to the best type of job for
you. Honesty and openness are the watchwords.

Thorough preparation
It is important to find out how you can best prepare for a job. Take every opportunity
to develop confidence and personal skills like speaking and listening, which are just as
important as formal training.
Be aware how employers think. What do they want from you? They want evidence of
good training and of the kind of personality which enables you to be confident and
work with and learn from other people.

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If they want you to apply by letter or on a form make sure you write a good application.
It has to stand out from others. It must be neat, answer all questions, give a picture of
your strengths and not be too long.
Practise your interview skills. Use friends or friendly adults to give you that practice.
Be smart and punctual if you are called for interview. Be polite but confident. Ask your
own questions to ensure this is the right job for you.

Applying for and getting a job

When you are qualified for a job, the next step is to find out where there are vacancies
and to apply for a job.

Finding the vacancy

You might learn about a job vacancy by word of mouth, from a friend, a member of the
family or your tutor on a course. Otherwise you need to find out for yourself. You could
visit likely places such as a hotel and ask if they have a job you could do. You might
telephone all suitable places likely to employ someone like you.
Then you need to look in newspapers where job vacancies are advertised. If you have
access to a computer, you can look for vacancies online.
ACTIVITIES

Applying for a job

1 Write out a draft
Many employers ask you to fill in an application form. Fill yours in with great care and
letter and brief
try to make it stand out from others. Complete it first on a spare piece of paper. Ask
résumé to apply
for a job you someone you know to check it for spelling mistakes and ask them if there is anything
might want in the extra you should put in. Write on the form or type it as neatly as you can. Make sure you
future. Pretend sell yourself well. Put in all your relevant experience and qualifications.
you have the right
qualifications and
Going for an interview
some experience.
Be smart, be punctual, be as confident as you can. Be courteous. Answer every question
honestly but don’t talk too much.
2 Practise an
interview with
a group in your Self-employment
class, taking it If you are considering self-employment you need to research your employment area.
role play

in turns to be Talk to people who operate in a similar way. Make sure you have a business plan which
members of the in its simplest form consists of answering questions:
interview panel
and the applicant. • Capital. What amount of money will you need to start? Where is it coming from?
• What are you going to make or sell? What is the source of your raw materials? Have
you enough starting money to buy them and live until they give you an income?
• What help do you need? Will you need assistance? What kind? Can you afford wages
until that income starts to come in?
• Where are you going to work to produce or sell?
• What are your transport needs?
Ask yourself any additional questions you think necessary.

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FACT Rights and responsibilities of workers

Workers have certain rights in the workplace, although
The International Labour Office they may vary slightly from country to country. They
The International Labour Office was set up in 1919 by usually include:
the League of Nations to protect workers throughout the
world. Their declaration in 1998 covers four fundamental
• to be paid for their work according to both the law
principles and rights at work and is a basis for all workers and their contract of employment
when they wish to understand what their basic rights are: • to be paid for overtime working, after hours and at
1. Freedom of association and the effective recognition weekends
of the right to collective bargaining • to be trained in safe practices
This gives workers the right to join together informally • to work in a safe and healthy environment
or formally (as a union) to deal with the employers to
ensure they are paid and treated fairly. • sick pay
2. Elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory • maternity pay for women who are pregnant
labour • the right to join a trade union
This right is linked with slavery in some peoples’ eyes. • the right to equal opportunities and freedom from
No one shall be enslaved by anyone else. Workers discrimination regardless of gender or ethnic group.
join in a voluntary contract which needs to be fair
to employers and workers allowing them to end the These rights are enshrined in national laws in different
contract under agreed conditions. countries.
3. Effective abolition of child labour
Child labour was common in 1919 in most parts of the Responsibilities of workers
world. It is much less common now but still exists in
Just as employers are expected to treat workers fairly, so
some countries.
workers are expected to keep their side of the bargain.
4. Elimination of discrimination in respect of They should, in general terms, do a fair day’s work for a
employment and occupation
fair day’s pay. They should be punctual, turn up regularly,
Employers have been known to discriminate against accept and carry out reasonable tasks, be honest and
certain groups, refusing them employment or treating cooperate with their employers and other workers.
them worse than other groups; sometimes the
discrimination has been on the grounds of ethnicity, Employees generally have the following responsibilities:
religion, sexuality or gender. Most countries are working
• to work hard using their best efforts
towards banning discrimination on all these grounds.
• to be reliable, punctual and honest
• to follow the rules and procedures outlined in their
contract and conditions of employment
• to assist and cooperate with other workers
• to follow health and safety rules and procedures and
not to put themselves or other workers at risk
• to keep confidential information which might be
useful to competing companies or which is sensitive.
• to report any risks or wrongdoing to the employer
• not to steal from the workplace or take days off sick
unnecessarily.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Resources are divided into human and physical • Population change is influenced by the birth rate,
resources. death rate and migration.
• Human resources is a way of looking at human • Population statistics can be obtained from the
beings as an economic resource. national census, Registrar’s Office, Office of
Naturalisation and records of religious institutions.
• The population of any region can be described
in terms of: total numbers, density, distribution, • Population statistics are used for planning
age, sex, occupation, ethnic origin, religion, housing, health care, education, employment,
dependency ratio and in terms of changes social welfare, and infrastructural development.
occurring in all of those.
• People move from one area to another for a
• The dependency ratio is the ratio of dependents variety of reasons called ‘pull’ and ‘push’ factors.
to working adults.
• Rural–urban migration or rural–urban drift has
• The population density is the ratio of people both economic and social causes.
to land area, calculated by dividing the total
• Human resources can be developed by good
population by the land area; it is usually expressed
nutrition, health care, education, scholarships
as number of people per square kilometre.
and sporting opportunities.
• Population distribution is influenced by relief,
• Factors that influence employment include
climate, soil fertility, location of mineral resources,
capital, skills, markets and technology.
vegetation, access to transport and development.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Write a definition for each of the following 3 a Write notes for an essay on each of the
terms. We have grouped them together into following:
related terms and concepts. i) ‘Population growth is always bad news.’
a birth rate, death rate, life expectancy Discuss this statement.
b unemployment, self-employment, unemployable ii) Explain why so many Caribbean countries
c demography, population density, population are experiencing urbanisation and suggest
distribution ways of solving the problems it causes.
d immigration, emigration, rural–urban iii) How sustainable can development be?’
migration Examine this question in the light
e developing country, developed country, of efforts made by your own country
globalisation or territory to follow sustainable
development policies.
f labour mobility, labour supply, career choice.
iv) Why is labour mobility important for
2 a Describe the population structure in an full employment?
imaginary Caribbean country. v) Identify a possible career path for
b Explain how the population density and yourself. Describe the qualifications
distribution of this country will influence its you will need and how you will find
social and economic situation. out about the availability of work in the
c Predict what demographic changes are likely chosen sector.
to occur in the immediate future. Will these b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
help to bring about prosperity or not? your notes as an essay paper of between 1000
and 1500 words.

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 6 Physical resources

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• explain and use correctly concepts and terms associated with physical resources
• identify the location and uses of major natural resources in the Caribbean region
• describe proper and improper practices related to the sustainable development and use of
natural resources and their effects on the natural environment and the population
• represent and interpret data related to physical resources.

Terms you should know

conservation the protection and wise use of natural resources such as forests, rivers, coastline, marine creatures, etc.
economic development the reduction of poverty within the context of a growing economy in which GNP growth is sustained
environment everything around us, on the land, in the sea and in the air
environmental impact
assessment the effect of human’s use of resources on the environment and the measurement of that effect
energy power or capacity to do work, for example electricity
food security the certainty that necessary food supplies can be maintained
global warming the increase in global temperatures caused by natural and human activities
greenhouse effect the result of the build up of gases (carbon dioxide and methane among them, from burning of
fossil fuels in the atmosphere); the atmosphere is so changed in that heat is retained and global
temperatures increase
man-made resources resources such as farmland, roads, buildings which have been made by humans
natural resource a resource occurring naturally in the environment
non-renewable resources limited or exhaustible resources which cannot be renewed sustainably, for example fossil fuels such
as oil
parastatal firm operating like a business but owned partly or wholly by the state
pelagic fish fish living near the surface of the sea
pollution the process by which nature and human activities destroy good qualities in the environment
primary products goods produced by primary-sector industries; such as cash and food crops, timber and minerals
renewable resources resources which nature restores as we use them, for example solar power, timber
secondary industries manufacturing, refining and other processing of primary products or raw materials
sedimentary rocks rocks formed from sediments produced by weathering, erosion or biological activity; usually deposited
in layers (or strata) on land or in water
sustainable growth economic growth that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
or development generations to meet their own needs

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 6   Physical resources

ACTIVITIES
Physical resources of the Caribbean
Read pages 190 to The physical resources of a country or region are determined by the physical features of
194. Look carefully at
the Earth’s surface, such as the underlying geographical structure – mountains, valleys,
the keywords shown
rivers, oceans and the geological plates on which they rest – along with the climate
in Figure 6.1. Use
these to make up a
found in that region. These together produce the physical environment that surrounds
diagram showing the us. The nature of the rocks in a particular area determines the soil which together with
linkages between the climate influences the type of natural vegetation found. The natural vegetation in
human activities and turn influences the types of animal life that will flourish. These factors – physical features
the different aspects and climate – limit the activities of mankind, and provide us with natural resources.
of our environment.
Figure 6.1  How are these elements linked?

Geological structure Geological plates Climate

Rock types Volcanic and

seismic activity

Natural vegetation

Soil and fertility

Physical environment Flora, fauna, livestock

Human activities

Natural and man-made resources

Natural resources are those which occur naturally in a place, without intervention
by human beings. They include rocks, land, water and air, natural vegetation such as
grasslands, forests and swamps, wildlife of all kinds. They also include climate.
Man-made resources are those which have been made by human beings, such as
fields and crops, livestock, man-made forests, roads and buildings.

Renewable and non-renewable resources

People depend on the resources around them. They are often divided into renewable
(those which can be replaced after they have been used) and non-renewable (those
which once used have gone forever).

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 6   Physical resources

Renewable resources
Renewable resources include agricultural land, water, forests, beaches, marine life
including fish, sun and wind. Land can be reused for crops and animal rearing year
after year (as long as the land is looked after). The same is true of forests (as long as cut
trees are replaced) and other natural vegetation and wildlife, and of beaches and water
(if they are protected from pollution). The sun can be continuously used to produce
solar energy. Wind can be harnessed to produce power using wind turbines and hydro-
electricity is a renewable source of energy using the power of rivers. In the future it may
be possible to use the Caribbean Sea to provide wave power.
Although renewable resources often will renew themselves, sometimes this can take
a very long time. For example when tropical forest is cut down it can take hundreds
of years to grow again to the previous biodiversity (variety of different species). Also
renewable resources can be destroyed completely if they are overused. If overfishing
takes place and very small numbers of fish remain then they cannot breed and recover.
Caribbean monk seals were hunted to extinction in the first half of the twentieth
century and many other animals are currently endangered.

Non-renewable resources
Non-renewable resources are those which are finite (they are limited in extent and can
be used up). Mineral resources such as metal and other mineral ores, oil and natural gas
are non-renewable. Water in deep aquifers is also a non-renewable resource. All these
resources have been built up over millions of years.
As you read through
If we do not use renewable and non-renewable resources wisely, in a sustainable way,
this chapter, make a list then there will be insufficient resources for future generations.
of renewable and non-
renewable resources.
Lands of the Caribbean region
The Caribbean region includes all those countries and islands which enclose the
Caribbean Sea. It stretches in an arc from Belize in the west, through the islands, to
Guyana in the south-east. To the north lies the North American continent, to the south
the continent of South America, of which Guyana forms part, and to the west is Central
America, of which Belize is a part.
The geology of the Caribbean region is based on folding and volcanic activity. The region was
formed by the folding of sedimentary rocks which were laid down in the Caribbean Sea.
The rocks and physical features of the Caribbean region also result from it being situated
on a part of the Earth’s surface where several geological plates meet. The Earth’s surface
is made up of these plates which ‘float’ on the molten rock beneath. When the edges of
two plates rub together there are likely to be earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
This geology is responsible for the region’s mineral resources (see page 202), such as
limestone and bauxite, and also for the variation of relief and soils. For example fertile
volcanic soils are found in the volcanic islands of the Lesser Antilles.

Climate of the Caribbean

The Caribbean region lies within the tropics; mainly between latitude 25° and
latitude 10°N (Guyana extends southwards to latitude 2°N, just north of the Equator).
Temperatures in the region are remarkably uniform ranging from 22° to 32°C. Even in
mountain areas where temperatures are lower, frosts are very rare.

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 6   Physical resources

The climate of the region is known as a tropical marine climate. There is a selection of
climate graphs below for different towns in the region, showing temperature and rainfall
patterns. In a tropical marine climate there is a rainy season, in the Caribbean usually
beginning in June and lasting till December, and a dry season for the rest of the year.

Figure 6 2  Climate graphs for Nassau, Belize City and Georgetown

°C Nassau mm °C Belize City mm °C Georgetown mm

40 400 40 400 40 400

30 300 30 300 30 300

20 200 20 200 20 200

10 100 10 100 10 100

0 0 0 0 0 0
J FMAM J J A S OND J FMAM J J A S OND J FMAM J J A S OND

The warm sunny climate of the Caribbean region

ACTIVITIES

provides a natural resource for tourism, agriculture and

1 Look carefully at the climate graphs above. Explain solar power. Crops such as sugar cane and bananas grow
how the climate in these places is a resource.
quickly in the warm temperatures, and in higher, cooler
areas, other crops such as coffee can be grown.
2 Research one Caribbean country other than your own.
a List its major natural resources. Rainfall
RESEARCH This

b Explain how the physical features and geology The trade winds (see Figure 6.3) blow constantly over
have provided resources. the region. As they cross the Caribbean Sea they gather
c Explain how the climate provides resources. moisture and release rain. There are two main types of
d Categorise the resources as renewable and rain: relief rainfall and convectional rainfall. As moist
non-renewable. air rises over hills and mountains, the air cools and
condensation takes place. Clouds form and rain falls. As
the land warms up during the day under the heat of the
sun, moisture evaporates to form clouds. When these
Table 6.1  Rainfall requirements of different crops
clouds become too full of water droplets they release
them as rain, often in the form of heavy showers. In the
Caribbean islands rain-producing factors are often very
localised. As a result, rainfall varies from one place to
another and from year to year.
The rainfall in the Caribbean region provides an
important resource in the form of fresh water for
domestic, agricultural and industrial use. Different crops
require different amounts of rainfall, and so are grown
in different areas, see Table 6.1.

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Without the rainfall there would be no tropical forests either. In some places, such as Wigton
Wind Farm in Jamaica, the prevailing trade winds are being used to produce wind power.

Figure 6 3  The Caribbean – main climate influences

Land as a resource
Agricultural land is a
25°N
25°N renewable resource.
e r
Tropic of Canc

Soils
20°N 20°N Soil is the top layer of the
Earth’s crust. The part
of the soil that contains
nutrients for crops and
15°N 15°N other plants is called
topsoil. In most places
this is about 15cm deep.
A wide variety of soil
types are found in the
10°N
10°N
Caribbean. Soil is perhaps
N
the most important
natural resource we
possess and in the soil lies
5°N
5°N the ultimate ability of the
0 Miles 500
North-East Trade Winds region to feed its people.
Common hurricane tracks
0 Km 800
South-East Trade Winds
It has been estimated that
two centimetres of soil take
between 500 and 1000
years to form, so although
it is renewable it can take
a long time to renew itself and needs careful looking after.
The nature of the soil in a particular area depends upon
the underlying parent rock and the climatic conditions.
Rock Particles Organic Matter
(Minerals) (Dead or live Soil is composed of fine particles of decomposed rock
plants and animals) (minerals), organic matter – both plant and animal –
and air, together with a certain amount of moisture (see
the diagram). The variation in size of particles and their
distribution gives different properties to each type of soil.
Soil The soil texture is also very important. Soils are grouped
into a number of classes based on texture, for example
gravel and silt. Soil texture largely determines the type
of crop which is most suitable for growing in a particular
area. For example, sugar cane and cocoa thrive on fine-
Moisture Air
(Water) (Gases) textured soils; groundnuts and cotton grow well on
coarse-textured soils.

Figure 6.4  The constituents of soil

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 6   Physical resources

Types of soil
A wide variety of soil types are found in the Caribbean (see Table 6.2).

Table 6.2  Some soil types found in the Caribbean

Land use: agriculture and forestry

ACTIVITIES

Consider the two sets of figures in Throughout the region, land use, especially agriculture and forestry, is
Tables 6.3 and 6.4. determined by soil condition, the topography (relief) and the amount of
rainfall. Table 6.3 shows land use in the Commonwealth Caribbean in
1 Which countries have changed most?
1999/2000. Table 6.4 shows land use in the Commonwealth Caribbean
2 What are those changes? estimated for 2008. In some countries there have been major changes of
3 Why do you think they have land use over the last 20 years or so. For example, in Belize in 1992 there
happened? was 17,040 sq km of land covered by forest. In 2008 the estimate was
14,122 sq km. The amount of land under crops and buildings has also
gone up significantly since then.

Table 6.3  Land use in the Commonwealth Caribbean, 1999–2000*

Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)  * Arable and permanent crops, 1999; forest, 2000  † Includes built-up land, wetlands and bare rock

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Table 6.4  Land use in the Commonwealth Caribbean estimated for 2008 Crops we can grow
The climatic conditions of the Caribbean
region are ideally suited to growing a
wide variety of crops. We can divide
the major crops in the region into two
broad classes:
Most of these are export crops, cultivated
on large plantations, with some small
farmers contributing to the total amount
exported. Non-traditional crops such as
yams, pumpkins and sweet peppers are
now exported to Europe and the USA by
some countries in the region.
A large variety of fruit and vegetables are
also grown in the region, for example
avocados, carrots, cabbages, yams, sweet
peppers, tomatoes and mangoes. Brazil
nuts also provide a source of income
from the forest.
Source: Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
† Includes built-up land, wetlands and bare rock

Table 6.5  Major and other crops grown in selected Caribbean countries, 2003

Source: Macmillan Caribbean Certificate Atlas

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ACTIVITIES
Technology
Choose five major Agriculture today is changing quickly as a result of new technology. New machines for
crops listed in Table
agricultural work, new ways of combating pests and diseases, and new types of seeds
6.5 on page 196 and
(including genetically engineered types) are revolutionising agriculture in the region.
use a table to show
where they are grown. Regional links are also vital for various agricultural industries to share new ideas and
help each other to solve problems. The organisation known as the Caribbean Agricultural
Science and Technology Networking System, for example, is designed to provide an
institutional framework by which the region can design and implement strategies for
the integration and coordination of agricultural research at the national and regional
levels with linkages to international organisations.
brainstorm
ACTIVITIES

Have a brainstorming Water as a resource

session in your group
or in class. What
ideas can you come Rivers, lakes and underground water
up with about the Fresh water is needed by both humans and animals for survival. We need water for
origin of water? drinking, washing, industry, irrigation and a lot of other essential uses.
Where does this water come from? To most of us water is found in rivers, lakes, man-made
reservoirs, springs and underground streams. But was it always there? Where did it originate?
Hot air passing over large bodies of water, like the ocean, causes some of the water to
evaporate. The water vapour rises into the atmosphere where it is cooled and forms
clouds of water droplets.
Figure 6.5  The water cycle When these moisture-
laden clouds reach land
they are forced to rise
further and precipitation
(rainfall) follows. (See
diagram of the water
ocean to land water
vapour transport cycle in Figure 6.5.)
When rain falls some runs
down the slopes of hills
transpiration and mountains as surface
water, some infiltrates
rainfall
the soil and travels by
subsurface means and some
percolates through porous
rocks, such as limestone, to
form underground water.
lakes The surface water may
evaporation eventually form a river or
rivers
stream which will flow to
ocean
the sea.
surface flow
Some water flows into a
hollow, forming a lake.
ground water flow
Lakes may be formed
by rain water collecting
in volcanic craters, for

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 6   Physical resources

example Gran Etang in Grenada. The water which travels underground may dissolve the
rocks to form underground rivers and lakes. Some of these are salty and require desalination.

Desalination
Another way of sourcing fresh water is by removing the salt from seawater and brackish
underground and surface water. There are two ways of doing this:
• By distillation: This is the oldest method of desalination. Seawater is heated, usually
under reduced pressure so that it boils at a lower temperature. The water vaporises
and is then condensed to form pure, potable water.
• By reverse osmosis: This process uses a membrane, or filter, through which the
salty water is forced under pressure. The membrane filters out the salt content leaving
usable water. This process uses energy and this is provided in many plants by solar
technology. The main uses of desalinated water from this process are in agriculture
and industry, but in some areas of the Caribbean this water is used for drinking.
Countries using public water provided by desalination include Antigua, the Bahamas
and the British Virgin Islands.

How does the water reach our homes?

The diagrams in Figure 6.6 answer this question. Diagram A shows how underground
water is collected. Diagram B shows how surface water is collected, treated and
distributed via a pumping station and treatment works.

/ ˝ Main
1 2
A
A Reservoir Reservoir BB
10˝ Trunk Main
Highway

Pumping
n
Station ai 10˝
M /˝
1 2
g
pi n
Pum School 4˝
Rising Main Well

Limestone Distribution Main

Figure 6.6A  How underground water is collected

Pump Figure 6.6B  How surface water is collected, treated and

Fresh Water distributed
Impervious Rocks

The sea
Traditionally, the sea has been thought of mainly as a source of fish. This is still
important, although fish stocks are no longer as abundant as they once were. However,

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the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean are also sources of minerals of various kinds
which are of great potential importance. You will learn more about minerals under the
sea in the section on mineral resources later in this chapter (page 204).
The warm Caribbean Sea is also an important resource for tourism, with its beautiful
beaches and coral reefs. Tourists like to go swimming, wind surfing, sailing and kayaking.

Marine life as a resource

Fishing
Fish is an excellent source of cheap protein and a wide variety of fish is caught in
the region. In the 1980s the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
organised a Caribbean Fisheries Development Project which carried out research into
deep sea fishing and trained regional fishermen in modern fishing techniques and
seamanship. Many Caribbean territories enlarged and modernised their fishing fleet
and improved landing facilities with freezing or chill facilities. However, more recently
it has been noticed that fish stocks across the region, and indeed in many places across
the world, are falling as a result of overfishing. (This means taking too many fish out of
the sea or inland waters, especially immature fish that have not had a chance to breed,
with the result that fish stocks fall too low.) You will learn more about overfishing
on page 213. The Law of the Sea Convention deals with the exploitation of marine
resources (see the box below).

Tourism
In the Caribbean the sea in general and marine life in particular is an important resource for
tourism. Tourists like to go snorkelling and diving on the coral reefs. They also enjoy seeing
wildlife such as dolphins, rays and manatees, and going sport fishing. And restaurants in

FACT Caribbean destinations are famous for their excellent fish and seafood dishes.

The Law of the Sea Convention

The United Nations Law of the Sea Conference was concluded states gained jurisdiction over very considerable ocean
on 10 December 1982 in Jamaica, which was designated the areas under their EEZ. For example, Grenada acquired
headquarters of the United Nations Seabed Authority. The an EEZ of approximately 7647 square miles (19,806 sq
Conference set up the Law of the Sea Convention. Every km), St Lucia 4709 square miles (12,196 sq km) and St
imaginable aspect of ocean use was covered under this Vincent and the Grenadines 10,628 square miles (27,526
Convention, from deep seabed mining, through off-shore sq km).
oil and gas exploration and exploitation, to sea routes and
rights to sea navigation, fisheries, marine pollution and the
• an International Seabed Authority to exploit the non-
living resources of the deep seabed, with special benefits
settlement of disputes. The Convention came into force on 16
available for the less developed states
November 1994. Today it is recognised globally as the body
dealing with all matters relating to the law of the sea. • new regimes for navigation, scientific research, fisheries
and the transfer of technology, for example ships of all
For every Caribbean country, the Law of the Sea Convention
nations may use stretches of sea within another nation’s
established:
EEZ for navigation or laying of undersea cables
• a 12 (nautical) mile territorial sea along its coastline (a
nautical mile is slightly different from an ordinary, land
• new rules for the protection of the marine environment
mile) • rules for setting marine boundaries for the settlement of
international disputes. An International Tribunal for the
• an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of up to 200 miles (320
Law of the Sea was set up which can refer disputes to the
km) in width within which coastal states have exclusive
International Court of Justice.
rights to exploit all living and non-living resources. Some

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Uses of water
Water has many other uses apart from
being a source of drinking water. Here
are some of them.

Fish farming
Another use to which both inland
water and seawater can be put is fish
farming. Most inland streams, lakes
and swamps possess natural plankton (a
tiny organism which many fish feed on).
Where water is brackish (slightly salty)
it may also contain larval shrimp. Both
the plankton and the shrimps provide
excellent food for species such as tilapia,
grass carp, black bass, mullet and the
peacock bass. Some sea fish can also be
Huge vats of water at the Caicos Conch Farm, Turks and Caicos, a Caribbean farmed. Fish farms can provide a cheap
mariculture industry. The ponds or vats are used to grow the conch in source of protein for the people of the
controlled conditions. region. Trinidad, Guyana, Dominica
and Barbados are countries where fish
farming is being carried out at present.

FACT Farming other marine life

Some other sea creatures can be successfully farmed. In the Cayman Islands, for example,
Irrigation turtles have been farmed successfully for many years. Meat from these turtles is sold locally
project on and is an important delicacy in the Islands. Unfortunately, because of import restrictions
in other countries, farmed turtle meat cannot be exported. Research into turtles and their
St Lucia
needs is carried out on the farm. Turtles are also bred on the farm and released into the
The Cul-de-Sac banana sea, thus increasing the numbers in the wild.
plantation is in the
Cul-de-Sac valley,
south of Castries, the Irrigation
capital of St Lucia. The
plantation covers 648 Irrigation, or providing water for crops in dry periods, uses fresh water only (i.e. inland
hectares (1600 acres). water, not seawater). Irrigation can range from watering your garden so as to grow
It was owned by Geest tomatoes and peppers for home use, to large-scale irrigation systems on horticultural
but is now run as a farms and plantations. Most arable crops grown in the Caribbean do not need irrigation,
cooperative. Its nine-
since rainfall is sufficient for their needs. However, some fruit and vegetable crops, for
metre deep irrigation
reservoir requires example bananas, need a great deal of water and in drier areas these will need to be
24,000 square metres irrigated. Most irrigation projects use tanks and reservoirs to store rainwater which is
of rubber membrane to then used in dry periods. The box gives an example of a banana irrigation project.
line it. The reservoir will
provide water for the
plantation as required Power generation
and is part of an EU-
Both inland water (hydro-electricity) and seawater (wave power) can be used to generate
sponsored development
project. energy. You will learn more about this in the section on energy later in this chapter.

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ACTIVITIES
Figure 6.7  Forest area as a percentage of land, 1990 and 2000
1 Compare the bar
chart (Figure 6.7)
Antigua & Barbuda
and Table 6.6. In
which countries Bahamas
has the area under Barbados
forest decreased Belize
the most?
Dominica
2 What reasons can Grenada
you give for these
Guyana
changes?
Haiti
Jamaica
Montserrat
St Kitts & Nevis
1990
St Lucia 2000
St Vincent & the Grenadines
Suriname
Trinidad & Tobago

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage

Table 6.6  Forest area as a percentage of

land, 2010
Forests as a resource
The Caribbean islands and territories have large areas of forest covering
them. The bar chart above shows the approximate percentages. You can
see that in some countries the area covered by forest shrank substantially
between 1990 and 2000, where in others it remained much the same.
Most Caribbean forests are made up of hardwood trees which are useful
in the construction and furniture industries. A few softwood forests
provide the raw material for the wood pulp industry. There are also large
mangrove swamps in some countries. Some trees found in the forests of
the Caribbean also provide sap from which chicle, balata and rubber are
made. Most production focuses on lumber and timber products.
Forests are an important natural resource for the following reasons:
• They provide employment in timber extraction and related industries
such as furniture making.
• They provide resources for export earnings and for construction of
houses, paper-making and other uses.
• They provide foods such as fruits, mushrooms and honey.
• They are an attraction for tourists who enjoy wildlife, walking, white
water rafting, etc, for example the Blue and John Crow Mountain
forests in Jamaica, and the Maya Mountain forests of Belize.
• They provide habitats for wild plant and animal species, many of
Source: FAO Forest Resources Paper 63 Global forest which are important for future crops, medicines, and other uses.
resources assessment 2010 main report Annex 3 Table 2 • They protect mountain soils and those on slopes, preventing soil
http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1757e/i1757e.pdf erosion, silting of rivers and thereby flooding downstream.

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 6   Physical resources

• They act as barriers for flooding and

prevent mudslides, protecting
agricultural land.
• They provide nutrients to the soils
and so improve agriculture.
• They help to absorb the force of winds
and so act to protect areas from storms
and hurricanes.
• They hold water in the trees and
also in the soil, acting as a reservoir
and slowly releasing it into the air
(through transpiration) and into the
soil and groundwater.
• They help to cool the air and
encourage rainfall.
• They absorb carbon dioxide and hold
carbon, so reducing global warming
A timber yard at Middle Quarters in Jamaica and climate change.

Other uses of land as a resource

As well as agriculture and forest, land in the Caribbean is also increasingly used for
housing, industrial estates, mining and quarrying, shopping centres, roads, airports,
tourist resorts, etc. There is considerable pressure on land resources, especially in and
around cities, and increasingly agricultural land is being used for settlements.

Beaches as a resource
Beaches are an important natural resource for tourism and are also used for sand
extraction for construction. Most Caribbean countries have plentiful beaches, but in
some places they are found in particular areas. For example both Jamaica and Trinidad
have beautiful beaches on their northern coasts. White or pale sand beaches are most
Table 6.7  Main minerals
produced within CARICOM
attractive to tourists and these tend to be found in limestone areas, while places with
dark volcanic rocks may have grey or black sand beaches. Along some coasts there are
mangrove swamps rather than beaches.

Mineral resources
Table 6.7 shows the mineral resources found in the Caribbean, by country, while the
map opposite shows minerals and the direction of trade.
Mineral industries are few and far between in the Caribbean apart from:
• Jamaica’s large bauxite deposit which is near the surface and therefore easy to extract
(see the case study on page 203)
• Guyana’s deposits of bauxite, gold and diamonds
• Trinidad’s oil industry
• Barbados’ small petroleum and natural gas industry.

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 6   Physical resources

Figure 6.8  Mineral deposits in the Caribbean and the direction of exports
It is important, however,
Key to mineral deposits 75°W
N that those which do exist
Bauxite Phosphates
Nickel,
copper USSR and East Europe are exploited since they
Copper Liquefied
natural provide employment and,
Diamonds gas plant North
Gold Oil refinery
America USA if they are exported to
Cu
Gypsum ba other countries, contribute
Oil tanker North

xite
Manganese terminal America 20°N
Dominican to our national income by

Bau
Nickel Gas field Rep.

um
providing valuable foreign

gy i t e ,
Petroleum Oilfield

ps
ux
Jamaica Ba exchange.
Haiti Bauxite
Rest of U.K.
Caribbean USA
USA oil
d

n
phate

sa

ACTIVITIES
xite

ga
Oil
na Barbados

ls,
Oil
Guya

Phos
Bau

Make a list of

era
uxi
te From North America
Ba

Min
Curacao countries to which

manganese
minerals are exported

Bauxite,
gold,
Panama
Canal from the Caribbean.
ds
Next to each country,
on list the minerals that
Canada Diam
it imports and the
Caribbean country
from which they come.
0 Miles 500
Guyana
0 Km 800

CASE STUDY
Jamaica’s bauxite industry
Large amounts of other chemicals for the extraction
of alumina from bauxite are required. These have to
be imported from other countries. It also uses a lot of
energy. This makes the production of this mineral less
profitable than might be expected.
Jamaica now produces its own lime which cuts
down the amount of lime and caustic soda it has
to import. A new 25-million-dollar lime kiln was built
in central Jamaica in 1999, employing 40 people
from 2000 onwards. The plant exploits Jamaica’s
huge deposits of lime for the benefit of the bauxite/
alumina industry. The building of the kiln was a joint
venture between Britain’s Rugby Group (61%) and
the Jamaican company Clarendon Lime (39%).
In 2008 Jamaica produced nearly 15 thousand tonnes
of bauxite and about 4 thousand tonnes of alumina.
Bauxite processing plant, Jamaica

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 6   Physical resources

CASE STUDY
Guyana’s gold mining industry processes when extracting the gold from the ore (mineral-
bearing rock). Small-scale mining uses quantities of mercury
A substantial amount of Guyana’s foreign exchange comes and this is a health risk to human beings if it leaches into
from gold mining. About 8 tonnes of gold are produced each water supplies or the atmosphere. Mercury is a cumulative
year; this is down from a peak of production of 13.5 tonnes poison so its ill effects are not always seen immediately.
in 2002. It is mined mainly from open pit mines (dug in from Large-scale mining uses cyanide which is a lethal poison in
ground level). There are a few major commercial mines and quite moderate quantities. In 1995 cyanide spilled from the
many small-scale operations. Most of the commercial mines Omai Gold Mine (one of the largest in South America and
are wholly or partly owned by foreign companies. part-owned – a 5% holding – by the Guyana government), into
Gold ore is found on the banks of rivers and is collected by two of the major rivers of Guyana, the Essequibo and the
dredging. Unfortunately gold mining uses some dangerous Omai, and caused widespread damage to wildlife and danger
to human beings.

Mineral resources under the sea

The seabed contains vast mineral deposits of economic importance which we have
only begun to exploit, for example off-shore drilling for oil. The seabed also contains
coal, natural gas, alluvial
diamonds, gold and
tin. Seawater contains
several elements, for
example sodium chloride,
magnesium and potassium
which are already being
extracted in the USA and
Britain. It is envisaged that,
in the future, ways will
be found to extract other
important elements.

The potential of
mineral resources
Of all the primary
products, minerals are the
most valuable on the world
market. Even without
processing, minerals such
as oil, gold and diamonds
fetch high prices in
Oil refinery at Point à Pierre, Trinidad
world markets and are
a good source of foreign
exchange for those countries that possess such raw materials. They can also give rise to
secondary industries which provide employment in the local area or the wider region.
For example:
• Oil extraction in Trinidad has led to the development of oil refineries and petroleum-
based industries in the area around the oilfields at Point à Pierre.

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• Petroleum extraction in Barbados also provides crude oil to the Trinidad oil refineries.
Refined oil is re-exported to Barbados for domestic consumption.
• Bauxite extraction offers the opportunity to develop aluminium industries, including
manufacturing using the metal to produce lightweight components for aircraft, and
so on.
• Diamonds require expert cutting in order to maximise their value. They are not
only used as precious stones for jewellery but have industrial applications. Industrial
diamonds are extremely sharp and may be used to make specialist cutting instruments.
Exploiting mineral wealth is not always straightforward, unfortunately, for both
financial and environmental reasons. The large amounts of investment capital required
for mineral extraction are not always available in Caribbean money markets, as the
case study on Jamaica’s bauxite industry shows. The involvement of foreign investors in
mining lessens the profitability of mining for the home country but is necessary in order
to provide essential capital.
Mining processes also throw up environmental problems which governments, as well as
the companies involved, must take steps to solve. The case study on Guyana’s gold mining
industry tells the story of a chemical spill that has caused environmental problems.
research This
ACTIVITIES

1 a Find out whether your country or territory has any 2 a Name some secondary industries that have been
mineral wealth, either already being exploited or for established using the mineral wealth of your territory,
potential exploitation. country or region.
b What efforts are being made to develop this mineral b Suggest other industries that could be established
resource? locally or regionally to build on mineral extraction.
c Write a case study on the development of a new How feasible would such industrial development be?
industry in your country connected with the extraction
of minerals.

Energy
The word energy is used to describe the power generated from various fuels which
enables us to run machinery (including computers), light darkened rooms and streets or
other outside areas and do many other tasks.
In 2002 the islands of the Caribbean region consumed a combined total of 2.4 quadrillion
Btu of energy, of which oil accounted for 93.1%. Across the Caribbean, most CARICOM
countries are net importers of energy. Trinidad and Tobago is the main exception since
it has large oil reserves of its own. Venezuela supplies many of the islands with oil. Cuba
also produces oil in its northern region, both onshore and offshore, and Barbados has
considerable oil reserves but only produces a small amount. There have been suggestions
that an oil pipeline might be built connecting Trinidad with many of the other islands
to encourage regional self-sufficiency in energy.
There are also moves to develop alternative, mainly renewable sources of energy (see
page 214). Oil shortages caused by production problems in oil-rich states in the Middle
East and the Gulf area of the United States in recent years have brought home to the
region the importance of energy conservation policies, and the need to search for
alternative sources of energy to supplement, if not to replace, the use of oil.

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ACTIVITIES

Picture study
Look at the photographs below carefully. Identify these energy sources. Which of them are renewable?

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Sources of energy

Fossil fuels: oil, gas and coal

Oil, gas and coal are known as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are formed from the fossilised
remains of plants and creatures packed down in layers for millions of years.
• Oil is formed from the soft parts of marine creatures on the seabed.
• Coal is formed from the remains of forests.
Much of the oil found in the Caribbean (mainly in the eastern part of the region) is
either under the sea or very close to the sea. But in some places, for example Texas in
the United States, there are vast oil reserves under the land.
Gas is often found alongside oil in the same geological layer. They are
closely related both chemically and in their formation, but oil is the liquid
form. Oil and gas are often extracted together and give rise to a joint oil
CASE STUDY and gas industry. Most oil-producing countries belong to an organisation
called OPEC (the Organisation of Petroleum-Exporting Countries).
Oil production in All three fossil fuels can be burnt in power stations to generate electricity.
Trinidad and Tobago They are very widely used throughout the world and many countries are
more or less dependent on them for energy.
Trinidad produces most of the
Caribbean’s oil and natural gas
production and only uses a part of it Problems with fossil fuels
(about 40,000 barrels a day) so it is
able to export oil to other countries in
Convenient though fossil fuels are as a source of energy, they do have
the region and to the USA. In 2010 it some problems.
produced 147,000 barrels a day, down • They are non-renewable which means that ultimately they will be
from a high of 180,000 barrels a day used up. No one knows exactly how long the oil resources will last,
in 2005. but some estimates predict the end of these reserves as early as 2020.
Coal will last longer but is more expensive to extract.
• Countries which do not have coal and oil reserves of their own have

FACT to buy from those that do and this costs precious foreign exchange.
• Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, a
Environmental impact ‘greenhouse gas’, into the atmosphere. Most countries are attempting
assessments to cut back on their production of greenhouse gases, in accordance
with the Kyoto Accord, because of the fear that these gases are causing
An environmental impact assessment
allows environmental scientists to
or increasing global warming.
assess the impact of land use change on
both the environment and the human
population. Scientists look at a proposed
development and assess the impacts Conservation and sustainable development
of it in a variety of ways, for example
on natural resources, on wildlife and
wildlife habitats, on water resources and Land conservation
forests, on population centres such as Improper or unwise practices with regard to land include:
towns and cities and on employment and
other human activities.
• urban sprawl and building housing in flood-prone areas
• allowing indiscriminate mining and quarrying without sufficient
This enables politicians, civil servants
and the general public to see the likely control or regeneration once the extraction is finished
effects and manage resources in a • building of major projects such as factories and airports without
sustainable way. environmental impact assessments (see the box)
• deforestation (see page 210) which causes silting of rivers and flooding
downstream
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• over-cropping and overgrazing – see below

• removal of protective shorelines such as beaches and mangrove swamps which can
increase risk of damage from storms and hurricanes
• swamp reclamation, which can increase flooding and reduce biodiversity
• land pollution (see page 216).

FACT Soil conservation

The importance of soil as a natural resource cannot be overestimated, for agriculture
Sustainable land depends on the continuing fertility of the soil. The conservation of soil resources is
development therefore essential, since the food required to feed our people can only be produced
measures if the soil is conserved. Soil conservation will help to solve other problems such as
erosion, loading, waterlogging and flooding. Soil conservation and forest management
• environmental impact work together to protect and conserve the environment.
assessments before
development takes
place Soil problems
• planning regulations,
carefully enforced 1  Soil exhaustion
• ensuring mining and The problem: As we have mentioned, soil is composed of minerals and organic matter.
industrial companies
Agricultural crops extract many nutrients from the soil in order to develop to maturity
reduce their
environmental impact and produce their own food reserves. When these crops are harvested most of the
and reinstate land minerals removed from the soil are not returned. As this process continues the soil
after use becomes depleted in nutrients (this is known as soil exhaustion).
• identifying prime Soil exhaustion is caused by growing the same crop in the same area over a period of
agricultural land and
time, without adding enough nutrients or letting it rest. This is called over-cropping, but
making sure that it
is not used for other
pressure on land makes it difficult to avoid. Some soils are less fertile than others anyway.
development Solutions:
• educating farmers • One solution to soil exhaustion is the application of manure and other organic
and others about
fertilisers. Chemical fertilisers provide minerals as well, but without the improvement
land conservation
methods, such as of soil texture given by vegetable compost or animal manure the improvement tends
reforestation. to be short-lived.
• Another solution is the use of a crop rotation. The farmer grows different types of
crop in each field or section of the garden each year. The crops grown include plants
which ‘fix’ nutrients in the soil, such as legumes (peas, beans). Some farmers leave
the soil fallow for a year or two or grow green manures and then dig or plough them
back in to enrich the soil.

2  Leaching
The problem: Leaching reduces the plant nutrients present in soil when rainwater
dissolves the minerals in the top soil and washes them down so that they are out of
reach of crop roots. This loss is known as leaching.
Solutions:
• Using cover crops prevents the rapid movement of rain through the soil and reduces
the problem of leaching.
• The use of organic fertilisers such as manure and compost improves the soil texture
and helps to prevent leaching.

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3  Soil erosion
A much more serious
problem than soil
exhaustion and leaching
is that of soil erosion.

The problem: Soil

erosion is the gradual
removal of topsoil by wind
or water. Soil erosion is
destructive and can cause
the removal of topsoil from
thousands of hectares of
land, depositing it in the
rivers or the sea. Topsoil
is the layer of soil which
contains the nutrients
plants need to grow. It is
not easily replaced.
The factors which are
mainly responsible for soil
Soil erosion on deforested slopes in Haiti
erosion in the Caribbean
are:
• the removal of plant cover as a result of poor agricultural practices
Prevention such as overgrazing, or leaving the land abandoned after the soil has
become exhausted as a result of over-cultivation
It is extremely difficult to ‘cure’ the
• deforestation, the removal of forest which leaves the land exposed to
problems caused by soil erosion once it
has occurred. Soil erosion can, however, the elements
be prevented. Methods of controlling soil • the intensity of tropical rainfall
erosion caused by the slope of the land
include:
• the slope of the land

• Contour ploughing, where the land

• the nature (texture and constituents) of the soil.
is ploughed so that furrows follow Examples of badly eroded areas in the Caribbean are the Scotland district
the contour of the land. This prevents
in Barbados and the Christiana region in Jamaica.
gullying, as the water stays in the
furrows running around the slope
rather than running down the slope
The solutions: Methods of controlling soil erosion caused by over-
forming gullies. cultivation and overgrazing include:
• Terracing, where the slope is cut into a • The regulation of animal grazing. If too many animals graze, the
series of wide steps on which the crops covering grass will die and this, together with the animals’ hooves,
are grown. will aid erosion. (Grass is a useful cover plant to prevent both leaching
• The use of dams. In this method and soil erosion.)
gullying is prevented by building a • Grass cultivation may also be used when fields are left fallow (without
series of small barriers which check
crops) to recover from soil exhaustion. This prevents further damage.
the soil movement down the slope.
The soil then spreads backwards as it • Where forest has been removed, reforestation will provide plant cover
piles up against the dam. and the roots of the trees will help bind the soil together.

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Explain how the methods shown in the pictures help to solve Soil exhaustion and soil erosion have major impacts on
the problems of soil erosion. the environment and on human populations. Once good
agricultural land is destroyed or is less productive, this
has an impact on food production and the production of
Tree planting Contour planting crops for export. This can mean loss of income, livelihood
and even hunger for small farmers. For the country as a
whole it means more food has to be imported, loss of
food security, possible food shortages and a reduction in
export revenues from agricultural products.

Forest conservation
Terracing Use of dams
Deforestation
The problem: In the past, much of the original forest
in the region was removed to make way for settlement
or arable agriculture. A good deal of the forest was
also removed when wood was used as firewood (and
charcoal). This has resulted in many areas being heavily
eroded after the land was left exposed to the elements,
with no tree roots to bind it. Areas of forest are also
important in retaining the natural rainfall levels.
Deforestation continues today and causes many problems
including:
• soil erosion, mudslides and flooding, especially

CASE STUDY during hurricanes

• silting of rivers, especially where forests are removed
along river banks, which then causes flooding
Reforestation in Haiti downstream and silt pollution of coral reefs
Haiti is the most severely forest depleted and environmentally • reduced biodiversity as species are lost when their
degraded country in the Caribbean. Fifty years ago forest habitats are removed
covered 60% of Haiti. Today it covers less than 1%. Trees
• loss of protection from hurricanes and loss of rainfall
have been cut for both timber and fuel. Deforestation has
caused massive soil erosion, such that remaining trees • loss of a natural resource for construction, firewood,
find it difficult to survive and agricultural lands have been medicines, fruits and other foods, especially for
badly affected. This meant that the hurricanes in 2004 indigenous hunters such as some Maya in Belize
and 2008 caused much worse flooding than would have
• loss of a natural resource for tourism
been the case if the forests had still been there.
• loss of agricultural land through loss of soil fertility
Today small-scale reforestation projects are being and erosion.
undertaken by rural communities, with training and the
setting up of community tree nurseries. There are also Solutions: Reforestation has been undertaken in many
large-scale projects aiming to plant thousands of trees. countries to correct the problems caused by deforestation.
Source: Lambi Fund The case study on Alcan’s Million-Tree Project in Jamaica
http://www.lambifund.org/programs_reforestation.shtml provides an example of how reforestation can be of benefit
to the community as well as the local environment.

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Other solutions for sustainable development of forests

CASE STUDY include:
• protection of forested areas by the creation of National
The Million-Tree Project Parks and Forest Reserves where lumbering is not
Alcan’s Agricultural Division set up a project in 1995, as allowed
part of the Jamaica Sustainable Development Network, • restrictions on removal of forest trees and forested
to plant one million fruit trees on land previously used for areas for agriculture or timber, and education to
bauxite mining. This was a new way of reclaiming bauxite prevent slash and burn agriculture
land. Previous land reclamation projects had focused
on grass for cattle-grazing, and forest trees. The project • providing other sources of fuel wood and/or fuel-
began in 1995, and was scheduled to run for at least efficient stoves to prevent cutting of trees for fuel and
five years. The seedlings were produced by local tenant charcoal making
farmers specifically for the project and, once planted, the • education of rural populations about the importance
trees were given after-care for up to two years to ensure of forest for agriculture, along with income generation
that they flourished. Alcan moved out of its Jamaica schemes to help people to value the forest. For example,
operations in 2010 but the million tree project shows
beekeeping or tourist accommodation and guiding
how reforestation programmes can be set up jointly by
government and private organisations. • agroforestry – this is combining trees with agriculture
and has important benefits in terms of soil fertility,
shading and pest reduction
• afforestation which involves growing trees on new
areas, such as after quarrying has been completed.
ACTIVITIES

1 Explain how relief, soil type and rainfall influence land b Write EITHER
use, particularly agriculture and forestry, in your country. i) a report for a local newspaper or conservation
Use your atlas and the maps, tables and diagrams in body on the problems you find and recommend
this chapter to help you. measures that the local authorities, conservation
groups and/or the local farmers might take to
2 Open your atlas at a map showing the direction of trade
improve the situation.
in the Caribbean.
OR
a What do we mean by the direction of trade? Find
ii) a case study on a particular conservation project in
out which agricultural and/or timber products your
your locality. Explain why the project is being carried
country produces and whether they are exported. If
out and assess the benefits to the community.
so, work out the direction of trade of your country’s
agricultural and timber products. Divide the products
into i) tree crops, and ii) ground crops.

DISCUSS This
4 Discuss in class the importance of new technologies in
b Draw a table with three columns. In the first column
agriculture. How should these be used, and should they
put the name of each export crop. In the second put
be limited or regulated?
the main exporting country for that crop and in the third
show the country to which the crops are exported.
brainstorm

5 Brainstorm: In groups, think of words to set out

proposals to protect the environment and then, in
3 a Find out about soil erosion and soil conservation
a whole class session, share the most important
research this

methods in your local area. You can do this by getting

suggestions for all to record.
information from the public library, asking for information
leaflets from the local authorities or conservation NGOs,
or carrying out your own local survey.
research this

6 Do your own research in your area looking for good and

bad practices relating to the spoiling and protection of
the environment. Make notes for a class discussion.

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 6   Physical resources

Conservation of water and marine life

In the Caribbean our water resources are critical to our social and economic development.
This fact was recognised in 1975 and led to the setting up of the Caribbean Basin Water
Management Project with the aim of upgrading water management and technical skills
in water utilities, mainly in the less developed countries and Barbados.
While many of the larger Caribbean countries have plentiful water supplies, others suffer
from water scarcity, either all the time or as a consequence of droughts. For example
in 2010 Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and some other Caribbean countries suffered
from droughts. Population growth, rising standards of living, industrial development,
irrigation and other uses all put pressure on water resources.
Haiti, Barbados and Antigua are the countries with the greatest water scarcity problems
in the Caribbean. Other countries which may also have insufficient water are Trinidad
and Tobago and the Dominican Republic. And in small islands such as the Bahamas,
Barbados and St Kitts, over-extraction of water by wells near to the coast has resulted in
them being contaminated with salt water.
Water conservation measures include:
• the construction of dams and reservoirs to hold water
resources for cities and towns, for example Potsworks Dam
in Antigua which holds about 1 million gallons of water
• management of water catchment areas, preventing
deforestation and pollution
• reducing water run-off so that water has time to
percolate into groundwater aquifers
• collection of water from roofs for domestic uses such as
washing, sanitation and watering
• education and campaigns to reduce water waste, and
when necessary hosepipe and other restrictions
• reducing leaks in piped water supplies
• reforestation and afforestation
ACTIVITIES

• modern drip irrigation methods rather than crop spaying.

1 a Explain why water is an essential resource.
Pollution of water resources
research This

b Find out more about an irrigation project or a water

Pollution of our water resources is a very serious matter.
conservation project in your local area or island.
Inland water resources such as rivers, lakes and underground
water systems are vital for the survival of humans on
c Describe any water supply problems encountered
by your local community and suggest solutions
this planet and so they should be carefully managed and
to these (for example you might write a report or controlled. You will learn more about how water becomes
feature for your local paper). polluted and the effects of water pollution on page 219.

2 Research and write a short history of the fishing Marine conservation

industry in your country (you can include in this the
research This

The Caribbean States, especially the island states, are true

use of any marine creature, for example turtles,
as the basis of a marine industry). Describe any ‘oceanic states’ and almost every aspect of life is closely
problems that the fishing industry is currently facing interlinked with the sea, whether it is transportation,
and say what attempts are being made to solve them. fishing, tourism, or oil and gas exploitation. Thus
marine conservation is enormously important. The term

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conservation covers not only measures to control pollution but also the prevention of
other disturbances to marine creatures, such as overfishing.

Combating marine pollution

The problem of marine pollution has been taken seriously internationally both in the
Caribbean and elsewhere. International and regional commissions have been set up to
manage pollution in the region. Many countries have signed up to conventions which
aim to reduce pollution of the ocean. The earliest of these date back to the middle of the
last century, such as the International Convention for the Prevention of the Pollution
of the Sea by Oil (1954) which became the International Convention for the Prevention
of Pollution by Ships (1972–3, amended in 1973, 1978, 1983 and throughout the 1990s
and 2000s). There are also special conventions on the testing and use of weapons of
mass destruction (WMDs) under water, since these lead
FACT to serious pollution of the oceans.

The Cartagena Convention

Overfishing
The Convention for the Protection and Development of the
Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region was
Where once the development of the fishing industry in
signed in 1983. It has two major protocols, or agreements. the Caribbean was seen as the way forward for the region,
more recently scientists have realised that stocks of many
1. The Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating
Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region. This is a
fish species worldwide are too low to ensure their survival.
regional offshoot of the Convention for the Prevention This has been caused mainly by overfishing. International
of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, mentioned earlier. Since bodies have set limits for the amount of catch for many
many of the major North Atlantic shipping lanes run fish species but individual countries do not always keep to
through the Caribbean, this is a particular danger to the their quotas, thus endangering fish supplies further. There
environment.
is now a Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries drawn
up by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (one of the
2. The Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife United Nations special agencies).
of the Wider Caribbean Region. This calls for the
A particular problem is the relationship between
creation of a regional network of protected areas where
vulnerable ecosystems can be restored and conserved. overfishing and fish farming. The fish which are farmed
The Protocol is difficult to implement because such areas require smaller fish and fish oils for feed and there has
run across a number of territorial jurisdictions (EEZs). been an alarming increase in the numbers of pelagic
fish being caught specifically as feed for farmed fish,
according to the World Wide Fund for Nature.

FACT Regional conventions

Programme on Caribbean coastal It is recognised by the representatives of governments and
marine productivity (CARICOMP) international bodies across the world (sometimes called
‘the international community’) that many conservation
This programme was sponsored by UNESCO and began
in 1985. It maintains a regional network of more than 25
issues are best dealt with regionally. Two important
Caribbean marine laboratories, parks and reserves in Caribbean conventions are:
18 countries. These study marine diseases, disruption to • the Convention for the Protection and Development
coastal ecosystems, coral bleaching and other marine
of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean
problems in the region. CARICOMP runs a coastal-
ecosystem monitoring programme which uses data held Region (also known as the Cartagena Convention)
centrally and made available to all scientists studying • the Programme on Caribbean Coastal Marine
marine conservation in the region. It also holds training Productivity (CARICOMP).
workshops and scientific meetings and helps to fund
regional research programmes. The fact boxes on the left look at these in detail.
There is more on pollution on page 216.

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 6   Physical resources

Sustainable energy sources

Alternative sources of energy

Because of the problems with fossil fuels, many countries are trying to use alternative
or sustainable sources of energy. In the Caribbean these include hydro-electricity, solar
power, wind power, wave power, biomass energy and geothermal energy.

Hydro-electricity
In Guyana, Jamaica, Dominica and St Vincent fresh water is used to generate electricity.
This process is called hydro-electricity or hydro-electric power. Where there are
mountains, moving water in rivers may be used to turn turbines, either by diverting
part of the river or by creating a dam through which the flow of water is controlled. This
process reduces the cost of energy as hydro-electric power is virtually a free source of
energy. But there are capital costs involved in setting up hydro-electric power stations,
like any other kind of power-generating plant.

Solar power
The sun’s energy can be harnessed using solar panels. Most solar panels
use the ultraviolet rays of the sun to create electricity. This can heat
water or provide lighting using batteries. It may even be used to run
ACTIVITIES

air-conditioning plants for offices and homes. In Antigua solar power

1 a What does the term ‘alternative
is used for irrigation; to pump water in drought-prone farming areas.
energy’ mean? Is alternative
energy always renewable energy? Barbados and Trinidad also have a flourishing solar power industry
b Why is it necessary to find
(see the case study on Bajan solar powered water heaters on page 215).
alternative sources of energy? You can find out more online at the website: http://www.carilec.com/
c Make a list of ways in which
your country is trying to develop Wind power
alternative sources of energy.
Wind power was used in the early colonial period in the form of
windmills to grind sugar cane. Today it has made a comeback, but
2 a Carry out an investigation into the wind-generating plants are now modern turbines. In places where
local initiatives to conserve there is a plentiful supply of reasonably strong winds, turbines can
energy. Survey your school, be constructed to generate energy from the wind as it blows. These
local businesses and other
can also be used to charge batteries for use when there is less wind.
organisations to find out the
research This

Wind turbines have to be switched off for safety reasons in a storm or

policies they have with regard to
energy conservation. Find out hurricane. You can read about the first commercially run wind farm
whether individual households in the Caribbean in the case study on page 215.
are helped with energy There are various new wind farm projects in the Caribbean, some
conservation measures by the
large, some small. In March 2007, the first windmill in the Eastern
government or local authorities.
Caribbean was installed successfully at Paradise Bay, a hotel and resort
community in Grenada.
b Write a report for your head
teacher on energy conservation Smaller systems are easy to install and maintain. For the Caribbean
at your school, and pool your and similar markets, this is clearly the way to go.
ideas in groups or in class.
How can members of your
class contribute to energy Wave power
conservation? The momentum of waves can also be used to generate power. This
technology is still in its infancy and a great deal of money needs to be

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spent on researching it. However, it does have considerable potential for the future. Visit
the website: http://www.wavegen.com/ to learn more.

Biomass energy
This is energy produced from organic matter such as plants and trees. Fuel wood is the
most obvious form of biomass material and has been used for thousands, probably hundreds
of thousands, of years. Recently, however, other plants and plant residues have been used,
such as straw, manure and other agricultural waste products. A biomass energy source that
is particularly useful for the Caribbean is ethanol, which can be produced from sugar cane
and used as an alternative to oil or mixed with oil for some purposes. Although biomass
energy does release carbon dioxide, the plants have already taken carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, so there is no net increase in the amount in the atmosphere.

CASE STUDY
Wigton Wind Farm, Jamaica
The Wigton Wind Farm, in Manchester Province,
Jamaica, was completed in April 2004. It consists
of 23,900 kW-capacity turbines and is connected
to the Jamaican national grid. It was a joint project
between Renewable Energy Systems, a UK firm, and
the Petroleum Company of Jamaica, a nationally
owned parastatal. The government of both Jamaica
and the Netherlands provided funding for the project
and the turbines were built by NEG Micon, a leading
turbine manufacturer. Since Jamaica has been in
the past a major importer of oil, this project was
the first step to attempting to fulfil all the country’s
energy needs locally. Wind turbines at the Wigton Wind Farm in Manchester, Jamaica

CASE STUDY
Solar water heating in Barbados and hotels in Barbados. A typical water-heater system uses
a solar collector (panel) and a large (about 300-litre) tank
Following on from the Barbados Plan of Action with regard to hold the hot water which is pumped through insulated
to environmental and energy issues, the government pipe work from the panel to the tank. This technology saves
of Barbados introduced financial concessions to boost Barbados about US$6.5 million annually in imported fuel.
the solar power industry. These included tax rebates to As well as domestic consumers, over 50 hotels now use this
consumers for the installation of solar heaters and duty- type of renewable energy to heat their hot water. Emergency
free concessions to manufacturers on imported materials. solar lighting and refrigeration may also be a possibility for
The result was more than 32,000 thermal-siphon solar a wide variety of organisations from government buildings to
water heaters installed in homes, commercial businesses fish processing plants.

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 6   Physical resources

FACT Geothermal energy

There is a United This harnesses the heat from deep below the ground as a source of energy. The centre of
Nations programme, the the Earth is very hot indeed; so hot that rock will flow rather than being solid and static.
Caribbean Renewable Like wave power, geothermal energy is still in its infancy with plenty more research to do.
Energy Development
Programme (CREDP),
which exists to develop Energy conservation
alternative energy in the
Caribbean. While the alternative sources of energy are in their experimental stages or the very early
days of development, we need to conserve and make better use of our present sources.
• One way of doing this is through public education on the proper use of electricity.
This would help people be aware of methods they can use in their homes and offices
to conserve energy and so cut down on the region’s huge energy bill.
• A second method is to import into the region more energy-efficient cars and
appliances; cars which give more mileage per gallon and appliances which use only
a small amount of electricity per hour of use. The construction industry in the region
can assist in this energy conservation scheme by designing and building homes that
make use of natural light effects and are better ventilated.

Pollution
For development to be sustainable, it must not rob the environment of non-renewable
Can you think of any other resources, nor must it ruin the Earth. We must use the Earth’s resources carefully,
ways in which we create with an eye on the needs of future generations, and we must also accept the need for
land pollution in our conservation and, where necessary, restoration of the environment. One of the most
everyday lives? important aspects of this is the avoidance of pollution.
There are many kinds of pollution. These fall into four main categories: land, water, air
and noise. All the different kinds of pollution damage our environment in some way.
Some of this damage is short term and local and can easily be put right. Other types of
damage may be longer-lasting and affect everyone in the world.

Land pollution
CASE STUDY Land pollution occurs because of the dumping of rubbish,
chemical residues and other litter. This problem involves
Recaribe – Wider Caribbean Solid everyone. Even dropping a used cigarette or soft-drinks
can in a public place instead of putting it in a dustbin
Waste and Recycling Alliance counts as land pollution!
Recaribe began as an initiative of an organisation called
In the next section (pages 217 to 222) you will find more
Clean Islands International (CII), based in the US Virgin
Islands. It was set up at the 1995 CII Caribbean Waste information on the different kinds of pollution.
Management Conference held in Puerto Rico. According
to its website, Recaribe ‘is an alliance of individuals,
ACTIVITIES

organisations, representatives of industry and governments

Read the section above and on page 217 on land pollution.
dedicated to improving solid waste management practices
through education and the use and adaptation of appropriate 1 List the practices which result in land pollution.
technology and methodology in the Wider Caribbean region’.
2 Explain the effects of land pollution on human
It exists to share technology and information on recycling
activities and the natural environment.
and solid waste management and develop cooperation and
coordination between public and private sectors. 3 List measures which can be taken to reduce or
prevent land pollution.

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FACT
Land pollution – refuse tips and packaging
The term land pollution covers:
• the dumping of refuse and litter on land not designated
as refuse tips. Even refuse which is disposed of properly
may contain substances that break down into pollutants
such as methane, which is a ‘greenhouse gas’
• some toxic chemicals and waste products that can also
affect the land, destroying vegetation cover and leaving
a wasteland.
The disposal of waste has become a major problem with
the increase of packaging for goods we buy. Most of this
packaging is plastic or polystyrene and will end up on
refuse tips. Whole industries are now devoted to producing
packaging, with many companies concentrating on inventing
new ways of packaging the goods we buy. Fortunately some
of these new ways do lessen the environmental impact. Look
at the case study on CIBA-GEIGY on page 218 for an example.
Because disposal of waste is becoming such a problem, many
countries have started to encourage people to recycle their refuse. Waste disposal site
Look at the box called Recycle or die! for more information.

FACT
Recycle or die!
As the space available for landfill sites is very limited in
our islands, and growing populations consume more and
produce more waste every year, our governments are fast
running out of places to dispose of the refuse we create. In
addition, many materials that end up in landfill sites are, or
may become, toxic and threaten our or our children’s health.
Recycling materials, which is reusing them to make new
products, is therefore a very important development. All
kinds of materials can be recycled, including:
• glass from jars and bottles
• some plastics, including many types of plastic bottle
• aluminium and steel from the cans used for canned food
and soft drinks
• cardboard and paper. Paper bank collection bins at custom built waste and
recycling centre
Many countries worldwide are asking consumers to sort their
rubbish into different recycling categories and take them to
a recycling point. Others are beginning to operate what are is collected either along with or separated from the ordinary
called kerbside recycling schemes, where the sorted waste refuse. There is a case study on one regional recycling
initiative, Recaribe, on page 216.

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 6   Physical resources

FACT
How does water get polluted? CASE STUDY
There are several ways in which this pollution may take
place. In inland water, it may be caused by:
CIBA-GEIGY and the fungicide pouch
• the discharge of sewage waste and industrial waste into The US chemicals firm CIBA-GEIGY recently developed a
rivers and lakes special water-soluble pouch for agricultural fungicide (a
chemical that kills fungi which attack crops). Previously the
• seepage: poisonous chemicals, such as insecticides, fungicide had been supplied to purchasers in recyclable
fertilisers or detergents (including water containing
plastic bottles, but unfortunately there was a chance
washing liquids and detergents), may seep into the earth
that the bottles might end up in landfill refuse sites and
and eventually reach our underground water supply
contaminate the soil there. With the new pouches, the
• the dumping of solid waste and litter into rivers and lakes. farmer was able to put the whole product into his pesticide
The seas can be polluted as easily as inland water, tank, where the pouches dissolved, releasing the fungicide.
particularly coastal waters. Even deep ocean waters are This eliminated contaminated plastic bottles from the
affected. The main pollutants are: environment and minimised the problem of residues.

• synthetic organic metals The initiative successfully solved one pollution problem. It
also cut down the number of plastic bottles to be disposed
• metals
of. Plastic bottles are among the worst packaging we have
• petroleum hydrocarbons as they take up a lot of landfill space. Many types of plastic
• radioactivity. are very long-lasting and will be around in landfill sites for
many years. (Look at the boxes Recycle or die! and Land
Coastal water, which makes up 10% of the total area of the pollution – refuse tips and packaging for more information.)
ocean, but contains about 99% of total fish production, is also
affected by other pollutants:
• sewage discharge
• industrial wastes (including undersea mining wastes)
discharged into the sea
Water pollution
• litter.
Water pollution occurs both in inland water sources and
in the ocean. We ourselves may create water pollution
when we use household or garden products (paint is
a good example, weed killer is another) containing
chemicals which can leach into the water supply.
Why is water pollution so serious? Look at the box on the
Effects of Water Pollution to find out.
ACTIVITIES

Read the sections above and on page 219 on water

pollution.

1 List the practices which result in water pollution.

2 Explain the effects of water pollution on human

activities and the natural environment.

3 List measures which can be taken to reduce or

prevent water pollution.

Polluted seashore, Dominican Republic

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FACT
The effects of water pollution
• One important effect of water pollution is ecological
disruption, i.e. disruption of the balance created ecological aesthetic
between organisms and their environment, and disruption impairment
between communities of organisms of different species.
The ecosystem is disturbed by chemicals and other
pollutants, some of which come from the atmosphere (see
Air Pollution: a time bomb in the making). It can also be
affected by what is known as thermal pollution, where
industries raise the temperature of the water they use
EFFECTS OF
and then return it to the environment.
WATER POLLUTION
• A second effect has to do with aesthetic impairment.
This involves things which offend the senses of sight,
smell and feel. For example, oil pollution on our
beaches or in our coastal waters forms a sheen on the
water, fouls the beaches, making them unpleasant to
look at, imparts an offensive odour and could destroy
our tourist industry. (A large spill would also have
economic consequences. It would wipe out our fisheries effect on
and cause destruction to shellfish and coral life. human health
Wildlife, for example birds, would also suffer.) Other
pollution that causes aesthetic impairment includes:
foam caused by detergents and chemical waste; flotsam
(floating objects, including litter); and other floating
Figure 6.9  The effects of water pollution
materials arising from the discharge of sewage and
other waste waters.
• Last but by no means least, is the effect on human health.
Sewage pollution can cause diseases. The dumping of As you can see, the effects of water pollution are extremely
chemicals or radioactive waste can affect fish and shellfish serious. But how do water sources get polluted, and what
and may eventually get into the food chain and affect can we do about it? Look at the information boxes How
human beings when these fish are consumed. Does Water Get Polluted? and What Can We Do About
Water Pollution? to find out.

FACT
What can we do about water pollution?
We have already seen (on page 213 of this book) what is As individuals, there are a number of ways we can help.
being done internationally and in the region to combat These include:
marine pollution. Individual governments are also taking
steps to limit water pollution in their own territories. The
• disposing of household chemicals such as paint and used
engine oil carefully – not into the drains
major controls we should be working towards are:
• treatment of waste water so that it is clean enough to reuse • keeping use of pesticides, weed killers and other toxic
chemicals to a minimum.
• regulating and/or improving industrial (including
Some initiatives taken to protect inland water sources are
mining) processes to use less water and return clean
similar to those we need to prevent land pollution. See the
water to the environment after use
box called Land pollution – refuse tips and packaging to find
• protection of wetlands, which act as filters for inland out more.
water and water entering the ocean.

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 6   Physical resources

ACTIVITIES Air pollution

Read the section on air pollution. Air pollution includes not only the exhaust
1 List the practices which result in air pollution. fumes from aircraft as they fly over us, and
the exhaust gases from our cars, but also
2 Explain the effects of air pollution on human activities and the natural the smoke from cigarettes and backyard
environment.
bonfires. Again, we are all involved as
3 List measures which can be taken to reduce or prevent air pollution. polluters and need to act responsibly to cut
down the levels of air pollution.

FACT
Air pollution: a time bomb in the making
The list of pollutants released into the air is endless. It includes, Some of these affect our health directly, for example
among others: tobacco smoke or untreated asbestos, if breathed, cause
• waste products from the burning of fossil fuels (such as sickness. Others have a more long-term catastrophic effect
oil, gas and coal) to make energy, whether in a power on the planet, for example CFCs and nitrous oxide destroy
station or an aircraft or automobile engine the ozone layer that protects us from the sun’s ultraviolet
rays. The so-called greenhouse effect is also a result of air
• sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides (including those used pollution (see information box on page 221).
in fertilisers)
Some pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide (an exhaust gas
• toxic chemicals such as asbestos
from engines), can become dissolved in raindrops as they
• chemicals released by furniture and carpets made of fall and make the rain slightly acid. This can weaken or even
synthetic materials destroy trees and vegetation on which it falls.
• chemicals such as CFCs used in refrigeration (though
most of these have now been banned in the manufacture
of fridges and freezers).

Figure 6.10  Air pollutants and their effects

CFCs from refrigerators and freezers

damage the ozone layer

fossil fuel and fertiliser by-products toxic chamicals released from

carbon dioxide – global warming synthetic materials
exhaust gases – create acid rain, disposal or burning of upholstery foams used
cause asthma attacks in furniture + disposal or burning of synthetic
carpets – damage vegetation and cause
nitrous oxides – damage the ozone layer breathing problems for some people
AIR
POLLUTANTS

poor dispersal of smoke asbestos particles

from stoves cause asbestosis and other
carbon and ash particles lung diseases
– damage lungs
tobacco smoke
tar particles – may cause lung cancer

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Global warming
Efforts are being made to limit the greenhouse effect by reducing the amount of fossil fuels
we burn. The most recent international agreement, the Kyoto Protocol, was signed in 1997.

FACT
The Greenhouse Effect
The name was given to this phenomenon Global Warming 160
The world may now be warmer than at any time CO2 LEVELS
because air pollutants act like a giant 150 1750 level = 100 units
since the last Ice Age. Scientists believe that in
greenhouse, trapping the warmth of 140
futuretemperatures will rise even faster. This is
the sun and causing temperatures to called global warming. 130
rise. The effect is caused by higher Global warming is caused by a blanket of 120
atmospheric levels of several air ‘greenhouse gases’ building up
pollutants – carbon dioxide in particular around the Earth trapping 110

– producing a ‘blanket’ which retains the heat from the sun. Carbon 100
dioxide, CO2, released 1800 1900 2000
sun’s heat in the atmosphere rather than
by burning fossil
allowing it to radiate out into space. High fuels is one of
levels of carbon dioxide tend to bring the main How the ‘greenhouse effect’ works
warmer conditions to the Earth, creating causes.
NITROUS OXIDE from fossil
climate changes and higher sea levels. fuels, industry, households,
Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere cement manufacture and
have varied enormously over the millions burning of rain forest.
of years of the Earth’s existence. They METHANE from cattle
ranching, coal mines and
are raised when we burn fossil fuels and
paddy fields.
these have gone up sharply in the past
CARBON DIOXIDE from
few centuries – by over 30% since the fossil fuels.
mid-eighteenth century. There is also
a natural carbon cycle, in the course
of which plants and trees use carbon
VISIBLE SHORTWAVE LIGHT
dioxide and by a complex process return passes through the
it to the Earth as carbon. Over millennia atmosphere to the Earth’s
the carbon cycle will tend to adjust surface.
climate changes and other effects, but at Some LONGWAVE HEAT
RADIATION leaves the Earth –
present most scientists agree we are in
but most is reflected back by
an era of global warming. ‘greenhouse gases’.

The Kyoto Accord

For many years the UN and individual nations had been trying to reach agreement on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
Industrialised nations are responsible for most of the problem of global warming because of their industrial emissions over the
last 200 years, and most of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions today, with the United States accounting for over 25%. Rapidly
industrialising countries such as China (15%), India (4.4%) and Brazil (1.4%) are catching up fast.
The Kyoto Accord is an International Agreement on climate change. It was formally adopted by over 160 countries in December
1997 at the Third Conference of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change held in Kyoto, Japan. It came into
force in December 2005.
The main achievement of the Accord is that it set binding targets for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases for 37
industrialised nations and the European Community, at 5% less than their 1990 emissions, by 2012. The targets cover emissions
of the six main greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulphur
hexafluoride. However, the US, which is the largest single emitter, has refused to ratify the treaty.

Sources: UN http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php/
Nationmaster: http://www.nationmaster.com/red/pie/env_co2_emi-environment-co2-emissions

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ACTIVITIES
Despite this, greenhouse gas emissions have continued to soar, up to 9138
Read the section on page 221 on million metric tonnes in 2010. The countries with the highest carbon
greenhouse gas emissions and global emissions were China and the USA, with other major polluters being
warming. India, Russia, Japan, Germany, Iran, South Korea and Saudi Arabia.
1 What human activities are most
responsible for greenhouse gas Noise pollution
emissions?
Noise pollution is a term used to describe levels of sound in the
2 Explain how greenhouse gas environment that are anti-social, that is, harmful to other human
emissions and global warming are beings. Noise pollution includes practising the steelpan or drums in your
affecting our planet.
bedroom late at night without thought for the disruption to your family’s
3 List measures which can be taken to or neighbours’ sleep! Airliners overhead and factory machinery can also
reduce or prevent global warming. create noise pollution.

FACT
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is not caused by the release of chemicals or where large aircraft such as jumbo jets or other airlines
litter-dumping but purely by human beings creating sounds fly overhead regularly. Many noises that we enjoy, such as
in a variety of ways. It is measured according to the number concerts and rave parties, also produce a very high number
of decibels a particular sound produces. Human beings are of decibels. What turns them into noise pollution is their
very sensitive to loud noises and if they have to live with effect on others – those living near the sounds, who perhaps
these for any length of time it can cause them great stress want to go to sleep, or be quiet, or listen to their own music
and annoyance. Noise pollution is a problem near airports or the TV.
ACTIVITIES

1 a Read the information boxes and case studies carefully b Draw up a five-point plan, listing the action that each
and use them to write a brief summary of pollution individual member of your group can take to improve
problems faced by our region. matters.

b Find out what initiatives are being taken locally and 3 a Draw a table showing the different physical resources
we have studied in this chapter, the ways they can
research this

nationally to combat pollution, including any recent

legislation or new regulations for industry. be polluted or degraded, and the ways we should be
c If you can, carry out an internet search to find out conserving them.
what other countries are doing about pollution and b Create a poster and/or information pack encouraging
the recycling of rubbish. people to act responsibly with regard to the
conservation of water resources, in particular. This
may be done as group or pair work. Try using a
computer to put together words and pictures.
discuss this

2 a In groups, discuss the ways we as individuals can cut

down on activities that pollute the environment.
brainstorm

4 As a class, brainstorm your thinking about how individuals

can contribute to decreasing pollution in your area.

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 6   Physical resources

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Natural resources are renewable or non-renewable. wood; mineral resources are used for fuel and
the raw materials for manufacturing industries.
• Renewable resources include agricultural land,
water, forests, beaches, marine areas, solar power • Poor uses of resources include over-cropping,
and wind energy. over-grazing and deforestation, which lead to
loss of soil fertility and soil erosion.
• Non-renewable resources include petroleum,
bauxite, gold, diamonds and other minerals. • Poor practices result in pollution, global warming
and food shortages.
• Natural resources are used in many ways to
meet people’s needs, for example agricultural • Land, air and water can be polluted.
land is used for growing crops; water is used
• Sustainable development involves good practices
for drinking, washing, industry, irrigation, fish
such as conservation of resources, use of
farming and generating power; forests provide
renewable energy sources and avoiding pollution.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Write definitions of the following terms: a Draw up a detailed plan showing the
relationship between these conservation
a alternative energy e irrigation issues and how they can be linked together
b biodegradable f renewable resources as part of the project.
c conservation g pollution
d fossil fuels h sedimentary rocks b Create posters and information leaflets to be
handed out to the people of the local areas
2 Explain the difference between physical and explaining what the project’s goals are and
human resources and give some examples of inviting their support and involvement.
each. c Explore some specific ideas of measures that
b Assess the relative importance of each might be taken to encourage conservation
of the following as a factor influencing in the local area, bearing in mind that local
development: people need to be involved and motivated.
i) mineral resources
4 a Write notes for an essay on the following:
ii) education
iii) health care i) Why is the development of alternative
iv) technology sources of energy of great importance to
v) financial expertise the Caribbean?
vi) good leadership. ii) Does marine conservation need to
be carried out regionally rather than
3 You have been given the task of coordinating
nationally?
a local conservation project with government
funding. The project includes: measures to iii) How does the distribution of mineral
combat soil erosion and degradation; energy resources affect development in the
conservation initiatives; and the development region?
of a recycling scheme. The aim of the project is b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
to raise awareness of conservation issues in the your notes as an essay paper of between
local area and pilot new measures to promote 1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
conservation. This piece of work may be done structure your essay properly, giving it an
with a partner. introduction and conclusion as well as the
central part including your main points.

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 7 Regional integration, trade
and cooperation

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• explain and use correctly concepts and terms associated with regional integration
• describe the major challenges facing the Caribbean region
• outline the main stages in the integration movement
• explain the objectives and functions of regional institutions
• identify factors that promote or hinder integration
• analyse the benefits of regional integration
• examine the role of individual citizens, business organisations and government in the
integration process
• explain the role of regional agencies in the integration process.

Terms you should know

acculturation modification or changes to one culture as a result of contact with another culture
bilateral agreement agreement between two countries or groups of countries
common market agreement permitting the free flow of productive resources (capital and labour) among member countries.
The agreement also involves a common trade policy and common fiscal and monetary policies.
dumping selling products abroad at a lower price than they are sold in the home market
economic integration a situation in which there is intra-regional free trade and the harmonisation of fiscal policies and
tariffs among member countries
economic union a situation in which members integrate all economic policies and in effect act as though they were
economically one country
fiscal policy government financial policy; taxation, expenditure and budgets
free trade the elimination of all tariffs and duties that prevent free competition between countries on all
products
free trade agreement/area agreement or area where member countries eliminate more or less completely all tariff and non-tariff
barriers to trade among themselves
independent state a country under a recognised government with internationally recognised boundaries
intra-regional trade trade within a region
monetary policy policy concerning the control of money supply and interest rates by a central bank
multilateral agreement an agreement involving three or more states or groups of states
multinational corporation a large company operating in many countries
protectionism policy which protects national industries by placing tariffs on imports from abroad which compete

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protocol an additional agreement attached to an existing convention or binding agreement between countries,
which effectively becomes part of the original convention and is binding on the signatories
regionalism organisation and consolidation of regional economic and political integration groups, leading to the
development of a shared economic and/or political space in a particular geographical zone
self-determination the ability of a nation or country to make decisions about its own government
single economy a country or countries with a common currency and common monetary and fiscal policies
single market an area in which there is free movement of goods between countries and a common policy on trade
with other countries outside the area
trade liberalisation a generalised set of rules to which states must adhere in order to maintain economic competitiveness
in international markets
trading bloc a group of countries having a free trade agreement, usually in the same geographical area

What is regional integration?

Integration means combining parts of something so that they work together as a whole.
So it includes ideas of working together, cooperating and inter-mixing. In the Caribbean
context regional integration means countries, organisations and individuals working
together to develop the region politically, economically
and socially. It means breaking down barriers to trade,
FACT movement of people and other differences.
Advantages of integration Caribbean countries are mostly small or have small
• Cooperation in using skills and resources means that populations. They have many things in common,
there is no duplication or waste of effort in economic such as their tropical environment, their multi-ethnic
and social development. An example of this is CXC. populations and their history of migration, slavery and
• A stronger voice for the region on the world stage. colonisation. Integration means pooling the human and
Smaller countries joining together can make their views natural resources of the Caribbean for the common good
known and have some impact in negotiations within the of all its people.
UN or with larger states such as the USA.
• By working together they can diversify their economies
and act as domestic markets for each others’ goods.
This also results in economies of scale and lower prices
Regional trade in the Caribbean
which can compete in world markets. Trade within the Caribbean region is as old as the region
• Organisations and individuals can learn from each itself. The islands have always maintained trading links
other and countries can help each other to develop. between them; for most of their history using small boats.
This type of trade still exists, but in the last 50 years or
• Security in times of disaster or difficulty – when one
small country is affected, others can act as good so intra-regional trade has expanded enormously. The
neighbours and assist. This also provides some security involvement of Caribbean countries in this trade varies,
for outside investors. however. For example Jamaica’s regional exports in 2010
were 2% (US$30 million) of her total exports of US$1.5
billion. By comparison, in 2010 Barbados exported
US$160 million in goods and services to CARICOM
countries out of its total exports of $390 million which, as well as being a much larger
figure in dollars, also represents a much higher percentage of Barbados’s overall
exports. The reason for this disparity is largely historical: many Caribbean countries
are still locked into trade patterns which were developed during the colonial period, for
example relying heavily on exports of bulk goods such as sugar to the United Kingdom
and the United States.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Challenges facing the Caribbean region

The Caribbean is often considered a single region but there are many differences within it. There is no single level of
development. Even the short table of GDP per capita on page 167 highlights the differences between the comparative prosperity
of Trinidad and Tobago and the absolute poverty of Haiti.
Independence came only comparatively recently to many Caribbean countries and it has taken time to find a new economic role.
There are, however, common challenges which face the whole region:

Small size Differences in resource distribution

In world terms the Caribbean is a small region, with a • It is not endowed with rich natural resources in spite of
relatively small population compared with other regions its rich forests and the presence of some minerals such as
such as North America or Europe. Individual countries are bauxite in Jamaica and limited oil in Trinidad.
mostly very small both in size and population. This means that
• There is an unequal distribution of natural resources in
they do not have a large domestic market for the goods they
the Caribbean and this is reflected in the GDP per capita.
produce. It is only by joining together to form one Caribbean
The table on page 167 shows the extreme difference
market that many economic activities become viable.
between Trinidad and Tobago and Haiti. Those are
the highest and lowest, but there is a great divergence
between those two extremes.
Lack of diversification
• There is a lack of diversification in the Caribbean region.
Countries have similar natural resources, grow the same Debt burden
crops and have the same economic activities, such as
There is a high level of national debt. The islands have
tourism. This makes it difficult to increase trade within the
received large loans from international and commercial
region. In addition many countries are dependent on one or
bodies including the World Bank and the International
two major exports, such as bananas, sugar cane or tourism
Monetary Fund. In Jamaica the debt amounts to nearly 150% of
so if there are problems in one sector they suffer badly.
annual GDP. Such high levels of debt take a high proportion of
• Agriculture still takes up most of the Caribbean economic annual income in interest and capital repayments.
effort. And even though employment in this sector is
declining, new jobs are not in manufacturing but in
service industries, particularly tourism.
High level and cost of imports
The lack of natural resources and industries associated with
Unemployment and underemployment them in the Caribbean is linked with a low value of exports and
a dependence on imported high cost manufactured goods.
• There are high levels of unemployment (11% overall in
Jamaica and 24% for young people in Jamaica in 2009).
• There are high levels of underemployment, so human Shortage of skilled workers
resources are not being used to their full potential.
There is a shortage of skilled workers. This is partly because
insufficient young people go on to higher education and
skills training. It is also because many of the best qualified
Low levels of production and productivity go abroad to work. Also education tends to focus on
There is low productivity in agriculture and in other areas of academic skills, producing people who want to have white
the economy. Compared with highly developed countries, collar jobs. There is a need for training in ICT (information
farms are inefficient, small and labour intensive. There are and communication technology) starting with very young
low levels of production in manufacturing sometimes because children in primary schools.
of out-dated machinery or technology, or lack of skills.

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Inadequate technology Shortage of capital

The region has inadequate technology. This is mainly Europe and the United States were able to build large
because of lack of investment. reserves of capital during the 19th and 20th centuries, partly at
the expense of colonies, and even earlier from the profits of
the slave trade. When Independence came to the Caribbean
Low value of exports there were no such reserves of capital and that partially
explains the dependence on loans which has created the
• During the whole colonial period the emphasis was on a present indebtedness and shortage of capital.
plantation agriculture serving the needs of the colonising
countries, not the local economy.
• Exports come mainly from primary industries such as Vulnerability to natural disasters
agriculture, mining and forestry. Low value raw materials
The Caribbean also suffers from natural disasters such as
are exported. There is a need to add value to these raw
hurricanes, floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The
materials by processing them before export.
case study on page 228 shows the natural disasters that have
affected Montserrat in recent years.

Difficulties in accessing markets of developed Each territory in the Caribbean can only be brought up to a
common level if there is true cooperation between every one
countries of them.
The emphasis in recent years on globalisation and a free
market economy has not helped developing areas like the
Caribbean. Their exports have to compete with those from
more advanced economies and there is no possibility of
protecting and nurturing local manufacturing.

brainstorm Transport
ACTIVITIES

Regional trade is closely linked to transportation.

1 Brainstorm: In a class session, share your ideas
Without good transport links, trade cannot exist,
on what families should do if a disaster is about to
and this is particularly true in a region such as the
happen: a hurricane is approaching or there is notice
Caribbean where islands and mainland countries are
of a volcanic eruption.
separated by long distances. Sea transport is the most
important type in this region, though air transport is
2 Draw a concept map of the challenges facing the becoming increasingly prominent. Within individual
region. Underline or shade the different challenges on countries, road transport is still the most popular
your map, according to whether they are economic,
method of conveying goods to their destination.
political or social.
research This

3 Research one or more of the challenges further.

Sea transport
Then write a poem or song about it. Historically, sea transport has been vital to intra-
regional trade throughout the ages. Arawaks, Caribs
and Tainos came to the islands in their canoes.
Christopher Columbus came from Europe by sea and
his successors, the European settlers and planters,
used sailing ships to transport goods from one
territory to the other. Today tourist cruise ships are
also an important source of income to the Caribbean
islands. You can learn more about tourism in its many
forms in Chapter 10 of this book.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

CASE STUDY N
0 2 4 km capital city
town
Northwest
Disasters in Montserrat Bluff mountain peak
airport
Hurricanes Rendezvous
Silver Hill
In September 1989 Hurricane Hugo struck Bay Over 600 m
Montserrat with 140 miles per hour (225 Caribbean 403 400 – 600 m
kph) winds and they destroyed 90% of Sea 200 – 400 m
the buildings and the whole of the tourist Davy Hill Gerald’s
0 – 200 m
infrastructure. Total damage was estimated Brades Marguerita main road
at around US$200 million and tourism John A. Osborne Bay
Carr’s Airport road
and agriculture were both badly affected. Bay Collins R.
river
St. John’s
However, with help, within a few years the
island had made a good recovery.
St. Peter’s
Volcanic eruptions Blackburne Airport
(destroyed during volcanic eruption)
Montserrat had been free of volcanic Katy Hill
Woodlands
activity for centuries until July 1995. Within Bay 741 Trant’s
a short time lava and ash then covered Farm
Farm R. Bay
most of the southern half of the island and Salem Bethel
destroyed the capital. The south has been Old Towne Spanish
uninhabited since then and there were Harris Point
Tuitt’s
further eruptions until 2010. However, Belham R.
Hes Paradise R.
some rebuilding and development is Bay Cork Hill
Long Ground
taking place, with a new airport completed
Bransby
in 2005. Agriculture was devastated by Point
the eruption, but a new industrial park is
Richmond Gages
being built. Montserrat is a member of the Soufriére Hills
Chances Peak
Caribbean Basin Initiative and CARICOM, 1050
915
which gives access to regional markets. It Plymouth Galway’s Soufriére
has received aid from CARICOM, CARICOM Sugar Kinsale
countries and the Caribbean Disaster Bay White R. Roche’s
Point
Emergency Relief Agency (CDERA), as well St. Patrick’s
South
Soufriére Hills
as from the United Kingdom and Canada.
Morris
Landing
Bay
Old Fort
Point
Guadeloupe Passage

Figure 7.1  The exclusion zone on Montserrat

Smoke, steam and ash billow from the

Soufriere Hills Volcano on Montserrat in
August 1997

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Air transport
Cargo and passengers travel by air throughout the
region. There are more than 150 commercial air carriers
operating out of the Commonwealth Caribbean. The main
ones include BWIA/T&T Airways, Caricargo, Caribbean
Airways and LIAT. Some countries are also served
by carriers based in non-Commonwealth Caribbean
countries such as Cuba, Haiti and the US Virgin Islands.

Stages in the integration movement

Even before independence there were some attempts by the
colonial powers to integrate countries within the region.
The Caribbean Commission was created by the colonial
DHL Carrier plane powers of Great Britain, France and the Netherlands,
along with the USA to strengthen cooperation between
Caribbean countries and their colonial masters. The
RESEARCH This
Caribbean Research Council and the West Indian
Conference were agencies of the Commission.
ACTIVITIES

1 a Research the names of sea carriers based in the As the movement for independence grew, leaders such
Commonwealth Caribbean and create a table to as Norman Manley of Jamaica, and Eric Williams of
show these. Trinidad and Tobago called for a West Indian Federation.

b Find out more about some of the carriers (sea From the early days of Independence Caribbean states
have realised their markets are too small individually to
research This

and air) in your own territory. Where do they

transport goods to and from? How much of their encourage regional development.
business is done intra-regionally and how much
with countries outside the Caribbean region?
groupwork

c In groups, analyse the comparative importance of

sea and air transport for regional trade.

Figure 7.2  Time line showing the establishment of organisations encouraging regional trade links in the Caribbean

2008
RDF
Regional
Development
Fund
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

1958-1962 1968 1973 1981 1994 2006

WIF CARIFTA CARICOM OECS ACS CSME
West Indian Federation Caribbean Caribbean Organisation Association CARICOM
Free Trade Community of Eastern of Caribbean Single Market
Association and Caribbean States and Economy
Common States
Market

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

West Indian Federation (WIF)

This was established in 1958 and was intended to form a single country which would
gain independence from Britain. It included ten territories: Antigua and Barbuda,
Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, the then St Kitts–Nevis–Anguilla,
St Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad and Tobago. It aimed to establish a political union
among its members.
There was a parliament with a House of Representatives and a Senate, and an Executive
Council. The head of state was the Governor General, representing the Queen. All the people
of the Federation countries voted in elections in 1958 and the West Indies Federal Labour
Party, led by Grantley Adams of Barbados, won the election and became prime minister.
There were many disagreements over policy, although some progress was made, in
particular, setting up a regional system of university education. Disagreements led
to Jamaica (the largest member) holding a national referendum in 1961 and then
withdrawing from the federation. Trinidad and Tobago withdrew a short while later
and the federation collapsed in 1962.
The West Indian Federation failed for many reasons including:
• conflict between national governments and the federation government
• lack of independence from Britain
• citizens in the various countries were nationalistic and did not want to be ruled from
far away
• individual countries wanted to be independent of each other
• the federal budget was very small and relied mainly on grants from Britain. Smaller
countries argued that Jamaica and Trinidad should contribute more.
• communications and transport between the various member countries was poor,
unlike today
• the federal government was weak and could not control the member states
• some political leaders from the various countries pursued their own power rather
than the good of the Federation and fought between themselves
• larger countries were concerned that many people would migrate to them in search
of jobs
• conflict between more developed and less developed states.
On the collapse of the former West Indies Federation in 1962, regional governments
decided to preserve certain common services such as shipping, the university and
meteorology and to maintain dialogue among themselves through informal conferences
of Heads of Government.
From the early days of Independence, Caribbean states have realised their markets are
too small individually to encourage regional development.

CARIFTA
In 1964, the governments of Antigua, Barbados and Guyana decided to create a
Caribbean Free Trade Association (CARIFTA) among themselves under the Dickenson
Bay Agreement. CARIFTA, as the association was called, came into being on 1 May
1968 with all ten Commonwealth Caribbean countries participating: the members of
the WIF and Guyana.
CARIFTA aimed to promote economic development and cooperation in the Caribbean

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

region and was an attempt at economic integration. There was improved cooperation
in health, education, shipping and air transport. It was hoped that smaller countries
in particular would benefit from economic integration. The Conference of Heads
of Government was made into a formal and legal body. In October 1967 the Fourth
Conference of Heads of Government set up the Caribbean Development Bank. It also
decided to transform CARIFTA into the Commonwealth Caribbean Regional Secretariat,
known since 1973 as the Caribbean Community Secretariat.

CARICOM
The acronym (a title based on capital letters from a longer name) CARICOM stands
for the Caribbean Community and Common Market. Unlike most regional economic
institutions, it began with an attempt to achieve political union; the ill-fated West
Indian Federation which attempted to unite the newly-independent countries of the
Commonwealth Caribbean in the late 1950s. Political union has not (so far, at least) been
achieved, but economic links continue to become closer. This process of harmonising
economic and political actions is often known as regionalism. The member states of
CARICOM are shown below.

Figure 7.3  CARICOM member states

N BERMUDA Countries of CARICOM

Full members
Associate members
BAHAMAS

TURKS & CAICOS

CAYMAN IS BVI
HAITI
ANGUILLA
JAMAICA
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
ST KITTS & NEVIS
BELIZE
MONTSERRAT
DOMINICA

ST LUCIA
ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
BARBADOS
GRENADA

TRINIDAD & TOBAGO

GUYANA
0 200 400 600 800 1000 km
SURINAME

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

A brief history of CARICOM

After CARIFTA the next significant step in terms of regional economic integration
was the establishment of an Economic Community Common Market. The Treaty of
Chaguaramas, establishing the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM),
was signed by the prime ministers of Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago
on 4 July 1973. Six less developed countries of the former Carifta – Belize, Dominica,
Grenada, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines and Montserrat – signed the Treaty in
April 1974. Antigua and St Kitts–Nevis–Anguilla became members in July 1974. Associate
members include Bermuda, BVI, the Cayman Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. (The
Bahamas also belongs to the Caribbean Community but not to the Common Market.)
Thus CARICOM started life as a specifically Anglophone Caribbean organisation,
linking countries that were once, or are still, British territories. Later, the accession
to membership of Suriname (1995) and Haiti (2002) made CARICOM a more wide-
ranging regional organisation.

Organisation of CARICOM
ACTIVITIES

The main organs of the Community are:

1 List the functions
of the Conference 1. the Heads of Government Conference which takes all fundamental policy decisions
of Heads of on all aspects of the Community including the Common Market. Decisions are
Government. generally taken unanimously. The Bureau of the Conference was set up in October
2 List the functions 1992 at a special meeting of the Conference. Its work includes:
of the CARICOM -- providing guidance to the Secretariat on policy issues
Secretariat. -- working between Conference meetings to implement the Conference’s decisions
-- initiating proposals for discussion
-- keeping up a dialogue with member states on issues on which Heads of Government
at the previous Conference meeting failed to agree.
2. the Council of Ministers which consists of ministers responsible for CARICOM affairs
in their own territories. The Council is responsible for the development of strategic
planning and coordination in CARICOM, especially with regard to economic
integration and external relations.
These two organs are assisted by the Common Market Council of Ministers which meets
three or four times each year and takes decisions on matters relevant to the Common
Market, and by four other ministers’ councils:
• Council for Trade and Economic Development (COTED)
• Council for Foreign and Community Relations (COFCOR)
• Council for Human and Social Development (COHSOD)
• Council for Finance and Planning (COFAP).
There are also three important committees:
• Legal Affairs Committee, responsible for providing advice on treaties, international
legal issues, the harmonisation of national laws within the Community and other
legal matters
• Budget Committee, which examines the draft budget and work programme submitted
by the Secretariat and makes recommendations to the Council of Ministers
• Committee of Central Bank Governors, which makes recommendations to COFAP
on financial matters.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Figure 7.4  The structure

of CARICOM

CONFERENCE OF HEADS OF GOVERNMENT

BUDGET COMMUNITY COUNCIL LEGAL AFFAIRS

COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS COMMITTEE

COUNCIL FOR TRADE COUNCIL FOR COUNCIL FOR FOREIGN COUNCIL FOR HUMAN
AND ECONOMIC FINANCE AND AND COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING RELATIONS DEVELOPMENT
(COTED) (COFAP) (COFCOR) (COHSOD)

COMMITTEE OF
CENTRAL BANK
GOVERNORS

CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY (CARICOM) SECRETARIAT

In addition to the institutions, there are a number of ‘associate institutions’ recognised

by the Treaty of Chaguaramas. Among such associate institutions are the Caribbean
Development Bank, the University of the West Indies and the University of Guyana,
the Caribbean Investment Corporation, the East Caribbean Common Market Council of
Ministers and the WISA Council of Ministers.
The Caribbean Community Secretariat is the administrative arm of the Community and
services all meetings of the organs and institutions of the Community. The Secretariat
is headed by a Secretary-General.

Objectives of CARICOM
CARICOM aims to increase cooperation within the Community with three main areas
of activity.
1. Functional cooperation in areas such as education, shipping and agriculture
2. Integration of the economies of the region through the Caribbean Common Market.
The Common Market is the trade section of the agreement and deals with the freeing
(removal of custom duties) of trade among participating countries.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

3. The coordination of foreign policy among independent countries.

The Community was established to achieve two broad central purposes:

1. the economic development of each single member country and of the region as a
whole
2. the self-determination of the people of the region and the enforcement of member
states’ effective sovereignty.

In order to achieve these purposes, the Community embraces three broad areas of
cooperation which, when taken together, extend far beyond the purely economic. These
areas of activity are:
1. The Caribbean Common Market which is the instrument for economic integration
in the Caribbean Community and replaces CARIFTA. Under the Common Market
Agreement the members have agreed to:
-- a Common External Tariff and Common Protective Policy
-- harmonisation of fiscal incentives to industry
-- a policy for the location of industries in the less developed countries
-- the development of regional integrated industries.
2. Cooperation in non-economic fields and in the establishment and operation of
brainstorm common services, for example health, education, examinations, shipping, air
transport, meteorology, and scientific research to name a few areas.
ACTIVITIES

In a brainstorm 3. The coordination of the foreign policies of the independent member states of the
session, think of any region.
other benefits which
your country may The Treaty was revised in July 2001 at the 22nd Heads of Government meeting. Additional
derive from being a protocols to the Treaty are being negotiated to cover issues such as e-commerce zones,
member of CARICOM. and the free circulation of goods and free movement of persons within the CARICOM
area.

Benefits of integration
The benefits we can derive from regional integration are both material (tangible) and
immaterial (intangible). Some of the material benefits are shown in Figure 7.5.

Other CARICOM institutions and policies

The Common External Tariff

The aim of the tariff is to achieve some measure of harmonisation among the various
tariff arrangements in the region. It is also an important policy instrument to protect
and develop the region’s industries and redirect consumption habits. It is constructed
to apply low rates of duty on imported raw materials, intermediate products and capital
goods, and higher rates on goods which can be produced in the region.

Common Protective Policy

The Common Protective Policy provides for quantitative restrictions to be applied by
national governments in order to promote industrial and agricultural development.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Figure 7.5  Material benefits of integration

the adoption and application of joint the growth of

coordinated actions and common intra-regional
policies in relation to outside countries trade the flow of technical assistance
from the more developed
countries to the less developed
countries providing skilled
coordination of economic policies, managerial, administrative
such as fiscal, monetary, and technical personnel
financial and exchange-rate policies and the provision of technological
research facilities for the less
developed countries

structural transformation
through the creation of
‘backward and forward linkages’ the flow of financial
resources from more
developed countries to
less developed
facilitation of industrial countries in the region
and agricultural MATERIAL
specialisation BENEFITS

the joint development of

basic natural resources for
greater bargaining power regional use, for example a
as a region in dealing joint cement plant developed
with outside countries by Trinidad and Barbados

greater sense of regional cooperation in non-

solidarity and fraternity economic areas such as
(feeling of brotherhood) health and education

greater self-reliance through overall improvement in establishment of common

increased production and employment and the services, for example
consumption of regionally standard of living in the Caricargo (Trinidad and
grown food region Barbados), WISCO, etc.

FACT
Rules of origin
The main criteria for goods being classified as being The rules of origin for CARICOM trade
produced within a CARICOM state are as follows: The rules of origin state the criteria by which goods
1. Production may take place using only materials wholly will be held as originating within the Common
produced in the region. Market and therefore entitled to free access to the
2. If material is used from foreign sources, the finished entire regional market (see information box). These
product must be entirely different from the material were agreed to by the Common Market Council of
from which it is produced, in other words the process Ministers in April 1976. Under these rules, eligibility
used must entail a change of classification (for example, for Common Market treatment depends more on the
from timber to furniture).
extent of the manufacturing or processing operations
Basically, the rules provide that where a product is performed within the Common Market than on the origin
produced from imported materials or components, then the of the materials which are used in such manufacturing
manufacturing or processing operation performed within
or processing.
the Common Market must result in a change of classification.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

The Caribbean Food and Nutrition Plan

This is an approach to solve the region’s agricultural problems. The purpose of this plan is:
• to enable the region to feed itself through the greater and more efficient use of its
own resources
• to encourage greater self-reliance through increased production and consumption of
regionally grown food as a replacement for imported food
• the economic growth of individual member countries through rural development
• better employment prospects for people in the region, and higher levels of income
• improved nutrition and well being for the people in the region, including
encouragement of healthy lifestyles.
The Plan serves to
coordinate individual
countries’ food and
nutrition plans, geared to
local needs and priorities.

The Caribbean
Investment Corporation
This corporation has the
function of ensuring
the promotion of the
industrial development of
the LDCs. The emphasis is
on agro-based industries.
The CIC can invest only
in the smaller territories,
the main objective
being to supplement
and complement the
work of the Caribbean
Development Bank, and,
in particular, to equalise
participation. The
St Georges’ fruit market, Grenada headquarters of the CIC
are located in St Lucia.

Regional industrial promotion

The Caribbean Community aims at promoting and encouraging industrial development
in the region. Efforts have therefore been made to allocate industries among the LDCs.
This means that an allocated industry assigned to a particular country would enjoy
special benefits such as market protection, tax concessions, etc., to enable that industry
to cater for the total market identified.
An alternative approach has been the joint establishment of industries among territories.
This has become a priority for the Common Market in both industrial and regional
projects. The oils and fats agreement is perhaps the best example to date of regional
industrial cooperation with integration at all levels, including production and marketing.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

The Oils and Fats Protocol is concerned with commodities such as copra and coconut oil.
The prices of those commodities are fixed under these agreements so that the regional
marketing boards and the Coconut Industry Boards have some indication of the prices
to be offered to their farmers to stimulate production.

FACT
Regime for CARICOM Enterprises
The Regime for CARICOM Enterprises was established in • the right to receive more than one-half of any capital
May 1976 and came into force in most CARICOM member distribution in the event of the winding up or of a
states by the end of the 1980s. The Regime permits the reduction in share capital of that company
registration and incorporation of regional companies.
• the right to receive more than one-half of any dividends that
A CARICOM Enterprise is defined as a regionally owned might be paid by the company.
and controlled company which may engage in production of
A company must be approved by the Authority, under the
Common Market origin goods and provide services:
terms of the agreement, to be considered a CARICOM
c. in specified areas; and Enterprise.
d. in such sectors of the economy as the Council may from The CARICOM Enterprise is a regionally corporate entity:
time to time determine. a form of business organisation to further the objectives of
regional integration. The basic aim is to use the financial,
A regionally owned and controlled company means that
human and natural resources of the region in joint ventures,
the company is one in which, in the opinion of the Authority,
the implementation of high priority projects, and to assist in
nationals of at least two member states exercise management
the movement of investment capital between member states
and control by beneficially owning shares, carrying between
and particularly into the LDCs. The idea is that a legal body
them directly or indirectly the following rights:
will be incorporated in the member countries. This will
• the right to exercise more than one-half of the voting facilitate the transfer of currency, the purchase of land and
power in the company the movement of CARICOM personnel in connection with the
business of the Enterprise.

Fiscal incentives (using government money to encourage industry)

The harmonisation of fiscal incentives to industry aims to achieve some uniformity in
member states’ approach to measures for encouraging industry. It also seeks to provide
an advantage to the LDCs in their efforts at industrial promotion within the Community.
It makes provision for the following concessions:
• tax holidays of up to 10 years in the case of the MDCs
• export allowances
• tax exemptions of dividends
• duty-free entry of raw materials required for industry.
In order to qualify for the above concessions an industry has to have a certain amount of
value added locally. In the MDCs the requirement was 50% local value added while in
the LDCs the requirement was 40%. New provisions for a harmonised incentive scheme
and an overall policy on investment are included in the revised treaty of Chaguaramas.

Petro-Caribe agreement
The Petro-Caribe Agreement was signed in 2005 between Venezuela and most CARICOM
countries to facilitate the supply of oil from Venezuela on preferential terms. It allowed
countries to buy oil at market price but not to have to pay the full price up front. The

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

rest of the payment can be spread over 25 years. They are also able to pay in part
with products such as bananas and sugar. Most members of CARICOM and some other
countries in the region have signed the agreement but Trinidad and Barbados have not.
Although the agreement provides good payment terms for fuel now, it encourages
Can you suggest reasons
countries into debt to pay for this. Future agricultural exports are being used to pay for
why Trinidad and Barbados
today’s fuel. Also it increases the region’s dependence on fossil fuels.
might have decided not to
sign the agreement?
CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME)
The CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME) is an agreement which allows
CARICOM goods, services, people and capital to move through the Caribbean Community
without any restrictions or government taxation. This means that CARICOM is in the
process of becoming one large single market space or economic union where people
can buy and sell goods and travel freely.
The Heads of Government of CARICOM decided to set up a single market and economy
at the tenth Heads of Government Conference in 1989. The agreement was drafted in
time for the thirteenth conference in 1992. The process of ratifying the CSME and
bringing it into force in all member states was a long and drawn-out one. However, in
2001 a revised Treaty of Chaguaramas was signed to include CSME and it was formally
launched in January 2006 in Kingston, Jamaica.
RESEARCH This
ACTIVITIES

Objectives of the CSME

1 a Find out trade figures for your country, choosing 1. Full use of labour and full employment in the region
the most up-to-date statistics available. Look at
2. Full exploitation of other factors of production such
the exports and imports to CARICOM countries
as natural resources
and those to other regions such as the European
Union (EU) and North America. 3. Competitive production leading to a greater variety
and quality of products and services

b Work out whether your country’s trade balance 4. Unity in a world dominated by larger power blocks.
is favourable or not. Look at the trends over the This objective is to increase the Caribbean’s power
past few years and see whether the balance is in a global world. The combination of Caribbean
improving or deteriorating. states in CSME is based on the theory that size gives
c Draw tables and diagrams showing trade between strength. Caribbean states combined have much more
your country and i) CARICOM and ii) other regions bargaining power in making international agreements
or individual countries. than each small island would have on its own.
5. Easing movement of businesses throughout the
Caribbean. CSME aims to ensure that within the region
research This

2 a If your country or territory is a member

people from one member state are able to work or set up
of CARICOM, find out whether it has fully
businesses in another member state without difficulty.
implemented the CSME.
Key elements of the CSME which are aimed at include:
b Use national newspapers and magazines, TV • free movements of goods and services
research This

reports and the internet to research the current • right of establishment – so that any CARICOM
operation of the CSME. individual can set up a business in any member state
• a common external tariff – a common duty for all
c Discuss in class or groups whether the ideals behind imported goods coming from outside the CSME
discussh This

the CSME are being fulfilled. Does your group think • free circulation – free movement of goods imported
the CSME is a good and/or workable idea?
from outside the region

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

• free movement of capital – ease of converting currencies and no foreign exchange

restrictions
• common trade policy both intra-regionally and internationally
• free movement of labour
• harmonisation of laws.

The Caribbean Development Fund

Objectives and beginnings

The CDF was established by treaty between Caribbean states with the purpose ‘of providing
financial and/or technical assistance to disadvantaged countries, regions and sectors’.
It aims to lessen the inequalities between member states and was set up after years of
negotiation in CARICOM. The fund was financed with contributions from member states
and from international bodies and individual countries including the USA and Australia.
All member states can apply for financial assistance but poorer states have priority
when applications are considered. The fund is linked to CARICOM through several
ministerial committees.

Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)

The OECS is a sub-regional institution of nine small-island developing states: six
independent states – Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, St Kitts and Nevis,
St Lucia, and St Vincent and the Grenadines – and three British dependent territories:
Anguilla, British Virgin Islands and Montserrat. Anguilla and the British Virgin Islands
are associate members.

Objectives of the OECS

Figure 7.6  OECS member countries
Its major concern is to ensure sustainable
development of the OECS member states.
OECS Countries It seeks to do this:
• by assisting member states to maximise
the benefits available to them by
helping them to integrate with the
BVI
global economy
ANGUILLA
• by contributing to policy and programme
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA formulation and execution in respect of
ST KITTS & NEVIS
regional and international issues
MONTSERRAT
DOMINICA
• by defending member states’ sovereignty,
territorial integrity and independence
ST LUCIA • by helping member states to fulfil their
ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES N
obligations to the global community by
GRENADA
recognising the rule of international
law as a standard of conduct
• by promoting bilateral and multilateral
0 200 400 600 km cooperation and agreement to common
action.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

FACT Origin and functions

The OECS was established on 18 June 1981 with the Treaty
The sports desk
of Basseterre, to which the seven full members were
The OECS Sports Desk was started in 1984, following signatories. Two previous institutions were important
the organisation’s decision to place more emphasis on
forerunners and were subsumed into the OECS when
sporting development and physical education in general.
The sports programme has a Sports Coordinator who it was established. (Both institutions came into being
works closely with national sports associations and Sports after the collapse of the West Indian Federation in 1962.)
Ministries. The Sports Desk aims to link the people of the These were:
Eastern Caribbean through sports competitions and also to
• the West Indies Associated States Council of Ministers,
improve performance in the various sporting disciplines.
With private-sector sponsorship, the Sports Desk schedules set up in 1966
annual sporting events. It also has a five-year sports work • the Eastern Caribbean Common Market, set up in 1968.
plan for fostering sporting achievements and tries to find
sports scholarships for talented young sportsmen and women.
Figure 7.7  Functional chart of the OECS

Office of the Director General

Legal Unit Family Law Project Research Assistant Brussels Mission Canada Mission

Judicial Reform Project

Division of Functional Cooperation Economic Affairs Division Corporate Services Division

Education Programme & Financial

Reform Unit Project Management
Management
Export OECS/CIDA
Unit
Development Trade Policy
Pharmaceuticals Unit Project Administration and
Procurement Service General Services
Sports
Coordination

Directorate of Human Resources

Civil Aviation Management
Health Reform
Programme
Social Information
Development Unit Services Unit

Environment &
Sustainable
Development Unit OECS & CARICOM External Economic Economic Development Research, Policy
Matters Negotiations Strategy and Planning and Statistics

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

In mid-1997 the organisation was restructured. The Secretariat has four main divisions,
responsible respectively for external relations, functional cooperation, corporate services
and economic affairs. These divisions oversee the projects and specialised institutions
operating in member and non-member countries. The functional chart of the OECS is
shown in the diagram on page 240. Each of the four divisions has its own director. The
OECS also has a director-general who holds overall executive responsibility.
There are also four organs linking the member states. The membership of these arises
ex-officio from the political and legal institutions of member states:
• the Authority (Heads of Government)
• the Economic Affairs Committee (finance ministers)
• the Foreign Affairs Committee (foreign ministers)
• the Legal Affairs Committee (attorney generals).

The OECS and other institutions

The OECS works closely with other regional institutions such as the East Caribbean
Central Bank, the Caribbean Development Bank, the CARICOM Secretariat and the
CARICOM Regional Negotiating Machinery.

Association of Caribbean States

The ACS is a comparatively recent organisation, dating from the 1990s. The Convention
of Cartagena de las Indias, signed in July 1994 to set up the ACS, was followed by an
inaugural summit meeting in August 1995 where the Convention was formally ratified.
The secretariat of the organisation is in Port of Spain, Trinidad.
Where CARICOM links countries from the Commonwealth Caribbean, the ACS links
countries with a geographical position in the Caribbean region. The following Caribbean
and Latin American states are members of the ACS: Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas,
Barbados, Belize, Columbia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, El
What percentage of the Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua,
membership of ACS is also Panama, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad
and Tobago, and Venezuela. Twelve dependent territories in the region are associate
involved in CARICOM?
members. In December 2004 Turks and Caicos also applied for associate membership.

Aims of the ACS

The mission statement of the ACS gives its aims as:
• to promote economic integration, trade liberalisation, investment, transportation
and related activities
• to discuss matters of mutual interest which will encourage active participation
within the region
• to promote functional cooperation in culture, economics, science and technology
• to foster preservation of the environment and conservation of the Caribbean Sea.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Figure 7.8  ACS member states

N
CARICOM
Central America

THE BAHAMAS
G3
non-grouped
CUBA

HAITI DOMINICAN
MEXICO REPUBLIC ANGUILLA

ST KITTS & NEVIS ANTIGUA & BARBUDA

BELIZE JAMAICA
GUADELOUPE
MONTSERRAT
GUATEMALA DOMINICA
HONDURAS MARTINIQUE
ST LUCIA
ST VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
EL SALVADOR BARBADOS
NICARAGUA
GRENADA

TRINIDAD & TOBAGO

COSTA RICA

PANAMA
VENEZUELA

GUYANA
COLOMBIA FRENCH
0 200 400 600 800 1000 km
SURINAME GUIANA
ACTIVITIES

Look at the map.

CASE STUDY
research This

1 Find out the countries that are ACS associate members.

Do these belong to any of the other groupings shown?
The Special Committee on Trade
Development and External Economic
2 Which ACS members are also members of OECS? In Relations
which grouping are they shown on the map? This works on behalf of member states, especially smaller
3 Describe how the Association of Caribbean States economies, to negotiate with larger countries and trade
links the various economic groupings in the areas, particularly the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the
Caribbean, Central America and the northern part of Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and the European
South America. Do you think this is a useful linkage? Union (EU). The Committee also commissions studies on
Give reasons for your answer. trade problems and collects information and statistics
from member states and other bodies for publication.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Functional organisation
The Ministerial Council is the principal organ for policy-
making and direction of the Association. The Secretariat
deals with everyday business and administration. The
Council is made up of the foreign affairs ministers
of member states. They meet in different locations in
the region every year. The Ministerial Council makes
declarations on various matters at each summit meeting.
These range from declarations on the transportation of
nuclear waste and on the drug trafficking problem in
1996 to a declaration about sustainable tourism in 2007.
The diary entries for the Secretary General of ACS for
early 2011 give a picture of the recent work of the ACS
(see left).

Diary entries for the Secretary General of the ACS As well as the main organs, there are Special Committees on:
• Trade Development and External Economic Relations
(see case study)
• Sustainable Tourism
• Transport
• Natural Disasters
• Budget and Administration.

Factors promoting regional integration

ACTIVITIES

1 Explain the background for the different membership From the 1950s most Caribbean states have accepted
of CARICOM and the ACS and compare their aims they have a better chance of development if they act
and objectives. as a united body, sharing expertise, benefitting from
2 Draw a functional chart for the Association of trade between each other and acting as a united body in
Caribbean States. In what ways does this show international negotiations.
differences from the way in which CARICOM and the
Developing a unified purpose is helped in that the states
OECS are organised?
have much in common:
3 a Draw a map of the Eastern Caribbean showing
• a shared history of exploitation by others
the members of the OECS.
• a shared mixed ethnic background and culture
resulting from that history
discuss This

b Discuss in groups or in class why there is a need

• similar economies and social problems
for the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States.
• to some extent, shared languages
research This

• to some degree a shared patriotism as Caribbean

c Research and list other links between these states.
people. This is particularly evident in sport and
culture (West Indies cricket, football, music, stories
and dance).

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FACT More recently states have common adverse factors to

face. It has become apparent that it is necessary to act
Factors hindering regional integration together to deal with these.
• The geography of the Caribbean does not help • Globalisation means Caribbean governments must
integration. Distances between islands can create
negotiate with huge international companies with
difficulties. Difference is sizes can mean differences in
needs and aspirations. turnovers larger than their government revenues.
Caribbean countries must compete with low wage
• There is no common model or strategy for development
economies such as China and India.
so countries cannot make the best of planned growth
together or planned diversification of industries. • Trade liberalisation and the growth of large trading
• The islands are at different stages of growth and
blocs has made it increasingly difficult for smaller
development. The table of GDP per capita on page 167 countries to compete. Many Caribbean countries have
illustrates that clearly. More prosperous states tend to lost their preferential trade arrangements with their
be unwilling to accept lower standards of living to raise former colonial masters, such as the UK and France.
those elsewhere. As the European Union has developed as a major
• There is competition between states for the location of trading bloc they need to act together (and with other
industries, some countries offering fiscal incentives ACP countries) to negotiate terms. The USA and China
such as free trade areas or tax breaks to encourage are similarly large and powerful trading nations.
industries to locate with them.
• Caribbean countries share common problems in
• There is conflict between national and regional terms of their susceptibility to natural disasters such
demands and loyalties. Loyalties are not always
as hurricanes and earthquakes. They also suffer from
Caribbean wide. There is insularity and not always a
sense of common purpose. Each island encourages wild changes in world prices for commodities such as
local patriotism among its own people, destroying bauxite and agricultural crops. And when recession
a sense of common purpose in many areas even if it hits their tourism markets in Europe and the USA, as
remains constant in support for the West Indies cricket happened from 2009, this affects them all.
team. The West Indian Federation collapsed because
of competitive feelings between territories. They could
not even agree on where a capital should be based.
• Monetary systems are different; there is no common Benefits of regional cooperation
currency. Combining as one large unit instead of many small
• Fiscal systems are different, taxation levels and levels ones would allow the Caribbean to hold out against
of government expenditure differ. the worst policies imposed by stronger more developed
• There is unequal distribution of resources so that economies and international organisations. They can
some countries such as Trinidad with its oil reserves, make a stand against protectionism in those countries
and Jamaica with its bauxite are richer than smaller which benefit their agriculture and industry against
countries such as Montserrat which has suffered so the interests of less developed economies. They can
badly from natural disasters.
also stand up against political interference which has
• Similarity of economies is not always helpful. Producers occurred in the past.
of similar agricultural products tend to compete, not
cooperate, in seeking markets.
• Influences from overseas can also hold back united Economic development
development. Multinationals can aim to ‘divide and If regional cooperation helps economic development,
rule’ offering better terms to some countries for their benefits include:
products than others. They can be fickle in their loyalties,
favouring different producers at different times. • higher standards of living
• Overseas countries can also favour different islands • better access to education and health care and
according to their political preference, giving or agricultural, industrial and commercial training
withdrawing aid, interfering in political systems, as programmes
occurred in Grenada and Haiti, as they wish.
• increased market size, with greater opportunities for
individual enterprise able to serve markets in more
than one state, for goods to move over a wider area

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• opportunities for employers to seek skills from a wider base and employees to move
from unemployment to employment
• a reduction in inequality, helping poorer states to move up towards the development
levels of the more prosperous
• creating a larger market for manufactures and consequently lower costs allowing
them to be more competitive locally and overseas
• expansion of trade within the region and outside.

Other benefits of regional integration

• Reduction in unemployment and underemployment resulting from increased education,
economic development and industry and a wider range of opportunities
• A better coordinated response to the threats posed by globalisation and trade liberalisation
• Reduction in the inequality of incomes within and between states as a result of
economic development and increased employment
• Free movement of goods, labour and capital, with benefits to businesses and individuals
ACTIVITIES

Read the article right and answer the

CARICOM Regional Food Security Policy
questions.
In October 2010 CARICOM released a policy document aimed at ensuring
a What do you understand by the
food security throughout the region as a response to problems including
term ‘food security’? Do you think lack of available foods, inadequate access to nutritious foods, and poor diets.
that there is food security in your Although malnutrition has declined over the years, people in the region
country or territory? What part experience both undernourishment, and obesity causing nutrition-related
does self-reliance play in food diseases such as diabetes. Problems in the region include lack of food
security? production, reliance on imports, and rising food prices, as well as poverty.
b What problems do you think the Most countries have their own food policies and plans, but many have not
food security policy is aiming to found it easy to implement them and there was a need for a wider regional
resolve or help? What are the policy. This is especially the case in order to respond to natural disasters such
key food problems in your own as hurricanes, floods and earthquakes, ensuring that victims have speedy
country? access to nutritious food, and dealing with the loss of food production.
c Which organisations are being The aim of the CARICOM policy is to ensure that regional food production,
mobilised? Find out more about processing, distribution, marketing and trade can provide safe, adequate,
each one. There is some more nutritious and affordable food for the region’s inhabitants at all times. Food
information on CARDI later in safety and public health measures also need to be in place to make sure
this chapter. Can you think of any that food is safe. Its four main objectives are: food availability, food access,
others which might be involved? proper food use for good health and nutrition, and stable and sustainable food
supplies at all times.
d Name some of the disasters
mentioned. How do disasters Measures proposed include helping farmers to increase food production
affect food security? and mobilising Caribbean regional organisations such as the Caribbean
e Why is it important to include Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI), Caribbean
climate change in considerations Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI), Caribbean Disaster and Emergency
Management Agency (CDEMA), Caribbean Public Health Agency (CPHA),
of food policy?
Caribbean Agricultural Health and Food Safety Agency (CAHFSA),
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) and Ministries of
Agriculture and Fisheries.

Source: http://www.caricom.org/jsp/community_organs/regional_food_nutrition_security_
policy_oct2010.pdf

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Quality of life
Cooperation is not only economically effective. Culture and sport are important as well
as income. The Caribbean has a rich background in both. Sharing between islands leads
to a richer life for all.
• Developments in music benefit everyone. Interstate festivals as in St Vincent and the
Grenadines benefit everyone taking part and others who they influence on their return.
• Regional developments in art and craft enrich people’s lives and lead to economic
benefits as well.
• Sport benefits all taking part and spectators too. Some islands are too small to develop
comprehensive sporting provision but international events create opportunities
which can be shared. The patriotism shown for West Indian teams brings together
different peoples in a single loyalty. For example during the 2007 cricket world cup
Caribbean nations came together to host matches in Antigua, Barbados, Grenada,
Guyana, Jamaica, St Kitts, St Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago. CONCACAF is the
Confederation of Central American and Caribbean Football (see page 248). The
Central American and Caribbean Sports Organisation (CACSO) organises a regional
sports championship every four years between the international Olympics.
Cooperation in areas of public services such as health and education, security and other
services all bring benefits. Examples include the University of the West Indies (UWI),
regional organisations for the professions such as law, with the Caribbean Law Institute
(CLI) at UWI in Barbados. In the field of health CARICOM has many initiatives including
the prevention of HIV and AIDS through Health and Family Life Education in schools
across the region.

Key roles in the integration process

Role of ordinary citizens

Increasing cooperation between territories in the Caribbean is usually seen as a government
or large-scale enterprise. Ordinary people can play a part in the process by accepting they
are all West Indian, equal in every way, including needs and aspirations. We all want a
good life for our families. We need to accept everyone has the same needs, welcome other
people into our midst and be prepared to work with anyone willing to work with us.
In detail we can:
• support local entrepreneurs who try to start up businesses
• buy local products rather than those which have been imported
• be prepared to pay a reasonable price which allows producers to make a profit
• invest our savings within the region instead of sending our money overseas.

Role of business
Businesses need to produce good quality goods at a reasonable price if they are to
encourage people to buy their goods in preference to imported goods. They need to be
seen as efficient competitors with overseas goods in order to attract local investment.

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Government’s role
The government of each part of the region needs to be interested in the good of the
whole region instead of being concerned only with the interests of its own people. This
isn’t easy because there is always an element of self interest.
Details in the earlier parts of this chapter show how governments have come together in
the many regional organisations to develop integration for the good of the whole region.

Other areas of regional cooperation

Apart from cooperation in the economic and political spheres, various institutions exist
to promote cooperation in other areas of regional life. We have included a selection
here, but there are many more. Some of these are within the umbrella organisation of
CARICOM, others are independent.

Educational institutions
The major educational institutions of the region include tertiary-level institutions such
as UWI (Mona, St Augustine and Cave Hill Campuses), the University of Guyana and
Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, St Lucia. You learnt about some of these in
Chapters 3 and 5, pages 90 and 178. One important regional body that services
educational institutions is the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). There is case
study on the CXC below.

CASE STUDY
Caribbean Examinations Council Membership of the Council
The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) was established
• Three representatives of UWI, appointed by the
University’s Vice-Chancellor. These are usually chosen
in 1972 by agreement between participating governments
from each of the UWI’s campuses.
in the region. It is empowered by these governments in the
following ways: • One representative of the University of Guyana
• to conduct such examinations as it may think appropriate • Two representatives from each of the governments of
Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago and
• to award certificates and diplomas based on the results one representative from the other participating countries
of these examinations
• One representative of the teaching profession chosen by
• to prescribe the qualification requirements for candidates the National Committee of each participating country
and the fees payable by them
Members of the Council hold office for three years. The
• to regulate the conduct and operation of CXC examinations. Council meets annually, but much of its business is carried
Participating territories are Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, out by committees, chiefly the Administrative and Finance
Barbados, Belize, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Committee, and the School Examinations Committee (SEC)
Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St Kitts and and its subcommittee. The SEC handles grading and all
Nevis, Trinidad and Tobago and the Turks and Caicos Islands. subject-related matters, including the appointment and
oversight of examiners. The SEC delegates some of its
powers and functions to the National Committees appointed
by each participating country.

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Sporting institutions
There are a number of regional sporting institutions, such as the West Indies Cricket
Board, the West Indies Players Association and the Caribbean Football Union. The
Sports Desk of OECS is an example of a sub-regional sporting body functioning within
a more general organisation (see earlier in this chapter, page 240). Some of these have
links with wider regional institutions. For example, the Caribbean Football Union
belongs to CONCACAF which links football (soccer) associations in the geographical
area of North America, Central America and the Caribbean. The case study below gives
a little more information on CONCACAF.

CASE STUDY
CONCACAF
CONCACAF is a non-profit entity composed of all the football associations in
the North America, Central America and Caribbean regions. It acts as one of
FIFA’s (Fédération Internationale de Football Association, the world football
association) continental governing bodies. It holds regional tournaments
such as the Biennial Gold Cup for national sides, and the Champions’ Cup
for club sides, and it organises qualifying rounds for the World Cup. It also
offers training courses in administration and technical aspects of the game.

Regional members
• the Caribbean Football Union (CFU)
• the Central American Football Union (UNCAF)
• the North American Football Union (NAFU).
Aims
Regional members aim:

• to promote and control football played by all member unions Jamaica vs South Africa, CONCACAF Gold
• to promote friendly relationships and discourage political, religious or Cup, July 2005
social discrimination among associations who are affiliated to it
• to settle all differences arising between member associations
• to solve footballing problems common to member associations and
pursue harmonisation of refereeing criteria within affiliated territories.

Disaster emergency response

The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency (CDERA) is an inter-governmental
regional disaster-management organisation established in 1991 by the Heads of Government
of CARICOM. Its main function is to make an immediate and coordinated response to any
disaster affecting any participating state, as soon as that state requests assistance.
Other functions include:
• collecting and passing on to interested government and non-government institutions the
most comprehensive and reliable information available on disasters affecting the region
• mitigating or eliminating as far as possible the consequences of disasters affecting
participating states

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• establishing and maintaining adequate disaster-response capabilities in all

How important do you participating states
feel disaster emergency
• mobilising and coordinating disaster relief from all sources on behalf of participating
response is? Make a list states in need of assistance.
of the ways individual
citizens should respond
to disasters and
Regional Security System (RSS)
emergencies. The RSS came into being on 29 October 1982 when Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados,
Dominica, St Lucia, and St Vincent and the Grenadines signed a Memorandum of
Understanding in Barbados. St Kitts and Nevis joined in February 1983 and Grenada
in January 1985. Under the RSS, a member state whose security is threatened or who
needs any kind of emergency assistance can call on other member states. Membership
of the RSS obliges member states ‘to prepare contingency plans and assist one another
on request in national emergencies … and threats to national security’. The RSS was
also heavily involved in the coordination of anti-drug policies. It cooperates with the
CARICOM Regional Task Force on Crime and Security.
The RSS was involved in stabilising the situation in Grenada after the US invasion, and
deployed forces in Trinidad and Tobago following the coup attempt there in July/August
1990, to support the local military and police force. In November 1994 there was a mass
prison riot in St Kitts and Nevis, part of a drug-driven national crisis, and RSS troops
and police were involved in helping to resolve the situation.
The RSS is headed by a Council of Ministers, headed by a coordinator. The first
coordinator of the RSS was Brigadier Rudyard Lewis. In 2003 he retired and was
replaced by Grantley Watson, former Barbadian Commissioner of Police. It operates
with the support of foreign partners, notably USA, Britain and Canada.
In 2010 it assisted in the aftermath of the Haiti earthquake. Since 2010 a plan has
been developed for close cooperation with the USA and Canada, to create an Eastern
Caribbean Coast Guard Unit, with the main purpose of preventing drugs trade through
the region.

Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ)

The Caribbean Court of Justice was first proposed in 1970 at the sixth Heads of
Government CARICOM Conference in Jamaica by the Jamaican delegation. It was
intended that it should replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the
highest court of appeal for Commonwealth Caribbean countries. However, the CCJ is
designed to be more than just a court of last resort. It will also act as a Supreme Court
interpreting the provisions of the Treaty of Chaguaramas, and will thus help to settle
disputes between CARICOM member states in an official, judicial manner.
Most CARICOM countries have now signed the agreement establishing the Caribbean
Find out more about
Court of Justice, and must pass domestic legislation giving the Court its designated place
the ratification of the
as court of appeal. The CCJ is an important step in regional integration. However, it
agreement establishing should be noted that the CCJ has only limited jurisdiction in some CARICOM states.
the CCJ in your country. To
what extent is the Court’s
jurisdiction recognised?
Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute (CARDI)
CARDI is the principal institution involved in agricultural research and development
in the region. Established in 1975, CARDI has made a significant impact on agriculture

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through technical assistance, and the development and transfer of technology in various
scientific areas, including plant pathology, virology and soil and animal sciences. The
organisation has collaborative arrangements with all other regional and international
research and development institutions.

The Caribbean Group for Cooperation in Economic Development (CGED)

The CGED was the main consultative group for the Anglophone Caribbean, together
with Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It was established in 1977 to provide a single
forum for Caribbean policy-makers to maintain a direct dialogue with international
donors. The CGED was replaced by the Caribbean Forum for Development (CFD).

CAREC membership The Caribbean Epidemiology Centre

Anguilla Guyana (CAREC)
Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica The Centre, usually known by the acronym CAREC, is
administered by the Pan American Health Organisation
Aruba Montserrat
(PAHO), the World Health Organisation’s regional office
The Bahamas Netherlands Antilles for the Americas, on behalf of the 21 member countries.
Barbados St Kitts and Nevis
Belize St Lucia CAREC’s objectives
Bermuda St Vincent and the CAREC’s mission statement gives as its aim: to improve
Grenadines the health status of the people of the Caribbean region
British Virgin Islands Suriname by advancing the capabilities of member countries in
Cayman Islands Trinidad and Tobago epidemiology, laboratory technology and related public
health disciplines through technical cooperation,
Dominica Turks and Caicos Islands.
service, training, research and a well-trained and well-
Grenada motivated staff.

Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI)

CEHI was set up in 1982, to deal with, the environmental
CEHI membership health concerns of the people of the English-speaking
Anguilla Guyana Caribbean.
Antigua and Barbuda Jamaica The objectives of CEHI are to:
The Bahamas Montserrat • advise and provide expertise to all its members on the
Barbados St Kitts and Nevis management of the environment
Belize Lucia • provide and help to finance courses and seminars on
St Vincent and the environmental management
British Virgin Islands
Grenadines • act as a regional centre for information
Dominica Trinidad and Tobago • promote and coordinate research.
Grenada Turks and Caicos The headquarters of CEHI are in St Lucia and it is headed
by an Executive Director.

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Caribbean Media Corporation (CMC)

The CMC is a regional multimedia organisation involved in radio, television, printed
material, satellite links and the development of new media. It has links throughout
the world. It was formed in 2000 as a result of a merger between the Caribbean News
Agency (CANA) and the Caribbean Broadcasting Union and given a base in Barbados
in 2004. It is funded by contributions from various news and broadcasting agencies in
the region.
It provides news, sport and business information across the region and aims to provide
high quality programmes for the Caribbean and overseas and build up links with media
organisations within the region and outside. It serves as a regional clearing house
for news and information, passing this on to other organisations in the region and
international agencies for world news bulletins as far away as China and Europe. It
also aims to highlight technical and journalism skills. Today its work involves radio,
television, print media, satellite communications, and new media such as websites,
blogs, twitter and social networking.

research This
ACTIVITIES

1 Revise the work you did on educational institutions 3 a Briefly describe the work of the following institutions
and pick out some that are truly regional in character. and evaluate the importance of each for the region:
Choose one of these institutions and write a case study CAREC, CARDI, CGED, CDERA, RSS, CCJ. You may do
on it similar to the one on CXC on page 247. Your local further research on these institutions if you wish.
library, the Ministry of Education and/or the internet
should all provide research sources.
b Research the work of two or more other regional

research This
institutions to which your country or territory belongs
that foster cooperation in particular spheres of life.
2 In pairs or groups, carry out a research project on the
Write a report showing how these institutions help to
research This

way sport links the countries of the Caribbean region.

foster trade and development in the Caribbean region.
Assess the importance of sporting links in fostering
more general cooperation in the region. Include in your
report the work of one or more sporting institutions.

International agreements
A number of international agreements affect trade in the region. These may be bilateral
agreements (between two countries or groups of countries) or multilateral agreements
(between more than two). A good example of an international agreement is the Lomé
Agreement, also known as the Lomé Convention (see box on page 252).

Were the Lomé Convention

and Cotonou Agreements
Multilateral agreements
a bilateral or multilateral Multilateral agreements bind together several countries or groups of countries.
Some multilateral agreements link countries from across the world, and these bind all
agreement? Which
member countries. For example GATT (the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade)
Caribbean countries has governed world trade in goods for a number of years, with rounds of negotiations
belong to the ACP altering the nature of the agreement every few years. The Goods Council, which runs
group? Are they all GATT, has a number of committees dealing with different aspects of GATT’s operation,
Commonwealth Caribbean such as agriculture, information technology (which has a special agreement of its own),
countries? rules of origin, subsidies and customs duties. GATT now comes under the umbrella of
the World Trade Organisation (WTO).

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FACT
The Lomé Convention
The Convention was signed on 28 February 1975 in Lomé, • provisions to enable ACP countries to access capital
capital of the Republic of Togo, and came into force on 1 April without discrimination.
1976. The Lomé Convention offered the following benefits to
A Council of Ministers and Consultative Assembly
states from the Africa Caribbean Pacific Group (ACP):
provided for the joint management of the terms of the Lomé
• duty-free access to EU markets for ACP exports Convention.
• financial, industrial and technical cooperation with the In 2000 a new Convention, the Cotonou Agreement was
EU, including help from EU funds if ACP countries are in negotiated to replace the Lomé Convention, but the ACP
difficulties as a result of a drop in prices for their staple countries felt that this was less beneficial to them than the
exports first one had been. In particular, clauses were introduced
into the agreement that required them to take back any of
• a commitment by the EU to purchase specified quantities their nationals who were illegal migrants in EU countries.
of ACP sugar, together with special arrangements for rum
and banana imports

Figure 7.9  ACP Member countries

African member states

Caribbean member states

0 2000 4000 6000 km Pacific member states

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

Bilateral agreements
In the first few years of the 21st century, bilateral agreements have proliferated in the
Caribbean. Many of these agreements involve one or more Caribbean countries (for
example, the ACS or CARICOM) and a non-Caribbean country or group of countries,
such as the EU or the United States. Some of these agreements have been in force for a
number of years and have benefited Caribbean countries, like the Lomé Convention. As
the nature of international trade changes, however, new agreements are made, and not
all of these benefit the Caribbean countries concerned. Many believe that it would be
more beneficial to have multilateral agreements which cover the whole of a free trade
area such as FTAA and which would prevent more economically powerful countries
such as the USA from dominating the region.
In these arguments, there is a tension between the needs of developing countries and
those of more developed ones. This became very apparent at the meeting of the WTO
in Cancun, Mexico, in September 2003. Trade ministers from 146 countries gathered
in Cancun for the fifth WTO summit meeting, but the talks ended in failure, mainly
because developing countries refused to agree to the agenda set by the developed world.
They felt that the draft agreement on the table did not offer enough to developing
countries, and that they were being asked to sign up to trade rules which would damage
their economies and perpetuate an unjust international trading situation.
In 2005 there was a call to renew negotiations but smaller countries are so unhappy
with the proposed terms that nothing has happened.

Globalisation and trade liberalisation

Trading blocs
Regional institutions that promote trade between member states and negotiate bilateral
agreements with other non-regional institutions and countries are known as trading
blocs. CARICOM, the European Union and the Free Trade Area of the Americas are all
examples of trading blocs. Countries gather together in this way to support each other
Can you think of other and provide economic strength in the face of aggressive marketing and trading strategies
examples of trading operated by powerful countries and economic groups.
blocs?
Trade liberalisation
We saw in Chapter 5 that globalisation is the way that has been favoured by most of the
wealthier countries in recent years to bring development to poorer countries. Trade
liberalisation goes hand in hand with globalisation. As communications and other
links become closer, it also becomes more difficult to follow a protectionist type of
policy with regard to trade. Trade liberalisation opens up markets for everyone and
allows free competition across political boundaries. Unfortunately, like most global
economic policies, it tends to favour the richer and more developed countries. There are
various reasons for this.
• Wealthy countries are the ones who possess purchasing power and capital for investment,
and they have greater access to foreign exchange and especially to hard currency.
• Conditions may be placed on investment, for example multinationals and other
powerful companies may be allowed to take up options, franchises and other

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 7   Regional integration, trade and cooperation

ACTIVITIES
preferential offers within the country being targeted for investment.
1 Write definitions of globalisation Sometimes these companies insist on being privileged above others,
and trade liberalisation and even to the extent of being allowed to circumvent national regulations
explain how they affect trade in the and environmental policies. It is difficult for a developing country
Caribbean region. to refuse the investment or export market offered, even with such
conditions, but the power of multinational companies is not always
used responsibly.
2 Debate in class the benefits and
problems of globalisation and
• Economically powerful countries do not always follow the rules of

debate This
trade liberalisation. The motion trade liberalisation themselves. The United States, in particular, has
is: This House believes that the been known to place protectionist barriers to trade on imports from
benefits of globalisation outweigh other countries where their own industries appeared to be threatened.
its problems.

Advantages and disadvantages of globalisation

Globalisation certainly offers developing countries (including those in
the Caribbean) some benefits. However, there are worrying signs that
globalisation, and especially the liberalisation and deregulation of trade,
negatively affects some developing countries, including those in the
Caribbean region. Both beneficial and negative effects are summarised
in the box below.

FACT
-- of globalisation and trade liberalisation
Benefits and disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
• Free movement of capital and labour across the world • Freer markets mean that governments have less control
encourages investment in poorer countries. over trade and over the multinational companies involved
in it.
• Global links via the internet have opened up international
markets for businesses. • Richer countries have an advantage over poorer ones
in the terms of trade, and their greater resources for
• Technology transfer helps developing countries to fast- investment and subsidy. Businesses in the Caribbean
track their industries to catch up with those in richer
may, for example, not be able to compete globally with
countries.
the big companies from abroad.
• Easy access to goods should raise the standard of living • Globalisation offers opportunities to organised
of many in poorer countries.
criminals as well as legitimate businesses. These target
• Regional integration may be enhanced and accelerated. Caribbean countries for their drug trafficking and money
laundering.
• There is a risk of harmful acculturation, as a result
of which local cultures lose their distinctiveness, for
example the influence of American TV programmes on
the cultural attitudes and preferences of young people in
the Caribbean.
• Small developing states may become a ‘dumping ground’
for unwanted products from wealthy countries. This can
have a negative impact on the environment and/or on the
economy of these small states.
• Outsourcing of labour by developed countries may
involve employing workers in developing countries on
very low wages, in poor working conditions and with little
job satisfaction.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Challenges facing the Caribbean region include liberalisation, vulnerability to natural disasters.
its small size, lack of diversity, unemployment • Factors that hinder regional integration include
and underemployment, low levels of production geography of region, no common strategy
and productivity, differences in resource for development, differences in stages of
distribution, debt burden, high imports, low development, absence of a common currency,
value of exports, shortage of skilled workers, unequal distribution of resources, influence of
inadequate technology, shortage of capital. multinational companies.
• Regional integration began with the • Benefits of regional integration include reduction
establishment of the West Indian Federation in unemployment and underemployment, better
in 1958. This was followed by establishment of response to implications of globalisation, free
CARIFTA, CARICOM, OECS, ACS, CSME. movement of goods, labour and capital, increased
• Objectives of CARICOM, OECS and CSME are market size, expansion of trade.
cooperation, economic integration, harmonising • Individual citizens, businesses and government have
of foreign policy, free movement of goods, an important role to play in regional integration.
services, capital and labour.
• A number of agencies such as CARDI, WICB,
• Factors that promote regional integration include CONCACAF, UWI and CMC have a role to play
cultural heritage, common economic and in regional integration.
social issues, effects of globalisation and trade

Check Your Knowledge

1 Define the following terms: bilateral agreement; a) CAREC; b) CDERA; c) RSS; d) CARDI;
free trade area; independent state; multilateral e) CGED; f) OECS; g) CCJ.
agreement; trade liberalisation; trading bloc.
4 a Write notes for an essay on each of the
2 You are asked to draw up a bilateral agreement following:
between CARICOM and an industrial country i) What opportunities does the CSME
or group of countries outside the Caribbean. offer the Caribbean in the 21st century?
This agreement covers the export of primary ii) ‘Caribbean trade is still dominated by its
products from CARICOM countries to a region historical relationship with European
specialising in secondary industries. (You can countries’. Discuss this statement.
identify which country or group of countries iii) What problems hinder regional
your agreement covers, or it can be a fictitious cooperation and coordination, and how
group or area.) can they be overcome?
a Draw up a list of primary products that will iv) Why do some economists think
be covered under the agreement and the multilateral agreements offer more
industries in which they will be used. to Caribbean countries than bilateral
b Explain how you would make sure that ones? Do you agree?
Caribbean primary producers received a fair b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
price for their commodities. your notes as an essay paper of between
1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
3 Write a short paragraph on each of the
structure your essay properly, giving it an
following institutions, and say how the introduction and conclusion as well as the
organisation fosters cooperation and central part including your main points.
development in the Caribbean region.

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 Section B  End of term test

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)

Revise the whole of Section B of this book, pages 140–255. Then use these questions to test your knowledge of Section B topics.
Each question in this test has four suggested answers, lettered a, b, c and d. Read each question carefully and then choose the
letter that corresponds to your answer. For example, if you think that the term physical features includes people, landscape and
the economy write down 1a on your answer sheet.

1 The term physical features includes 7 The term ‘bottom-up development’ means
a people, landscape and economy a concentrating on agricultural improvements
b mountains, oceans, rivers, vegetation and b starting at a basic level to improve prosperity for
climate everyone
c planets, stars and the Milky Way c concentrating on infrastructure improvements
d farming, fishing and ecology d ensuring everyone has equal opportunities

2 The climate of the Caribbean can be described as 8 The term ‘Gross Domestic Product’ means
a tropical marine a the total income of every family
b tropical continental b the income of a whole community
c temperate Mediterranean c the value of exports compared with imports
d temperate tropical d the total value of all goods and services produced
in a country
3 Solar energy can be promoted for all the following
reasons except 9 The Caribbean Court of Justice is designed to be a
a the source is inexhaustible court of last resort. This replaces
b it does not pollute the environment a the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
c it promises savings on the cost of fuel b the United States Supreme Court
consumption c the International Court of Justice at the Hague,
d the equipment to gather it is provided by the Netherlands
companies free of charge d the appeal courts in CARICOM member states

4 One group of physical resources that can be 10 Disaster management in the Caribbean is
classified as non-renewable is undertaken by the organisation known as
a soil, water, forest a CCJ
b oil, coal, natural gas b CAREC
c bauxite, water, soil c CARDI
d wind, marine life, uranium d CDERA

5 Soils can be improved by 11 Oil and natural gas are formed as a result of
a erosion a erosion by the sea
b deposition b metamorphic pressures
c careful use of crop rotation c decay of all the vegetation of ancient forests
d clearing vegetation d decay of the soft remains of sea creatures

6 Water resources 12 The dependency ratio measures

a would be inexhaustible if we fully utilised a the ratio of elderly people to working people in a
underground sources population
b are in danger from overuse and pollution b the ratio of children to elderly people in a
c are not a problem as seawater can be desalinated population
d have been improved by climate change c the ratio of children and elderly people to
working people in a population
d the number of people in a population who are
economically active

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13 Population growth happens as a result of 20 The University of the West Indies has campuses at
a net immigration a Mona, Jamaica; St Augustine, Trinidad; and
b a decrease in the death rate Cave Hill, Barbados
c an increase in the birth rate b Kingston, Jamaica; San Fernando, Trinidad; and
d all of the above Christ Church, Barbados
c Mona, Jamaica; Georgetown, Guyana; and Port
of Spain, Trinidad
14 Demography is the study of
d Belmopan, Belize, Havana, Cuba; and Cave Hill,
a political protest
Barbados
b population trends
c Caribbean independence
21 Most pre-schools cater for children who are
d the development of democracy
a under five years old
b one to three years old
15 Ethnic groups settled in the Caribbean in the
c three to seven years old
following order
d six to eight years old
a Europeans, Amerindians, Indians and Chinese,
Africans
22 Education for All is a concept relating to
b Amerindians, Indians and Chinese, Africans,
Europeans a free education for all primary-aged children
c Amerindians, Europeans, Africans, Indians, and b free education up to secondary level
Chinese c free education up to tertiary level
d Africans, Amerindians, Europeans, Indians and d free adult education
Chinese
23 A good diet consists of
16 Human capital may be defined as a simple carbohydrates, saturated fats, protein and
a capital invested in public services vitamins
b capital available to an entrepreneur b complex carbohydrates, essential oils, protein,
c the skills and knowledge an individual possesses vitamins and minerals
d employment in human resources or personnel work c tasty dishes including crisps, burgers, chips and
sweets
d all of the above
17 Sustainable development is associated with
a small-scale subsistence farming
2 4 Immunisation programmes have eradicated the
b large-scale industrialisation using imported oil
following disease worldwide
c projects aiming to reduce poverty without
harming the environment a malaria
d urban development primarily designed to sustain b smallpox
a large population c measles
d poliomyelitis
18 The labour force can best be described as
a the number of persons who work for pay 25 Infrastructure development includes
b the adult working population a electricity production, water supply, housing and
c the number of persons available for work roads
d the number of people working or available for work b electricity distribution, water supply, transport
and telecommunications
c roads, railways, mines and factories
19 Chlorofluorocarbons have been phased out of use
d roads, railways, housing and health care
in refrigeration units because when released they
caused
26 The Treaty of Chaguaramas was signed in 1973. This
a electrical failure
set up
b global warming
a the Earth Summit
c urban pollution
b the Caribbean Free Trade Area
d damage to the ozone layer in the stratosphere
c the Free Trade Area of the Americas
d the Caribbean Community and Common Market

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 Section B  End of term test

27 Regional cooperation in the Caribbean is important as 29 Transporting goods by air

a a means to correct inequalities in levels of a is taking over from transport by shipping
development b is used only for goods of high value
b there are different languages in the region c is decreasing because of the price of fuel
c outside influences are destroying Caribbean culture d is being encouraged by Caribbean governments
d increased transport costs are holding back
development 30 Multilateral agreements involve
a the many sides of trade
2 8 The letters OECS stand for b more than one country
a the Organisation of East Caribbean States c transferring goods from one side of the
b the Organisation of European Community States Caribbean to another
c the Operation of the Economic Certification System d triangular trade such as the slave trade triangle
d the Ordinance for Environmental Conservation
and Sustainability

Structured questions
The questions in this section are similar to examination questions set by CXC for Social Studies. Answer TWO questions, one
from Part I and one from Part II. All answers must be in complete sentences.

Part I  Answer EITHER question 1 or question 2. Total: 20 marks

1 a i) Name TWO ways in which regional 2 a i) Define the term ‘population density’. (2 marks)
integration in the Caribbean is
ii) Show how to calculate it. (2 marks)
facilitated. (6 marks)
b Name ONE Commonwealth Caribbean
ii) Name ONE way in which regional
country with a high population density
integration is hindered. (3 marks)
and ONE with a low population density (4 marks)
b State THREE benefits received from
c Explain THREE ways in which the
regional integration by CARICOM
high population density of an urban
member states. (6 marks)
community may affect people’s access
c Suggest TWO ways in which local to social services. (6 marks)
manufacturers can support regional
d Suggest ONE action the government
integration. (5 marks)
of your country may take to limit
urban–rural drift. Explain why this
would be successful. (6 marks)

Part II  Answer EITHER question 3 or question 4 Total: 20 marks

3 You are asked to write an article on health services in your country for a school magazine. First, describe THREE services
that Primary Health Care Units provide for citizens in your country. Next, give THREE reasons why the Government
should be concerned about the health of the working population. Finally, suggest TWO ways in which employers may
protect the health of their workers.

4 Write an essay on ‘Using our physical resources.’ First, identify FOUR different types of physical resource in the Caribbean and
explain what TWO of them are used for. Then give THREE ways in which a country may benefit from exploiting its physical
resources. Finally suggest TWO strategies that the government may use to make sure that resources are used sustainably.

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 SECTION C

Options

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 8 Communications

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• define and use correctly major terms and concepts associated with communication
• describe various forms of communication used in the Caribbean
• explain how forms and media of communication are influenced by geographical, socio-
cultural and technological factors
• describe the factors responsible for breakdown in communications
• describe how the regional mass media can help promote regional integration
• examine the challenges presented by the global media in relation to cultural penetration
and the development of the region
• analyse the effects of different forms of ownership and control of mass media in the
Caribbean communication networks
• evaluate the ways in which cultural heritage in the Caribbean is transmitted and transformed
• outline the regulatory functions of government and media associations in relation to the media
• describe the ways in which artistic and creative work are protected
• describe how communications technology can help promote regional integration.

Terms you should know

censorship regulation of the content of literature, visual entertainment or information

communication the passing on of ideas, information, attitudes and values from one person to another
communications the institutions and forms in which ideas, information and attitudes are transmitted and received
communiqué an official communication, announcement or bulletin
copyright legal protection for the originator of a work of literature or art from unauthorised copying or amendment
electronic mail (e-mail) the use of electronic circuitry to transmit written messages instantaneously across a network
encode to convert (a message) into code prior to transmission
freedom of expression the right to hold one’s opinions and to express these freely and openly both in speaking and in writing
freedom of the press the right to express ideas, opinions and facts freely in writing (including published documents,
newspaper, etc.)
internet a global network connecting millions of independent (personal) computers
internet service provider company which provides internet access to members and customers for a fee
journalism the collection, interpretation and presentation (writing and publishing) of facts and opinions about
current affairs and topics of public interest
libel the act of damaging a person’s reputation by printing something untrue about him or her

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mass media institutions which disseminate information and ideas to large-scale audiences, for example
newspapers, radio, television
medium (plural media) method(s) of communication, for example television
message receiver someone who receives a message, or goods and/or services, from someone else
message sender someone who sends a message to someone else
news agency a central body of reporters who sell their stories to many news outlets
oral communication communication by mouth (i.e. speech), face to face or on the phone or by ratio
oral traditions body of knowledge, belief and/or customs passed on orally from one generation to another
pager a device which alerts people they should get in contact with their base of operations
plagiarism the use of other peoples’ writing and pretending it is your own
propaganda the systematic dissemination of ideas or attitudes, sometimes distorted or biased towards the group
who produce it
search engine a method of discovering information on the internet by typing in keywords which are then used to
search websites
slander speaking a false and malicious statement about another person that is damaging to his or her reputation
telecommunications verbal and visual forms of communication using remote electronic means such as telephone, radio
and television
telecommuting using telecommunications to work away from a traditional office, usually at home or on the move
teleconferencing a telephone system which allows several people in different places to speak and listen to each other
transmission sending out of signals or messages, for example by radio
voice mail messages left on telephone to be listened to later
website/webpage a (virtual) location on the internet devoted to material on one topic or concerning one organisation,
person or business

What is communication?
Communication can be defined as the passing of ideas, information and attitudes from
person to person. The plural form of the word, communications, is used to describe
the institutions and forms in which ideas, information and attitudes are transmitted and
received, in other words the process of transmission and reception. To the ordinary
man in the street communication means to get in touch with others and to impart and
exchange thoughts, ideas and opinions. There are various ways of communicating through
language, symbols, codes and non-verbal means of communication. Communication
may be vocal or non-vocal. It may be for a serious purpose, such as political propaganda
or the passing down of oral traditions, or for entertainment or social relations.

The mechanism of communication

In order to communicate we need:
• a source (the sender or transmitter). This might be, for example, our mouth and
vocal chords, pen and paper for a letter, a cell phone or computer.
• a signal (language, symbol or a code). This can be in sound or visual such as written
words or film, for example.

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• a channel, which is the means of transmitting the communication. This may be by voice
in the air, a postal service for a letter, radio or TV, or electronic for e-mail, for example.
• a receiver (sometimes known as the recipient). This is ultimately a person’s ear or
eye but also may include items such as a TV set, computer or cell phone.
The sender sends the message as a signal by way of a channel or medium. The receiver
receives the message and responds using the same channel or a different one.
The process may be shown like this:

CASE STUDY
Political communication
Political communication is a process by which politically relevant information is transmitted from one section of the political
system to another. It is a continuous process involving the exchange of information between individuals and groups of individuals
at all levels of society. It informs public debate on important issues, such as whether a country should become a republic. It
includes not only the expression of views and wishes of the members of society but also the means by which those in power
transmit their views and proposals to society and society’s reaction to those views and proposals.
Imagine a person standing as a candidate for parliament or local government. He or she must communicate with the electorate
in order to persuade them to vote for his or her candidacy. In this situation political communication functions as follows:
1. Source (sender): Candidate for political office
2. Message: Series of political proposals
3. Channel (medium): Television, radio, press, mass
meetings, etc.
4. Audience (receiver): Approval or disapproval, leading to
success or failure of the candidature.
Communication within the political system or society may be:

• horizontal: among individuals who occupy a common level

in the system
• vertical: where information is handed down from the top
to other members
• circular: where each individual can communicate with
at least two others in the group without having to relay
messages through one person.
Feedback happens in the form of public demonstrations,
debate in the media or at public meetings, and elections.

Political billboard advertising in the Dominican Republic

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 8   Communications

If the message is properly communicated, action will result. This action may mean
understanding on the part of the receiver or the actual performance of instructions. It
is also necessary to have some form of feedback so that the transmitter can see that the
communication has been received and understood and has produced some reaction.
Without some form of feedback, future action by the sender, which is dependent upon
the correct receipt of the communication, may be hampered.
Communication is used in many different aspects of political and social life, from
conversations between close family members or friends to political information and
propaganda sent out over the mass media. The case study on page 262 gives an example
of one situation in which communication is important.

Forms of communication in the Caribbean

The way we communicate depends partly on geographical and socio-cultural factors.
Countries which are sparsely populated with vast distances between one town and
another may use different means of communication from small densely-populated
countries where messages can easily be sent by hand and where many people see
each other face to face every day. Where there are many languages used in one
country, communication may be difficult unless one language is chosen as the main
one. Regionally, Caribbean countries use a number of languages apart from English,
reflecting the different European countries that dominated the region for three centuries.
In modern times technology has played a huge part in the means of communication
people choose, as telecommunications including the telephone, television and radio,
electronic mail and the internet have made communication across distances very simple.
We can divide communication into verbal (using words) and non-verbal (using body
language, images, signs, signals and art forms).

Symbols
Symbols are at the heart of language and communication. Without symbols we would
be unable to communicate with each other because words would be useless if we did not
know their meaning. Symbols are those signs which human beings use to communicate
with each other, and may be classified as either natural, having an intrinsic link with the
thing symbolised (for example the cross in Christianity); or conventional (for example
See how many different the spoken word which is only understood within the country or language community
signs or symbols you can where it is established). Symbols include the sounds of oral language and the letters of
find, such as logos and written language, as well as things such as logos or icons.
icons. What are they used
for? Non-verbal communication
People communicate with each other in many ways. Humans have a surprising amount of
non-verbal communication. By the use of gestures, postures, facial expressions and other
forms of behaviour, over a thousand pieces of information can be exchanged within seconds
of a meeting. Non-verbal communication is also a useful way of expressing emotion.
• Ways of expressing emotion: Emotions may be expressed in several ways. We may
use dress, for example costume and adornments. A feeling of closeness can be shown
by touch; a nearness of approach can reveal much about a relationship. Punctuality
can reveal eagerness, while a person who keeps someone waiting can convey an
impression of shyness that may be genuine or false.

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• Gestures are movements that help human beings to

communicate with each other. One form of gesture
guides the flow of speech or contact between people, for
example head movements such as nods, and eye signals.
• Human beings also use what is called ‘body language’
to communicate at a subconscious level.
• Artistic and creative work can be used to communicate
information, ideas and attitudes. Dancing, mime,
drumming and other musical performances may be
used as forms of communication.
Non-verbal communication is also used by animals.
Professor George Mead (1863–1931) of the University of
Chicago identified what he called ‘proverbial communication’.
This type of communication is based wholly on physical
and chemical cues, for example ants and bees which
communicate by a complex pattern of cooperative acts.

Painting and drawing

Many cultures used painting or drawing to convey
information. The earliest known forms of communication
are the paintings of early people who lived in caves.
Communication by means of painting can be found
among many ancient cultures. You can see two examples
Drumming – a type of non-verbal communication of early drawings by people belonging to oral cultures
(where there is only oral use of language) in the pictures.

Carib petroglyph, St Kitts Ancient pictographs on a rock wall, South Africa

Codes, ciphers and secret messages

Among the ways of communicating without speech or writing are military and diplomatic
codes and ciphers. These are generally secret forms of communication. Non-secret forms
and commercial codes include morse code, semaphore, flag codes, Amerindian smoke

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 8   Communications

signals, jungle drums and the raised script Braille which is used by the blind. A code
involves the substitution of prearranged code words, code numbers or code groups for
words, phrases or syllables. This is then used to encode and decode secret messages.
Semaphore makes use of two flags or lights to send messages and is based on the
circular movement of the two hands of a clock. The angle of the flags stands for a letter
of the alphabet.
When letters are transposed in a pre-arranged order we have a cipher. Solving ciphers
can be a fascinating game. In wartime codes and ciphers may become vital to both sides.
Each try to keep their own codes secret, while the other side tries to ‘break’ the code and
decipher the messages being sent.

Sign language
The use of sign language and the use of flags by ships
are both types of non-verbal communication. Some of
these communicate directly person to person without
needing to be translated into language. However, flag
signals are a type of code based on language, since they
translate directly into a verbal message. The signals are
international because the same flags are used to transmit
messages in different languages. Similarly, some
elements of sign language depend on spelling out words
in a particular language, while others are universal.

Verbal communication

Language
The most obvious form of communication is language,
that is verbal communication. This may be by speech,
either face to face or by telephone, radio or television, or
in writing. Speech is known as oral communication.
Language may be defined as a means of expressing oneself
verbally, which is in words. Day-to-day communications
include e-mail, memos and phone conversations. Artistic
language communication comes in the form of poetry and
songs including calypsos and rap words. The medium of the
spoken language serves to transmit ideas and information
from one person to the next or from one generation to the
next. Language enables human beings to:
• express their thoughts and emotions verbally
• open up a channel of communication
Small flags on the mast of a yacht, Bahamas
• establish a relationship between two or more people
• give information to inform, teach or help others
• preserve records that help perpetuate cultures
• solve problems by cooperative effort
• build on the achievements of earlier generations
• change someone’s attitude.

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Hieroglyphics on a stele of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria Cuneiform script

ACTIVITIES

1 List all the forms and instruments Writing

or devices of media you have used Writing is an essential ingredient in modern civilisation.
yourself.
The earliest forms of writing developed from symbolic pictures. Ideograms
2 Classify each form as verbal or were used by the Mayas and the people of Easter Island in the Pacific.
non-verbal. A more sophisticated form of ideograms are the hieroglyphics of the
3 What are the elements necessary Egyptians which consisted of 600 signs.
for communication to take place?
The earliest form of script which could be called writing was used by
the Sumerians. The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) script was a system of
conventionalised characters each of which had a distinct phonetic
(sound) value.
The Maya people of Belize had their own developed system of writing
(see pages 67–68).
Today there are a number of different types of scripts using different
systems of characters. For example, in Chinese and Japanese scripts
characters each represent a complete word or idea.
Our present-day English alphabet was developed by the Semitic people
of Syria and Palestine. The first alphabet consisted of 22 characters, each
representing a consonant, written right to left. It had two main branches;
one which led to classical Hebrew, and the other to Arabic. We use the
present Arabic form which has 26 characters.
Examples of written verbal communication today might be:
• a handwritten letter sent by post
• important documents sent by secure courier or messenger
• a typed message sent by electronic mail
• a labelled sketch map sent by facsimile machine
• a communiqué or public statement made by an international
organisation via the press or television.
We shall look at all these methods of communication and more in the
Dongba pictograph script alongside
Mandarin Chinese, China rest of the chapter.

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Summary of means of communication

• Body language; signs made by body movement which radio signals passed through beacons and satellites.
can be picked up by others: messages like ‘I think we
ought to go now’
• Cell phone usage is rapidly surpassing and replacing
land line communication.
• Verbal communication face to face
• Facsimile (fax) a system by which exact copies of written
• Sign language for those who are hard of hearing words and pictures can be transmitted from one fax
machine to another over a telephone line. Use of these
• Signs and symbols used to represent things in pictures or
has declined as e-mail usage has increased.
graphics
• Messengers, couriers who physically transfer verbal or
• Cassette recorders and portable music players such as
MP3 players are used by many people to record and
written information
listen to music.
• Mail sent by official postal services
• Video cassette recorders and DVD recorders are used to
• Print media such as books, magazines and newspapers record and watch films.
• Telegraph, an early system by which messages could be • Computers are now the preferred means of
transmitted in the form of short or long sounds (morse code) communication for many people. They give immediate
access to information on any topic and through electronic
• Telex, a more advanced form of telegraphic messaging in
mail (e-mail) allow users to write briefly or at length to
which a typewriter could be used instead of morse code
one recipient or many at the same time.
• Telephones, land lines and mobile or cellular phones.
• They can be linked by cameras to allow face-to-face
Until the 1980s telephones had to be linked by lines
conversations between people thousands of miles apart.
above land or under the sea. Since then there has been
rapid development of hand-held telephones linked by

Factors that influence the forms and media of communication

The most important factor influencing the type of media used is the proximity of sender
and receiver. Most communication is still face to face by speech and body language. It
is mostly only when there is a distance between the sender and receiver that choices
have to be made between other forms of communication. However, perhaps you know
of instances when someone has sent a cell phone text or e-mail to a friend or colleague
in the same room.
Other factors include geographical factors such as distance, time constraints, cost, socio-
cultural factors and the level of technology available.

1  Geographical factors
Distance is the most important of these and affects the ease of communication, the cost
and time taken for the message to be received. Other factors such as physical relief and
sparse settlements especially affect postal and telephone communication. Before 2000
landline use was normal but the lines are expensive to set up especially in large sparsely
populated areas and in mountainous areas divided by rivers. Mountain ranges, rivers
and sparse settlements also affect the availability of cell phone signals and internet
access and speeds. In a widely scattered region such as the Caribbean where countries
are separated by large distances, oceans and seas, undersea cables have to be laid or
satellites used.
Climate also influences communication as storms can destroy telephone lines and even
cell phone masts.

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2  Time and cost

Messengers and couriers are usually fast and reliable but they are expensive. Postal
services are usually slow and cheap but they may not be reliable so can be used if there
is no urgency involved. Internet communication is fast and cheap once you have set up
the computer and have internet access, but the set up costs tend to be quite large. Cell
phones are both relatively cheap and also very fast, and nowadays smart phones provide
internet access too. Satellites are already in orbit and it is much cheaper to build a single
receiving and transmitting beacon than extensive links by lines.

3  Socio-cultural factors
Probably the most important socio-cultural factor is language. People do not often listen
to radio or watch TV stations if they do not understand the language being used. English
is the predominant language of the new media, but many people have a preference for
media which reflect their own culture and may listen to
local dialect, Creole or Hindi radio stations for example.
discuss This
Socio-economic status is important in individual choices.
ACTIVITIES

The media someone has access to is partly determined

Discuss the following issues in your groups:
by disposable income and tells others about their status.
1 How much freedom of choice do you have about Technology has become a fashion item so that many
which form or media of communication you use? people want to have the latest gadget. New technology
2 Does everyone in your society have access to the such as smart phones, MP3 players and tablet computers
internet, and if not how does this affect those who are now fashion accessories. Similarly many people
don’t? communicate through social networking sites or Twitter.
3 Are we at any risk of losing our privacy through using These choices are also partly related to age, with young
media such as social networking sites or in other ways? people generally quicker and more willing to take up
new ways of communicating, such as texting. They
4 How can we use media to forge links between people
and break down barriers? are also related to wealth. When technology is first
available it tends to be expensive and is therefore available
only or mainly to people with more money. Increasingly
though, as instruments and their use become cheaper,
access to information and communication is available to
most people.
Beliefs, customs and religions play a part. For example some groups, such as the
Mennonites in Belize, disapprove of new technologies for religious reasons. Other
people may adopt new technologies more readily if they fit in with their values, such
as e-mail and Skype enabling grandparents to stay in touch with family members who
are overseas.
Can you think of any other
Other influences include crime, such as the theft of the copper wire used on the lines or
social or cultural factors the theft or fear of theft of cell phones in the street.
affecting people’s use of
communications media?
4  Availability of technology and ease of use
Many choices about how to communicate depend on what means of communication
are available. This situation is constantly changing as technological advances reduce
the cost of equipment and its use. For example early cell phones were large and their
batteries even larger. Cell phone systems are now easy to install and cell phones are
available everywhere, pocket size, easy and cheap to use.

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Radios are used where there is no cell phone coverage, for example at sea or in the air.
Cell phones have also led to a reduction in radio communication but that still serves specific
purposes. These include instructions to company staff; for taxi firms and ambulance
services, but its most important use occurs when there is no telephone or cell phone link
by beacon and satellite. Marine and aviation communication is usually by radio.
Initially internet communication for most people in the Caribbean meant using internet
cafés, school or work facilities. However, increasingly people are accessing the internet
through smart phones and cell phone networks or cable TV networks at home.
The development of computer communication has conquered all barriers; distance,
mountains, seas and even language. Messages can be sent at all hours for instant
reception around the world. People can be linked via video and audio conferencing and
memory and processing devices have become so small that all their functions can be
operated through hand held devices such as smart phones, iPods and iPads.

FACT
Technological changes which have influenced communication media
1. Improved provision of energy systems has improved 5. Wireless technology allows signals to be sent from one
communication technology over many years. Printing device to another without them being connected by wires
presses were originally manual or hand-powered and or lines. For example, Bluetooth uses radio waves to allow
then powered by steam before electricity was invented. wireless connectivity over short distances.
TV, radio and other modern forms of communication rely
6. The increasing reduction in the size of the components,
heavily on electricity. However, accessibility and mobility
such as memory chips for computers and other devices,
have been improved as the amount of electricity needed
has made them all more mobile, affordable and
has been reduced and with the use of batteries for small
accessible. It has also increased the range of activities
gadgets, which can be recharged easily at home.
possible with one instrument.
2. Electronics and the development of transistors enabled
7. The development of digital technology has made the
the development of communication media such as TV,
storage of large amounts of data as required by film,
radio and computers. The invention of small electronic
picture and music, possible on small devices such as
chips such as the SIM cards used in cell phones enabled
DVDs.
smaller devices. Fibre optic cables allow much greater
volume of traffic and increase download speeds. 8. Along with decreasing size, devices have also been
Broadband uses a band of frequencies to transmit large made more useful for a range of different tasks, for
amounts of data speedily. example most cell phones nowadays also have a
camera, calculator and alarm clock. They can be used
3. Satellites orbiting the Earth are a direct result of the US
for telephone calls, text messages and some for internet
and Russian space race of the 1950s and 1960s. They can
access.
receive and send signals to and from anywhere on Earth
so reducing the influence of geographical factors (see 9. Design is important. Rather than key pads, increasingly
above). They can be used to transmit TV programmes devices use touch pads or voice recognition so that use is
such as the Olympic Games live all over the world. easy, intuitive and human-friendly.
4. The internet is a worldwide interconnected system of 10. The number of different types of communication devices
computer networks. It enables people anywhere in the or instruments available has increased, although some
world to connect with each other and to access huge scientists think that eventually everyone will simply own
amounts of information which is available on the World one device which will do everything.
Wide Web. The internet is routinely used for business and
personal communication and mass media. People can
communicate in real time or with a time delay, in writing,
pictures or sound.

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Barriers and breakdowns in communication

There are many barriers to effective communication. These may consist of a physical
problem, such as deafness or a breakdown in electronic equipment, or a psychological
or social problem such as alienation or the gender gap, or a technical difficulty such as
poor expression or equipment failure.

FACT
Personal barriers
The role and status of both sender and recipient affect the and ideology can form a barrier to communication.
way the message is received. When people are different in Sometimes political or religious leaders may prevent
age, gender, culture, belief or religion, communication can individuals from accessing information, such as in China
sometimes become difficult or impossible. where the government has shut down some websites and
prevented Google from operating an open-access policy
1. Differences in age or gender may form a barrier to
for Chinese residents.
communication due to lack of understanding or refusal
to listen to the other person’s point of view. Older people 6. When two people are of very different status the higher
sometimes can’t or won’t listen to opinions given by status person may not think it is worth talking or listening
younger people, or vice versa. Older and younger to the person of lower status and this forms a barrier.
generations may have different ways of expressing Or they may speak in a way that the other person
things. It may be difficult for parents to communicate with finds offensive. It can also be difficult for managers to
their children. communicate adequately with their workforce. No one
listens well when they feel they are being ‘talked down to’.
2. Men may sometimes look down on women and not see
their views as important or relevant and so not be willing 7. When there is unresolved conflict between two people it
to listen. Some cultures which do not value women as is difficult for them to communicate effectively because
equals to men make this miscommunication more likely. they are thinking about the conflict, and communication
may break down.
3. Prejudices about the other person for any reason may
hinder communication. The receiver may perceive the 8. Without trust between sender and receiver,
message differently from the way it was intended by the communication is difficult. Mistrust creates barriers
sender or may be offended by the words used. in listening and understanding as people may feel
threatened or afraid or they may simply not believe the
4. Personality can hinder communication. Some people in
message they are being given.
a dispute won’t or can’t communicate. They don’t want to
listen. They won’t, or don’t want to be influenced by what 9. Stress and tiredness can cause people to be less
the other wants to say. articulate and to listen less well.
5. People with extreme beliefs about politics, economics 10. If relationships are strained people are more likely to
or religion may not want to hear anyone else’s views mishear or misinterpret what is being said.
which might challenge theirs. Differences in beliefs

Language barriers
The symbols we choose for communication are abstract. That means that they have
to be translated mentally into concepts and ideas. Because of this it is possible that
other people may not interpret them in the same way that we do. This is particularly
true where people are using a learnt second language rather than their first language
(mother tongue).
Language differences can be an important barrier to communication. If people do not
understand each other’s languages, translation is needed. Translation is often not exact
and nuances such as tone may be missed. Even when people speak the same language,
they may use words differently, and if one of them is not a native speaker understanding
may be missed. People from different Caribbean countries may both speak English
but they may misunderstand each other because of differences in accent, words used,
dialects and cultures.

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Poor speaking and listening can affect communication. Some people speak too quickly
or mumble so that the words do not come out clearly. Even lack of eye contact may lessen
the speaker’s ability to transmit the message orally to the receiver. It is also important
that the receiver listens carefully to the message that is being transmitted, whether face
Think about these possible
to face or by telephone or other remote means.
barriers to communication.
Can you add some more of
Wordiness and use of jargon
your own?
The language used for a message, whether spoken or written, can affect the way in which
it is received. Too many long words or jargon terms can present a barrier to effective
communication, especially when the receiver does not understand the jargon used.

Poor timing
ACTIVITIES

Communication that is late in arriving

1 a Outline the processes involved
may not have the desired effect, for
in sending a message from one
example in changing an industrial
person to another.
process or setting up a new operation or
b Do these processes change
according to the type of message
business.
or the means of communication
being used? Information overload
c Identify barriers to communication
It is important only to give the amount
that can occur in each process.
of information that is needed. Too much
2 Identify the forms of communication information may overwhelm the receiver
shown in the pictures opposite. of the message and cause him or her to
3 The following are three internationally miss the important part of the message.
known communication signals: a) a white cane; b) a flag being flown at
half-mast; c) clapping two hands together.
Technical barriers and breakdowns
i) Give the meaning of each of the above signals.
There can be technical difficulties
ii) name one advantage for the use of internationally known signals.
too. Older land line telephone
4 In pairs, learn to use one or more of the following forms of communications broke down frequently
communication: because of technical failures caused by
a sign language (the standard form is American Sign Language or ASL) storm damage or lack of maintenance.
b morse code Theft of lines caused complete
c semaphore breakdown. Computer systems are
d the international flag signals. certainly not completely reliable.
Systems go down completely, individual
computers and other devices can be
research This

5 Find out more about the origins or invention of the form of faulty and files can be corrupted. Viruses
communication you have chosen and how it is used in your territory and and Trojan horses can cause computer
write a short article on it for your school magazine or a local newspaper. crashes or other problems and are spread
quickly and easily across networks.
Electricity or telephone line failures
may interrupt communication using
computers and the internet and network
failures can affect cell phone systems
such as Blackberry messaging.

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The mass media

The mass media may be defined as those institutions which disseminate information and
ideas to large-scale audiences, through newspapers, radio, televisions, books, magazines,
advertising billboards, etc. Many of these use the most up-to-date technology in their
production. The media are usually divided into print media and electronic media.
The mass media have become an integral part of our daily lives. Here are some of the
different ways they influence our society.
• They serve as sources of education, entertainment, information and ideas for the
large numbers of people who use them.
• They provide a means of social control by maintaining accepted values and attitudes.
• They influence their audience’s behaviour and attitudes.
• They provide us with much indirect experience of events and processes happening
beyond our own social experience. In this respect the media play an important part in
defining ‘reality’ and in encouraging a common image of society among its members.
• The media ensure an unrestricted public airing of differences of opinion on issues of
public interest and concern, which is important for a healthy democracy.
• They act as watchdogs for society, highlighting violations of accepted social and
moral values, and as guardians of the public interest against corruption and the
abuse of power by those in positions of authority. This is known as freedom of
expression.

The Press
‘The Press’ generally refers to all newspaper material, but
technically it should include all printed matter, including
books, magazines, posters and leaflets. Newspapers are
the oldest means of mass communication, dating back to
the 15th century when the printing press and movable type
were developed in Germany. It was from this beginning
that books and printed matter in general continued to be
published in ever-increasing proportions.

Rights and responsibilities of a newspaper

The fundamental rights and responsibilities of a
newspaper are:
• to present news without slanting, distorting or
suppressing
• to express forthright views on any matter, irrespective
of the personalities involved
• to challenge the government, the Establishment and/
or any other powerful institution or individual whilst
respecting their rights
Newspapers are read by people of all ages
• to avoid slander or libel of any kind (these are legal
offences in most countries)
• to protect its sources of information from intimidation
or revenge.

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Objectives of a good newspaper

The objectives of a good newspaper should be:
• to ensure the freedom of the press, to prevent abuses of this freedom and to
safeguard the character of the press in accordance with the highest professional
standards
• to ensure that newspapers are free to publish as news, true statements of fact, and
any comments based upon true statements of facts
• to ensure that high standards of journalistic ethics are maintained and to foster a
sense of both the rights and responsibilities of citizenship
• to improve the methods of recruitment, education, welfare and training in the
profession of journalism
• to promote a proper functional relationship among all sections engaged in the
production or publication of newspapers, and the establishment of common services for
the supply or dissemination of news as may, from time to time, appear to be desirable
• to undertake research into the use and needs of the press, to keep under review
developments likely to restrict the supply of information of public interest and
importance, and developments in the national press which may tend towards
concentration on monopoly and to suggest appropriate remedial measures
• to advise the government on any matter pertaining to the regulation and control
of newspapers.

Unacceptable practices in journalism

In 2011 an international scandal which had been brewing for several years erupted. It
mainly involved News Corporation’s newspapers owned by the Murdoch media empire,
particularly those in the United Kingdom but with allegations concerning their US
papers as well.
Journalists were alleged to have organised and paid for the illegal penetration of
important people’s voice mail in order to get sensational stories for their papers. Some
papers outside the corporation were alleged to have been involved in similar practices
and there was a political aspect to the scandal as well.
There is always a danger of corruption of this kind in the media because fortunes can
be made by those who get stories which sell newspapers and draw audiences to radio,
television and the internet.

Radio
Radio is communication by means of electrical waves without the use of wires to connect
the sender with the receiver. Broadcasting means sending waves in all directions and
is done by a transmitter. The radio waves are picked up by an aerial attached to the
receiving radio set.
Radio is one of the most important modern inventions. It is one of the world’s most
important sources of information, often reaching into remote places seldom reached by
magazines and newspapers.
The radio is an effective method of moulding and controlling public opinion. The
businessman wishing to sell his product, or the political candidate seeking public office,
depend on the use of the radio to influence the largest possible audience. The radio is

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unsurpassed as a means of mass entertainment and each year millions of people enjoy
music, drama and other cultural, educational and recreational programmes, including
sports commentaries, through the radio. We become more aware of and familiar with
people and events in our own country through the radio. It is also responsible for
broadening our knowledge and understanding of the lives and interests of the people in
almost every part of the world.

Television
Television is a system in which the image of a scene is broadcast in a similar way to
radio, and reappears on the picture screen of a television receiver. This transmission of
scenes or moving pictures is done by the conversion of light rays to electrical waves
which are then converted back to produce the original image. With the advent of
television, human beings were able to watch events taking place in distant locations
‘live’, at the moment of their occurrence. In a sense television combined the attributes
of radio and the motion picture. Because of this two-fold process, TV exerts a powerful
influence on habits, attitudes, economics and education. This influence may be
constructive and useful to society, or it may be destructive, leading people into anti-
social behaviour which is detrimental both to themselves and to society in general.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is also known as the internet.
It consists of billions of websites on the internet and
becomes more important every year.
The internet is not really ‘owned’ by anyone but can
be accessed by anyone and links billions of computer
users worldwide. As a means of gathering and passing information it has no equal. By
publishing material on a website or by searching the network using a search engine
such as Google, people can exchange information on almost every subject. Billions of
people throughout the world communicate through websites like Facebook and YouTube
and minority groups can communicate with each other very easily.
There are drawbacks to such communication. Extremist groups can arouse support and
it is even possible for disaffected groups to organise riots via social media, such as those
in London in August 2011.
You can shop online using a credit or debit card, transfer money easily and operate
most kinds of business activity. These operations no longer need access even to a lap top
computer or a netbook. Instead, hand held devices are continually being developed to
operate all their functions.
Many of these activities are free once the user has paid a fee, either a monthly subscription,
a connection fee or on a pay-as-you-go system to the internet provider or server.
The internet is as open to distortion and misinformation as any other form of mass
media, since there is as yet no regulation or control exerted over the information
published. Websites may be inaccurate or put forward biased information. Police forces
across the world struggle to limit the amount of pornography and other illegal material
available to computer users, and many internet servers provide what they call ‘parental
controls’ to enable parents to protect their children from objectionable or dangerous
material on the network. Users of the internet need to be aware of the dangers of being
entrapped into making bad decisions which they later regret.

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Regional media institutions and services

As mentioned above, a number of media in the region are run on a regional basis. Here
is a selection.

The Caribbean Broadcasting Union

The CBU was established in 1970 and draws its membership from all CARICOM countries,
as well as Suriname and the Dutch Antilles. Associated members include the Caribbean
Institute of Mass Communications (CARIMAC), the BBC, Voice of America and CNN.
Although private broadcasters are eligible for membership, the majority of CBU members
are still government-owned bodies. However, as the number of privately owned media
outlets in the region increase, the composition of the CBU membership is changing.
The CBU exists to facilitate cooperation between members in a number of areas, for
example technical, content, personnel and training. By pooling resources, members are
able to operate more economically.

The Caribbean News Agency

CANA was founded in 1976 and is now recognised internationally as one of the most
successful regional news agencies. Its headquarters are in Barbados. It runs a monthly
magazine, Cana Business, and provides regional news media with both original, regional
material and with material from the international agency Reuters.

CASE STUDY
UWI Open campus
Open Campus was launched in 2008, and replaced UWI were over 20,000 students enrolled in open campus courses
Distance Education Centre, previously UWIDITE – the using a range of technology to access face-to-face, online
distance learning system. UWI, as a regional university, and distance learning.
has always been a major user of telecommunications in the
Press freedom may be infringed by the use of censorship
region. It is also a source of innovation, for example in the
by governments. Censorship of political content and
use of teleconferencing which began in 1983. Today Open
opinion is an undemocratic policy. However, most people
Campus offers multi-mode teaching and learning through
accept that some censorship of violent or sexual material
virtual and physical classrooms through the region. There are
in entertainment on television, for example, is required to
42 locations spread over 16 countries. UWI Open campus
protect young people. Both print and broadcasting freedom
is an important element in the University’s effort to make
is limited by laws against libel and slander. Criticism is only
its services available to the widest number of CARICOM
considered libellous or slanderous if it is untrue.
citizens, in keeping with the UWI’s mandate. In 2012 there

Regional integration through the mass media

Newspapers, radio and television distribute entertainment, information and news
throughout the region. They use a common language and help people understand that
language. They create loyalties to programmes and personalities shared in all parts.
They pass on developments in music, song, film and other arts. They build interest in a
common literature, loyalty to sporting groups, regional as well as local.

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News items and other programmes produced locally in one territory are shown in other parts
of the region. They may be shared, exchanged or bought and sold. This gives individuals
more understanding of other parts of the region and a feeling of belonging together.
Programmes are also jointly made, encouraging sharing of skills and technologies and
integration of businesses with the merger of regional media houses. The free movement of
and interaction between professionals encourages a regional consciousness.
Political opinions and ideas about democracy are shared. This breaks down differences
between islands. It helps people understand difficulties and achievements elsewhere. It
broadens horizons and helps to create a feeling of being Caribbean as well as Jamaican
or Anguillan.

The challenges of the global mass media

debate This Newspapers have existed for hundreds of years, and
international news has been transmitted by telegraph for
ACTIVITIES

more than 150 years, but their influence on areas beyond

1 Debate the issue: Global media has a negative impact
a local readership was limited. As literacy rates rose
on moral values in my country.
more people read the newspapers and their influence
increased. Today the influence of radio, films, television
2 Discuss and explain the effects of global media on and the internet stretches across continents.
the following: Hollywood films influenced culture, fashion and even
a small local manufacturing industries political opinions from the 1920s. Now the whole
discuss This

b national broadcasting networks world can read and see news, opinions, entertainment
c Caribbean culture. and propaganda from any source, almost immediately.
Today the largest and most powerful media companies
are American or international. We call this cultural
penetration – when one culture enters into and perhaps
dominates another.
In many ways global media have positive effects, but they may also have negative effects
for Caribbean culture and economies.

Negative effects
• Caribbean regional media present a Caribbean world to readers and viewers. They are
immersed in Caribbean culture and identity and promote it in all their programmes,
articles etc. Caribbean people and locations appear in entertainment, news, other shows
and stories and advertisements. Caribbean voices and language are heard. Caribbean
music styles are used in programme themes, advert jingles and other ways. However,
global media present a mostly Americanised or ‘western’ world and culture. If people
use these global mass media they do not see themselves and their own world. They may
over time lose their cultural identity.
• Newspapers and television networks run stories of their own and those taken from
other national and international sources. They usually set out one particular brand
of opinion and can influence their readership to follow and act upon them. They can
affect the result of elections and even the decisions taken by those in government.
They can build up some reputations and destroy others. Access to satellite and cable
television and articles or videos on the internet can be powerfully persuasive. Some
television stations are renowned internationally for pressing the views of their
political backers. Readers and viewers must always use their own judgement when

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ACTIVITIES
assessing the information given. Caribbean viewers may feel
Groupwork: Look at this list of things themselves to be world citizens but they may be largely listening
which television teaches. Decide to views from outside the region rather than those from within.
which are constructive and which are • Access to cable television and to the internet gives Caribbean people
destructive.
access to a shared ‘western world culture’ with entertainment, news
a Television teaches which products and other shows originally made in the USA, Europe, the Caribbean
are acceptable to use and
and elsewhere. This gives people a common culture, although it may
which products promise to bring
not necessarily be a Caribbean culture. People may identify with
happiness.
characters who are not Caribbean. They may feel that the situations
b It presents images of what police
in the programmes they watch are the norm. This can give people
are like and what kind of people
are criminals. unrealistic aspirations for material goods, leaving them feeling
frustrated.
c It teaches how rich people live and
what a happy family looks like. • Global media gives access to information and opinions from many different
d It shows nice things – cars, furniture, parts of the world but may also have negative effects on shared Caribbean
clothes – and presents them so values. Over time mass media can change peoples’ values, so that they
that they appear desirable, even accept lower moral standards than would normally be acceptable in their
groupwork

necessary. Thus people want the home communities. People may become slowly and subtly corrupted into
‘good life’ they see on television thinking that violence, crime, adultery or other immorality is acceptable.
and allow television to shape their There may be conflict between global and regional culture. However,
desires. people are always free to choose not to watch or access programmes of
e Television teaches how people poor ethical standards.
should live, talk, dress and behave by
providing role models, either real or • Many people may prefer to watch slick and expensively produced
fictional. American entertainment shows rather than lower budget regional
f Television programmes help to ones, and this can affect the viability of producing such programmes
make the products advertised in locally at all. Ultimately this could affect the opportunities for freedom
commercials appear necessary of expression and creativity for Caribbean peoples.
and desirable. • Products advertised in the global media may be international in their
g Television programmes may be origins rather than locally produced. People may therefore be more
used for educational purposes, aware of and prefer to buy imported goods instead of local substitutes
often to inform and help people which may be as good or better in quality. This affects the viability of
who missed out on formal local and regional manufacturing industries.
education.
h People can watch news By integrating within the region and working together, Caribbean
programmes which show current countries and peoples have a better chance of withstanding the onslaught
events as they happen, rather than of global ‘western’ culture than they do individually. Regional mass media
waiting for a newspaper report. have a larger market and wider human and other resources than national
i Television can create an atmosphere ones. They can provide a uniquely Caribbean cultural experience, both
of fear by focusing on criminal for people within the region and for those outside. The only danger is that
activities, particularly violent ones. smaller nations may find it more difficult to find opportunities.
Can you add to the list?

Ownership and control of Caribbean media

At present, media ownership in the region can be divided into the
following categories:
• Government owned and controlled media. In all territories, radio
is owned and controlled by the government. In some, the same is true
of TV. Newspapers are only controlled by the government where there
are totalitarian regimes or a dictator is in power.
• Privately owned media. This applies to newspapers, radio, cable TV,
relay services, and in some places private broadcast and cable licences.

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• Mixed ownership. Part government and part privately owned, as for example the
Caribbean News Agency (CANA).
• Community owned media. This may be done as a cooperative venture, as
pioneered in Jamaica, but some weekly tabloids are also owned by the community
rather than privately or by central government.
• Regionally owned media. The University of the West Indies Open campus is a
good example of regionally owned media. This label could also be applied to CANA.
• Internationally owned. A very large part of media ownership is internationally
owned by corporations like News Corporation based in the USA which owns
newspapers in many parts of the world and is hugely influential because of its
ownership of Sky television. This can be accessed everywhere in the world through
satellite technology. Its views and opinions can change events everywhere.
Although few governments own the institutions that produce the mass media, they do
regulate them, for example by licensing broadcasters. As we have already mentioned,
no government owns or controls the internet, although national laws still apply
to citizens when using the internet, for example for fraud or scams, or to download
pornographic images.

FACT Government ownership

Newspapers, radios and TV stations which are government owned or
Effects and influences of owned by members of the government may have negative effects if they
ownership are not sufficiently at ‘arms length’ from the programme makers. The
There are advantages and disadvantages political party in government may interfere with editorial policy and
in every type of media ownership. Any the media may not cover opposition viewpoints or policies. They may
owner of a media organisation can use overemphasise good news and hide bad news. Investigative journalism
it in a positive way reflecting different and criticism of government policy or personalities is discouraged.
opinions and encouraging debate. Elections can be influenced in their favour. On the other hand they
However, many are inclined to push their
own views and those of the groups which
can contribute in positive ways, encouraging positive attitudes to
agree with them. patriotism and a belief in democracy. They also usually promote Caribbean
and even national culture and industries and provide opportunities for
Countries and their governments may
local expression.
try to regulate media influence by
issuing licenses to newspapers, TV
and cable companies. However, it is
Private ownership
hard to regulate the internet, which is
freely accessible and not owned by any Mass media may be owned by private individuals or companies locally
individual. Any person or any group or regionally. These often present a wide range of views and may
can broadcast their views by means of criticise governments but they may sometimes present the particular
websites like Facebook and Wikipedia
political views of their owners. They may provide local programming or
or means such as Twitter. There is very
little chance that the accuracy of their programmes bought in cheaply from overseas. They are usually concerned
statements can be thoroughly checked. to make a profit and so are more likely to concentrate on entertainment
and advertising revenues.

Foreign ownership
Foreign and international media organisations are difficult to control or regulate in
individual countries and their standards of reporting vary greatly. They may also have
political views or stances. For example, some US television companies are right wing.
They present non-Caribbean news, views, culture and values.

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Ownership by NGOs
Non-governmental organisations such as community groups may own local radio
stations as these are relatively cheap to run. They may focus on particular topics or
broadcast within a particular area of the country.

Joint ownership
Sometimes media companies are jointly owned by governments and private companies.
This is called public-private partnership. This situation can provide checks and balances
on both parties. Governments can ensure that sufficient local programmes are made and
transmitted. They can regulate standards. Private involvement can focus on what people
want to watch or read and prevent bias, ensuring a wide range of views are heard.
Probably the best situation for any country or region is to have a mix of different types
of ownership and as wide a variety of mass media and owners as possible, along with a
good set of regulations and guidelines for ethical conduct. Issues which need to be
covered include privacy for individuals both in and out of the public eye, journalistic
methods, accuracy, regard for the law and the legal system, libel and copyright.

Transmission and transformation of cultural heritage

Culture in the past has been handed down from generation to generation within families
and social groups. Change was slow until mass movement of people and mass media
made access to cultures other than your own readily available.
Caribbean culture is itself a result of mass movement, beginning with the Amerindian
peoples. The migration of enslaved people from different cultures was its greatest
influence. Added to their cultures were European and Asian cultures and influences.

Cultural groups
ACTIVITIES

Within the Caribbean there are a number of distinct Caribbean cultural

1 Plan a cultural show with your groups, such as Creole, East Indian and Maya, but these also vary
group focussing on one art form. considerably from island to island and country to country. Each group
Decide who you would like to invite
has its own oral traditions of storytelling, proverbs, riddles and songs.
and why.
It also has its own traditional medicines, recipes and ways of cooking,
2 Use a cell phone to record an its musical instruments, dances and ways of making music, its crafts
interview with an older person and craft products, its festivals, ceremonies, customs and celebrations.
about some aspect of culture they All these things are passed down informally and face to face, usually
remember from their youth. from older to younger people. Even today, older people hold important
3 Listen to or watch a local radio memories and knowledge about our cultural heritage.
or TV station. Note down aspects
Over the years these different cultural groups have had an influence on
of Caribbean culture which are
each other, with people joining in each other’s festivals, enjoying each
passed on.
other’s food and adopting some common cultural practices. Some aspects
of our culture have become truly Caribbean wide, such as Carnival and
shared food dishes like roti, pepperpot and jerk chicken.

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Artists
Artists such as musicians, painters and writers within various groups have taken
inspiration from their own cultural groups, but also from others that they see around
them. New art forms have been created too, such as steel pan. These artists raise
standards of skill, inventiveness and creativity, and make culture available to others.
Through cultural festivals, exhibitions and shows they share ideas with each other and
the public and pass on skills and ideas to younger people. They transform the cultural
heritage and pass it on anew.
For example Andy Palacio was a Belizean artist who made
Garifuna Punta rock music famous throughout the region
and the world. Edna Manley was a distinguished Jamaican
sculptor who not only transformed Jamaican art, but also
CASE STUDY encouraged talented young artists.

Caribbean Festival of Arts Festivals such as CARIFESTA help to create a Caribbean

(CARIFESTA) culture rather than separate national cultures. Carnivals
This is a multicultural event set in a different Caribbean such as those held in most islands, but most famously
territory every few years. It includes arts and crafts, folk in Trinidad, share culture with the mass of people and
stories, dance and song and literary events and arts and enable them to participate fully. Over time these events
craft. Its main purpose is to gather Caribbean artists,
change and absorb new art forms and practices.
musicians, authors, and their work to entertain, educate
and influence their very large audiences but it attracts CSME allows the free movement of artists and media
international artists and visitors as well. professionals throughout the region.
The first CARIFESTA was organised and took place in Guyana
in 1972. Since then it has moved each time to a different
venue and is welcomed in every part of the Caribbean.
Local mass media
Local and regional mass media, such as radio and TV
stations showcase Caribbean artists and their work, giving
CARIFESTA Host country
opportunities for cultural expression. International media
such as cable TV and the internet provide experiences of
foreign cultures, especially western or American culture,
but do not show Caribbean culture. Young people
may spend much more time watching TV or accessing
the internet than engaging with older people in their
communities so face-to-face cultural transmission may
be lessening. This makes regional mass media even more
important for the transmission of Caribbean culture.
Nowadays mass media has a tremendous influence on
Caribbean culture. For example jazz, soul, reggae, soca
and other music forms as expressed locally are a blend of
local and international influences.
Local businesses such as recording studios, fashion houses
and commercial art galleries are also important in preserving,
transmitting and transforming our cultural heritage.
It is intended that Suriname should host the next
CARIFESTA in 2013.

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Institutions
Institutions are important in transmitting and preserving our cultural heritage in many ways.
• Schools and education authorities provide subject teaching in arts along with art and
music festivals.
• Universities such as UWI and the University of Guyana run arts courses and
programmes for arts teachers and provide high level academic study of our culture.
• Museums, libraries and national institutes store and showcase important works and
provide historical perspective and academic study.
• National Trust organisations in each country preserve and protect important
buildings and other sites and educate citizens about their heritage.
• National Cultural organisations provide expertise, organise events and may have
websites or newsletters about forthcoming events.
• Government departments sometimes provide funds or work with other organisations
and artists to stage events and develop the cultural industry.
• Regional organisations, such as CARICOM assist in developing region-wide initiatives.
Which methods of
transmitting Caribbean The importance of tourism and the interest of tourists in the Caribbean cultural heritage
can be important in sourcing funds to support cultural transmission. Also modern
culture do you think
technology provides us with cheap and easy ways to record our cultural history for future
are most effective and generations. Using a cell phone with a camera and voice recorder, we can interview older
important? people and record their memories, record music or photograph events or artworks.
ACTIVITIES

1 a List three other types of mass media and briefly 3 a Find out more about a local, regional or international
explain how each one influences the attitude of the news agency and its work. Why are such agencies

research This
people of the Caribbean to important regional issues. important?
b Explain how the ownership of the mass media affects b In pairs, carry out a research project on the
the coverage of national and regional events. role of Cable and Wireless or another major
telecommunications provider in opening up the
2 A new food product is to be launched on the market. Identify
region to telecommunications.
a means of advertising that you would use to introduce this
product and explain why you made this choice.

The Post Office

For most people in the Caribbean, the local Post Office continues to be the most
important means of written communication. The main services provided by the Post
Offices in the Caribbean area are:
• mailing of letters and parcels
• insurance
• private boxes and Post Office Bags
• reply-paid services
• telegrams.
We shall look at each of these in turn.

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Letter post
Letters and parcels may be sent to local destinations, regional destinations and overseas
(extra-regional) by post.
• Local letters are sorted, distributed to sub-post offices and then delivered by postmen
to homes.
• Regional letters and parcels may be sent by airmail or surface mail. Airmail may also
be either first-class or second-class. First-class mail is dearer but faster. Surface mail
means sea mail; mail sent by boat. Regionally, most letters are sent by airmail, while
heavy parcels are sent by surface mail.
• Overseas mail, like regional mail, may be sent by air or surface mail, either first-
class airmail or second-class airmail. The method of postage would depend on the
urgency, value, size, weight and volume of the item to be posted.

Registered letters
Letters and documents of value and importance are usually ‘registered’ for greater
safety. To register a letter, you pay a fee depending on weight, in addition to normal
postage. Receipts are given for the letters and packages
handled across the counter. Usually, if money is to be
sent through the post, the Post Office provides a special
strong envelope. Compensation up to a certain amount
may be obtained in the event of loss of valuable packets
and parcels.

Insurance
The Post Office generally provides an insurance service
connected with its core business of sending mail. Parcels
and letters may be insured up to a certain amount. A fee
is charged for this service depending on weight, value and
destination of the parcel or letter.

Private Boxes and Post Office Bags

Post boxes in Castries, St Lucia
Individuals, organisations and firms can obtain the use
of a private Post Office Box, or arrange for mail to be
collected and delivered to them direct in one batch ahead
of the normal delivery time. A small fee is charged for
this service.

Business Reply Service

Caribbean Post Offices offer a limited business reply
service. This is done mainly through the use of AP
(accounts payable) cards. An envelope with prepaid
postage is enclosed in letters from businessmen or firms
to clients and prospective customers, so as to encourage
them to reply. Again a fee is charged to the business
concerned for this service.

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RESEARCH This Telegrams

ACTIVITIES

Post Offices also offer a telegraph service to customers.

1 Visit your local Post Office and find out what services Customers may send telegraphs direct or night letters
are available. Make up an information leaflet or which are cheaper but take longer. The charge is
poster entitled ‘Services available at the Post Office dependent upon the number of words and the destination
in [your town or village]’.
of the telegram. To send a telegram you have to fill in a
special form at the Post Office, which is then encoded
and sent to the receiving Post Office for transmission by
2 Debate the motion: ‘This House believes that the Post
Office is still an essential feature of Caribbean society’.
hand to the intended recipient.

debate This
Modern forms of telecommunication
In the modern world a number of methods of written
communications are used. Our grandparents often find it
hard to believe how much communication has changed
in their lifetime. New electronic methods carry verbal,
written and pictorial material. They are changing all the
time. Contact by mobile phone is increasing every day.
Fax machines which transmit a facsimile of documents
were state of the art but have almost completely been
taken over by (electronic) e-mail and scanning.
Some of the mass media, especially television and radio,
are included in the term ‘telecommunications’.

The telephone
The telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell
in 1876. Since then technological improvements have
been made on a wide scale, leading up to the present-
day videophone system and fibre optics as a means of
conveying calls and messages. In the Caribbean we
have the Caribbean Microwave System which forms an
invisible communication network high in the sky. This
makes it possible for us to have direct dialling to almost
any place on the Earth’s surface.
The telephone is a vital link in the communication
Satellite Earth Station, Jamaica network of many countries. Generally it is cheap,
prompt and efficient, satisfying the needs of all aspects of
modern day societies. These characteristics make the telephone indispensable to today’s
business and life today would be inconceivable without the use of the telephone system.
In some territories in the region the telephone is a ‘status symbol’. This is the case where
the telephone service is limited, in terms of availability, to consumers. Then we find that
only persons in a ‘privileged position’ are able to acquire a phone. This can mean that
in respect of providing telephone services to rural areas there is a ‘developmental lag’.

Cell phones
Since 2000, the mobile phone or cell phone has become increasingly popular. The cell
phone works using radio signals across a network of transmitter masts. The handsets

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become smaller with each generation of development and their functions increase. Many
Do you have a cell can take, record and transmit photographs and moving pictures, allow internet access,
phone? Is yours like the and download music and send text messages as well as being used like a traditional
ones described in the landline telephone to speak person to person. The information box below gives you a
‘snapshot’ below, or has snapshot of cell phones in 2012.
cell phone technology Some health concerns have been raised about excessive use of cell phones since they use
developed further still? microwave frequencies which it has been suggested may damage the brain. But no proof
of this alleged damage has been found

FACT
Cell phones in 2012
A cell phone can be called a mobile phone, or
sometimes a hand phone. Its original use was
to make telephone calls like those on a land
line by sending signals via a beacon. Thus the
cell phone is mobile. It is not joined to any line.
Different companies have set up systems based
on their own beacons.
Each owner (or renter) of a cell phone is
attached to one of those providers, paying a
rental which might include the cost of some
services or ‘Pay as You Go’ which involves
paying money upfront and using that amount as
you use the services of the company. The cell
phone can receive calls from other cell phones
or from telephones attached to a land line.
Modern cell phones have developed rapidly
and will continue to develop. They can take
oral messages, send and receive texts (written
messages or multimedia messaging service –
MMS). They can be used through the internet
to send e-mails. They can communicate by
short wave radio even when beacons are not
available. This is known as Bluetooth. They
can use many of the programmes available
on computers, including many business Smartphones
applications, such as buying and selling.
They are also cameras which can take, record The first hand-held mobile phone was shown by Dr Martin Cooper of
and transmit still and moving pictures. As Motorola in 1973. His handset weighed 1.1kg and had to include a very
cameras they can pass pictures quickly all over heavy battery.
the world so that repressive governments find it
The first of the type was sold in 1983 and that was also heavy and
more and more difficult to conceal their actions.
cumbersome. From 1990 to 2010, worldwide mobile phone users
They can be used as global positioning systems increased from 12.4 million to over 4.6 billion, penetrating every
(GPS) pinpointing your position in the world and country in the world and reaching all classes of people.
guiding you to any other position.
Cell phone contracts vary, some with a monthly subscription allowing
Mobile phones that offer these more general a very large volume of free calls, often in the evenings or at weekends,
computing capabilities are referred to as others are the Pay as You Go contract which the user ‘tops up’ with cash
smart phones. or a credit card at licensed outlets.

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Facsimile messages
Facsimile machines, or fax machines, have largely been replaced but those still in use
scan visual material and convert it into digital code for transmission along a telephone
line. This material may be written or graphical and the recipient will receive an exact
replica of whatever was on the original. Some fax machines also act as telephones and
some multifunction machines that are capable of faxing, printing and scanning can
be connected to a computer. Some personal computers also have the facility to receive
faxes via the computer modem and the telephone line.

Telegraph communication
Telegraph messages, often known as telegrams or cables, were one of the earliest forms
of written telecommunications, existing long before fax machines, text messages and
electronic mail. Telegrams are now becoming obsolete in the face of e-mail and the
widespread ownership of telephones and cell phones, but they are still useful in remote
rural areas that modern telecommunications do not yet reach.

Teleprinting
The teleprinter is a machine like a typewriter into which messages are typed by the
sender. The messages are transmitted to a similar machine which reproduces them on
tape or on sheets of paper in the receiving office. Like the telegraph, teleprinting is
becoming obsolete, since most businesses now use e-mail instead.

Electronic mail
Electronic mail, or e-mail, uses the internet to transmit written messages from one
computer user to another. Documents and images may be ‘attached’ to e-mails, making
electronic mail one of the most versatile methods of communication. The transfer
of messages across the Web is almost instantaneous, so that e-mail is also one of the
quickest methods. In order to use e-mail you need a
computer and modem, a telephone line, and access to an
internet server. Many of these servers are international
and have members in many countries. Examples are
hotmail.com, yahoo.com, and aol.com. Individual
institutions very often have their own servers, with
employees and officials having an e-mail address within
the organisation.
Apart from those in the USA, such institutions
commonly have a country code at the end. For example,
a Trinidadian e-mail address would have the letters
‘tt’ at the end of it; a Jamaican address would have the
letters ‘ja’; and an address in Britain would have the
letters ‘uk’. Codes embedded in the e-mail address also
tell users what kind of institution they are dealing with:
‘co’ means a company; ‘ac’ or ‘edu’ indicate academic or
Using laptop and personal computers to access the internet and
educational institutions, usually colleges or universities;
send e-mails
‘gov’ indicates a local or central government institution.

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Telecommunications carriers
CASE STUDY The region’s telecommunications sector
is dominated by three major providers:
Telecommunications Reform in the Eastern Cable and Wireless (C&W), which
Caribbean Project originated in the UK, the US-based
Atlantic Tele-Network Inc. (ATN) and
The project began its operations in October 1998 and had its offices in
Castries, St Lucia. It was funded in part by the World Bank. The objective of
GTE (part of Verizon). The largest of
the project was to introduce reforms that would promote competition in the the three, the transnational C&W, has
telecommunications sector, and to enhance informatics-related skills in the until recently had a near-monopoly in
countries of the Eastern Caribbean: Dominica, Grenada, St Kitts and Nevis, nine Caribbean countries. However,
St Lucia and St Vincent and the Grenadines. It was originally part of a wider telecommunications legislation in several
initiative called the Economic Diversification Project which sought to lessen the Caribbean states (see below) has opened
Eastern Caribbean countries’ dependence on banana exports. It was hoped to up the region to other providers such as
establish links with other Caribbean territories who were struggling with the Digicel and AT&T. The English-speaking
same problems of single-export dependence. Caribbean has access to some of the most
We learnt earlier how the near-monopoly status enjoyed by some advanced technologies available (see the
telecommunications companies had helped to bring technological section on Modern Communications
sophistication to the region. However, a less fortunate result of a monopoly page 283).
or oligopoly is that prices of commodities tend to rise. Higher costs of
telecommunications were damaging the economic development of smaller
groups of countries such as those in the Eastern Caribbean, and the Telecommunications
Telecommunications Reform Project was designed to help. liberalisation
The project addresses regulation in the telecommunications sector, seeking As we have seen, much of the
to liberalise the sector and encourage a competitive environment for telecommunications industry in the
telecommunications from which all sectors of the economy will benefit. New Caribbean is dominated by a few
national legislation and new regional telecommunications regulations are
organisations. Recently there has been
an important part of the reforms, designed to update governments’ role in
an attempt to promote liberalisation
the telecommunications industry. One of the fundamental changes was the
agreement to establish a regional Telecommunications Authority. of the industry and encourage more
competition. The case study examines
telecommunications reform in the
Eastern Caribbean.
ACTIVITIES

1 Define the term ‘mass media’, and discuss in class years or so. To what extent do you think access to such
whether or not the internet should be included in a list media as television, the cell phone and e-mail have
of the mass media. reduced social interaction?

2 Suppose you have to send a written message to

someone in the United Kingdom. Make a list of the
4 Do some research to find out how successful the
different ways your message could be sent and decide
research This

Telecommunications Reform in the Eastern Caribbean

which is the quickest and cheapest method. Would your
Project has been in promoting and encouraging the
answer be different if a) the recipient was a business
telecommunications industry in that part of the region.
rather than a friend; b) you were confined to your
Do you think a similar project would be useful in your
home and not able to go out; c) you had no access to
own territory or sub-region?
a computer; or d) it was essential that there was no
possibility of the message being lost on the way.
brainstorm

3 Write a short essay describing the main changes in 5 Use a brainstorming session to think about the
communications that have occurred over the past 20 development of communications over the next 20 years.

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Legislation has opened up the region to more telecommunications providers, and

internet cafés are to be found in many Caribbean cities. An internet café is a public place
where people who do not have access to a personal computer can link up to the internet,
pick up e-mail, and visit their favourite websites.

Computer-mediated communication: A new form of work

organisation
The conventional office and factory is becoming reorganised to allow a greater amount
of work to be done outside the office, through the use of electronic communications
systems. The term ‘virtual’ has been coined to describe activity that takes place across a
computer network or via telephone links. The ‘virtual office’ is based around the use of
information and communication technologies which involve electronic data exchange.
Many organisations are transforming their structures through the use of electronic
networks supporting computer-mediated technologies such as e-mail and computer
conferencing. There is also a move towards home working, allowing many employees to
use a computer at home rather than in the office.
As with cell phones, health concerns have been raised about people whose work
demands that they spend many hours in front of a computer screen. For example, using
a keyboard for long periods may cause repetitive strain injury (RSI). Problems may also
be caused by the low levels of continuous radiation emitted by computer monitors.

The virtual office

ACTIVITIES

Imagine that you are These are some of the characteristics of the virtual office:
responsible for a 1. Work is decentralised into a variety of locations.
business or community
project that involves 2. Job responsibilities and lines of authority are more fluid than in traditional
people from a wide organisations.
area, perhaps even 3. Filing cabinets are replaced by electronic files; the ‘paperless office’.
across the region.
4. Individuals work from home or on the move with mobile devices such as laptop
Explain how you would
computers and cell phones.
develop a virtual team
to run this project, 5. The employer can create his or her own virtual workplace.
and make a detailed
list of the types of
communication you Virtual organisations and virtual teams
would use to keep the It is possible, though unusual, to create an organisation that operates entirely virtually,
members of the team without any geographical presence. Even where an organisation has office premises for
in touch with each
most employees, virtual teams can be created involving home workers and employees
other.
in other organisations. These are the implications:
• Virtual organisations can operate without any dedicated office premises.
• Communication within the virtual organisation is carried out through the use of
the internet or intranets (networked computers within the organisation itself), and
associated technologies.
• Decisions can be made and coordinated quickly, for example using video-conferencing
(see page 288).
• A more holistic approach is possible than in a conventional office.

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Video-conferencing
Video-conferencing is useful when a quick decision is required but it is impossible or too
expensive to set up a face-to-face meeting. A video-conference can be set up using video-
phones or computers equipped with a webcam. Video-conferencing can also be used to:
• train large numbers of staff dispersed within an organisation
• overcome language barriers by enabling non-verbal communication through
gestures, which can be used to convey signals such as commitment or disagreement
without the need for the spoken word
• provide interactive consultations and link providers in the health and educational sectors.

Call centres
Many organisations today are using call centres in different parts
of the world. These call centres are linked via telecommunications
to the computer systems of the parent company. A consumer
who phones the company will have his or her call transferred to
a call centre, which may be halfway across the world, and a call
centre employee will deal with the query, accessing centrally held
information via computer links. Up to 25,000 people in the region
are employed by call centres dealing with consumers from a number
of different countries, notably the US.

The mass media and the law

The law regarding the press and other mass media in the Caribbean varies according to
the constitution of the country concerned. Generally we can recognise three approaches:
1. Press freedom is separately and specifically guaranteed. Trinidad and Tobago has
press freedom recognised in this way.
2. Press freedom comes under the general category of ‘liberty of the citizen’ to express
him or herself freely. In these cases press freedom is subject to legal limitations of the
same kind as individual freedom. This is called ‘residual’ freedom, because it is what
remains after statutes and common law have been applied.
3. There is no separate or express recognition of press freedom. In these countries only
individual rights to free expression are recognised and in some cases these are guaranteed.
This does not allow for the corporate rights of expression of mass media institutions such
as the press and television. This is the case in most Caribbean countries.

Copyright and intellectual property

What is copyright?
A copyright is an exclusive right conferred by law for a specified period of time. This
right allows the person holding it, and only that person:
• to reproduce or give permission to reproduce an original literary or artistic work
expressed in any tangible (material) medium, such as printing, handwriting,
painting/drawing or sculpture
• to prepare other works that are based on (derive from) the original work
• to give public performance or display of the original work or its derivatives.

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CASE STUDY In most countries copyright is protected, which means that certain uses
of an original work are lawful only if the copyright owner has authorised
them. This copyright protection only covers an author or artist’s
US copyright law particular expression of the idea or procedure. Ideas and concepts
explained in the copyright work are not protected. In some cases a
The US Copyright Act lays out eight
broad categories of material that can
new version of the work, such as a musical arrangement of an original
be protected: tune, may itself be given copyright protection separate from the original
copyright. The case study on US copyright law gives an example of one
• literary works country’s interpretation of copyright.
• musical works, including any
accompanying words
The Berne Convention
• dramatic works, including Most copyright law derives from the Berne Convention, a detailed
accompanying music
agreement signed by a number of Western countries. In its original
• pantomimes and choreographic form it dates from 1886, and was amended several times during the 20th
works for dance
century, most recently in 1979. However, most countries have up-dated
• pictorial, graphic and sculpted their copyright law since then to deal with new technologies and other
works
issues.
• motion pictures and other audio-
visual works
Fair use
• sound recordings
In many countries, exclusive rights granted to a copyright owner do
• architectural designs. not include the right to prevent others from making ‘fair use’ of the
The law protects the author’s copyright
owner’s work. Fair use may include criticism, comment, news, reporting,
for his or her lifetime, plus 50 years or
teaching, reviewing or research. The nature of the work, the amount
70 years for those works created in or
copied, and the impact on the work’s commercial value are factors used
after 1978.
to determine whether an unauthorised use is a ‘fair use’.

Intellectual property rights

The TRIPS agreement As well as owning copyright in a literary or artistic work that is published
or expressed in some visible or audible way, people who invent a concept
Negotiations under the umbrella of or develop a medicine may have intellectual property rights over it. This
the World Trade Organisation (WTO) means that someone cannot borrow another person’s idea and use it
brought about the Trade-Related Aspects
for any purpose without that person’s permission. Intellectual property
of Intellectual Property Rights agreement
(TRIPS) in 1995. This agreement covers: rights are important in regulating the production and development of
medicines and treatments, for example, which a researcher or group of
• copyright and related rights
(including the rights of performers
researchers have created.
and broadcasters and producers of
sound recordings)
Intellectual property and piracy in the Caribbean
• trademarks, including service marks
The piracy of intellectual, visual and sound copyright material, especially
• geographical indications, including the work of Caribbean musicians, poses a serious problem to artists in
place names the region. Piracy of intellectual property, especially sound recordings,
• industrial designs and patents, DVDs and videos, is an organised international racket, which feeds
including the protection of new off weak copyright law and enforcement. The internet, with its ability
varieties of plants to give access to copyright material in the form of sound and visual
• the layout-designs of integrated recordings as well as intellectual information, allows people to download
circuits pictures, soundtracks, and the content of whole CDs and DVDs at the
• trade secrets and test data. click of a mouse. This causes enormous problems for copyright holders all
over the world.

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There are three categories of record piracy:

1. Simple piracy: the unauthorised duplication of various recordings, usually compilations
2. Counterfeiting: the exact replication of existing recordings, including their artwork
and packaging
3. Bootlegging: the unauthorised recording of broadcasts or live performances.
In order to counter the problem of piracy and make sure that artists are paid royalties,
Caribbean countries are strengthening their intellectual property laws. Copyright agencies
such as the Copyright Organisation of Trinidad and Tobago (COTT) are working together
with international experts to encourage a better deal for Caribbean musicians. Four such
agencies – COSAC (Barbados), COTT, HMS (St Lucia) and JACAP (Jamaica) – have joined
together to form Caribbean Copyright Link. However, the music industry in general has
suffered from a number of problems, including poor marketing, the high cost of producing
sound recordings, and the loss of royalties collected by Performing Rights Societies.

Communications technology and regional integration

One of the early problems in integrating the newly independent commonwealth
countries of the Caribbean was the poor quality of communications. Postal services
were slow, telephone systems were not universal, and often broke down. Short wave
radio has limited application and air transport was in its infancy.
In recent years all that has changed. Improved transport and
RESEARCH This communications technology has made communications between
individuals, businesses, governments and other organisations much
ACTIVITIES

quicker, easier and cheaper. We can understand what is going on

1 Find out about the copyright and
anywhere in the region almost instantly.
intellectual property laws in force
in your state or territory. Is your • Transport links are better so people from each territory can meet more
government a signatory to the easily. Letters, documents and packages can be transported quickly
Berne Convention and the TRIPS from place to place by air.
agreement?
• Telephone contact is instant. Calls can be made by land line or cell
phone, the quality is good and people can be reached wherever they
are, even on the move.
2 a Discuss in class whether
• Computers, including laptops, pad devices and smart phones, provide
discuss This

copyright organisations such as

COTT and COSAC are beneficial electronic mail (e-mail), telephone calls, video conferencing across
in helping the music industry in the internet and access to the World Wide Web with its vast amounts
the Caribbean. of information.
• 24 hour newsrooms, TV, radio and internet access gives us news from
b Write a report for your local other countries as it happens.
newspaper or school magazine • Computers and smart phones using the internet can be used for
explaining the purpose and work shopping, banking and money transfer.
of Caribbean Copyright Link.
Contact is so much easier that discussions can occur every day. There are
fewer delays and understanding each other should be very much easier.
E-mail and texts mean that messages can be sent instantly from one
country to another and a reply received in just the time it takes to read and respond.
Regional businesses can operate using virtual offices. For example, in Trinidad it is as
easy to communicate with someone in the Bahamas as someone in the next office.
Friends in Belize and Barbados can keep in touch on a daily basis if they wish. All
this makes us feel as if we are living in a small village. It can help to promote regional
integration both in practical ways and in how we see ourselves.
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CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Communication can be non-verbal and verbal. • New electronic methods of communication carry
verbal, written and pictorial material. They are
• Non-verbal communication includes signals, signs, changing all the time. They include cell phones,
gestures, body language, art. internet and e-mail.
• Verbal communication includes speech, writing, • Global mass media is affecting Caribbean society
song and drama. in many ways.
• For many people in the Caribbean, the local • Cultural heritage is transferred through
Post Office is still an important means of written communication by cultural groups, artists, mass
communication. media.
• The mass media include newspapers, radio, • The law relating to the press and other mass
television, books, magazines, advertising media in the Caribbean varies according to the
billboards. constitution of the country concerned.
• Communication can break down as a result of • Regulatory practices include licensing,
age and gender differences, prejudice, conflict, censorship, code of ethics.
mistrust, failure of equipment etc.
• There are copyright laws to protect creative and
• Mass media and new communications technology artistic work.
can help to promote regional integration.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Define these terms: censorship; copyright; 3 a Write notes for an essay on each of the
freedom of the press; intellectual property; following:
libel; propaganda; telecommunications; virtual i) What role have modern
office. telecommunications left for the
handwritten letter?
2 You are asked to address a seminar on
ii) To what extent are cell phone networks
‘The Role of a News Agency’. Plan your
and the internet destroying social
presentation, remembering to state what a
activity between young people?
news agency is and describe the services they
offer. Use examples of actual news agencies iii) Explain who owns the mass media
and their work. Complete your presentation in Caribbean society and what the
by explaining how news agencies check their implications of this ownership are for
sources and why their services might be of the quality and variety of programmes
value to a newspaper or radio-TV station. and reports.
b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
your notes as an essay paper of between
1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
structure your essay properly, giving it an
introduction and conclusion as well as the
central part including your main points.

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 9 Consumer affairs

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• define and use correctly the major terms and concepts associated with consumer affairs
• identify different categories of consumers
• assess the factors which influence consumer demand for goods and services
• explain how consumers use modern technology to conduct transactions
• describe the role of government and other agencies in protecting and educating consumers
• evaluate the role of government and other agencies in protecting and educating consumers
• describe the ways in which the consumer can protect himself or herself
• describe the ways consumers practise thrift in the Caribbean
• explain reasons for and benefits of saving
• outline the benefits of credit unions to consumers in the region
• develop strategies to deal with the effects of devaluation and inflation on consumers
• evaluate the effects of globalisation and trade liberalisation on consumers
• explain how consumers can contribute to the sustainable development of the region.

Terms you should know

black market sector of the economy that exists by buying and selling scarce or illicit commodities, usually covertly
(‘under the counter’) at exorbitant prices
bonds an interest-bearing certificate issued by government or a corporation which promises to pay a specific
sum of money at a fixed future date
budgeting drawing up a list of income and expenditure to ensure that money is well spent
consumer a person who purchases goods and services or obtains credit in order to satisfy his or her needs and
wants
consumption the act of purchasing or otherwise consuming goods and services
credit union organisation that supplies credit to individuals and businesses using savings that members of the
union have entrusted to it
demand the quantity of goods consumers are willing and able to purchase at the going price
devaluation causing a currency to be worth less in terms of other currencies, i.e. lowering its exchange rate
disposable income the amount of income left over after tax has been paid
dividend payment by a business to its shareholders or members
e-commerce buying and selling goods over the internet

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electronic transaction buying or selling using the internet rather than personal contact
exchange rate rate at which one currency is exchanged for another
goods any article which can be bought or sold
hire purchase system of buying goods and paying for them over an agreed period
income the money, goods or services received by an individual or firm in a given time period, usually as the
reward earned by the factors of production
inflation an increase in the price of goods and services linked with a lowering of value of money (currency)
investment purchase of new plant and equipment, buildings and other items to improve performance in the future
marketing finding customers for goods or services and meeting their needs
ownership a concept concerning belonging. A house belongs to a person who is the owner of that house.
pricing deciding on the price of an article or service. The decision will take into account cost and the need for
a profit.
quota the limit laid down on the quantity of a product which may be bought, sold or imported
savings income not spent on goods and services which represents future spending power
securities shares in companies or government enterprises that can be exchanged on a stock market or
securities exchange
services assistance given to another person. Examples include service in a shop, in a hotel and teaching in a
school.
supply the quantity of goods producers are willing and able to place on the market at the going price
supply and demand mechanism by which the amount of goods demanded and the amount supplied are balanced
thrift an attitude and actions which ensure that expenditure stays below income, leaving some savings

Consumers are important

The word production means the creation of goods and services for use by consumers.
When these goods and services are purchased or used we say they have been consumed,
for example when we burn fuel in our cars or when we have a haircut. Consumption
then refers to the process of using goods and services for our own satisfaction, in the
case of individuals and households, and to produce other goods in the case of firms.

Who or what are consumers?

In this age of globalisation, when trade has become of enormous importance worldwide,
consumers – the people who actually buy and consume the goods and services that are
produced – are recognised as vital to the world economy.
Consumers may be:

Individuals
We buy goods and services that supply our needs and wants. We use the income we
have earned to pay for them. We buy on credit or borrow the money we need to finance
important purchases. We make choices as to the way we shall use the money we have
available. It is important that we become intelligent consumers (see the box on page 295).

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Groups of people
Businesses large and small buy goods and services that enable them to carry on their
business efficiently. For example, a computer firm will buy hardware components,
software packages, a reliable electricity supply and the expertise of engineers and
programmers in order to build and supply computers to offices across the region,
governments and parastatal companies. They buy goods and services that enable them
to carry out their obligations to the country or territory as a whole. For example, the
Ministry of Education pays teachers to teach and buys books and other school materials
in order to fulfil its task of educating the people of your country.
It is important for governments in the Caribbean to foster fair trading practices, not only
between businesses and consumers but also between countries.

Consumers of goods
We buy objects, items of food, clothes, electrical goods.

Can you think of any other

Consumers of services
services we pay for?
We pay school fees, bus fares, and buy meals in cafés and restaurants.

Ways of paying for goods and services

If we have enough money of our own we can pay by cash, notes and coins or by cheque
if we have money in a bank account. Banks also issue debit cards which allow payments
which are taken directly out of a bank account.
We usually pay from money we already have but we can borrow from other people to
make payment. If we haven’t enough money there are several ways to borrow money:
• Building up an account with a business which keeps a record of each transaction.
The total has to be repaid at a set time.
• Personal loans from friends and/or family.
• Personal loans from a bank or money lender. Care needs to be taken to check in
case any of these charge too high a rate of interest.
• Credit cards. These are issued by banks and payments are added up to be repaid with
interest. These too can be an expensive form of credit as interest rates can be very high.
• Hire purchase. This is a system by which a large sum can be paid in regular
instalments. Businesses which operate the system usually charge interest so that the
RESEARCH This sum finally repaid might be much larger than the original purchase price.
ACTIVITIES

• Mortgages. These are usually taken out from a bank or another lending organisation
1 Find out about to buy property and they are often for large amounts. The buyer promises to repay
interest rates the total sum over a long period, sometimes as long as 20 or 30 years. The total
charged by as payments over that period can be as much as 2 or 3 times the purchase price. The
many lenders as
advantage to the buyer is that he or she has no rent to pay and the property might
you can.
eventually be worth much more.
discuss This

2 Discuss in class
the best ways to
borrow money.

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FACT
The intelligent consumer
Every consumer seeks to make the most of his or her money, advertising and by what other people are buying. That
to ensure that every penny spent brings him or her the last factor is part of fashion too.
greatest satisfaction. In order to do this he must have some
understanding of the technical capacity of the goods or service
• Quality and price of goods and services. Consumers
expect to pay more for a better quality coat or a meal in
available to him and he must know the exact price of each good
an upmarket hotel. They can only pay that price if they
and service. In other words he must buy intelligently.
have enough money. Otherwise they do not purchase
at all or go for lower quality. Generally if the price of a
Influences on consumer demand product is low, more will be purchased, while if the price
• The size of disposable income influences the increases, fewer will be purchased.
consumer’s demand. Generally a consumer with a • Choice. The consumer today is faced with such a wide range
sizeable amount of disposable income will spend more of different items and brands that it is difficult to decide
than a consumer with a small amount of disposable which of these items and brands give greatest satisfaction.
income. Increased income tends to cause a demand for
more and more goods, especially luxury items. • Advertising has a tendency to increase the demand for a
product or service, providing that it is successful. Marketing
• Taste patterns also influence the spending pattern of departments spend huge sums on advertising in order to
consumers. If a consumer has a taste for oranges, for influence the demand for their goods. The consumer is
example, he will spend more on oranges than on apples. bombarded by advertisements on radio, television and in
• Consumer expectation. If consumers expect the price newspapers. These hard-sell methods make it difficult for
of a product to increase, or if they expect a shortage, they consumers to decide what is best for them.
will tend to increase their purchases of that product. • As communications increase we come into contact with
• Availability of credit facilities. In a modern economy people whose standards of living are higher than our own.
many goods are purchased using credit. The availability We begin to want and demand things we do not really need.
of credit enhances demand as consumers can have the • Devaluation has an effect on local consumers. When a
use of a purchase while paying for it at a later date. currency is devalued the price of local exports fall; at the
• The ability to borrow is a factor in itself. Lower income same time the price of imports rises; causing inflation.
groups find it harder to get credit and often have to pay The box on page 297 tells you more about devaluation.
higher rates of interest than people who already have more However, the intelligent consumer can use his own values
money and are more likely to be able to repay a loan. and principles, knowledge about the market in which he
• Variation in people’s wants. This is affected by their is buying, the labels on products and many other kinds of
own taste, by the fashions of the time, by the influence of information in order to make wise choices.

Street traders in St Georges, Grenada A modern shopping centre in Bridgtown, Barbados

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The level of demand also influences the level of supply, via the price mechanism. The
box below explains further.

FACT
The price mechanism
The Law of Supply and Demand
When demand for a product or
Supply is the word used for the amount of goods available
service rises, it might at first be in
to (supplied to) the retailer or customer.
short supply and this causes the price Demand is the word used for the amount of goods which the
to rise. At a certain point, however, retailer or customer demands.
the price will rise to a level that Supply and demand affect the price which is charged for any
consumers are not able or willing to commodity.
pay. There will then, for a time, be
a surplus of goods of that type and
the price will fall. At the same time, Demand rises Prices fall Supply Demand rises Prices rise
suppliers will respond to the change
in price, increasing production
Supply rises Prices rise Demand Prices fall Supply falls
when the price is high, decreasing
the number of goods or services
available when the price drops. This rises falls
is known as the price mechanism or
the Law of Supply and Demand. Figure 9.1  The price mechanism

Making a choice
What measures can you What can consumers do to maximise satisfaction? A consumer must use his or her good
suggest to cope with judgement when planning to buy an item. Each purchase must be judged as to whether
rising prices? it will give more pleasure or meet the need better than something else the consumer
might have bought instead. The purchase of an item must be guided by the relationship
between the need or want for one item and the possible needs or wants for others.
Here are some suggestions for questions to ask yourself when purchasing an item. Some
of these are practical or economic questions. Others are matters of principle.
• Would you rather buy this item than another item which you could buy for the same
money?
• Which dealer should you go to?
• What quality of merchandise do you want to buy?
• Is the product or service something that has been produced at the cost of someone
else’s loss or suffering?
• Are you benefiting (or harming) the local or regional economy by buying a particular
product?
• What price are you willing to pay?
• Should you pay cash or buy on credit?
• Is the item really needed now, or can it wait until later?
• If you purchase this item, what other important item may you have to forgo?

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FACT
Devaluation and inflation
Devaluation occurs when the value of a country’s currency Strategies to deal with the effects of devaluation
goes down in terms of other country’s currencies. So, for and inflation
example, if today the East Caribbean dollar is worth less
against the Canadian dollar than it was yesterday, the EC Individuals and organisations need to develop strategies to
dollar has become devalued against the Canadian dollar. deal with devaluation and inflation, both of which result in
This may come about as a result of government policy, a rising prices. The following are some suggestions for things
deliberate decision made to lower the value of a currency consumers can do:
against all other currencies in order to make EC exports
• Buy locally produced goods which tend to be cheaper
cheaper to buy overseas, for example. Or it may come about
than imports. This also supports the local economy and
because East Caribbean economies have performed less
aids recovery and local employment.
well and currency buyers want Canadian dollars rather
than EC dollars. Some currencies are ‘pegged’ against a • Ask their representatives in government to try to control
particular currency; for example some Caribbean currencies price increases, for example by reducing sales or energy
are pegged to the US dollar and go up and down in value taxes, or to subsidise basic commodities such as staple foods.
against other currencies only when the US dollar does.
• Grow food at home in gardens or even in pots and window
The effect of devaluation is to reduce the prices of a country’s boxes. Gluts of home grown produce can be given away or
exports to other countries and increase the prices of imports exchanged with neighbours, or even sold at the gate.
within the country. This can be a benefit to a country’s
economy, since people overseas will be more likely to buy
• Reuse, repair and recycle items within communities,
setting up ‘Freecycle’ websites or backyard repair and
our export goods if they are competitively priced. At the
recycling schemes on the basis that one person’s garbage
same time people in our own country will be more likely to
may be another person’s treasure. This saves money and
buy locally produced goods if imports are more expensive.
is also good for the environment.
However, if people do not buy local goods but simply
continue to buy imports, or if some goods are simply
• Share car transport to work or shops to save money and
also reduce carbon emissions.
unavailable locally and must be imported (oil is a good
example of this for many Caribbean territories), devaluation • Share skills and time with neighbours and friends so that
of the currency will cause inflation. one person swops an hour’s hairdressing, for example,
for an hour’s babysitting or gardening.
A number of Caribbean countries have suffered from inflation
in recent years. Steep price rises cause local people to lower • Try to reduce outgoings by simple measures such as
their standard of living and buy fewer goods. This may be switching off lights, walking instead of taking a bus,
a good thing if it reduces the volume of imports, but not if reducing any luxury items and carefully considering
it means that the whole economy stagnates and people are whether they need to buy something.
struggling to buy more than their basic needs. Low inflation is
an important economic target for Caribbean governments. • If work cannot be found because unemployment is high,
people may be able to set up their own small businesses and
be self-employed. They need to consider what skills they
have which others might pay for. It is important to research
the market well and avoid spending too much at the outset.
Figure 9.2  The effect of devaluation

businesses sell
more goods abroad

cheaper
exports

Devaluation people buy

locally

more expensive
imports
inflation caused
by higher costs

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As we have seen, a consumer must have some knowledge

of the technical capacity and origin of the goods and
services available to him or her if the best choice is to be
made. From where would he or she get such information?
There are numerous sources to which a consumer can
turn to secure such information.

Labels
Labels provide written information about a product.
They tell you:
• what the product is made of
• what the size or capacity is
• how to care for the product
• when and where it was produced
• its expiry date
• what kind of warranty or guarantee, if any, is provided
with the product
• any warning about the product.
It is essential to read the fine print to make sure there are
no hidden pitfalls. This can also apply to advertisements.

Advertisements
Labelling on a bottle of bleach Many advertisements are designed to give information
about a product, as well as encouraging you to buy it.
Others aim to persuade you that you need the product
or service. Some are competitive and encourage you to
buy one particular manufacturer’s product rather than a
similar one made by their competitor. Companies spend a
great deal of money on advertisements because they have
found by experience that advertising pays.

Two types of advertising: print and billboard

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There are various ways of advertising goods and services:

1. Via the mass media. Radio, television, internet providers and the print media are
the most common ways of advertising.
2. Using handbills and billboards. Handbills are useful for very local advertising.
The use of billboards and hoardings on highways and in sports grounds is becoming
increasingly popular.
3. On public vehicles. This includes advertisements pasted to the sides of buses and trains.
4. Personal advertising. T-shirts with the name of a product are often sold cheaply to
consumers as part of a retail package, sometimes with the product itself. The wearer
then provides free advertising for the product as he or she walks around town.
Advertisements should tell you:
• what the product is
• how it is made
• what it will do.

When reading such an advertisement ask yourself:

1. Is it giving facts which can be used for comparison with other products?
2. Is the advertisement vague? Does it contain only general claims that really tell you
nothing about the product? For example, ‘Buy Machilo – they’re better!’ The question
to ask is, ‘Better than what?’
3. Are the facts true? Do they give any evidence to back up their claims? Some consumer
protection legislation demands that companies are able to back up claims made in
advertising. Remember to read the fine print!

Reports of tests
In the Caribbean there are no private
testing agencies. However, in some
territories there is a government-run
testing agency. Consumer organisations
in the region may obtain valuable
information on foreign goods for their
members by writing to private agencies
abroad, for example Consumers’
Research Inc., and Consumers Union of
the United States Inc. These agencies test
goods and report on their quality.

Magazines and newspapers

Magazines and newspapers often carry
articles that are of help to consumers.
Magazines such as Consumers’ Guide
An example of consumer information in a newspaper
and Auto Mechanic can give consumers
useful information on household
appliances and motor cars, for example.

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Radio and television

Many radio and television stations carry programmes which are of help to consumers
with regard to the use of products. Stations carry programmes which inform the public
about new inventions, product safety, care and use of products and shopping tips.

Retailers and producers

Some firms provide their customers with booklets and brochures on a variety of consumer
topics such as safety, value for money and so on. They also give information concerning the
products they sell, for example, how a product is made and care of the product after purchase.

Specialist advice
In many instances when buying a new item, especially one of a technical nature, it is
wise to get an expert’s advice on what to look for. When buying a new or used car one
should seek the advice of a mechanic. When buying a computer, especially a second-
hand one, it is worth asking advice from an expert.

Consumer information provided by government

The Ministry of Consumer Affairs in most islands provides consumers with information
on many consumer goods. Such information includes:
• grade and size of goods
• prices of consumer items
• desired standard of goods
• health and safety requirements.
Consumers should make use of all the above sources of information if they are to buy
intelligently.

FACT Shopping for the best buy

How to spend We have seen that an intelligent and informed consumer makes a decision about what to
wisely buy in order to gain the greatest satisfaction for money spent. How can the consumer make
such a decision? How can he or she ensure that the money is wisely spent? Once you have
Here are some general
rules that would help you
all the information you need to make your decision, there are other steps to take.
spend wisely:
1. Take your time. Ways of buying goods (influence of new technology)
2. Buy at the right time. There are today a large number of ways of buying goods. Choice must be exercised again
3. Compare prices and to make sure that you use the most convenient or the most cost-effective method. Many
service. consumers have more choice of payment methods than were available in the past. The
4. Look for a genuine
first choice is between paying by cash or using modern technology.
sale.
5. Avoid impulse Buying with cash (including cheque or debit card)
buying.
This is the simplest method of buying an item, especially if you are walking round to
6. Examine what you buy. your local store and hoping to walk away carrying the goods under your arm. Cheques
7. Know brand names. usually count as a cash transaction as long as they are backed by a cheque guarantee
card. Buying with a debit card (as opposed to a credit card) may also be viewed as a cash
8. Look for unit pricing.
transaction now that plastic cards are so widely available. Automatic Teller Machines

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(ATMs) are available in a wide range of retail outlets, as well as outside banks, and these
offer an easy way of drawing cash from your account.
The general acceptability of cheques and debit cards instead of notes and coins affects
the security of our money.
• Cash is easily lost or stolen. The use of cheques and plastic cards reduces the
amount of cash a consumer needs to carry in his or her pocket or purse. However,
someone who is paid in cash and does not have a bank account may have no choice
but to use paper money rather than a plastic card. Because of the prevalence of credit
and debit card fraud, some people prefer to pay by cash rather than using a card.
• Cheques cannot easily be used fraudulently since the thief has to forge the
account holder’s signature on each cheque. This is easier if a debit card or cheque
guarantee card is stolen at the same time, and that is why banks recommend that the
guarantee card and the cheque book are kept separately.
• Debit cards can also be stolen, but a signature is required, which must be compared
with that on the card by the retailer. Increasingly a PIN (personal identification
number) is used with debit cards, using special machines held by retailers for the
purpose. Thus, in order to use a debit card the thief may need to gain access to the
cardholder’s PIN as well. Again, this is why banks recommend that the cardholder
memorises the PIN rather than writing it down.

Buying on credit
Most consumers today purchase at least some articles
through credit. This means that they buy something
today and agree to pay for it another time. There are
different ways of buying on credit.
• Hire purchase enables the purchaser to take
possession and enjoy the use of the article bought,
while the merchant continues to own them until full
payment has been made. A written contract called the
Hire Purchase Agreement is entered into between the
purchaser and merchant. This is a contract to hire or
rent the goods specified in the agreement, and gives
the hirer the option to acquire ownership when all
instalment payments have been made.
• Credit trading. In this system of purchase, the buyer
owns the goods at the time of purchase but pays later.
Some large stores offer Budget Accounts to customers
who agree to pay fixed monthly sums against the
outstanding balance on their accounts. Providing
regular payments are made, a customer may be
permitted to buy between six to eight times the
amount of their monthly instalments. The full
A debit card being used in a clothing store amount must be repaid in six months in some cases,
a year in others. In credit sales under deferred terms a
deposit and regular instalments are made by
customers, but ownership of the goods passes immediately to the buyer. The goods
cannot be repossessed if the purchaser defaults, but the merchant may sue for
recovery of the amount due.

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• Check trading. Members of a group agree to pay weekly or monthly subscriptions

to collectors who call at their homes. On payment of the first instalment a member
is given a check or voucher which entitles him to make purchases from specific
retailers, up to 20 times the amount of his instalment payment.
• Credit cards allow the holders to purchase goods on credit from any supplier who
is then paid by the bank issuing the card. The bank then charges the cardholder in
due course. When goods are purchased using a credit card, the retailer often seeks
authorisation from the issuing bank before allowing the transaction to go ahead.
Consumers can also draw cash (to a stated amount) from any branch of the bank
issuing the card and from ATMs. A credit card typically offers free credit if you pay
off the balance each month. Interest only accrues when the customer pays off only a
portion of the balance.

Advantages of credit buying to consumers

• They are able to have immediate use of the goods
whilst paying for them.
• People with small incomes find it easier to pay weekly
or monthly instalments than to save the full amount
discuss This
before purchasing the goods.
ACTIVITIES

• The customer is in a strong position should the goods

1 Discuss with your family the way they pay for their
prove to be unsatisfactory.
goods and services and report back to the class.

Disadvantages of credit buying

2 Draw up a family budget with help from your family. • Consumers are tempted to buy goods beyond their
You don’t have to give actual figures as they are means and, in many cases, agree to monthly or
confidential to your family. Make two columns, one
weekly payments which they cannot meet.
showing a pretended income from any members of
the family, another showing what has to be spent on • Consumers pay interest when buying on credit and
essential matters like food, clothing and housing. they are also losing the interest which would accrue
Make it as realistic as you can. if they had saved for the item in a bank deposit or
savings account.
• The customer cannot always insist on good quality
to the same extent as when he pays cash and he may
have a limited choice when buying goods on credit.

Mail order
Many items can be purchased through a mail order catalogue. Payment may be made
by cheque or sometimes using a debit or credit card number, particularly if the order is
made over the telephone. Many mail order firms allow you to examine the goods for a
short period and send them back if they are not suitable. Some provide prepaid returns
labels so that the customer does not have to pay for returning goods.

E-commerce
Shopping online offers many benefits to consumers which they would not find by
shopping in a store, supermarket or by mail. For example, the internet never closes
and is open seven days a week, 24 hours a day (the so-called 24/7 facility). Consumers
can shop at their leisure from the comfort of their computer chair and payments can be
made electronically by means of a credit or debit card.

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However, many consumers are wary of doing business via the internet for a number of reasons:
1. There is no one set of consumer laws governing internet transactions. If the business from
which you are buying is based, for example, in the USA or Canada or the UK, the consumer
laws you are accustomed to in your own country may not apply. You may have greater or
less protection than you are used to and such protection will be more difficult to obtain if
you need it. Because the traditional legal framework does not operate in e-commerce, it is
not easy to know where to turn for redress when things go wrong.
2. Many consumers believe (probably rightly) that the goods and services offered
on the internet may not be fairly described and there is no means of redress for
misrepresentation of goods.
3. International e-commerce requires people to form contracts online that are legally
binding. However, identities are not easy to establish, since an e-mail address does
not reveal enough information to determine who the person is or where they are
located. In addition, not many countries have passed laws that recognise electronic
contracts as legally enforceable agreements.
4. Online transactions usually require the consumer to supply personal information
which is then stored in the company’s database. Since the internet is an open network
and largely unregulated, questions of privacy are raised, as consumers’ personal
information can be stored on several databases. This is covered in some national
legislation, but the provisions do not cover online transactions.

Buying locally
ACTIVITIES

1 Use each of the following terms correctly in a Many Caribbean countries are encouraging consumers
sentence: to buy locally-produced goods rather than imported
a) consumption; b) production; c) disposable income; ones. There are several reasons for this:
d) devaluation; e) advertising; f) e-commerce. • Locally-produced goods provide employment for local
people by supporting Caribbean businesses.
2 Write a letter to a friend who is setting up a business
explaining how the price mechanism works. • Locally-produced goods avoid the transport costs
(both financial and environmental costs) associated
3 a What do we mean when we say a consumer
with imported goods.
‘seeks to maximise his satisfaction’? What is
intelligent buying? • Imports drain our countries of foreign exchange,
b Suppose you are considering buying an expensive whereas locally-produced goods are part of the
item such as a car, a computer or a piece of national economy. This is a particular problem with
garden machinery. foodstuffs. Many Caribbean countries are spending a
i) Draw up a plan detailing what information you large proportion of national income on importing food
need before you can decide on the model you when it would be better to be producing food locally.
want and the company you will buy from. Local food is also fresher and therefore contains more
ii) Say what steps you will take to ensure that you vital vitamins and other nutrients which tend to
get the best product at the best price you can. disappear when food is stored in transit.
iii) Decide what method you are going to use to
buy and pay for the item.

Consumer protection
4 Discuss in class whether shopping online or buying
Consumers today are recognised throughout the world
locally-produced goods is the commerce of the future.
of business as of vital importance to the economic
prosperity of the region. The concept of ‘fair trading’
discuss This – fair both to businesses and to the consumer – is now
accepted by most governments in the Caribbean.

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Governments’ role in protecting consumers

Consumer protection and the CSME

The CARICOM Single Market and Economy was aware from its inception that
consumers were and are essential to development in the CARICOM area. The revised
Treaty of Chaguaramas (see Chapter 7 of this book and the information box on page
306) provides for consumer protection, and CARICOM is aware that the enforcement of
Find out whether (or when) national legislation on consumer rights is vital. At a workshop held on CSME in 2004,
consumer protection Dr Steven McAndrews, an expert on consumer affairs, stated that ‘the effectiveness of
legislation has been consumer legislation lies in its enforcement’.
passed in your country or The arrival of the CSME has encouraged CARICOM countries to move on with the
territory. drafting and implementation of consumer protection legislation and this has now been
passed in most CARICOM countries.

CASE STUDY
The Barbados National Standards Institution
The Barbados National Standards Institution (BNSI) is 7 to be custodian of the national standards of mass, length,
the national standards body of Barbados. It is a joint capacity, time, temperature and electrical measurement
undertaking between the government and the private sector.
8 to certify products, commodities, processes, services
It is a non-profit benevolent organisation and is a member
and quality systems that conform to national standards
of the International Organisation for Standardisation, the
International Organisation of Legal Metrology, the Pan- 9 to publish certification marks of any design with details
American Standards Commission, the Inter-American the Institution thinks necessary to represent conformity
Metrology System, the CARICOM Regional Organisation for to a standard
Standards and Quality and the Affiliate Country Programme
10 to maintain laboratories for testing and conducting
for the International Electrotechnical Commission.
investigations or research as necessary
The main functions of the Barbados National Standards
11 to test precision instruments, gauges and apparatus to
Institution are:
determine accuracy and to calibrate standards used in
1 to prepare and promote standards relating to structures, industry and commerce
commodities, materials, articles, services and other
12 to collect and disseminate information on standards
things offered to the public commercially
nationally, regionally and internationally
2 to establish and publish a standard for any article,
13 to coordinate the efforts of producers and users for the
process or service
improvement of their materials, products, appliances,
3 to recognise standards set by any other standards processes, methods and services
institutions or bodies recognised by the institution
14 to do anything else that is necessary to provide
4 to promote standardisation, quality assurance and standardisation in Barbados.
simplification in industry and commerce
There are 48 mandatory BNSI specifications and codes
5 to facilitate the implementation of standards in Barbados of practice, relating to health, public safely, food and
environmental protection.
6 to revise any national standard process, practice or
service, as necessary
Source: http://www.bnsi.bb (accessed August 2012)

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National ministries and institutions

We saw earlier (page 300) that the Ministry of Consumer Affairs provides consumers
with information on products and services. Other functions of the Ministry may be:
• regulation and control of prices
• setting of standards or quality control
• regulations governing labelling
• regulations governing production and sale of food, beverages and use of drugs.
In some countries a national consumer protection agency exists to introduce, monitor
and promote national standards for producers and traders. There is a Consumer Guidance
Council in Trinidad, for example, and Bureaux of Standards in Trinidad and Tobago,
Barbados and Guyana. The case study on page 304 tells you about the Barbados National
Standards Institution.

The Caribbean Consumer Committee

Delegates from seven nations (Jamaica, St Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, St Maarten, St
Kitts, Barbados and Guyana) make up the committee which was launched following the
2002 Caribbean Consumer Conference. At the meeting, new activities to give impetus
to the growth of the consumer movement in the Caribbean were planned by the CCC,
including increased opportunities for representation, training and communications.
CCC delegates also circulate an electronic bulletin of consumer-movement news to
groups and individuals in the region, coordinated by the Consumer Affairs Commission
of Jamaica.
The CCC has members from government consumer protection agencies (in Jamaica,
St Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago) and NGOs (in Guyana and St Maarten). In St Kitts
and Barbados, where formal groups do not yet exist, representation is conducted by
individuals active in consumer defence.

Fair trading commissions

Individual states have their own fair trading commissions which aim to ensure that
Caribbean wide rules are operated in their territory.

The Jamaica Fair Trading Commission

This was set up in 1993 to administer the fair trading act which encourages competition
and tries to ensure that larger organisations do not undermine the operations of smaller
businesses.

The Barbados Fair Trade Commission

The function of the Barbados Fair Trade Commission set up in 2004 is similar in dealing
with all aspects of business and commerce. There are also individual commissions that
can deal with particular types of business.

The Guyana Commission

This set up a group to look into competition in the airline and cement business areas and
recommended the setting up of a Caribbean wide organisation to develop cooperation
between all states.

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FACT
Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas – consumer protection provisions
ARTICLE 184: Promotion of Consumer Interests ARTICLE 185: Protection of Consumer Interests
in the Community in the Community
1. The Member States shall promote the interests of consumers The Member States shall enact harmonised legislation to
in the Community by appropriate measures that: provide, inter alia:
a. provide for the production and supply of goods and a. for the fundamental terms of a contract and the implied
the provision of services to ensure the protection of obligations of parties to a contract for the supply of goods
life, health and safety of consumers or services
b. ensure that goods supplied and services provided in b. for the prohibition of the inclusion of unconscionable
the CSME satisfy regulations, standards, codes and terms in contracts for the sale and supply of goods or
licensing requirements established or approved by services to consumers
competent bodies in the Community
c. for the prohibition of unfair trading practices, particularly
c. provide, where the regulations, standards, codes such practices relating to misleading or deceptive or
and licensing requirements referred to in paragraph fraudulent conduct
(b) do not exist, for their establishment and
d. for the prohibition of production and supply of harmful and
implementation
defective goods and for the adoption of measures to prevent
d. encourage high levels of ethical conduct for those the supply or sale of such goods including measures
engaged in the production and distribution of goods requiring the removal of defective goods from the market
and services to consumers
e. that the provision of services is in compliance with the
e. encourage fair and effective competition in order to applicable regulations, standards, codes and licensing
provide consumers with greater choice among goods requirements
and services at lowest cost
f. that goods supplied to consumers are labelled in
f. promote the provision of adequate information to accordance with standards and specifications prescribed
consumers to enable the making of informed choices by the competent authorities
g. ensure the availability of adequate information g. that hazardous or other goods whose distribution and
education programmes for consumers and suppliers consumption are regulated by law are sold or supplied in
accordance with applicable regulations
h. protect consumers by prohibiting discrimination
against producers and suppliers of goods produced in h. that goods or materials, the production or use of which
the Community and against service providers who are is likely to result in potentially harmful environmental
nationals of other Member States of the Community effects, are labelled and supplied in accordance with
applicable standards and regulations
i. encourage the development of independent consumer
organisations i. that producers and suppliers are liable for defects
in goods and for violation of product standards and
j. provide adequate and effective redress for consumers.
consumer safety standards which occasion loss or
2. For the purpose of this Part, ‘consumer’ means any person: damage to consumers

a. to whom goods or services are supplied or intended to j. that violations of consumer safety standards by producers
be supplied in the course of business carried on by a or suppliers are appropriately sanctioned and relevant
supplier or potential supplier; and civil or criminal defences to such violations are available
to defendants.
b. who does not receive the goods or services in the
course of a business carried on by him. Source: caricom.org

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CASE STUDY

Guidelines for cell phone dealers in Guyana

Home Departments Services Standard for Public Comments Publications News Contact Us

Guidelines established for cell phone dealers

• Standards Corner The Guyana National Bureau of Standards (GNBS) monitors cellular phones under the National Standards
Compliance Programme to ensure that quality handsets are offered to consumers. As a result, Importers
• Application Forms and Dealers are required to comply with the following guidelines governing the sale of cell phones.

• Photogallery
Cell phone Importers and Dealers are required to register with the Guyana National Bureau of Standards
(GNBS) annually during the period of January to March. In addition, permits issued by the GNBS must be

• Vacancies
conspicuously posted up at sales outlets.

• Cell phones offered for sale must be labelled accordingly, NEW, USED or REFURBISHED, in addition to any
• Affiliates other labelling requirements, so as to guide consumers when making purchases.

• Cell phones should be sold with necessary accessories, such as an original charger, an original battery and
• National Building an original operational manual, which must be in English language.
Codes
• Dealers of cell phones should offer written warranties to consumers when making purchases, which must
specify the conditions of the warranty. Warranties offered to consumers must be honoured by Dealers in
a timely manner in the event of a problem. In situations where a manufacturer warranty is provided to the
Dealer, the duration of warranty issued should not be less than one year on a handset. However, in situations
where a manufacturer warranty is not issued, the duration of warranty should not be less than six months.

• New and refurbished cell phones offered for sale should be free from scratches and the screws and housing
must be free from blemishes. In addition, the life timer, call list, message inbox and outbox should not have
evidence to indicate that the phone was in use prior to the sale of same.

• Cell phones sold to consumers must be tested at the time of purchase and consumers must be sensitised
on the features of the phone and the correct manner of usage. In addition, consumers must be given the
opportunity to properly examine their phones before the transaction is finalised.

• Written receipts must be given to consumers at the time of purchase to authenticate the transaction.
• Importers and Dealers must ensure that their staff is properly trained and competent to advise consumers
accordingly. In addition, personnel manning the business in the absence of the Importer or Dealer must be
capable of providing consumer redress when necessary

.
Source: http://www.gnbsgy.org/index.php/standards-corner/86-guidelines-established-for-cell-phone-dealers
ACTIVITIES

Read the case study and answer the questions. 3 What documentation must be given to consumers by
sellers?
1 What requirements for cell phones labelling has the
Guyana National Bureau of Standards laid down? 4 How do you think these guidelines will help consumers?

2 What is the aim of the Bureau’s new guidelines?

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Caribbean Consumer Council

In 2005 the Caribbean Consumer Council was set up under CARICOM to include all
15 members of the Caribbean community and it aims to coordinate the efforts of the
consumer protection movement in each CARICOM member state.
.It includes members of government and non-government organisations and through
the council individual consumer groups will be able to push Caribbean governments to
pass legislation on regulating domestic businesses, especially those which are accused of
selling poorly labelled or improperly manufactured products.
There are many individual consumer groups in individual states. They have their own
interests but sometimes come together in a Caribbean wide campaign. One of those
aimed to protect organic farmers and food buyers from what they saw as the dangers of
genetically modified food products from the United States.

Food and drug regulations

Food and drug regulations are part of consumer protection and are set and operated
by individual states and through CARICOM. They aim to ensure the safety of food and
drugs for consumers and increasingly their concern has been the production, processing
and consumption of harmful drugs, legal as tobacco and alcohol, illegal as marijuana
and other addictive and harmful drugs.
Consumer groups are also known as pressure groups because they aim to put pressure
on regulating bodies in individual states and in the Caribbean as a whole.

RESEARCH This
Consumer responsibilities and rights
ACTIVITIES

1 a Find out whether your country Most consumers are ignorant of their rights and responsibilities.
or territory has a bureau However, knowledge of the rights and responsibilities of consumers is
of standards or institute of very important if consumers are to get the best value for money spent. Let
standards like the Barbados us first look at your responsibility as a consumer.
National Standards Institute
or the Guyana National Bureau
of Standards. Responsibilities of a consumer
b Research the work done by • To be informed. This is perhaps the most important responsibility of a
this institution and write a consumer. As a consumer you must make sure that you obtain and use
case study describing its role all information available to you. How many consumers read the labels
in consumer affairs in your on products they purchase? To be an informed consumer you should
territory. continually learn about the many goods and services available.
• To be honest. As a responsible consumer, you must be as honest
2 Read the list of consumer with business as you expect business to be with you. For example, you
responsibilities and describe should be as quick to tell the cashier that you have received too much
situations where each one might change as you are to say that you received too little.
be used.
• To be reasonable if you are complaining that your rights have been
3 Write a letter of complaint to a violated. If, as a consumer, you are dissatisfied with the goods or
shop from which you bought a service which you have received you should make your complaint to
faulty carpet. Describe how it has the trader in a reasonable manner. Be sure you first have a genuine
worn out in a very short time, what cause for complaint, for example make sure that you have followed
it is like now and state what you
the directions for using the product before complaining. When you
expect the shop to do about your
are sure you have a good cause to complain, do so in a calm manner
complaint.
and avoid any angry or threatening behaviour.

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• To report unethical business practices to protect other consumers. Your own

responsibility to be ethical demands that you do not buy black market goods which
are often stolen, or counterfeit goods which are illegal copies of brands that have cost
producers time and money to develop.

FACT Consumer complaints

If you buy something, or receive a service from someone, that turns out to be substandard
Rights of a or faulty, there are a number of avenues for complaint. Normally it is best to complain
consumer in the first instance to the dealer or store where you bought the product because in law
• To be informed. To your contract is first and foremost with them. They should replace an item that has
be given the correct become faulty within the guaranteed period, for example. Consumer law varies from
information needed country to country in the region (see the section on consumer protection on page 306),
to make an informed although there is a move towards harmonising these laws as part of the CSME. It is
choice.
important to know what your rights are. If complaint to the retailer fails, then you may
• To safety. To be have to take the matter up with the manufacturer. In most countries there are ways
protected from goods of pursuing a complaint if the retailer or service agent and the manufacturer are not
and services that are
willing or not able to deal with the matter satisfactorily.
hazardous to health
and life.
• To choose. To International regulation of consumer rights
be assured of the
availability of a
variety of goods United Nations guidelines
and services at In 1985 the United Nations General Assembly drew up guidelines for consumer
competitive prices.
protection which stated that all consumers are entitled to the following rights:
• To be heard. • Satisfaction of their basic needs
To be assured
that consumer • Safety
interests will be • Education and information about their rights and about the products they consume
fully considered by
government when • Protection of their economic interest
laws are being made • Redress in the case of substandard goods or services
and enforced.
• Standards by which goods and services should be judged.

In order to provide these rights, these guidelines call upon governments to:
• formulate national food policies to ensure adequate food supplies for all their citizens.
These policies should include the development, maintenance and improvement
of safety measures to include food standards, dietary requirements and effective
mechanisms for monitoring those measures.
• develop safety measures which have the backing of national legislation and should
include product records and voluntary codes and standards
• design and implement consumer education programmes to enable citizens to make
informed choices and be aware of their rights and responsibilities
• ensure consumers can secure optimum benefits from their economic resources and
protect them from practices that damage their economic interest
• enable consumers to obtain goods that meet production and performance standards
• ensure that manufacturers, distributors and others involved in the provision of goods
and services respect the established legal standards

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• make clear the responsibilities of producers to ensure their goods meet reasonable
consumer demands, for example for durability and reliability, and suitability for
their intended purpose. There should also be reliable after-sales service and a supply
of spare parts.
• establish and maintain legal and administrative measures to provide consumers
with suitable redress either through formal or informal procedures
• formulate or promote standards, voluntary or otherwise, for the safety and quality of
goods and services, and give these standards appropriate publicity.

Thrift
The word thrift means saving, or refraining from spending now so as to be able to
purchase something in the future. In every consumer’s financial plan there should be
some provision for saving. Saving does not mean piling up money for its own sake but
putting money aside for specific purposes. People generally save:
• for emergencies, for example loss of job, illness
• to buy something they want in the future, for example
a home
• to provide for the future, for example old age.
The amount saved depends upon the income of the saver
and on the reason for saving.
Figure 9.3  Savings institutions The diagram shows some of the traditional ways of
financial saving. We will look at each one in turn.
Commercial
Banks
The Su Su or Meeting Turn
Su Su or Credit The Su Su or Meeting Turn was brought to the Caribbean
Meeting Turn Union by our African ancestors. In a Su Su or Meeting Turn,
a group of people decide to contribute a fixed sum to a
common pool. The pool is given to a different member in
turn at each meeting (monthly, weekly, etc.) until each
member has had a turn. The main advantage of the Su Su
SAVING is that it is a form of planned saving, allowing members
to purchase some commodity sometime in the future by
making small monthly or weekly savings.

Friendly Societies
Friendly
Insurance Friendly Societies provide help to members and their
Societies
families when in need or upon the death of a member.
Trust They take voluntary subscriptions from their members,
Companies
usually within specified minimum and maximum limits.
Friendly Societies have become a more general savings
society in modern times and often attract tax savings or
other preferential treatment.

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Credit unions
These link people with a common bond, for example workers in a particular industry
who pool their savings by depositing them in the credit union. These savings are
then used to provide members with low-cost loans in time of need. Credit unions are
especially important for people on low incomes as they help them to save and allow
them to borrow small sums without paying high interest rates.
Legally a credit union is a corporation registered officially (for example, with the
Registrar of Cooperatives). In other words, a credit union is a business but it is run by
volunteers. Credit unions are democratically run, with directors and other officers being
elected by the members. There is usually a committee (also elected) which approves
loans. To join a credit union, a member buys a share for a few dollars which entitles
What do you think are the
him to full membership. As a member or shareholder he is entitled to one vote as is any
benefits of Su Su, Friendly other member.
Societies and credit unions
Credit unions, Friendly Societies and Su Su may also be thought of as financial
for savings and thrift?
cooperatives. There is more about credit unions in the section on cooperatives later in
this chapter (page 314).

Trust companies
A Trust Company is both a source of savings and investment. It uses the funds of
shareholders to invest in stocks and shares. It allows the saver to spread his risks over
a wide range of industries. Shareholders receive dividends which are paid out of the
dividends received by the trust from its investments.

Commercial banks
Commercial banks have been, since their establishment in 1694, one of the main avenues
for the acceptance of savings. Commercial banks accept deposits from their customers
for safe keeping and for lending. They offer three main types of accounts to depositors:
• Current accounts allow the holder to draw cheques on their account. No interest is
paid on current accounts.
• Time deposits are accounts into which money is paid with the intention of leaving
it in the bank for a specific time period, from three months to 10 years or over.
Interest is paid according to the sum and the length of time. The larger the sum and
the longer the time, the greater the interest.
• Savings accounts are designed for small savers who save mainly for a ‘rainy day’, or
to provide for future consumption. Interest is paid on savings accounts.

Other investments
If you have sufficient funds at your disposal, you may consider investing money in
others ways. Many companies and some parastatals offer shares or securities which can
earn a dividend, which represents a proportion of the profits. The value of the shares
and the dividend may go up or down according to the financial state of the company.
Governments and major organisations may allow citizens to buy bonds, which are less
likely to rise or fall in value than securities, but which offer a rate of interest rather than
a dividend.

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Conservation
Good money management
Another way of thinking of thrift is in environmental rather than financial
Here are some guides to good terms. Recycling schemes, reuse of materials and other similar methods that
management of money: reduce waste are also aspects of having a thrifty attitude to life. (See Chapter
6, page 217, for more on recycling.)
1. Set goals based on what is important
to you.
Money management
2. Rank goals in order of priority.
Wise management of money is necessary if householders are to gain the
3. Provide for basic needs. greatest satisfaction from their incomes. Money management does not
mean pinching pennies, doing without things and not having fun. It
4. Save money for future expenses.
means getting the most out of your money. It means careful planning,
5. Make wise decisions when you buy.
saving and spending. It means deciding what you want and what you can
afford.
6. Get the most out of the things you buy
by using them properly.
Personal budgeting
7. Live within your income.
Budgeting is essential to good money management. A budget is a short-
term financial plan and shows how money should be spent and how
much money was actually spent. It is
a means of carrying out the larger and
general financial plan you have made
and helps you use your money as you
wish, making sure that it goes where
you want it to. It tells you what you can
afford and what you cannot.

An example of a personal budget

Fred Smith is working for $800 per
month, has to pay rent of $250, light $30,
phone $35, and wants to save $50 per
month. His personal budget would look
something like the budget on the left.

The effects of globalisation and trade liberalisation on

consumers
Globalisation and trade liberalisation mean that companies compete with each other
worldwide. Goods are produced using the cheapest sources of raw materials, wherever
in the world they may come from. They use cheap labour and/or machinery and benefit
from economies of scale. Prices of raw materials and goods are driven down.
• Consumers benefit from cheap and decreasing prices of goods such as clothes and
electrical goods.
• Local industries have to improve their quality and efficiency to compete and this
benefits consumers.
• Liberalisation means that imported goods are no more expensive than local products.
• Consumers can afford a wider range of goods and services.

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• Consumers can purchase goods on the internet or by telephone and use cards or
money transfers rather than cash or cheques.
• Consumers have access to websites comparing prices and quality of goods and so can
make more informed decisions.
• Local businesses may be forced out of business by competition from imports,
especially from developed country manufacturers, so reducing choices.
Caribbean businesses need to respond to the challenges of globalisation by improving
efficiency, resourcing and absorbing technological change and new practices.

Consumers’ role in sustainable national and regional

development
Without buyers of goods and services, producers of those goods and providers of services
would not exist.
Modern economies are based on the expectation of public consumption. Unless people
have income, and the confidence to spend it, economies collapse. The period from
2007 has been a period of international financial crisis partly because international
banks have been on the verge of collapse. Unemployment rose sharply and the fear
of unemployment rose even more sharply. Consumption of most goods and services
declined causing a cycle of further recession in economies. By 2012 the problems had
not been solved.
Consumers can contribute to the sustainable development of the region by:
• buying from local and regional manufacturers and service providers, instead of those
based overseas, to support local businesses and ensure local development, and to avoid
bringing goods long distances across the world. This also creates local employment
which benefits everyone by raising living standards and tax revenues in the region.
• being aware of the issues concerning regional integration and sustainable development
• buying locally produced organic food and other items produced in a sustainable way. This
avoids ‘food miles’ – transporting foods by sea or air using energy and emitting carbon.
• finding out more about how the goods they buy are produced, the resources, energy
and methods used and choosing those which have less impact on the environment,
for example whether the fish they eat has been caught in a sustainable way
• refusing to buy items with excess packaging, especially plastics
• complaining to companies about excess packaging and other wastes of resources
• reusing and repairing items rather than discarding them
• recycling as much as possible, such as paper, cardboard, glass, aluminium foil and plastics
• investing in local environmentally sustainable businesses.

Benefits of saving
Saving benefits both the saver and the national and regional economies. Personal benefits
include a feeling of security in the present and for future. By building up a pot of money
through regular savings, individuals and families can protect themselves from the worse
effects of emergencies, by being able to get a new roof or buy medicines, and buy time,
for example time to get a new job if made redundant. Savings give people choices about
how they spend their money, their leisure time, where they can live and other decisions.

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Savings invested in a bank, credit union or other financial institutions receive interest,
so adding to the money available. Savings also enable people to buy large items without
using hire purchase or loans on which they pay interest. So it is cheaper to save for these
products than it is to use credit.
National and regional benefits arise from the investment of savings. Banks are able to
lend money in their deposits to businesses setting up or in need of capital to continue and
expand. This creates employment in the region. Investments in company shares allow
those companies to do the same without further borrowing. Savings in government
schemes such as the Post Office help the government to spend on health education and
development generally. Money in all these reserves can also be used to offer mortgages
to ensure families can buy houses.
By saving and investing in banks and businesses, people can create strong national
economies which will increase tax revenues and enable countries to develop the region.

Cooperatives
A cooperative society is a form of business organisation that is owned
and operated by its members. Owners hold shares of stock as in a joint
stock company. The shares usually have a low value, such as $1, $5 or
$10. The policies of a cooperative are determined by membership votes at
regular meetings. Each member is entitled to one vote, regardless of the
number of shares owned. The main purpose of a cooperative is to serve
its members. Any profits are distributed among the members.

Principles of cooperatives
The idea behind cooperatives goes back to the early 19th century. Much of their
development is also associated with Robert Owen (1171–1855), a cotton-mill
owner, who tried to improve the living conditions of his workers.
The modern cooperative movement dates from the foundation in 1844 of a
Cooperative store in Rochdale, Lancashire, England (known as the Rochdale
Pioneers). Its founders were 28 Lancashire weavers, who based the operation
Robert Owen (1771–1855) of their society on principles which have been copied throughout the world.
The cooperative movement came to the Caribbean between the latter
part of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The church
FACT societies were the first to be engaged in cooperative movements.

Cooperative principles
Types of cooperative
• Open membership
• Democratic control: one vote per
Consumer cooperatives
member irrespective of the amount of
money invested In the Caribbean a number of what are called ‘buying clubs’ can be
• Distribution of surplus in proportion found. These are a simple type of consumer cooperative. A buying
to a member’s purchases club is the joint purchase of a commodity or commodities by two or
more persons. By making a joint purchase a larger quantity may be
• Limited interest on capital invested.
purchased at a lower price. This results in a saving for each individual.
Such arrangements are informal cooperatives, but there are a number
of formally organised cooperatives that act on the same principle. For

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 9   Consumer affairs

Figure 9.4  Types of cooperatives example, the Cooperative supermarket or store is a

much larger organisation with a large membership. It
Consumer cooperatives Farmers’ cooperatives is able to offer better services to members.
Cooperative enterprises are essentially non-profit
organisations, but they are conducted along business
lines. Profits are returned to members in proportion
TYPES OF
COOPERATIVES
to their purchases. For example, if a consumer
cooperative makes a profit of $100,000 in one year
then it will relate this figure to purchases throughout
the year by members which might be to the value of
$2,000,000. The dividend in this case will be 5c in the
Producers’ cooperatives Credit Unions
dollar which means that a member who spends $200

CASE STUDY
CONACADO, Cocoa
Cooperative, Dominican
Republic

The Dominican Republic is one of the

poorest of the Caribbean countries. Its
major agricultural exports are sugar,
coffee, tobacco, and cocoa.
About 40,000 small-scale cocoa
farmers produce 32,000–48,000
tonnes of cocoa a year, mainly for
export. The exports are valued at $33
million to $67 million. Farmers’ income
varies greatly with the world price of
cocoa. On the New York market prices
have varied from as low as $714 a
A farm worker checks cocoa beans drying in the processing area of one of the
tonne in 2000; recovering to a high of
small farmers’ cooperatives in CONACADO
$3275 in the summer of 2008, only to
fall to under $2000 again in the autumn
as a result of the global financial crisis.
CONACADO sells between 6500 and 13,300 tonnes of cocoa a year, about 25% of the total crop. 85% of this cocoa is classed
as organic (grown without artificial fertilisers or pesticides).
CONACADO has 182 small-scale producer associations in eight regional ‘blocks’ with 10,000 cocoa farmers in total. Farms are
small, usually about 4.3 hectares (10.6 acres).
CONACADO was founded in 1988 when cocoa prices were low and it aimed to help farmers combine and export directly to
overseas buyers to cut out middlemen who took a large share of the final price. The organisation aims to improve the lives of its
members by helping to ensure production is of high quality cocoa grown in a sustainable way.

CONACADO and Fairtrade

Conacado is linked to Fairtrade organisations which in turn ensure the farmers receive a fair price for their crop and that part of
the price obtained is used for community projects.
Source: conacado.com

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FACT at the cooperative during the year will receive a rebate of $10 which can be taken in
cash or in the form of shares on which interest will be paid. Cooperatives are also
Benefits of entering the wholesale trade.
cooperatives
• Customers get good Farmers’ cooperatives
quality products at
fair prices and a share In many Caribbean countries farmers’ clubs or farmers’ cooperatives can be found (see the
of all the profits made. case study on page 315). They assist the farmers in such areas as production, marketing and
• Members share in the purchasing. For example, fertilisers are purchased in bulk and sold at a low price to members
democratic control of and, in many cases, the crop is marketed by the cooperative. Such farmers’ cooperatives
the society. relieve the farmer of many of the details of buying and supply his needs for fertiliser, seeds,
• Employment is sprays, boxes and even ploughing.
created within the
ranks of members.
Producers’ cooperatives
• The society is an
Other producers’ cooperatives are associations of workers engaged in a business where
important agent
for saving for a the workers – manual, clerical and managerial – are themselves the owners of the
particular purpose. business. There is scope for this type of cooperative in the Caribbean in such fields as
Many members allow tourism and light manufacture.
their dividends to
accumulate and gain Cooperative societies flourish in many countries, for example Denmark, Russia, Canada
interest until such times and the United States, where they operate as economic units. In the Republic of Guyana,
as they are required. however, cooperatives are central to the political development of the nation. The case
study below explains how Guyana used cooperatives for development.

CASE STUDY
•
Cooperatives in Guyana
In Guyana, cooperatives emerged from self-help projects 3. Pig rearers’ cooperatives supplied Guyana Marketing
and were seen as an extension of the self-help concept. The Cooperative with carcasses.
development of cooperatives was based upon the conviction 4. Consumer cooperatives in the 1980s had a membership
that the former capitalist order was unsatisfactory, thus the of over 12,000, share capital of over $500,000 and
self-reliance and socialism inherent in cooperatives were combined sales of over $5 million per annum.
seen as a solution to the Guyanese legacy of poverty and
ignorance and the ushering in of a new order of collective 5. The Guyana Cooperative Wholesale Society supplied
ownership, control and the distribution of wealth by people consumer cooperatives and also assisted in stimulating
who are, themselves, users and consumers. the production and manufacture of local produce.
6. Workers’ cooperatives gave small groups the opportunity
Guyanese cooperatives grew out of Amerindian customs.
of creating employment for themselves, for example
Then free African slaves pooled their resources, purchased
in butchery, clay-brick manufacturing, handicrafts and
villages and worked them cooperatively. The East Indians on
furniture making.
plantation estates used the extended family as their basic
unit and shared their goods, responsibilities and chores. 7. Housing cooperatives developed housing schemes and
purchased land for houses. They also permitted people
There were several different types of cooperatives: to save deposits for self-help housing.
1. Cane farming cooperatives handled the sugar cane of 8. Agricultural cooperatives were designed to become
peasant farmers. cooperative agricultural communities, engaged in the
2. Fishing cooperatives imported fishing gear, provided production of beef cattle, poultry rearing, honey, cane
wharfage facilities, credit, marketing, repair facilities and and rice production.
handled the production of ice and sale of gasoline. Unfortunately, not all of Guyana’s economic problems have
been solved by their thriving cooperatives.

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 9   Consumer affairs

FACT Credit unions

Benefits of a Credit unions are very common in the Caribbean and are used by many people for
their savings. In the 1840s in Germany, Fredrick Raiffeisen established the first credit
credit union union which made a substantial contribution towards meeting the dire needs of the
• It encourages saving. German peasant farmers who were exploited by unscrupulous money lenders. Today
• It builds self-reliance the movement is a worldwide one.
and self-confidence.
As we learnt earlier, in most Caribbean countries a credit union has to be incorporated
• It fosters a ‘spirit of like a company. For example, the board of directors, consisting of five members, may be
enterprise’ leading elected by all the members. The elected members of the board then choose from within
to improvements in a
their group a president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer. The credit committee,
country.
consisting of three members, may also be elected by all members. This committee is
• It assists in capital responsible for approving loans made to other credit unions which must be approved by
formation.
the board of directors. A supervising or auditing committee makes regular audits of the
• It is a cheap source of credit union’s books and reviews the actions of the directors and the credit committee
loans. to make sure that the law, the by-laws and the resolutions of the members are complied
• It provides a better with. It reports its findings to the directors, the membership meetings and the Registrar
standard of living for of Cooperatives or the equivalent regulating body.
its poorer members
through thrift and A credit union is both a cooperative, operating according to the principles outlined
credit. above, and a financial organisation operating according to good business and financial
• It reduces the cost of principles. Services which a credit union offers to members are:
living to its members. • Thrift – saving facilities
• Loans – lending facilities at low cost
• Education – in credit union principles and financial matters
Can you think of any • Financial counselling
disadvantages? • Leadership development
• Community development.
ACTIVITIES

1 Your class is about to form a cooperative. How would c furniture manufacturers

you convince a doubtful member about the benefits to be d small hoteliers.
gained from joining the cooperative?
4 Read the case study on page 316 on Guyanese
2 a How do the following differ from each other? cooperatives. Do you think that the Guyanese
i) A producers’ cooperative; experiment in cooperatives can be tried by other
ii) A consumers’ cooperative; and countries in the region? Give reasons for your answer.
iii) A credit union. What difficulty do you see in such a system?
b Is it possible for a cooperative to combine all three 5 Choose one particular type of cooperative, for example
research This

types into one society? Explain. fishing, transport, etc. in your territory and examine a) its
c Find out what laws and other regulations govern credit development; b) its organisation; and c) its benefits to
unions in your country and compare these with the its members and to society as a whole.
examples given in the text above and on page 311.

3 State how a cooperative society may help the following

6 Discuss in class how the cooperative movement can:
discuss This

groups in your country:

a contribute to a country’s economic development
a cane or banana farmers
b develop a spirit of self-reliance among citizens in your
b fishermen
country.

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 9   Consumer affairs

CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Consumers are individuals or groups and include • Saving has benefits for the individual, the
consumers of goods and services. country and the region.

• Factors influencing demand include income, • The benefits of credit unions include lower
taste patterns, savings, credit facilities, interest on loans, dividend on shares and
fluctuations in supply, quality, pricing, financial counselling.
advertising and consumer expectations.
• Globalisation and trade liberalisation affect
• Modern technology used to conduct transactions consumers with cheaper goods and services,
includes tele-banking, ATMs, e-commerce, wider choice, widespread use of technology.
internet banking, credit and debit cards.
• Consumers can contribute to sustainable
• Government and other agencies such as the development by giving preference to local and
Bureau of Standards and the Fair Trading regional goods and services, and investing in
Commission protect and educate consumers. local and regional businesses.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Define the following terms: black market, 3 a Write notes for an essay on each of the
budgeting, consumer, cooperative, counterfeit, following:
credit union, fair trading, quotas, thrift, i) ‘The CSME is the best thing that could
investment. have happened for consumers.’ Discuss
this statement.
2 A group of 20 tailors would like to form a
ii) Explain why fair trading is important
cooperative society.
and give three examples of the work
a Give the reasons why they would want to done by Consumer Affairs Departments
form a cooperative society. and Bureaux of Standards.
b List the processes they should go through in iii) What is meant by the term ‘intelligent
order to form the society. consumer’? Describe ways in which
c State the principles they must observe if the you can become this type of consumer.
society is to function properly. b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
d Why is it necessary to observe the principles your notes as an essay paper of between
listed in c above? 1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
structure your essay properly, giving it an
introduction and conclusion as well as the
central part including your main points.

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 10 Tourism

Learning objectives

On completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• define and use correctly terms and concepts associated with tourism
• differentiate between the types of tourism products available in the Commonwealth Caribbean
• identify and explain the factors that influence the development of tourism across the
Caribbean region, including those affecting tourist’s home countries
• analyse the contribution of land based and cruise tourism to the economy of the
Commonwealth Caribbean
• outline employment and career opportunities in the tourist industry
• assess the impact of tourism on the physical environment of the Commonwealth Caribbean
• assess the impact of tourism on the socio-cultural environment of the Commonwealth Caribbean
• evaluate government policies that influence the development of tourism
• assess the contribution of local, regional and international agencies in the development of
tourism
• outline the challenges facing the tourism industry in the region
• describe ways in which tourism can be used to promote regional integration
• describe how communications technology impacts on the tourism industry in the Caribbean.

Terms you should know

all-inclusive resort a holiday where all or most of the services such as transportation, accommodation, meals, beverages
or holiday and entertainment are provided within the price, normally paid for in advance
aviation hub major or central airport serving a region, from which regional air routes provide onward transport to
more remote areas
cruise passenger person travelling on a cruise ship
diversify move from single-product economic activity to multi-product, for example developing a tourist industry
rather than depending on sugar or bananas
excursionist a local tourist travelling on a day trip within his or her local area or a foreign tourist who goes out on
excursions or day trips from the place in which they are staying
domestic tourist one travelling in his or her home country
economic leakages revenues from tourism are leaked out of the country into other country’s economies to pay for
infrastructure such as hotels built by foreign companies, imported food and other inputs
economic linkage tie-up between two different industries, for example tourism and handicraft
excursion special visit paid by tourists to a particular attraction in addition to their normal activities
home porting cruise ships which have a home port in the region and take visitors to and from that port for their holiday
host country country visited

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 10   Tourism

informal sector the sector of the economy where employment is casual or where people are self-employed
international tourist one who visits the Caribbean from overseas
nature tourism
(eco-tourism) tourism in order to watch wildlife or visit natural attractions
sports tourism tourism in order to watch or participate in sports such as cricket, fishing or scuba diving
health tourism tourism to visit health spas or to undertake health treatments
heritage tourism tourism to visit historical and cultural events and places
marketing tourism identifying and satisfying the needs and wants of tourists in order to persuade them to buy the products
regional tourist one who travels within the Caribbean region
supply country home country from which the tourist has travelled
time share type of accommodation that is part-owned by a number of different people who each take turns in
staying there
tourist a visitor on vacation
tourist attraction the combination of any element, event, or activity – either natural or created by humans (for example a
cave or a carnival) – which, regardless of its original function or use, is now considered to have such a
degree of appeal that it attracts people to visit it
tourism product the total package and experience which the tourist buys including accommodation, food, transport,
activities, entertainment, shopping and other goods and services
tourism sector sector of the economy in which workers are providing a service for tourists or marketing tourism products

What is tourism?
Tourism can be defined in several ways. Tourism is the movement of people from one
place to another for a short period of time, usually for leisure. In this book we also use
the term to mean the services provided by people in a host country (for example a
Caribbean island) to people from another country who come to visit, usually on vacation.
• Tourism may be international; when tourists come from countries outside the region.
Many tourists come to the Caribbean from Europe and from North America.
• It may be regional; when tourists from one Caribbean country visit another.
• It may be domestic; when people simply take a vacation in a different part of their
own country.

Tourism and its products

The tourism industry covers all the businesses, small and large, which exist to serve
tourists’ needs during their stay. Tourism products are the experiences and facilities
provided for tourists by the tourist industry, such as the natural benefits of the sunshine,
the sandy beaches, the sea itself, and special events: festivals, tourist attractions and
other experiences offered to tourists during their stay in the region. We shall look at
some of these in more detail later in this chapter. These tourism products include
Suggest some experiences niche products, such as wedding and honeymoon facilities, diving and whale watching,
that can be termed which have a particular appeal to a narrow market segment.
‘tourism products’.

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 6   Physical
10 resources
  Tourism

ACTIVITIES

Picture study
The diagram below is called the ‘Tree of Tourism’. Pay careful attention to its trunk, branches and roots. What does each tell
you about tourism? Look around the outside of the branches. What is the diagram telling you about tourism?

Figure 10.1  The tree of tourism

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 10   Tourism

FACT
The Tree of Tourism
Tourism consists of three basic economic elements. accommodation and amenities such as water sport facilities
and access to heritage festivals. In providing these services
1  The demand he or she is motivated by the desire for profit.

The demand or market which consists of the user, in other

3  The destination
words the tourist, who is looking for an experience.
The tourist encounter or experience takes place in the
2  The supply destination. The community at the tourist attraction may
depend more or less entirely on tourism for economic and
Facilities, attractions and other tourism products such social development, increase in employment, and a better
as excursions are generally provided by a supplier. The quality of life.
supplier provides, for example, transportation, food,

The tourist distribution system

Economically, the tourism product needs to be brought to where the demand is. There
are two types of distributing channels:
1. Direct marketing by producers such as hotels and airlines.
2. Indirect sales through an intermediary. This may take place via a short channel,
for example airlines selling their product through travel agents to tourists, or a long
channel, for example airlines selling their product via tour operators or travel agents
and on to tourists.

Why people travel

In their early history human beings travelled as conquerors and explorers seeking new
lands, riches, freedom and adventure, or to discover the secrets of nature or experience
new cultures. As pilgrims, people travelled to religious shrines and temples.
A visit to family and friends is today one the major motivations of travel, where people
seek to renew old acquaintances and to rest. Escape is another motivation of many of
today’s tourists; escape from the routine of daily life, freedom from care and concern,
and the need for a change. For some tourists, a major motivation is escape into the
fantasy world the holiday destination appears to offer. Almost all tourists are looking
for recreation of some kind, but some are more interested in learning about the culture
and environment of the host country than others.

Types of tourism
Tourism products in the Caribbean are as varied and diverse as its people. All our
different ethnic nationalities and cultures have blended to produce a modern, vibrant
and extensive range of experiences for the tourist. The umbrella term ‘tourism’ therefore
includes many different type of experience, such as:
• sun and sand
• natural environments
• eco-tourism
• health tourism

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• sports tourism
• cultural and heritage tourism
• community-based tourism
• special events tourism; (music, art, crafts)
• cruise tourism.

Sun and sand

Caribbean islands are renowned for their beaches and
sunshine. Many people come from Europe, the USA and
Canada to escape cold, grey, sunless winters to enjoy
our sunshine. Many are content to spend most of their
holiday on beaches or by swimming pools, doing little
but swimming, reading and enjoying the sunshine. Their
visits to towns, nature reserves or other attractions are a
secondary feature of their holiday.
‘Sun, sand and sea’ (three Ss) tourism was originally
the main drawing card for tourists, since our islands
are surrounded by sea with beautiful shorelines and
beaches, and blessed with warm tropical climates year
round. With the three Ss concept, tourists come to enjoy
activities such as swimming, sunbathing and water
sports, especially during the Northern winter season in
the USA, Canada and northern Europe.
This kind of tourism makes use of our natural resources
of sunshine, warm temperatures, attractive beaches
and warm seas. This was the first kind of tourism in
the Caribbean and most Caribbean countries cater for
some of this kind of tourism. Often tourists stay in all-
A beautiful beach on Aruba inclusive resorts where everything is provided and
paid for in advance. Consequently only a small part of
what the tourists spend enters the local economy through the wages of people working
in large resort hotels and those supplying food and other necessities.
This kind of tourism is usually found in areas with beautiful sandy beaches. The north
coast of Jamaica, especially around Montego Bay and St Ann’s Bay, and the west coast
Where are resort hotels around Negril, have many resort hotels of this sort.
found in your country?

Natural environments and eco-tourism

Others tourists come to visit natural environments and enjoy outdoor activities. They
come to enjoy our forests, mountains, wildlife, rivers and reefs. They visit National
Parks and Reserves and may go walking, horse riding, kayaking, rafting, scuba diving
or snorkelling. They enjoy bird watching and looking for wildlife such as butterflies and
wild flowers. Often they are happy to stay in less luxurious accommodation such as
hostels or cabins in the mountains.
Tourists who visit the islands of the Barrier Reef and the Maya Mountains in Belize
are mostly nature tourists. They come to see the rare animals such as manatees and
leopards, and natural features such as the Blue Hole.

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For some tourists, their main aim is not only to enjoy the environment but also to help
preserve it. They are the eco-tourists. Other names for eco-tourism are ‘green tourism’
and ‘soft tourism’.
Eco-tourists are keen to make as little adverse impact on the environment as possible.
They want to help preserve the unspoilt natural environment by visiting it and
sometimes take part in conservation projects during their stay, such as planting trees or
counting bird numbers. Accommodation needs to be small in scale and fit into the local
environment. Food and drinks must be locally sourced and energy should be supplied
using alternative methods, such as solar powered hot water.
This has been one of the fastest-growing sectors in the Caribbean and examples can
be found in Guyana, Belize and Dominica. Less developed countries with unspoilt
rainforest areas are particularly suitable for eco-tourism. In some places, such as Belize,
specially constructed eco-lodges or hotels have been built to cater for eco-tourists with
a range of wildlife experiences.
Eco-tourism is being developed in Dominica where there are high mountains still
covered in rainforest and protected by National Parks and Reserves, such as the Morne
Trois Pitons National Park. There are no large resorts and tourists stay in small hotels,
villas and guest houses. Energy is provided by hydro-electricity powered by many rivers
and there are attempts being made to grow organic food.

Health tourism
This is the term given to provision of health facilities and treatments. Many of these
utilise the natural resources of the region, in particular natural mineral waters and the
climate. It may also include special provision for health treatments or recuperation from
illness, fitness, yoga and other activities. Health tourism was probably the first form of
tourism in the world and dates back to Roman times (the town of Bath, in England, was
famous for its mineral springs).
In the Caribbean health tourism varies from medical tourism in Cuba, which has a
reputation for high quality health care at low cost, to Dominica which offers low cost
cosmetic surgery, rehabilitation services in Antigua and fertility treatment in Barbados.
Traditional spa resorts are available in a variety of countries including St Lucia and
Grenada and there are natural hot sulphur springs in Jamaica and the lesser Antilles
including St Lucia and Martinique.
This is a growing sector of the tourism industry as people in Europe and North America
seek medical treatments overseas for speed and to save money.

Sports tourism
This refers to a type of tourism that has as its main purpose either:
• engaging in sports or sporting events as a player
• attending a sporting event as a spectator or players’ supporter
• performing other duties resulting from a sporting event such as sports journalism or
sponsorship.
Examples of events that attract sport tourism are international golf championships,
international (Test) or regional cricket matches and sailing regattas.

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The Caribbean’s main resource for sports tourism is its

warm seas, ideally suited to many different water sports,
along with warm sunshine which makes outdoor events
more enjoyable. There are annual regattas for yachts
and speed boat races, sea fishing competitions and other
events. There are beaches for volley ball and coral reefs
for diving and snorkelling.
The Caribbean already has major sports facilities and
venues such as world class golf courses. The Cricket World
Cup of 2007 was held across the region and there are
excellent facilities in Jamaica, Trinidad and elsewhere.
In addition Caribbean peoples the world over are known
for their sports prowess in cricket, football and athletics.
In 2009 CARICOM held a conference on sports tourism
in Barbados and this is a growing area.

Culture and heritage tourism

This tourist experience includes visits to plantation
houses, historic sites and monuments, and cultural
activities that introduce tourists to the local cuisine,
music, dance, folklores, medicinal remedies and so on.
It is therefore primarily an educational and cultural
entertainment product combining the arts in the national
heritage of the country visited.
The Caribbean has a unique and important cultural
Spectators at a Test Match in Port of Spain, Trinidad heritage with exciting events such as Trinidad Carnival
and many interesting historical sites such as the Maya
cities. Heritage tourists are older, better educated and
generally have more money to spend than those who
want two weeks lying on a beach. They are more prepared
to engage with local people and want to learn about our
history and culture.
In order to develop cultural and heritage tourism,
countries and organisations need to provide
information, guides and interesting experiences.
Stories of the past need to be told in an authentic way,
from a Caribbean perspective. Historical sites need
to be restored, interpreted and developed. Sites of
interest include great houses, sugar mills, museums
and galleries, and areas of special architecture such as
old Havana which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Heritage tourism helps to preserve historic buildings and
sites, gives Caribbean people knowledge about and pride
in their histories, and takes tourism inland, away from
the beaches, providing additional rural employment. It is
Altun Ha, an important Mayan historical site in Belize a growth area with room for development and investment
and potential for increased employment.

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UNESCO has a project called Youth Path using heritage tourism to empower youth in
six Caribbean territories including Jamaica, Belize and St Lucia. The idea is that young
people identify and develop heritage sites such as estates and freed slave villages to
provide opportunities for income generation.

Special events tourism

This is tourism centred
around a range of special
activities such as Carnival
in Trinidad, Crop-over in
Barbados, and Garifuna
Settlement Day in Belize.
It overlaps with tourism
related to sports events
and, of course, with
cultural and heritage
tourism. However, in
events tourism people
visit a particular place for
the specific event. They
may come a little earlier
or stay on afterwards too.
There are music festivals in
most Caribbean countries.
Some well known ones
include the jazz festivals
in St Lucia, Puerto Rico
and Barbados, Reggae
Sumfest in Jamaica, and
A dancer in costume at Carnival in Trinidad the Merengue festival in
Puerto Rico.

Community-based tourism
This refers to the ancient practice where travellers were accommodated in homes, hostels
and monasteries. It gets the visitors involved in the life of the community by providing
family-type accommodation (for example bed and breakfast) and introducing them to
local community life and what it has to offer.
Community-based tourism is important in providing income generation opportunities
in rural areas, such as National Parks. It is often associated with wildlife preservation
projects, such as oilbird and leatherback turtle conservation schemes in Trinidad.
It is sustainable and benefits local communities directly, without leakage of revenues overseas.

Cruise tourism
A cruise ship is sometimes called a ‘floating hotel’. Cruise ships usually contain
accommodation for passengers in cabins, dining facilities, and on-board entertainment
such as cinemas and live music, swimming pools and sun-decks. Cruise tourists, called
cruise passengers, travel the oceans in the comfort of a cruise liner equipped with all

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the facilities and amenities of a luxurious hotel. A typical Caribbean cruise offers travel
to at least five destinations calling at a ‘port a day’. For example, a cruise might include
visits to Puerto Rico, St Thomas, Martinique, Barbados, St Maarten and Antigua. This
means that cruise passengers may visit both the Commonwealth Caribbean and other
parts of the region on one cruise.
Because cruise passengers are accommodated on cruise ships rather than staying in local
hotels, their spending patterns are different from stopover tourists. They are more likely
to buy souvenirs or snacks, eat out in a restaurant, and visit a local tourist attraction
rather than paying for water-skiing instruction or ferry trips.
When it started cruise ship passengers tended to be older and rather wealthy, but today
the age range of passengers has fallen and there are even budget cruises. Cruise ships
are one of the largest growing sectors of the tourism market. In 2005, although there
were many ‘cruise lines’ there were only two large companies owning these lines and
running most Caribbean cruises: Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd, and Carnival Corporation.

The advantages of cruise ship tourism

• It provides employment in souvenir
and food and beverage aspects of
tourism.
• It provides revenues to government as
ships have to pay to dock or moor off
shore. They also pay for fresh water
and sometimes a head tax for people
coming ashore.
• It provides income through day trip
excursions and shopping.
• It does not require the development of
large resorts or other infrastructure.
• Tourists get to visit a number of
countries in the region and may
decide to come back for longer to
somewhere they like.
• Less adventurous tourists who
Cruise ship outside Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles prefer to stay in a ’safe’ environment
resembling home, are enabled to
visit the Caribbean and spend money
when they land.

The disadvantages of cruise ship tourism

• Tourists stay for less than 24 hours and have limited opportunities to spend money.
• Tourists do not get any understanding of a country’s people or culture and local
people get few opportunities to showcase their culture.
• Tourists arrive in large numbers so local people may feel that they ‘take over’ small
towns. Because they are only there for a short time locals may feel they have to
hassle for business, be impolite or dishonest in their dealings with them in order to
get money.
• Tourists may be seen dressing or behaving inappropriately and affect local values.

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• Cruise ships have big environmental impacts through discharge wastes into the seas:
oily bilge water, grey water, such as runoff from showers and washing facilities,
ballast water and sewage. It is estimated that a large cruise ship with around 7000
passengers produces over 200,000 gallons of human sewage in a week. So long as
the ship is at least 3 nautical miles from shore these wastes can be dumped untreated
into the sea.
• The pollution from cruise ships damages coral reefs, beaches and sensitive marine
environments.
• They also produce litter, waste from packaging, and hazardous wastes.
• Air pollution from the ships’ engines and incinerators which burn waste can cause
health problems in port and add to global warming.
• A cruise is far more environmentally damaging than a flight, so fly-cruises where
people fly to the Caribbean and then cruise are the most environmentally damaging
kind of tourism.
• Cruise ship tourists move around in large numbers causing damage to frequently
visited sites.
• Expensive facilities such as fleets of buses may be idle for days when there are no
cruise ships in port.
• Economic leakages are larger than for other types of tourism. Cruise ships are foreign
owned and much of the money spent goes out of the country to pay cruise ship
employees, managers, sales people, and costs of building new ships.
• Passengers have everything they need on board and so spend relatively little in the
places they visit.
• Cruise ship companies are very large and powerful so it is difficult for small countries
to enforce anti-pollution laws.
ACTIVITIES

1 Draw a table defining the different types of tourism (eco- firms, for example hotels, restaurants, transport
tourism, heritage tourism, etc.) and give examples of firms serving the nearest airport, cottage industries
each type from your own country or sub-region. catering exclusively or mainly for tourists; and figures
from your national bureau of statistics.)
b In pairs, imagine that you and a business partner are
2 a Find out what grants or concessions are available in starting up a new business in the tourist industry. Draw
your country or territory for businesses starting up up a business plan for your firm detailing your ideas
research This

or expanding in the tourist industry. (Your research for providing tourism products. Explain how you will
might include enquiries at the Ministry dealing with attempt to obtain government grants or concessions.
tourism; a questionnaire or survey for local tourist

Factors affecting the development of tourism in the Caribbean

Where tourists come from – the supply countries

Tourists come from a wide area to enjoy a holiday in the Caribbean. As we have seen, some
tourists are from the region, but many come from other parts of the world. Tables 10.1 and
10.2 show the origins of tourists coming to selected destinations in the Caribbean in 2003
and 2010.

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Table 10.1  Tourist arrivals to selected Commonwealth Caribbean countries by main markets, January to December 2003

Source: Caribbean Tourism Organisation

Table 10.2  Tourist arrivals to selected Commonwealth Caribbean countries by main markets, January to December 2010

Source: Caribbean Tourism Organisation

Recently the Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO) has

ACTIVITIES

suggested that people of Caribbean origin who now live

1 In groups:
in other parts of the world should be targeted as potential
a Study Table 10.1. Work out what percentage of
tourists came to each destination from each of
tourists, since they already appreciate the culture and
the home countries listed. heritage of the region.
b Is the percentage roughly the same for every
territory, or does it vary widely? Can you explain
why?
Tourist destinations – the host countries
All the Caribbean islands and mainland territories attract
2 Compare the two tables. What trends can you see?
tourists to a greater or lesser extent. But their relative
attractiveness depends on a number of factors:
• their profile in the tourist’s home countries, for
example whether or not they are seen as welcoming
and competitively priced

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• whether they are seen as safe – Jamaica has suffered a reputation for crime, and
sometimes high profile crimes against tourists can affect numbers in the following
months and years
• whether they are politically stable
• any disastrous events such as volcanic eruptions or hurricane damage which may
have affected their ability to welcome tourists
• the quality and amount of accommodation they can provide for stopover tourists,
which will be reflected in the price charged
• the number of sites that individually attract tourists, for example Maya sites in
Mexico and Belize, waterfalls in Guyana, beaches in Jamaica or Barbados
• whether they have the necessary infrastructure – clean water, electricity, sanitation,
airports, sea ports and roads.
In addition, practical and financial constraints affecting the level of tourism development
include:
• availability, quality and reliability of water and
energy supplies
research This
• availability of a suitably trained workforce for the
ACTIVITIES

tourist industry, including hotel and restaurant

Examine the tourist industry in your own country or management and staff, local guides and people with
another territory (doing whatever research is necessary) specialist skills such as lifeguards, chefs and water
and answer the following:
sports instructors
1 Is the tourism industry fully developed or is there • adequate human resources for tourism involved in
room for more expansion? What is the balance of marketing and promotion, market research, training
numbers between international and regional tourists?
and other foundation jobs
2 What proportion of national income is received from • adequate security of funding for investment in tourism
tourism? infrastructure, including upgrading water and energy
3 What problems does the tourist industry have, supplies, provision of suitable accommodation and
for example unpredictable take-up of available other facilities, and training.
accommodation and facilities, unreliable funding for
Some attempts are being made to promote the region
investment, poor infrastructure, etc?
as a single tourist’s destination, so that tourists see
4 To what extent could good management of tourism themselves as visiting the Caribbean as a whole, rather
by the tourist boards or other official organisations than merely individual islands or countries. Many cruise
improve matters or help further developments? ships, for example, visit a number of different Caribbean
5 Are transportation and accommodation properly linked? destinations on their voyages.
6 Are relations between tourists and local people good
or strained, and why? Making improvements
7 Is there a tourism association or hotel association? Some of the items above along with other aspects of the
Compare its mission statement with that given for tourist experience can be improved by local action or
the Bahamas Hotel Association in the case study on government policy.
page 344.
• The accommodation offered can be improved by large-
8 Write a case study of a tourism organisation in your scale investment, by encouraging foreign investment,
country. and also by helping local people to improve small guest
houses and build apartments, lodges, restaurants, etc.
• The service tourists receive can be improved by
training in the tourism sector. HEART in Jamaica
runs training for young people entering the industry.

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• The safety and security of tourists can be improved by public campaigns, police
training and perhaps by having a dedicated tourism police as they do in Belize City.
• The quality of water or energy supplies can be improved by government and resorts
working together.
• Ease of travel through ports of entry can be improved by increasing numbers of
immigration and customs officers.
• Disaster preparedness can help to limit the damage caused by hurricanes and floods,
and therefore minimise the disruption to tourism.
Some problems, such as the knock-on effect of the September 11 attacks on the World
Trade Centre in New York in 2001, which caused many US citizens to avoid travelling
to foreign destinations, particularly by air, are beyond local control. Such events can,
however, have a profound effect on tourism in the whole Caribbean region.

Why tourists come to the Caribbean

A number of factors affect the decisions and choices tourists make about where to take
a holiday. These include:
• Economic conditions in the home country, for example disposable income and
ACTIVITIES

immediate future prospects; whether potential tourists can be certain of having enough
Write two letters, one
saved up or easy access to credit in order to pay for a Caribbean holiday. Tourism
a complaint from a
numbers decline in times of recession and unemployment in supply countries.
tourist to a cruise ship
company and another • The effectiveness of promotion and marketing of different destinations,
replying to that partly by travel agents, partly by host countries themselves. If people are not aware
complaint. of the destination or do not see it as somewhere they would like to visit then they
won’t come. The Caribbean region is competing with other long haul destinations
such as South-east Asia, Australia and the USA.
• A destination’s accessibility, especially the availability of direct flights from
the tourist’s home country to the holiday destination or easy access to ports of
embarkation for cruise ships; many cruises involve air travel either outward bound
or on the return journey. The Caribbean is very accessible to much of North America.
For European tourists it is easier to fly from France to French speaking islands such
as Guadeloupe, and from Britain or the USA to English speaking countries such as
Jamaica and St Lucia.
• Cost and availability of transportation. This is closely related to the destination’s
accessibility, but may also be influenced by the ease of transportation in the tourist’s
country, for example whether or not tourists in a location remote from large cities
can access flights to the Caribbean easily. Those countries which are cheaper to get
to will receive more visitors. For example travelling from Miami to the Bahamas
is an easy trip. Belize is only easily accessible from the USA as there are no direct
European flights and this puts off European visitors because it adds to the travel time
and cost.
• Desirability of the tourism product. The profile of the Caribbean region, or
countries within it, influences whether a Caribbean destination will be chosen. If
Caribbean countries are seen as unwelcoming or unsafe (because of the crime rate
or political instability), or tourism is badly managed in the region, tourists will ‘vote
with their feet’ and go elsewhere.

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Uneven development of tourism

It is important to note that the development of tourism in the Caribbean as a region is
skewed. Some countries have developed tourism to a high degree and earn a great deal of
Can you explain this income from the tourist industry, even out of the main ‘high’ season. Others struggle to
phenomenon? What can attract sufficient numbers to justify large-scale investment in the necessary infrastructure.
be done about it?
How the world economy affects tourism
There is a big disadvantage in our dependence on tourism. We rely on people in other
countries being able to afford expensive holidays. We are far from the home countries
of most of our visitors. They have to pay for air or sea transport before they start to pay
for accommodation and services in the Caribbean. From 2008 the global economic crisis
has hit many types of tourism. People who feel their employment is not secure and/or
face rising prices at home have less to spend on luxuries, particularly holidays. They
tend to holiday closer to home and spend less wherever they go.

The economic impact of tourism

As we have seen, huge numbers of tourists visit and/or stay in Caribbean territories
every year. Such large numbers are bound to have an impact on the region. This impact
is both positive and negative, and has a major effect on Caribbean economies and the
physical environment, particularly natural ecosystems.

Economic benefits (the positive impact)

Contribution of tourism to national income

1. Tourism exerts an enormous impact on the economic development of the Caribbean.
It has become a reliable and growing source of export revenue, an important part of
national income, and is a major generator of employment.
2. Tourism transfers income from other countries to the Caribbean in the form of
tourist spending on services such as accommodation and entertainment, and goods
such as food, beverages and luxury items. The total consumption expenditure made
by a visitor during his or her vacation is referred to as tourism expenditure. Some of
this expenditure takes place in the home country, for example payment to a travel
agent and/or tour operator. But much of this will be transferred to the host country
for services consumed during the holiday.
3. This infusion of ‘fresh money’ circulates in the national economy. People working
in the tourist industry or providing tourism products of any kind spend their money
on goods and services locally. Some of their income is also paid into domestic savings
accounts, which provide local investment, though some will go to foreign economies
to pay for imports.
4. The ratio of new national income to initial tourism investment is called the tourism
multiplier. Put simply, if a country invests one million dollars in tourist infrastructure
such as hotels and restaurants and receives three million dollars in new revenue
from tourism, the tourism multiplier is 3.
5. Receipts from tourism act as a substitute for foreign direct investment in countries
which do not attract foreign investment capital. So instead of capital being invested
by foreign businesses in local industries, tourists spend their money on local goods and
services which local people can invest in their own businesses.
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Table 10.3  Visitor expenditure: percentage 6. In 2000 total visitor expenditure in the Caribbean was US$19.8 billion.
share, 2004 In 2004 total tourist expenditure in the Caribbean as a whole was
estimated to be US$21.6 billion and for CARICOM member countries
US$5.9 billion. It had risen to US$27 billion by 2008, and arrivals
declined in 2009 because of world economic problems but increased
again by 5% in 2010.
7. The average contribution in GDP for the CARICOM member countries
in 2000 was 60.34%, ranging from 63.75% for St Lucia to 3.59% for
Trinidad and Tobago (figures extracted from IDRB and CDB reports).
By 2004 this had risen to over 80% for Antigua and over 10% for
Trinidad and Tobago. The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC)
estimated that tourism’s contribution to GDP in CARICOM countries
in 2010 was an average of 12.3%, ranging from only 7% in Haiti to
Source: Caribbean Tourism Organisation
over 78% in Antigua.

Encouraging development
Tourism in the Caribbean has the potential to be a major catalyst for economic and
social development by:
• creating jobs: a particularly important consideration in areas plagued by unemployment
and subject to unmet economic expectations on the part of young people
• providing hard-currency foreign exchange with which to pay for consumer and
capital imports
• generating taxes and other direct and indirect revenue for government, which can be
used to extend educational, health and other public services to the local population
• stimulating activity in the agricultural, industrial, technological and commercial
sectors of the economy that come into contact directly or indirectly with the
tourism industry
• fostering foreign and local investment and capital formation: tourism receipts can
represent an added source of growth for Caribbean economies, if consumption
spending by foreign tourists fuels the development of tourism facilities and investment
in capital goods industries
• encouraging entrepreneurial activity which responds to tourist demand by creating
new businesses within the tourism industry.

Creation of employment
Throughout the Caribbean a large number of people find direct employment in tourism,
more than in any other region of the world. The estimated number of jobs generated by
the Caribbean tourism sector in 2000 was around 900,000, according to the Caribbean
Tourist Board’s 2000 Statistical Report. By 2008 this had risen to 1 million workers
directly employed in the region, over half the workforce in some countries. The creation
of employment as a result of tourism takes place both as direct employment in the
tourist industry itself, and indirect employment through economic linkages to other
industries. There is more about career opportunities in tourism later in this chapter.
• Direct employment involves expenditure on tourism facilities such as hotels and
restaurants.
• Indirect employment and self-employment come about in businesses affected
by tourism in a secondary way, such as local transport, handicrafts and banking.

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Linkages with manufacturing

These linkages occur when
manufacturing outlets supply the
tourism sector with locally produced
goods, such as canned and packaged
food items; beverages; guest room
amenities such as furniture and fittings,
soap, shampoo and paper products; items
for restaurants such as glassware, cutlery
and crockery; hotel equipment and
machinery; and chemicals for cleaning
and sanitation. The manufacturing
sector in the Caribbean is generally still
rather weak and as a result is not always
able to meet the demand for these
goods, some of which have therefore
to be imported. However, a number of
hotels now support local manufacturers
and purchase supplies locally as far as
possible.
Growth of the informal sector
The growth in tourism has led to a growth
of the informal sector of the economy
which includes cottage industries.
The development of handicrafts, in
particular, has been a valuable outgrowth
of tourism. The sector is known as the
informal sector because businesses are
operated on a small scale by individuals
with few if any paid employees. In most
instances these businesses are operated
from home, community centres and
even sidewalks, since the business is
unable to withstand the expenses of rent
and other overheads.
Cottage industries create a level of
economic independence for the owners
and operators. They foster self-reliance
and self-esteem in individuals who
probably would be unemployed. Types
of cottage industry found within the
Caribbean are very varied. They include:
• ceramics, including glazed pottery
and ornaments
• basket-weaving
Handicrafts for sale in Montego Bay, Jamaica
• wood-carving, for example figurines
• lace-making
• embroidery

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• jewellery-making (using local materials)

• painting (on canvas)
• hand painting
• leather crafts, for example bags and
footwear.
The operators and owners of these
cottage industries must meet certain
basic criteria, set out by the governing
body or government department in
charge of tourism in each country. They
are usually issued with a licence, must
have a fixed place from which they
operate (even sidewalk artists) and must
abide by all the operating guidelines set
out with them.

Hand painting fans

Economic leakages from tourism
Economic leakages are the proportion
of the monies which tourists spend on
their holidays which do not reach the
destination country. This is much larger
for some types of tourism than others.
For example, cruise ship tourism and all-
inclusive resort holidays result in larger
leakage than small-scale, community-
based or eco-tourism. This is because the
large-scale businesses such as cruise ship
lines are owned by large international or
foreign businesses.
The following expenses are usually or
often where leakage occurs:
• the cost of flights which goes to
foreign airlines
• sales, packages, agents, promotion
and advertising which go to foreign
companies and tour operators in the
supply countries
Making straw hats in Martinique • salaries for foreign workers such as
managers or skilled specialists, or
workers on cruise ships
• payment for imported goods used in the industry such as construction materials,
imported food and other consumer goods such as bedding and towels, oil for transport
• money paid for all-inclusive packages in the supply country.
Economic leakage is a major problem for Caribbean tourism, partly because so many of
the region’s tourists come on cruises or all-inclusive package holidays.

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debate This
Economic costs (the negative impact)
ACTIVITIES
Although tourism is considered generally to be beneficial economically, there are
Hold a class debate
economic costs attached as well. These include the following:
on the motion: ‘This
House believes that • Increased demand for building land, especially near the coast, causes inflation in
tourism is of benefit land values which may prevent local people from owning land. This is particularly
to the Caribbean true in some of the more exclusive island destinations, but can also apply to beach
economy and cultural front land over much of the region.
life.’
• Change in land use, increasing land prices and the effect of tourist demand, may
make agricultural products more expensive. This affects food prices for local people.
• Wages paid to tourism workers are generally higher than those paid in agriculture.
This attracts people away from agricultural jobs and can affect food production. It
can also cause wage inflation.
• Pressure on tourist-driven imports, such as food, oil and consumer goods. Much of
the food eaten by tourists has to be imported. This means that foreign exchange is
not available for other much-needed items.
• Seasonality. Tourism is not a regular source of income year round in every territory.
The hurricane season in particular affects tourism in those islands most often
affected. Many workers find themselves without employment for part of the year
and are therefore underemployed.
• Problems associated with single-product dependency. These are just as great when
the product is tourism as when it is sugar or bananas. When the economies of supply
countries suffer decline this hits tourism hard because it is a luxury product, not a
necessity. This has a knock-on effect on the economies of Caribbean countries.
• Heavy infrastructural costs, for example to provide and upgrade accommodation and
improve and maintain road transport networks, airports, ports, water, electricity and
sanitation systems.
• The effect on growth of having much of the workface employed in service industries
which cannot easily improve productivity. Skilled labour may not be available to
other enterprises during the high season.
• High levels of government subsidy through tax incentives, funding for training and
subsidies to airports, divert money from other industries.
• Cost of safeguarding the local population, for example preventing too much land
acquisition by non-nationals, creating suitable immigration controls, allowing local
access to beaches and other amenities, protecting indigenous culture.

Careers, employment and opportunities in tourism

The following careers may be pursued in, or are related to the tourism industry:
1. Direct employment: for example hotel manager, chef, restaurant waiter, housekeeper,
receptionist. Some of the more senior jobs are achieved after several years of work
and training, for example after training as a chef most people begin work as an
under-chef or sous-chef before taking up a post as head chef in a big restaurant –
if they are good enough! Casual jobs are also available in hotels and restaurants
cleaning guestrooms and washing dishes.
2. I ndirect employment: for example airline pilot or steward, air traffic controller,
bank or reception clerk, taxi driver, bus driver, delivery man. Your job will probably
involve work in the local economy as well as with the tourist industry. For example

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people fly into the Caribbean on business as well as for holidays. Unless an airline
steward is employed with an airline specialising in holiday flights, for example one
that is wholly owned by a tour operator, he or she will be working with business
people as well as tourists, and with local people flying out-island to visit friends or
relatives elsewhere in the Caribbean.
3. Self-employment: hotel proprietor, café owner, taxi driver or owner, handicraft
worker, grocery supplier. Some self-employed people are primarily engaged in work
related to tourism, for example the handicraft worker, most of whose goods are bought
by tourists. Others, such as grocery suppliers, will probably sell to local businesses and
individuals as well. Some of these types of work, such as embroidery or clothes design,
require a high level of training. Others demand business expertise and flair.

Training and qualifications

The most important asset in seeking direct or indirect employment in tourism is a good
general education. Without literacy and numeracy skills, opportunities are very limited.
Completion of primary and secondary education opens up the possibility of every kind of
employment. There will then be special training for each type of job. There are tourism
and hospitality training institutes in many countries in the Caribbean, as shown in the
box below.

Caribbean Tourism and Hospitality Training Institutions

Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda Hospitality Training Institute

Aruba Aruba Hotel School

Bahamas University of the Bahamas

Bahamas Hotel Training College

Barbados Barbados Community College/The Hospitality Institute

The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill

Belize University of Belize

Galen University

Sacred Heart Junior College

St John’s College School of Professional Studies

Bermuda Bermuda College

British Virgin Islands H Lavity Stoutt Community College

Cayman Islands International College of the Cayman Islands

Dominican Republic Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra (PUCMM)

Universidad APEC

Universidad Central del Este UCE

Universidad Nacional Pedro Henriquez Urena

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Caribbean Tourism and Hospitality Training Institutions

Grenada T A Marryshow Community College

Career Development Foundation Limited

Guyana University of Guyana

Jamaica Runaway Bay HEART Training Institute

Excelsior Community College

Knox Community College

Brown’s Town Community College

Montego Bay Community College

University of Technology (UTECH)

University of the West Indies Institute for Hospitality and Tourism Management

Northern Caribbean University

Tourism Product Development Company

College of Agriculture, Science and Education

Moneague College, Jamaica

University College of the Caribbean

Puerto Rico University de Sagrado Corazon (USC)

Universidad Catolica de Puerto Rico

University Interamericana Recinto de Ponce

University Interamericana Recinto de Aguadilla

Caribbean Hospitality Training Institute

St Vincent and the Grenadines St Vincent and the Grenadines Community College

St Lucia Sir Arthur Lewis Community College

Trinidad and Tobago University of the West Indies, St Augustine

University of the West Indies – School of Continuing Studies

Trinidad and Tobago Hospitality and Tourism Institute

Tobago Hospitality and Tourism Institute

US Virgin Islands University of the Virgin Islands

Venezuela Universidad Nueva Esparta

University of Venezuela

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More general training in careers such as engineering, accountancy and book keeping is
available in our post secondary education institutions. Training for self-employment is
ACTIVITIES

no different from training for direct employment. The same skills are necessary.
Choose a career which
might attract you in
the future and find out Employment conditions
what special skills are These vary with the type of employment. That can vary from insecure selling of souvenirs
needed, how you can on the beach to highly paid secure employment with a good salary and pension scheme
get the correct training in an internationally known hotel. Even in the most permanent facilities employment
you require and how can be on a casual seasonal basis depending on the number of tourists booking in.
to obtain funding if
you want to set up a The best employers will employ as many people as possible on a permanent contract
business or cottage with the right to join a trade union and a guarantee of a year round job. It is not possible
industry. for everyone to be employed on that basis when occupancy varies with so many factors
detailed in earlier paragraphs.

The impact of tourism on natural and socio-cultural

environments
In this section we are thinking about not only the impact of tourism on the physical and
natural environment but also its socio-cultural impact.

Tourism and the natural environment

It is inevitable that the mass arrival of tourists will have an impact on the natural environment.
• New hotels, marinas and airports are built destroying coastal and other areas
including important wildlife habitats.
• There is increased use of beaches, beauty spots and heritage sites affecting wildlife.
• Air pollution is created by the emissions of exhaust gases from vehicles and aircraft.
• Noise pollution is created by more road and air traffic.
• A greater volume of solid waste, because of the influx of visitors, can cause waste
disposal problems.
• Water and marine pollution is caused by liquid waste disposal and cruise ship activity
(see page 328).
• Wildlife ecosystems may be affected by the presence of greater numbers of people
near them.
All these have a significant impact on the environment.

Construction and resort development

Construction of hotels, resorts, marinas, golf courses, and infrastructure such as roads,
airports and sewage plants destroys forests, mangrove swamps and other important
habitats. Often wetland areas are reclaimed and important wildlife habitats are lost.
• Mangroves, lagoons and beaches protect inland areas from the worst effects of
hurricanes and storm surges. When they are lost, damage is more severe.
• Mangroves provide nurseries and feeding grounds for small fish which in turn
provide food for larger sea creatures. Sea grass is necessary for manatees to thrive.
When these plants are destroyed, the wildlife tourists come to see is gone.

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• Land reclamation changes tidal patterns and removes wetland wildlife. Wetlands are
also useful in preventing flooding and this protection is lost.
• Deforestation causes soil erosion and silting of rivers downstream. This silt is carried
out to sea and destroys off-shore reefs and their wildlife.

Resource use
Tourists from developed countries use far more resources such as fresh water, electricity
and transport than locals. Increased demand for water, not only for washing but for
irrigating golf courses and filling swimming pools, may affect rivers and groundwater
aquifers, affecting wildlife and local people. Demand for seafood for example, may
result in over-fishing.

Pollution
Tourists produce huge amounts of waste which need to be disposed of safely. Often it is
not, and solid and liquid waste pollutes the environment.
• Solid waste disposal puts pressure on landfill sites, but in the long term there is a
need for much more reuse and recycling.
• Litter pollutes beaches, towns and countryside, and plastics in particular do not
decay and can kill animals and marine life.
• Sewage is often simply discharged into the sea, causing health problems for humans
and destroying wildlife.
• Air pollution is caused by aircraft, cruise ships, and other vehicles and this causes
respiratory diseases locally as well as adding to global warming.
• Noise and light pollution (lights left on at night so the stars cannot be seen) affect
wildlife and humans. For example lights can prevent turtles from laying their eggs
on beaches and reduce turtle populations.
• Coral reefs can be destroyed by boats anchoring or people stepping on them when
snorkelling, as well as by pollution and removal of corals for souvenirs.

The impact of destruction of the natural environment on tourism

This impact is of concern to Caribbean governments across the region. Environmental
degradation not only damages the surroundings for local people, but discourages tourists
from coming, thus lowering the amount of national income from tourism, bringing
unemployment and a general lowering of living standards in a stagnant economy.

Preservation of the natural environment

Much good work is being done to conserve both the natural environment and our
cultural heritage by organisations such as the Caribbean Conservation Association, local
National Trusts, such as the Trinidad National Trust, and national governments. Some
hoteliers are building eco-friendly or ‘green’ hotels which use solar or hydro power, buy
local rather than imported organic food and generally do as much as possible to reduce
their impact on the environment.
Laws are being brought in to safeguard reefs and other sensitive areas and prevent
pollution. Many countries have designated National Parks, Marine Parks and Reserves,
for example the Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park, the Cockpit Country

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Reserve, the Negril Marine Park and the Ocho Rios Marine Park in Jamaica. Increasingly
governments and environmentalists are demanding environmental impact assessments
for all new developments. Local organisations such as the Audabon Society in Belize, and
international non-government organisations such as the World Wildlife Fund and
UNESCO do their best to protect the environment by working with government and
tourist operators, raising funds and educating local people.
Sometimes there are conflicts between environmentalists and tourism developers.
Often local people are caught in between, wanting to preserve their natural environment
but also understanding the need for employment and economic development.

The socio-cultural impact

Tourism also has a significant impact on the socio-cultural environment
of the region. This may be both positive and negative.
• At its best tourism provides opportunities for cultural exchange,
for example through shared enjoyment in festivals or tourists being
groupwork
helped to understand local environments or culture by guides, or
ACTIVITIES

sometimes by homestays.
1 In groups, consider the
• Local arts and crafts may be revitalised, giving local people the chance
environmental impact of tourism
in your country, giving details
to enjoy traditional culture along with the tourists. This can provide
of problems that have followed opportunities to increase and pass on skills to the next generation. It
the development of the tourism can also provide opportunities for people to earn a living through arts
industry. Try to suggest solutions and crafts, and develops pride in our culture.
to these environmental problems. • Local people have the opportunity to meet people from other parts of
the region and the world, and learn new ideas and cultural concepts
2 Read the list of socio-cultural from them.
impacts of tourism. Group these • Local people’s enjoyment of their own country, for example beaches,
into positive and negative impacts. and beauty spots, may be impaired by over-crowding, by hotels
Are any of them both positive and insisting on exclusive beaches or by pollution.
negative?
• The influence of tourist lifestyles and values may be damaging,
especially where these demand higher incomes than local people enjoy.
3 Find out more about a
conservation group, either a
• Local culture may become commercialised and consequently
regional one like the Caribbean devalued. Sometimes younger people see traditional culture as old
Conservation Association or the fashioned and irrelevant as they take on board the western influences
National Trust in your territory, if brought by tourists.
there is one, or an environmental • Land prices may increase so that it is difficult for locals to buy land
conservation group. If there is a or housing.
local branch of the organisation,
try to help them if you can by • It is difficult in some families to encourage normal work habits when
becoming a member or by helping some people involved in tourism receive more in tips than people can
with some of their activities. earn in more arduous employment.
• In some cases local people are banned from hotels and restaurants
research This designed for tourists.
• Local people may resent tourists and even returning nationals, who
appear to be much more wealthy. Local people only see tourists when
they are relaxing and on holiday and may be drinking too much
or lazing about. This gives a poor impression of people who may
otherwise work hard all year at home.

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• Some local people may become alienated from or indifferent to tourists and tourism.
Others may be enthusiastic to engage in cultural exchanges and see the value of
tourism to the economy.
• Tourism provides increased opportunities for locals to gamble and also bars
for drinking.
• The sex trade has serious effects on morals, the economy and health. Some tourists’
main purpose in coming to the Caribbean is to enjoy and often to pay for sex. Older
women are attracted to young boys as well as men being attracted to both girls and
boys. Earnings from those in the sex trade can be greater than in most occupations.
Sexual diseases are spread not only to the sex workers but also to their local contacts.

Crime
To many locals every tourist seems rich and many are in comparison to local standards.
Some of our people want to take advantage of that apparent wealth. Crimes against
tourists include much petty theft, some violence, burglary and sometimes even rape
and murder. Crime against tourists is more prevalent in some islands than on others.
Tourists’ visits can be affected when an island gains a reputation for high rates of crime.
Increases in numbers of people coming in and out of a country increase opportunities
for smugglers and the illegal drugs trade. Governments in both host and supply countries
are working together to try to combat this.
Tourism also increases the sex trade.

Government action
Government policies have been put in place to minimise the damage which is done by
tourism but more needs to be done.
• Beach and marine patrols help to preserve the beauty of our coasts and reefs. They
may also prevent local sellers or beggars from hassling tourists and spoiling their
enjoyment. More needs to be done in some places to license and educate boat
operators and prevent reef damage.
• Policing and security patrols try to minimise crime and make tourists feel more
secure. They are also trying to reduce drugs smuggling and misuse.
• Efforts are made to ensure local people are not excluded from facilities in our own
countries, as this can cause resentment and alienation.
• There are regulations against excessive immigration which can destroy local
employment opportunities and against excessive purchase of land by non nationals.
Foreign nationals who want to settle usually have to be able to support themselves
and contribute to the economy.
• Encouraging quality tourism rather than low-end tourism aims to maximise income
while minimising adverse effects.
• Educating local people about the benefits of tourism and encouraging mutual
understanding and respect between tourists and locals is another policy.
• Governments also try to encourage local people to holiday locally. They spend money
just as foreign tourists do and they help to maintain an all year round tourist industry.

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research This
Support services
ACTIVITIES

Support organisations help tourist suppliers to provide services to the tourist industry.
Find out more about There are several different kinds:
the CTO, the CHA and
the CDB and their • Regional institutions such as the CTO and the Caribbean Hotel Association (CHA)
roles in the tourist help to link national and local bodies and raise the profile of the Caribbean as a
industry. tourist destination. Some of these institutions have a long history; the CHA, for
example, has been in existence since 1962.
• Economic and financial institutions help tourism by providing funds, grants and
loans. These may be regional institutions such as the Caribbean Development Bank
and the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank, or outside donor agencies such as the
Organisation of American States (OAS), the European Union and the Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA).
• Training institutions within individual countries serve tourism in the region by
providing specialised training for tourism providers such as restaurateurs and hotel-
keepers. These may be linked with new tourism ventures or other infrastructure
developments such as hotel complexes. For example, a new hospitality training
school planned for Nevis in 2006 is designed to complement the development of the
five-star Four Seasons Resort on the island.

Influences on the development of tourism

FACT
The role of governments in developing tourism
As we have seen, governments can influence the • By putting in place the requirements of a well-developed
development of tourism through policies to promote the tourism industry such as basic infrastructure, physical
country abroad as a tourist destination and develop the and energy resources, trained human resources, and
necessary infrastructure at home. Here are some important overseas and domestic marketing and promotion through
ways in which governments can help to develop tourism: Tourist Boards and government departments devoted
to tourism.
• By ensuring the effectiveness of the local Ministry or
Department of Tourism and its relationship with local • By addressing environmental and social concerns that
Tourist Boards. The tourism industry needs to be well- influence tourist choice, such as the creation of a clean,
managed, well-organised and well-publicised, and well-managed physical environment, including beaches,
official bodies can make a significant difference. Suitable hotels and other tourism sites; combating environmental
policies and sensible strategies for implementing them are degradation; dealing with crime and illegal drug
essential. The actual policies and strategies will, of course, trafficking; maintaining good relations between tourists
vary from territory to territory. and tourism providers.
• By encouraging support organisations, particularly those • By engaging with other countries in the region with
that link various aspects of tourism and promote either regard to cooperation and integration, for example in
national or regional destinations abroad. For example, developing aviation hubs for the region. An aviation hub
the Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO) serves as an acts as a central magnet for tourists, since they can fly in
umbrella organisation for the region as a whole, while more from all major destinations, for example in North America
locally there are various Caribbean hotel associations and or Europe, then travel onward from the hub to more
hospitality training institutions serving their own countries. remote locations. Aviation hubs also benefit the region
The case study on page 344 looks at the work of the by concentrating major flights to and from the region
Bahamas Hotel Association, a national tourist body. into a few large airports, rather than airlines competing
with each other to bring tourists direct from their home
• By working with donor agencies and other sources of countries. However, direct access to holiday destinations
funding such as the CDB, the Eastern Caribbean Central
is popular with tourists, so easy onward transportation
Bank, the OAS, the CIDA and the European Union (EU) to
from the aviation hub is important.
seek investment sources for tourism development.

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What individuals can do to help tourism

CASE STUDY
Bahamas Hotel and Tourism
Association
Mission statement
To serve the needs of the Bahamas hotel
industry by providing a forum to facilitate the
promotion, profitability, quality growth and
security of the tourism industry consistent with
the needs of the Bahamas.

• Objectives: The primary objective of the

Bahamas Hotel and Tourism Association
(BHTA) is to promote, increase and
regulate tourism through the cooperation,
understanding and close association
among hotel owners and operators and
tourism stakeholders in the Bahamas. The
BHTA is registered under the Companies Atlantis Resort Complex, Paradise Island, Bahamas
Act as a private non-profit organisation. It
is the official organisation of the hotel and tourism industry in the Bahamas, and speaks nationally also for companies
engaged in the hospitality industry. In particular, the association seeks to work on behalf of the interest of the hotel and
tourism industry in its relations with the government of the Bahamas.
• Membership: Licensed hotels with five or more guest rooms can take up full membership in the BHTA as Operator Members.
Allied Hotel Membership is available to smaller properties of less than five rooms, licensed to provide lodging for guests. Allied
Membership is also open to those who provide goods and services to hotels, or the hotel industry. Associate Membership
and Honorary Membership are available in exceptional circumstances. Allied membership is open to all non-hotel businesses
who directly or indirectly benefit from the tourism industry. Hotel members range from the very large (for example, 3200
Atlantis Resort Complex) to medium-sized properties like the British Colonial Hilton (288 rooms), all-inclusive resorts like
Sandals Royal Bahamian, and to small hotel boutique, eco-resorts and fishing lodges throughout the archipelago.
The Bahamas Hotel Association marked its 60 th anniversary in 2012.

It is clear that for many visitors the welcome and friendliness of the people of the Caribbean
is one of the most powerful factors influencing their choice of destination. Sun, sea and
sand are all very well, but if a visitor is met with indifference or hostility, he or she will
not enjoy the tourism experience (or product) nearly as much as if he or she is met with
friendliness and enthusiasm. Tourism can be increased by encouraging visitors to return
again or making sure they tell friends and relatives to visit. Individuals can:
• be polite and welcoming and go out of their way to be helpful to tourists
• develop their knowledge of their own culture and environment so that they can
provide useful information to tourists
• take up any training opportunities available to increase their skills
• engage with tourists at informal events such as festivals and make them feel welcome
• avoid being pushy or aggressive when trying to make sales

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• avoid polluting the environment or dropping litter, keeping front yards and public
areas clean and looking good
• help tourists to understand the significance of local customs and events
• keep a look out for pollution and let the authorities know of any incidences
• join local organisations such as National Trusts.
For some local people the arrival of tourists during the high season seems like an
invasion of their home. These local people may feel that although tourists bring money,
some of them are ill-mannered and inconsiderate and do not deserve a warm welcome.
Other locals welcome the chance to meet people from a different culture or a different
island, and are enthusiastic about helping visitors to feel at home.
It is important that the people of the Caribbean view tourism positively. For example,
if we see tourists as people bringing foreign exchange which will enable our country
to import goods we need and invest in new industries and infrastructure, it may
seem worth putting aside our resentments and making an effort to welcome them.
Governments should help local people to see tourists in a positive light, if they wish to
develop the tourism industry successfully.

Summary of challenges facing the tourist industry

• A need for expansion
The Caribbean is likely to remain dependant on tourism as a major contribution to
the economy. Our GDP per capita is still low in comparison with many countries.
If our people are to have higher standards of living we need to attract even more
visitors. There are areas, facilities and activities which could be developed.
• A need to protect our people, our culture and our environment
If there is to be new development all the precautions and types of protection included
earlier in this chapter need to be strengthened

Tourism and regional integration

There is a temptation for individual tourist boards to promote development in their own
territory. Yet people overseas think in terms of the Caribbean as a region. Development
of tourism marketing will be easier, more efficient and more effective done regionally.
At the same time tourism products packaged by individual countries need to be easy for
tourists to find. CARICOM’s Council for Trade and Economic Development (COTED) is
encouraging planning on a regional basis. For example, planning of transport links into
the Caribbean as a whole, between and within territories needs to be regional not local.
Tourist information, advertising and representation overseas increasingly emphasises
the attraction of the whole region. Festivals such as those described in Chapter 2 are
organised on a regional basis.
Aviation hubs where travellers can easily transfer to travel onwards once they have
arrived in the region help tourist development in several territories not just one.

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CASE STUDY
Trinidad Airport Some passenger airline destinations from Trinidad Airport
Trinidad Airport, also known as Piarco
Airline Destination
International Airport, was expanded
in 2001. There are flights from here
to the United States, Canada, Central
America, South America and Europe.
Airlines using the airport include
Caribbean Airlines and Leeward Islands
Transport (LIAT).
The airport can accommodate most
international wide body aeroplanes, as
well as smaller aircraft used for local
flights.

Technology and tourism

Tourism also has an important link with technological developments, especially
telecommunications technology. Many hotels, cruise lines, airlines and travel agents
have a website, so that tourists can view and book online. The widespread use of
computer networks for bookings also means that agents can check availability of flights
and accommodation easily, as the information is updated automatically.

Technological developments that can influence tourism industry

• E-ticketing, a system by which bookings are confirmed by e-mail and no ticket is
issued. Passengers need only produce a reference number and proof of identification
when travelling.
• Internet browsing and booking gives easy access to advertised holidays and allows
travellers to bypass travel agents, shipping firms and airline offices. Potential
travellers can use the internet to find holiday availability, flights and travel times,
compare prices and book their holiday using a debit or credit card.
• Potential travellers can check on reviews of many holidays on websites such as Trip
Advisor and read what other people have thought about their holidays. Care has to
be taken in using these reviews as some are unfair and can ruin the reputation of
a hotel, cruise line or holiday activity. Reading several reviews from several sites
should give a fairer picture.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY
• Tourism may be international, regional or • The impact of tourism on the physical
domestic. environment includes resort development, water
• Tourism products include sun and sand, natural pollution, changes in ecology.
environments, eco-tourism, health, sports, • The impact of tourism on the socio-cultural
cultural and heritage tourism, community-based environment includes effects on land ownership,
tourism, special events tourism (music, art, cultural exchange, influence on lifestyles, language
crafts), cruise tourism. and values.
• Factors that influence the development of • Government and local, regional and
tourism include in the host country: accessibility, international agencies contribute to the
cost and quality of tourist services, safety and development of tourism in different ways.
security, political stability, infrastructure. In the • Challenges facing the tourism industry include
supply country, they include disposable income, funding for investment, marketing, training,
promotion and marketing, accessibility, cost of shortages of skilled labour, water supply, direct
transportation. air access, cruise ship policies.
• Tourism contributes foreign exchange, direct and • Tourism can be used to promote regional
indirect employment and government revenue to integration.
Caribbean economies.
• Modern communication such as e-ticketing,
• There are many employment and career internet booking and information gathering and
opportunities in tourism. advertising can influence the tourism industry.

Check Your Knowledge

1 Define the following terms and concepts: ii) What factors hinder the development
aviation hub; cruise passenger; domestic tourist; of tourism in the Caribbean? Why is
economic linkage; eco-tourism; excursionist; it important that Caribbean countries
heritage tourism; time share. diversify?
iii) ‘Tourism is an unpredictable business
2 You are asked by the Ministry of Tourism to at the best of times.’ Discuss this
draw up an assessment of the possible impact statement with reference to EITHER
of tourism development on a small island tourism in one country OR a particular
in the Eastern Caribbean. The island has a sector in the tourism industry.
small population and is heavily dependent b Choose one of the essay titles and write up
economically on the export of bananas. Write a your notes as an essay paper of between
report for the Ministry with recommendations 1000 and 1500 words. Remember to
designed to help the island avoid the difficulties structure your essay properly, giving it an
often encountered in the development of introduction and conclusion as well as the
tourism, yet reap the benefits tourism can bring. central part including your main points.

3 a Write notes for an essay on each of the

following:
i) How can Caribbean residents improve
relationships between themselves and
visitors to the country?

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 Section C  End of term test

Revise the option you are taking in Section C, pages 260–347. Then use these questions to test your knowledge of your chosen
Section C topic. Choose ONE section of the paper – Part I, II or III – and answer ALL the multiple-choice questions and ONE
essay question from that section. Although the CXC Social Studies options paper does not contain MCQs, we have included
some on each topic to provide practice in this important examination skill.

Part I Communication 
Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)
Each question in this test has four suggested answers, lettered a, b, c and d. Read each question carefully and then choose
the letter that corresponds to your answer. For example, if you think that mobile phones use a) landline telephone cables to
communicate with each other, write down 1a on your answer sheet.

1 In order to communicate with each other, mobile 4 Hieroglyphics are a type of writing used by
phones (cell phones) use a the ancient Egyptians
a landline telephone cables b African cave painters
b radio signals c the Muslim Arabs
c the nearest television transmitter d the people of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean.
d microwave frequencies.
5 The World Wide Web is another name for
2 The telephone was invented by a globalisation
a Alexander Graham Bell b the internet
b Bill Gates c the CNN news network
c George Mead d a television network broadcasting worldwide.
d Cable and Wireless.
6 The letter ‘e’ in e-mail and e-commerce stands for
3 Morse code is a method of communication using a electric
a signal flags b elementary
b letter ciphers c electronic
c hand signals d embedded.
d short and long sounds or flashes

Essay questions
Answer ONE question only.

1 You have been asked to speak to a group of performing artists on the legal aspects of protecting their output.
First, identify TWO types of artistic or creative products that require legal protection and name the national
legislation that covers these products. Next, outline THREE ways in which creative or artistic products are
pirated. Finally, suggest TWO ways in which artists may protect their rights in these products.
Total: 20 marks

2 Write an essay on Caribbean news agencies. First, identify TWO news agencies covering events in the
Caribbean. Next, outline TWO services offered by news agencies and explain why these are essential.
Finally, describe TWO ways in which a news agency may improve the quality of services it provides.
How would these improvements benefit the agency and its customers?
Total: 20 marks

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 Section C  End of term test

Part II Consumer affairs

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)
Each question in this test has four suggested answers, lettered a, b, c and d. Read each question carefully and then choose the
letter that corresponds to your answer. For example, if you think that the black market is c) the sector of the economy dealing
in goods on which no duties have been paid, write down 1c on your answer sheet.

1 The black market may be defined as 4 Hire purchase and check trading are both ways of
a a street market in Jamaica or Barbados a buying on credit
b the market in locally-produced consumer goods b paying cash for goods
c the sector of the economy dealing in goods on c buying by mail order
which no duties have been paid d being an informed consumer.
d employment where trade union membership is
outlawed. 5 Credit unions
a are a type of trade union
2 The price mechanism relates b are a type of cooperative
a the price of imports to the number of exports c are also called Meeting Turn
b prices to goods that manufacturers can make d Link people who have loans with the same bank
c the rate of exchange to the rate of inflation or insurance company.
d demand and supply for goods and services to
prices charged for them. 6 A Trust Company
a is a national charity
3 Product labels provide b is another name for Su Su credit and loan
a a sale-or-return offer for the retailer schemes
b written information about a product c holds someone’s estate in trust for their children
c a guarantee that goods are fit for their purpose d uses the funds of shareholders to invest in stocks
d a record of the product details for the manufacturer. and shares.

Essay questions
Answer ONE question only.

1 As a Consumer Affairs correspondent, write an article for a national newspaper on ‘The benefits of
using locally-produced goods’. First, state THREE benefits of using locally-produced goods. Next,
explain why CARICOM countries are unable to produce sufficient local goods and services, giving
THREE reasons. Finally suggest TWO ways the government can promote the local production of
consumer goods. Explain why these strategies should be implemented.
Total: 20 marks

2 You are asked to address a young people’s club on the subject of producer cooperatives. First, identify
FOUR different types of producer cooperative. Explain THREE ways in which a producer cooperative
helps its members. Finally, suggest TWO ways in which the management committee of a producer
cooperative can inform members about the structure and function of the organisation. State why the
committee should accept these suggestions.
Total: 20 marks

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 Section C  End of term test

Part III Tourism

Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)
Each question in this test has four suggested answers, lettered a, b, c and d. Read each question carefully and then choose the
letter that corresponds to your answer. For example, if you think that eco-tourism involves travel for the purpose of a) taking part
in sport, write down 1a on your answer sheet.

1 Eco-tourism involves travel primarily for the 4 The informal sector of the economy includes
purpose of a cottage industries
a taking part in sport b manufacturing industries
b enjoying ‘sun, sea and sand’ c government employment
c recuperating from illness d mining and primary product industries.
d exploring cultures and natural history.
5 Statistically, tourist numbers are usually divided into
2 Aviation hubs provide a direct bookings and indirect bookings
a centres for tourist air transport b stopover arrivals and cruise passengers
b links for fly-cruise holidays c all-inclusive and bed and breakfast guests
c bird sanctuaries for tourists to visit d hotel, community-based and self-catering guests.
d colleges where airline pilots can train.
6 The economic problem of seasonality arises from
3 The ratio of new national income to initial tourism a variation in the Caribbean climate
spending is called b availability of flights from supplier countries
a the ‘tourism product’ c changing tourist numbers over the year
b ‘uneven development’ d overbooking of hotel accommodation and other
c the ‘tourism multiplier’ services.
d ‘community-based tourism’.

Essay questions
Answer ONE question only.

1 As president of a Hotel Association in the Caribbean, write an article for a regional magazine aimed
at the tourism industry. The article highlights problems with regard to the relationship between
tourists and local residents. Describe THREE ways in which negative behaviour by residents may
discourage tourists from returning to the Caribbean. Give TWO reasons why good relationships
are important. Finally, suggest THREE positive behaviours that residents may develop to improve
relationships between themselves and tourists.
Total: 20 marks

2 Prepare an address for a conference on Uneven Development of Tourism in the Caribbean. First,
describe FOUR features that bring tourists to the Caribbean. Then, identify THREE ways in which
a country can benefit from tourism. Explain ONE way a regional tourism organisation may help
countries or individual businesses to develop a local tourist industry. Finally, give THREE reasons
why the tourist industry has developed unevenly across the region.
Total: 20 marks

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 APPENDIX 1 school based assessment

The School Based Assessment is intended to develop in the candidate an interest in self-
directed investigation and the collection of data in a scientific manner. The execution of the
SBA project should lead to a sense of accomplishment while facilitating the development of
the basic skills of social research.

General objectives
1. To provide the candidate with an opportunity to investigate an area of special interest
within the prescribed syllabus
2. To develop the candidate’s ability to conduct an enquiry and present findings
3. To provide an opportunity for the candidate to apply knowledge and skills to make a decision
4. To provide an opportunity for the teacher to be involved in the evaluation process.

SBA requirements
The SBA component of the Social Studies syllabus is a single guided research project for the
General Proficiency candidates only. The project should be on a topic from one of the following
sections of the syllabus: Individual, Family and Society; Sustainable Development and
Use of Resources; Communication; Consumer Affairs or Tourism. It may be based on
social and economic processes, situations or problems in the school or the immediate community.
The choice of topic must be guided by a specific objective outlined in the relevant section;
for example (Section B–Part II: SO 12) Describe proper and improper practices related to the
sustainable development and use of natural resources and their effects on the environment
and the population.
Every candidate must submit a report on a project. Students may work individually or in groups
to investigate a specific problem. However, each candidate must produce a complete and unique
report. No two reports from the same group should be identical. The report should be between
1000 and 1200 words and should include appropriate charts, graphs, tables and pictures.
The teacher will be required to approve the problem to be investigated, guide the candidate
during the process of investigation and mark the completed work according to the guidelines
provided by CXC. A submission schedule may be worked out based on the tasks below:

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Guidelines for project work

1. Select a problem to investigate and write it in question form. Discuss the problem with your
teacher for approval and guidelines on how to proceed.
2. Explain why the area for research was chosen.
3. Select a suitable method to collect data. This may be a questionnaire, interview schedule,
observation checklist or documentary research.
4. Write out the exact questions that you will use in a questionnaire or ask in an interview.
5. State how you would choose the sample. State the number of persons in the sample, gender,
age group, area of residence, or class in the school and explain how you got the information
from them.
6. Use at least three of the following: graphs, charts, tables, maps, diagrams and photographs
as well as prose to present your data.
7. Analyse and interpret the data in terms of the problem or question asked in Task 1.
8. Write three statements about what you have discovered during your investigation of the
problem.
9. Make at least two recommendations based on your findings and explain how you would
implement one.

A possible SBA project

Structure and main points are given here.

Title page
Topic selected: An investigation into the proper and improper uses of the Rio Pedro by citizens of Eden
Name of candidate: Markland McLean
School: Eden Comprehensive High School
Territory: Jamaica
Year of exam: 2011

Table of contents
• Acknowledgement
• Statement of the problem
• Reason for selecting area of research
• Method(s) of investigation
• Data collection instrument
• Procedure for data collection
• Presentation of data
• Analysis and interpretation of data
• Statement of findings
• Recommendations and implementation strategy

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Acknowledgement
I wish to thank the citizens of the Eden community who provided the invaluable data by completing the questionnaires; the Water
Resources Authority for providing data on the river and access to the gauging station and the Eden Health Centre for sharing
information on the reported cases of waterborne diseases.

I also wish to thank Horace Oakley who acted as a tour guide during the observation stages of the project.

Research question(s)
• What are the main benefits and challenges of using the Rio Pedro in the community of Eden?
• What are the main ways in which residents of Eden use the Rio Pedro?
• What are the problems associated with the improper use of the river?
• How do the residents address the challenges faced in utilising the resources of the river?

Reasons for selecting area of research

The Rio Pedro is a main source of water for the Eden community. Over the years several persons and organisations have expressed
concern over the physical condition of the river. Residents have reported a sinking of the water level at sites along the channel,
especially during the dry season from December to March. The Water Resources Authority has confirmed a decrease in the volume
and a decline in the water quality linked to the increased use of the river by the growing population of the communities that rely
on its resources. The Eden Health Centre has recorded several incidents of waterborne diseases.

In addition the number of persons using the river for recreational activities, such as picnics by outsiders has decreased because
of the fall in the water level and the increased growth of algae. As a result, the researcher decided to assess the use of the river
by citizens of Eden, since community members rely on its resources to meet social and economic needs.

Method of investigation
Questionnaire
Questionnaires were used to capture the opinion of the community members. The method was chosen because:
• it gave the respondents a sense of privacy and a level of anonymity in responses
• it was relatively inexpensive and very convenient as the questionnaire could be left with respondents to be collected later
• it allowed for a larger number of persons to be sampled and for easy collating, analysis and interpretation of the information.

However, the use of structured questions limited the opportunity for residents to elaborate on particular issues that were raised.
Observation checklist
An observation checklist was also used. Direct observation gave the researcher the opportunity for personal assessment of the
physical condition and the use of the river’s resources by the residents of the community. This method allowed for the opinions of the
respondents to be corroborated by the researcher. The limitation of direct observation was that some residents may have chosen not
to behave normally in the presence of the researcher. In addition, the conditions observed during the rainy season, when the study
was conducted, may differ significantly from the dry season, since the river’s volume and condition is affected by rainfall.

Procedure for data collection

The community of Eden has approximately 250 households. A topographic map was used to identify the households for sampling
within a 200 metre distance from the river and the main road. Thirty-five copies of the questionnaire were distributed and 25
were returned. The questionnaire consisted of 15 close-ended questions which were used to gather specific data. Only one
question allowed for free responses from the villagers. Questionnaires were given to villagers from ten years of age and older in
an approximated 50:50 ratio of males to females.

Four sites along a six-kilometre stretch of the river were chosen for observation, based on previously gathered information that
these were the location of activities for washing, swimming and fishing. Sand mining and garbage dump sites were also mapped.

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Instruments used
1 Questionnaire

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

2 Observation checklist

RIVER RESOURCES CONDITION

Poor 1 Fair 2 Good 3 Excellent 4 NA
Water quality
Water level
Banks, bed condition
Sand, boulder load
Groyne condition, etc
Abundance of aquatic plants
Abundance of aquatic animals
Terrestrial vegetation cover

HUMAN ACTIVITY USE

None 1 Slight /few 2 Moderate 3 Extensive 4 NA
Washing
Bathing
Household water
Sand mining
Fishing
Farming
Swimming
Other recreation
Dump sites

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Presentation of data

0
20
edro
RioP
200

N
0 500 1000 metres

Figure 1:  Map of Eden, showing the location of residences along the river

The map in Figure 1 above shows the location of the households in close proximity to the Rio Pedro, in an area of relatively steep
terrain where most of the land is over 200 metres high. The main road through the community follows the river valley. There is no
water catchment or reservoir for storage within the study area.

Figure 2 below is a pie chart showing the main sources of water of the respondents. The vast majority (76%) of the persons sampled
relied primarily on the river. Rainfall and springs accounted for the remaining minority, with 16% and 8% respectively. None of the
residents reported that water was received from the National Water Commission and no pipelines or stand pipes were observed.

The bar chart in Figure 3 shows how often respondents used the river. All respondents used the river but with varying frequency.
Seventeen of the 25 respondents (68%) used the river daily, six reported weekly and two said occasionally.

8% Occasionally
Frequency

River
16% Weekly
Rainfall
Daily
76% Spring

0 5 10 15 20
Number of respondents

Figure 2  Sources of water Figure 3  How often is the river used?

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Figure 4(a)  Clothes washed and placed on stones to dry

It was found out that all respondents used the river for domestic activities:
the most popular of which were washing (60%) and bathing (24%). The
remaining 16% used the river for both activities as well as drinking water.
Figure 4(a) and 4(b) illustrate household uses of the Rio Pedro by the
citizens of Eden.

It was noted that the river was rarely used for recreation as only 28% of
respondents used it for swimming. The photographs below show a popular
picnic site (Figure 5a) and a youth playing ball in the river (Figure 5b).

Figure 4(b)  Collecting water from the river

Figure 5(a)  Picnic site on a meander in the river Figure 5(b)  Youth playing ball in the river

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Fifty-two per cent of respondents reported no economic activity related to the river, while 36% were involved in fishing. Only 12%
stated sand mining as a source of income. However, nine sites of primary and secondary sand mining operations were observed
along the river channel and main road. Figure 6(a) and 6(b) below illustrate sites of activities using sand from the Rio Pedro.

Figure 6(a)  Sand mined from the river deposited along the Figure 6(b)  Block making using sand from the river and
main road other local raw materials

The water level and quality were in a fair to good condition when observed. No garbage disposal sites were identified along the
river channel. Figure 7 shows that the main issue respondents face in using the river was pollution (44%) which led to degraded
water quality.

When asked who they believed was responsible for the problems related to using the river, 48% of respondents blamed outsiders
and 36% stated sand miners. All stated that members of their households had been affected by illnesses linked to the river. Figure
8 below shows the most prevalent illness reported was skin rashes (56%).

12 14

10 12
Number of respondents

Number of respondents

10
8
8
6
6

4
4

2
2

0 0
Pollution Garbage Excessive Low H2O Gastroenteritis Ring worm Skin rash
mining level Medical conditions
Main issues

Figure 7  Main challenges in using the river Figure 8  Medical conditions experienced

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

The data collected showed that residents of Eden have been member of their household had been affected by waterborne
exposed to information on the value and proper use of the Rio illness linked to the use of river. Skin rashes and ring worm
Pedro by local institutions. Sixty-four per cent stated that the accounted for 80% of the complaints. The larger portion of
health centre was their main source of information while the respondents (48%) blamed sand miners, while 36% stated
balance learnt from the school and church. that outsiders were the major contributors to pollution.

None of the respondents stated that education of the citizens

was necessary to reduce the problems associated with the
11% river. Community organisations such as the church, school
Charge and health centre were recognised as playing a role in
polluters imparting information on the proper use of the river. Sixty-four
Ban per cent identified the health centre as their main source of
31% 58% outsiders information. The majority (56%) believed that polluters should
Police pay for the damage they caused while the rest supported a
river ban on outsiders and policing the river as effective measures
to reduce or eliminate the problems.

Statement of findings
Figure 9  Measures to address challenges
The study revealed that residents obtained significant social
and economic benefits from using the resources of the
Respondents indicated that householders (28%), citizens’ Rio Pedro. However, each of these activities could also be
association (40%) and the parish council (32%) must be linked to an environmental or health challenge that faced the
involved in addressing the problems. Figure 9 shows that 58% community. There were varying levels of usage of the river by
of respondents believed that polluters should pay for damages the different households represented in the project.
done to the river while the remainder believed that a ban on
outsiders and policing the river are also appropriate strategies. All households studied used the river, even though with
varying frequency and all reported that some member had
Analysis and interpretation of data been affected by waterborne illness which may be traced to
the river. Washing of household items was the major domestic
The Rio Pedro is a main source of water for 76% of the use reported by 60% of respondents, while approximately
residents studied in Eden, as there are limited measures for 80% of the sampled population also reported that skin rashes
storage and no other consistent supply in the community. and ring worm were the main health challenges that affected
While all respondents use the water from the river, a majority them. Contrastingly, fewer households (12%) used the water
of 68% use this resource on a weekly basis, indicating its for drinking purposes, and consequently the reported cases of
importance to the residents. gastroenteritis were less. The prevalence of these diseases
suggests a direct relationship with using water contaminated
All respondents utilised the river for some form of domestic,
by the different activities in the river.
economic or recreational activity. Washing accounted for 60%
of the reported domestic use by respondents while others Only 12% of respondents admitted to removing sand from
indicated that they used the water for drinking or bathing. The the river, yet 48% blamed this activity for the degradation
only recreational activity listed by residents was swimming of the river. Physical evidence observed supported the fact
which accounted for 36% of the responses. that sand mining was an important economic activity in the
community and had significant health and environmental
A large proportion of respondents (52%) did not derive any
impact. The health centre, school and church provided the
direct economic benefit from the river. Thirty-six per cent
community with information on the proper use and care of
stated that they caught fish from the river. Very few individuals
the river hence residents were fully aware of the causes and
(12%) indicated that they were involved in sand mining as
effects of the problem they faced.
an income generating activity. However, this activity involved
both primary extraction as well as value-added block making Another interesting finding of the study is that even though
operations which were observed in the community. 36% of respondents blamed outsiders for the problems,
all recognised that local organisations including the
There was no single challenge identified by an overwhelming
individual households (28%), citizens’ association (40%)
majority of the citizens interviewed. Significant problems
and the parish council (32%) must be involved in finding and
identified with using the river were pollution (44%) followed by
implementing solutions.
excessive mining (24%). All respondents indicated that some

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Recommendations and implementation strategy

The respondents in the survey recognised that there are social and economic challenges directly related to the improper use of
the river and that the community must play an integral role in resolving the issues. As a result, it is recommended that through
the citizens’ association, residents develop a plan for consistent storage of treated water to be supplied to the community. This
would reduce the use of contaminated water and the incidence of skin and other illnesses that affect residents. Since the level
of awareness among the respondents is relatively high, there should be little difficulty in getting cooperation of the community.

Householders should also invest in individual storage facilities and reduce their reliance on the river.

Residents of the community should also embark on a programme to monitor the water level and quality of the river, as well
as activities such as sand mining which are believed to be major problems. In this venture the citizens’ association could use
information from the Water Resources Authority, as well as their own community checks to determine when the river is at its
most critical state and hence when the chance of persons contracting diseases or losing their means of livelihood is greatest.
This information could be corroborated with data from the health centre which would have records of increasing incidence of
waterborne illnesses.

The citizens’ association should establish a benevolent society to undertake a project for the funding and construction of a water
catchment and storage facility to supply treated water to the community. Data from the health centre and the school may be used
to highlight the incidences of waterborne illnesses. This information may be combined with the water level and quality data from
the Water Resources Authority and community monitoring to develop a project proposal which would be used to seek funding and
technical assistance from national entities such as the Social Investment Fund and international agencies such as the Global
Conservation Fund.

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 APPENDIX 2 Private candidates’ Paper 03/2
This paper is set only for General Proficiency candidates who cannot undertake a research project monitored and validated by
a tutor in a recognised educational institution, and who enter the examination through a local Registrar. Before you try the
practice paper below, read through Appendix 1 on the SBA, as this gives some valuable insights into the type of research skills
that are included in the syllabus. For private candidates these skills will be tested on Paper 03/2.
You will be asked to choose one of two research topics and then to answer questions on the research topic you have selected.
These questions focus on the importance of the topic and how a researcher would collect and interpret information on it. The
second part of the paper consists of a case study with questions set on it.
An answer book is provided in the examination, but here we have laid the questions out in a similar way to other papers. We
suggest you write your answers on a separate sheet of paper or in your notebook.

You must attempt all questions.

Before you start to write your answers, choose ONE of the following topics.
i. The growth of tourism in my community
ii. The provision of pre-school education in my community.

(2 marks)
1 a Give TWO reasons why the topic you have chosen is an important one.
(2 marks)
b Describe ONE objective you would have in researching this topic.
(2 marks)
c Write ONE research question that would help you to achieve this objective.

Total: 6 marks

(2 marks)
2 a Select ONE method that would be appropriate for this research topic.
(2 marks)
b Explain why you think this would be an appropriate method.
(2 marks)
c Describe how you would select a suitable sample for your research.

Total: 6 marks

(2 marks)
3 a Suggest TWO ways you might display the data you collected on the topic selected.
(2 marks)
b Explain briefly why these would be appropriate ways to display this data.

c Describe TWO statistical measures you would use to analyse the data with respect to the research
(4 marks)
question and the research objective identified in questions 1b and 1c.

Total: 8 marks

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 appendix 2
1  Private
  School Based
candidates’
Assessment
Paper (SBA)
03/2

Use the information in the passage below to answer questions 4 and 5.

Researchers at the Caribbean Development Bank studied changes in household size in a small Caribbean island territory
between 1992 and 2001. In 2001 38% of households consisted of a single person (almost 30%) or couples without children,
while 24% were nuclear families, and 12% were single-parent households. The remaining 11% included various types of
extended family households. Nearly 20% of households contained an elderly person.
Only 6% of households contained seven or more persons. The trends identified showed a 29% increase in the proportion
of households containing two persons or fewer, and a much smaller but still significant increase (2%) in the number of
households containing three or four persons. The proportion of households containing more than four people had decreased
by 31%.

(4 marks)
4 a Display the data shown in the survey in a graph or graphs.
(3 marks)
b Explain why you chose this kind of graph for 4a.
(1 mark)
c Identify one type of household included in the category of extended family households.
(2 marks)
d Name TWO methods the researchers may have used to collect the data.

Total: 10 marks

(1 mark)
5 a Write one statement about the data given in the case study.
(2 marks)
b Suggest TWO reasons for the trends described.

c Describe TWO ways in which the research data might be used by the government of the island
(2 marks)
territory.

Total: 5 marks

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 APPENDIX 3 The Choose-a-Job flowchart

First, choose the description or descriptions that best fit you – look for the aspects of yourself
that you think really matter when choosing a job. So, for example, if you are really keen on an
adventurous outdoor job, find those descriptions in the list below and highlight them. People
combine attributes in different ways, but in general the list moves from the adventurous, active
personality descriptions to the quieter, more cautious ones. Some, like ‘creative’ can be combined
with many different qualities. Remember, all these are positive attributes and choosing accurately
will help you look for the right career. If you’re in any doubt, discuss your choice with a friend;
this can be fun to do in pairs, with each partner choosing his or her own descriptions.

Adventurous      Active      Outdoor type

Outgoing      Loves travelling      Bored easily – Needs plenty of variety

Good with engines and machines      Good at making things

Creative      Artistic      Musical

Enjoys maths and working with figures      Enjoys using computers

Likes working with animals      Green-fingered (good with plants)

Practical      Likes helping people      Careful

Indoor type      Shy/quiet      Cautious

Next, think about how you like to work: on your own or as part of a team, for example.
Highlight the description that fits you best. It is possible that two descriptions need to be
combined in order to fit your way of working; if so, highlight both of them.

I prefer to work independently and manage my own work programme.

I prefer to work independently but like to interact with customers and clients.

I like to work alone so that I can concentrate fully on the work.

I prefer to be in charge of a team and make sure the job gets done the way I think it should be.

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 appendix 3
1   The
School
Choose-a-Job
Based Assessment
flowchart
(SBA)

I like to have people around me when I’m working as they keep me focused.

I prefer to be part of a team as long as I can contribute ideas and see that my contributions are appreciated.

I prefer to be part of a team and follow the leader’s instructions.

Now look at the lists of possible jobs. We’ve put these in colour-coded boxes to match the two
lists above, so that you can pick out the kind of job that might suit you, given the choices you
made. The shading colour goes with the first description you chose, and the border of the box
goes with the second description. So, if you chose ‘adventurous’ in the first set of descriptions
and ‘I prefer to be part of a team and follow the leader’s instructions’ in the second set, you could
consider becoming an ambulance driver or a soldier.
You can see that each combination gives quite a wide variety of levels and types of occupation,
and that many occupations occur in more than one box. We have had to simplify some jobs,
as they include a lot of variety, for example types of police work.

Ambulance driver Business entrepreneur Commando Farm worker

Lifeguard Sports professional Surgeon

Marketing executive Lifeguard Paramedic Watersports instructor

Mountaineer Athlete Professional sportsperson Farmer

Business entrepreneur

Army officer Business entrepreneur Farmer Sales manager

Surgeon

Actor Firefighter Lifeguard Private soldier

Surgeon Watersports instructor

Actor Army officer Commando Firefighter

Lifeguard Paramedic Surgeon Watersports instructor

Ambulance driver Farm worker Firefighter Private soldier

Salesperson

Airline pilot Ambulance driver Business entrepreneur Calypsonian

Commando Journalist Media presenter Negotiator
Teacher

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 appendix 3   The Choose-a-Job flowchart

Airline pilot Calypsonian Musician Negotiator

Singer-songwriter Taxi driver Teacher

Archaeologist Journalist Explorer Novelist

Webpage designer

Airline pilot Archaeologist Army officer Business entrepreneur

Journalist Lifeguard Media presenter Negotiator

Party organiser Watersports instructor

Airline pilot Armed forces personnel Journalist Media presenter

Negotiator Teacher

Ambulance driver Private soldier

Craft worker Carpenter Dressmaker Electrician

Engineer Garage owner Plumber

Carpenter Electrician Engineer Garage owner

Plumber Painter/decorator

Auto mechanic Craft worker Dressmaker Sculptor

Factory owner Factory supervisor Garage owner Systems engineer (hardware)

Construction worker Aircraft maintenance worker Factory worker Technology teacher

Dressmaker Engineer Factory supervisor

Auto mechanic Construction worker Dressmaker Factory worker

Architect Book designer Calypsonian Chef

Desktop publisher Dress designer Musician Sculptor
Singer-songwriter

Architect Calypsonian Musician Style consultant

Animator Architect Artist Book designer

Cartoonist Craft worker Desktop publisher Sculptor

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 appendix 3
1   The
School
Choose-a-Job
Based Assessment
flowchart
(SBA)

Chef Conductor Band leader Design manager

Actor Animator Band musician Dress designer

Party organiser

Actor Animator Band musician Dress designer

Florist Interior designer

Animator Band musician Florist

Accountant Auditor Laboratory technician Maths teacher

Meteorologist Statistician Webpage designer

Accountant Auditor Engineering designer Financial adviser

IT consultant Meteorologist Radiologist Stockbroker
Software designer

Accountant Book-keeper Computer programmer Data entry operator

Laboratory technician Scientific researcher Software designer Statistician
Systems engineer Technical architect Technical writer

Auditor Bank manager IT manager Maths professor

IT or maths teacher IT consultant Technical designer

Accountant Auditor Computer programmer Radiographer

Scientific researcher Software designer Technical designer

Computer programmer Data entry operator Laboratory technician Statistician

Farm worker Gardener Geologist Horticulturalist

Kennel maid/man Marine biologist Veterinary surgeon

Florist Horticulturalist Nutritionist Veterinary surgeon

Geologist Kennel maid/man Veterinary surgeon

Chef Geologist Estate manager Farm manager

Veterinary surgeon

Horticulturalist Marine biologist

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Animator Book designer Horticulturalist Marine biologist

Musician Veterinary surgeon

Farm worker Horticultural worker Kennel maid/man Animator

Ambulance driver Builder Building surveyor Carpenter

Electrician Garage owner Hairdresser Laboratory technician
Lifeguard Negotiator Pathologist Plumber
Project manager Psychiatrist Psychologist Security guard
Surgeon Teacher

Administrator Attorney Carpenter Dentist

Electrician General Practitioner (doctor) Hairdresser Hotel receptionist
Lifeguard Medical/dental receptionist Minister of religion Negotiator
Nutritionist Paramedic Plumber Police officer
Project manager Psychiatrist Psychologist Psychotherapist
Radiologist Secretary Teacher

Auto mechanic Building surveyor Copy-editor Laboratory technician

Pathologist

Administrator Garage owner Hotel manager Medical consultant

Project manager Psychiatrist Psychologist

Hospital orderly Lifeguard Negotiator Nurse

School administrator Social worker Teacher

General administrator Minister of religion Negotiator Nurse

Paramedic Psychotherapist Radiologist Surgeon

Ambulance driver Auto mechanic Data entry operator Dressmaker

Hairdresser Hospital porter Laboratory technician Police officer
Restaurant worker Secretary Teaching assistant

Book designer Civil servant Desktop publisher Journalist

Librarian Project manager

Attorney Civil servant General Practitioner (doctor) Judge

Librarian Minister of religion Personal assistant/secretary Project manager
Police officer

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1   The
School
Choose-a-Job
Based Assessment
flowchart
(SBA)

Administrator Book designer Civil servant Copy-editor

Desktop publisher Journalist Laboratory technician Librarian
Novelist Project manager Scholar Technical writer
Typist

Judge Medical consultant Project manager Senior administrator

Senior civil servant

Journalist Media support worker Minister of religion

Book designer Civil servant Journalist Media support worker

Minister of religion Secretary

Chauffeur Civil servant Laboratory technician Library assistant

Secretary Security guard Typist

If you don’t find a job that interests you here, go back and try out a different description in one
of the lists above, or discuss the description with parents, teachers or friends. You may think of
other jobs that haven’t been included here, and if you do then decide what colour coding each
job should have, and put it in your notebook. We have listed more than a hundred different
jobs here, but our list is certainly not complete.
Don’t worry if you didn’t find a job that appealed to you which was also a perfect match
with your descriptions. You are still young and may develop differently in the future. If you
saw a career listed that you thought you would like to pursue, then find out more about it.
We can use our personality traits in lots of different ways – there may well be some special
contribution you can bring to a particular career.

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 Answers to multiple-choice questions

SECTION A
1 d 2 c 3 a 4 c 5 a 6 b 7 c 8 d 9 a 10 d 11 c 12 d
13 d 14 d 15 c 16 b 17 a 18 b 19 b 20 a 21 b 22 d 23 c 24 d
25 b 26 a 27 a 28 b 29 a 30 c

SECTION B
1 b 2 a 3 d 4 b 5 c 6 b 7 b 8 d 9 a 10 d 11 c 12 c
13 d 14 b 15 c 16 c 17 c 18 d 19 d 20 a 21 c 22 a 23 b 24 b
25 b 26 d 27 a 28 a 29 b 30 b

SECTION C

Part I
1 b 2 a 3 d 4 a 5 b 6c

Part II
1 c 2 d 3 b 4 a 5 b 6d

Part III
1 d 2 a 3 c 4 a 5 b 6c

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 appendix 1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

FURTHER READING

• Government ministries and departments in your own national jurisdiction should be able
to give you information and statistics on various aspects of your own country. Some of
these have their own websites, or you can telephone or write for general leaflets and/or
specific statistical data.
• In addition to the sources given in the text for case studies, tables and other extracted
material, the books listed below will help you read more widely on Social Studies topics.
-- UNESCO General History of the Caribbean, Vol. V The Caribbean in the Twentieth Century,
ed. Bridget Brereton. Paris/Oxford: UNESCO/Macmillan Caribbean 2004
-- Marginal Migrations: The Circulation of Cultures within the Caribbean, ed. Shalini Puri.
Warwick University Caribbean Studies series. Oxford: Macmillan Caribbean 2003
-- The University of the West Indies: A Caribbean Response to the Challenge of Change, by Philip
Sherlock and Rex Nettleford. London: Macmillan 1990
For revision and helpful hints for general study, you may find the following useful:
-- Revision Guide to Social Studies, by Janey Fisher. Oxford: Macmillan Caribbean 2013
-- The Smart Study Guide, by Louise Tamblin and Pat Ward. Oxford: Blackwell 2006
• There are a number of useful websites you can visit to find out up-to-date information on
Caribbean and international topics:
-- www.caribbeannetnews.com has current news stories for the whole Caribbean region
-- www.undp.org has useful statistics on various aspects of development
-- www.paho.org has useful statistics on various aspects of health in the region of the
Americas
-- www.CARICOM.org has information on the Caribbean community, with links to other
websites
-- www.cariblife.com is a good source of items on culture and social life in the Caribbean
-- www.carilec.com has information about renewable energy in the Caribbean.

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 INDEX

absolute majority 105, 107 Arawaks 12, 13, 69, 148 illegal drugs 42, 43
acculturation 67, 224, 254 architecture 69 intellectual property 290
see also culture arts 69, 279–80, 291 land use 196, 201
acid rain 220 see also festivals; music mineral resources 205
Acts of Parliament 123, 124 Aruba 22, 59, 162, 196, 337 people trafficking 59
see also legislation assimilation, cultural 67 plantation societies 15
adoption 3, 9 Association of Caribbean States (ACS) political system 107, 117, 125
advertising 277, 278, 295, 298–9 aims 241 and RSS 249
political 113, 262 members 241, 242 suicide prevention 58
Afghanistan 174 Special Committee on Trade teenage pregnancy 32–4, 35
African Caribbean Pacific Group (ACP) 244, Development abd External Economic tourism 22–3, 324, 326, 327, 329, 330, 337
252 Relations 242 trade 225
Africans, in the Caribbean 14 structure 243 water supply 212
culture 12, 14, 69, 70, 87, 94, 149 Atlantic Tele-Network Inc. (ATN) 286 Barbados National Standards Institute 304
marriage 32 Australia 114 bauxite 141, 163, 167, 202, 203, 205
slavery 14, 15–16, 148, 149 authoritarian government 105, 114, 130 beans 68
Agenda 21 166 Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs) 301, Belize
agriculture 14, 23, 147 302, 318 and ACS 241, 242
crops 193, 196, 208 aviation hubs 319, 343, 345 Amerindian groups 13, 67, 148, 279
developing 167, 168, 236 Baptist Association 92
mechanisation 159, 160 Back to Africa movement 73 climate 193
technological development 197, 249–50 Bahamas demography 145, 149, 150, 151
see also farming and ACS 241, 242 development 167
AIDS see HIV/AIDS climate 193 divorce rate 61
AIDS orphans 51 demography 150, 151, 153 education 177
air pollution 220, 221, 339 divorce rate 61 Garifuna Settlement Day 67, 326
air transport 96, 222, 229, 346 education 177, 179 health care 175
see also aviation hubs health care 175 land use 196, 201
alcohol 40, 43, 47, 128, 171 HIV/AIDS 47 Mayan sites 325, 330
see also substance abuse illegal drugs 41, 42 people trafficking 59
alcoholism 31, 40, 184 land use 196, 201 political system 117
alimony 31, 62 offshore financial institutions 22, 44 settler society 16
all-inclusive holidays 319, 323, 335 people trafficking 58, 59 tourism 323, 324, 326, 330, 337
alphabets 265, 266 political system 117 visual arts 69
Amerindian Peoples Association of Guyana settler society 16 Bell, Alexander Graham 283
12, 13 tourism 333, 337, 344 Bermuda 47, 117, 145, 179, 337
Amerindians 12–13, 66, 67, 87, 148, 279 Bahamas Hotel and Tourism Association 344 Berne Convention 289
see also individual peoples ballots 105, 108, 110 bicameral legislatures 105, 117, 122, 123
amphetamines 39 banana industry 163, 200 bigamy 2
see also substance abuse banks 87 bilateral agreements 224, 252–3
anarchy 102 borrowing from 294, 314 biomass energy 215
Anguilla 85, 117, 239 commercial 95, 311, 314 Bird, Vere 120
anti-retroviral drugs 45, 46, 51, 52–3, 170 national 95 birth rate 140, 150, 153, 168, 189
Antigua and Barbuda regional 88 Bishop, Maurice 118, 119, 120
and ACS 241, 242 see also credit; payment systems; savings black market 38, 292, 309
Carnival 70 schemes body language 263, 264, 267, 291
demography 149, 150, 153 Baptist World Alliance 92 bonds 129, 182, 292
development 167 Barbados bottom-up development 140, 165
education 177 and ACS 241, 242 brain drain 140, 162–3
energy supplies 214 Cave Hill campus, UWI 178 Brandt Report 166
family issues 28, 32 consumers 304, 305 Brazil 221
family law 61, 63 demography 146, 149, 150, 151, 153 Britain see United Kingdom
health care 175 development 167 British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) 275
land use 196, 201 divorce rate 61 British Virgin Islands
and OECS 239 education 177, 178, 179 Caribbean Arts and Crafts Festival 71
offshore financial institutions 44 emigration 161, 162 education 177
people trafficking 59 employers’ associations 102 family law 63, 85
political system 107, 114, 117, 120 energy supplies 214, 215 and OECS 239
and RSS 249 fair trading 305 political system 117
tourism 324, 327, 329, 333, 337 family law 60–1 Port Authority 95, 96
trade unions 99, 103 health care 175 tourism 337
water scarcity 212 HIV/AIDS 48, 53 British West Indies Airways (BWIA) 229

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INDEX   1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

Brundtland, Gro-Harlem 166 Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute chambers of commerce 76
Brundtland Report 166 (CFNI) 236, 245 charities 59, 165
budgeting 28, 292, 312 Caribbean Football Union 248 check trading 302
Bustamante, Alexander 98 Caribbean Free Trade Association cheques 300–1, 311
Bustamante Industrial Trade Union (BITU) 98 (CARIFTA) 230–1, 232 child abuse 26, 32, 53, 63, 64
‘buying clubs’ 314 Caribbean Group for Cooperation in childcare
Economic Development 250 family function 6, 7, 9, 18
cabinet system 105, 121 Caribbean Hotel Association (CHA) 343 see also parenting
Cable and Wireless (C&W) 286 Caribbean Hotel Foundation 179 children
call centres 288 Caribbean Institute of Mass abuse of see child abuse
Canada 63, 162, 316, 323 Communications (CARIMAC) 275 child labour 188
Canadian International Development Caribbean Investment Corporation 233, 236 and crime 31, 36, 44–5, 64
Agency (CIDA) 343 Caribbean Islamic Secretariat 92 custody of 31, 60, 61, 62
cancer 39, 40, 46, 173, 184 Caribbean Media Corporation (CMC) 251 demography 144, 145
candidates, election 105, 108, 110 Caribbean News Agency (CANA) 251, 275, 277 disciplining 45
influence on election 114 Caribbean Renewable Energy Development family conflict and 26–7
selecting 112 Programme (CREDP) 216 HIV/AIDS 47, 49, 50, 53
cannabis 39, 41 Caribbean Tourist Organisation (CTO) 329, inheritance 60–1
see also substance abuse 333, 343 needs of 6, 7, 9
carbon cycle 221 Caribbean Utilities Company Ltd, Grand nutrition 171–2
carbon dioxide emissions see greenhouse gases Cayman 95, 97 rights of 36, 38
CAREC 49, 145, 250 Caribbean-Wide Project on Drug Abuse role in family 18–19
careers Prevention and Child-Oriented Policies street children 36–7, 55, 64
Choose-a-Job Flowchart 186, 363–8` 42, 44, 64 substance abuse 40, 42–4, 45
preparation for 185–6 Caribs 12, 13, 148 see also infant mortality
in tourism 336–7 Caricargo 229 Children’s Charter 61
Caribbean Agricultural Research and CARICOM China 221, 222, 244, 266
Development Institute (CARDI) 245, Caribbean Festival of Arts 71, 94, 280 Chinese settlement in the Caribbean 15, 69,
249–50 consumer protection 304, 306, 308 94, 148
Caribbean Agricultural Science and emigration 162 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 166, 220
Technology Networking System 197 formed 231–2 Choose-a-Job Flowchart 186, 363–8
Caribbean Airways 229 Health and Family Life Education Christianity
Caribbean Artisan Network 71 Framework 45 demography 148, 149
Caribbean Arts and Crafts Festival 71 illegal drugs 41–2 description 72
Caribbean Association for Feminist Research institutions and policies 234–8 family patterns and 12, 17
and Action (CAFRA) 63 members 231, 232 institutionalisation of 92, 93
Caribbean Association of Teachers 45 mineral resources 202 social groups 80
Caribbean Basin Water Management Project objectives 233–4 CIBA-GEIGY 218
212 organisation 232–3 Ciboneys 148
Caribbean Broadcasting Union (CBU) 251, Pan Caribbean Partnership Against HIV/ citizenship 116
275 AIDS (PANCAP) 93 the constitution and 130
Caribbean Commission 229 Regime for CARICOM Enterprises 167, 237 rights and responsibilities 120, 131, 246
Caribbean Community see CARICOM rules of origin 235, 251 civil service 119, 121, 126
Caribbean Conference of Churches 92, 93 Secretariat 231, 233, 241 Clean Islands International (CII) 216
Caribbean Congress of Labour 100 tourism 325, 333, 345 climate 152, 192–4
Caribbean Conservation Association 340, 341 trade 225, 228, 253 CNN 275
Caribbean Consumer Committee 305 CARICOM Single Market and Economy coal 204, 207, 220
Caribbean Consumer Council 308 (CSME) 162, 181, 183, 238–9, 280, 304 coalition government 105, 107, 109
Caribbean Copyright Link 290 Caridin 42 Coard, Bernard 119
Caribbean Court of Justice 127, 128, 249 Cartagena Convention 213 cocaine 39, 41
Caribbean Development Bank (CDB) 87, 88, Castro, Fidel 118 see also substance abuse
231, 233, 236, 241, 343 Cayman Islands cocoa 151, 315
Caribbean Development Fund (CDF) 239 Caribbean Utilities Company Ltd 95, 97 codes, ciphers and secret messages 264–5
Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management development 168 collective bargaining 100
Agency (CDEMA) 228, 245, 248–9 education 179 Colombia 41, 178, 241, 242
Caribbean Employers’ Association 102 family law 85 Columbus, Christopher 148
Caribbean Environmental Health Institute illegal drugs 41 Common External Tariff 234, 238
(CEHI) 250 offshore financial institutions 22, 44, common-law marriages see consensual unions
Caribbean Epidemiology Centre see CAREC 142, 167 common markets 224
Caribbean Examinations Council, The (CXC) 90 political system 117 see also CARICOM
case study 247 settler society 16 Commonwealth, the 117
examinations 179 tourism 337 Commonwealth Caribbean 15, 19, 23, 59
participating territories 247 cellphones 21, 23, 267, 268–9, 281, 283–4, 290 demography 151, 153, 154
School Based Assessment 351 consumer protection 307 education 177, 178, 179
Caribbean Family Planning Association 34, 35 censorship 260, 275 health care 175
Caribbean Festival of Arts (CARIFESTA) 71, censuses 140, 155, 163 judiciary 127–8
94, 280 Central Bank of Jamaica 95, 96 land use 195–6
Caribbean Fisheries Development Project 199 Central Islamic Organisation of Guyana political systems 107, 115, 117–18, 120,
(CIOG) 92 124, 134

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 INDEX  

tourism 327, 329 copyright 260, 288–9 debit cards 274, 294, 300, 301, 302
see also CARICOM; individual countries organisations 290 deforestation 209, 210, 223
Commonwealth of Learning (COL) 179 Cornwall Regional Hospital, Jamaica 42 demand 292, 295, 296, 318, 322
communication corruption, government 131, 132 democracy 82, 105, 115–16
barriers 270–1, 291 Costa Rica 161, 241, 242 checks and balances on 122
computer-mediated 287–8 cottage industries 334–5 representative democracy 106, 116
definition 260, 261 Council of Legal Education, The 90 demographers 147, 152
factors influencing 267–9, 290 counterfeiting 290, 309 demography
mechanism of 261–3 ‘crack’ cocaine 39 of the Caribbean 142–55
methods 263–7, 283–5 credit definition 142
non-verbal 263–5, 291 advantages and disadvantages 302 and social change 146, 154
oral communication 261, 265 cards 274, 294, 301, 302 see also population
political 262, 276 check trading 302 demonstrations 85, 101, 262
symbols 263, 270 hire purchase 293, 294, 301, 314 Denmark 316
verbal 263, 265–7, 270–1, 291 trading 301 dependency ratio 140, 144, 150, 155, 169, 189
see also telecommunications; telephones credit unions 292, 311, 314, 317, 318 dependent territories 42, 105, 117, 118, 127, 241
computers 21, 166, 170, 181, 269, 284, 290 CREDO Foundation for Justice 36 depopulation 140, 153, 154
see also information technology Creole culture 67, 94, 279 desalination 198
CONACADO, Cocoa Cooperative, cricket 87, 94, 246, 248, 324, 325 desertion 9, 31, 55, 62
Dominican Republic 315 crime 127, 129, 176, 342 devaluation 292, 295, 297
condoms 52 juvenile 36, 44–5 developed countries 140, 165, 227
Confederation of Central American and crops 193, 196, 208 developing countries 140, 165
Caribbean Football (CONCACAF) 246, 248 crown colony government 105, 116 development
consensual unions 2, 3, 8 cruise tourism 96, 319, 326–8, 330, 335 areas of 167
breakdown 61, 62 Cuba bottom-up 140, 165
conservation 190, 216 and ACS 241, 242 definition 140, 164
energy 216 architecture 69 economic see economic development
forests 210–11 health care 142, 154, 324 factors influencing 167–8
land 207–8, 211 HIV/AIDS 47, 53 historical background 164–5
marine resources 212–13, 219 land use 196 of human resources 169–80, 189
soil 208–10 migration 161 levels, in the Caribbean 166–7
thrift and 312 one-party state 107, 118 personal development 180
water resources 212, 219 tourism 324, 325, 333 sustainable see sustainable development
constituencies 105 Cul-de-Sac banana plantation, St Lucia 200 technical developments 166
constitutional monarchy 105, 117, 118 cultural diversity 66–73, 104 top-down 141, 165
constitutions 105, 119, 130, 131 cultural exchange 71, 341, 342, 347 tourism and 328–32, 333, 339–40, 343–5,
construction industry 201, 212, 216, 339–40 cultural heritage 279–81, 291 347
consumer affairs 292–3 tourism 320, 325–6 Devon House, Kingston 69
buying locally 297, 303, 313, 318 cultural integration 67 diabetes 170, 171, 173, 184, 245
choice 296, 298–300 cultural penetration 67, 276 diamonds 141, 202, 204, 205, 223
complaints 309 cultural retention 67 dictatorships 106, 118
consumer protection 303–8, 318 culture disabled people see special needs
globalisation and trade liberalisation African 12, 14, 69, 70, 87, 94, 149 disasters 158, 162, 227, 228, 244, 248–9
312–13, 318 Amerindian 12–13, 66, 87, 279 dividends 237, 292, 311, 315–16, 318
importance of consumers 293–303 Asian 12, 15, 69, 70, 87, 92, 94, 279 divorce 2, 37, 60, 61, 62
intelligent consumers 293, 295 Caribbean 66–8, 279, 280 rates 61
labels 78, 295, 306, 307, 308 Christian 12 domestic violence 26, 32, 53, 54, 60, 63
law 303 commercialisation of 67 Dominica
payment methods 300–2 Creole 67, 94, 279 and ACS 241, 242
responsibilities 308–9 cultural institutions 87, 94 Caribs 13, 148
rights 304, 309–10 definition 65, 66 demography 148, 149, 150
and sustainable development 313, 318 European 12, 14, 69, 70, 94 development 167
United Nations guidelines 309–10 evolution of 10 education 177, 179
contraception 4, 34, 37, 153 human resource development and 170, 180 energy supplies 214
Convention for the Protection and promoting 71 health care 175
Development of the Marine regional 243, 246 land use 196, 201
Environment of the Wider Caribbean secular 17 and OECS 239
Region 213 three levels of 94 plantation societies 15
Convention of Cartagena de las Indias 241 tourism, impact of 341–2, 347 political system 107, 108, 117, 124, 133
Cooper, Dr Martin 284 US 24 and RSS 249
cooperatives 95, 96 ‘western world culture’ 276–7 tourism 324, 329
benefits 316 Curaçao 23, 59, 162, 327 Dominican Republic
consumer 314–15, 316 curative medicine 170, 176 and ACS 241, 242
definition 314 custody of children 31, 60, 61, 62 cocoa 315
farmers’ 200, 315, 316 customs, community 65, 66, 84 HIV/AIDS 47
financial 311, 317 land use 196
principles 314 dance 70, 264 migration 162
producers’ 316 death rates 140, 150, 153, 189 people trafficking 58
types of 314–16 HIV/AIDS 46, 48, 154 pollution 218
see also credit unions see also infant mortality tourism 337
water scarcity 212

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INDEX   1   School Based Assessment (SBA)

drug trafficking 31, 41 elderly people, care of 6, 7, 9, 37, 59, 64 Convention on Human Rights 85
see also illegal drugs; substance abuse elections migration 162
drums 67, 70, 264 campaigning 112, 114 tourism 343
dumping, products 224, 254 factors influencing results 113, 134 trade and 244, 252, 253
Dutch Antilles see Netherlands Antilles preparing for 111–13 ex-officio 96, 106, 241
Duvalier, François ‘Papa Doc’ 118, 120 rules for 110–11, 112 exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 199, 213
Duvalier, Jean-Claude 118, 120 statistics 132–3, 135 executive, government 106, 119, 121, 122–3,
voter participation 114–15 125–6
e-commerce 274, 292, 302–3 electoral systems exports 196, 203, 225, 315
e-mail 260, 285, 290 ‘first past the post’ 106, 107, 108, 110 low value of 227
e-ticketing 346, 347 multi-member constituency 109 extended families 2, 8–9, 12, 14, 15, 16
Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro 166 proportional representation 106, 108–9, 110 extra-marital affairs 38
earthquakes 158, 162, 192, 227, 244, 249 single transferable vote 109
East Indians ways of voting 108 facsimile (fax) messages 267, 283, 285
in the Caribbean 9, 16, 67, 87, 92, 94, see also referenda; systems of government fair trading 294, 303, 305, 315, 318
148, 279 electorate 106, 116 family, the
families 9, 16 electricity breakdown 53
religion 149 from fossil fuels 207 changes affecting 21–5
see also Indian subcontinent hydro-electricity 165, 200, 214, 324 conflict in 25, 26–7, 53–4
Easter Island 266 infrastructure 157, 158, 161 contemporary social issues 31–53
Eastern Caribbean Central Bank 241, 343 solar power 214, 215 definition 3, 30, 37
eco-tourism 320, 323–4, 335 suppliers 95, 97 as an economic unit 5–7
economic development 164, 190, 230–1, wave power 200, 214–15 elderly people, care of 6, 7, 9, 37, 59
244–5, 250 wind power 214 forming 3
tourism and 332–5 Elizabeth II, Queen 117 importance of 3–4, 17
economic institutions 87, 97–103 Emancipation 15, 16, 148 incest 31, 53, 63
definition 95 emigration 140, 161–2, 163 as an institution 87
functions of 95 employers’ associations 99, 102 leisure activities 23
private sector 95, 96 employment lifestyle changes 37–8
public sector 95, 96 benefits of 180 roles within 5, 17–19, 30, 80
economic integration 224, 231, 232, 234, choices 22–3, 185–6, 363–8 social change and 21–5
241, 255 conditions 339 social issues within 53–60, 64
economic leakage 319, 326, 328, 335 definition 140, 181 as a social unit 5, 8
economic union 224, 238 demography and 144 special needs family members 6, 7
economically active population direct and indirect 333, 336–7, 339 step- 10, 27, 37
dependency ratio and 144, 150, 155, 169, factors affecting level of 181–3, 189 types of 8–10, 11, 30
189 indentured labourers 15, 16, 17, 67, 148 as unit of procreation 4–5
in the family 6, 7, 19, 28 informal (economic) sector 320, 334–5 see also family patterns
ecstasy 39, 41 occupational distribution 146–7, 168, 180 family law 31, 60–3, 64, 85
see also substance abuse preparation for 185–7 Family Law Act (1981) 60
education self-employment 186, 187, 297, 333, 337 Family Law and Domestic Violence
Caribbean cooperation 180 statistics for 157 Legislative Reform Project, Eastern
compulsory 177 in tourism 330, 333, 334–5, 336–7 Caribbean 63
formal 89, 176 for women 19, 20, 24–5, 146 family patterns 10, 30
function of 88 workers rights and responsibilities 188 ancestors’ cultures 12
human resource development and 170, energy modern 16–17
176–80 conservation 216 traditional 12–16
importance 176, 177, 184–5 consumption 205 family planning 4, 153
improvements in 21, 91, 177 definition 190, 205 see also contraception
informal 89, 176 renewable 166, 205–6, 214–16 farming
institutions see educational institutions sources 206–7, 214–16 Africa 14
and lifestyle changes 38 see also electricity; oil and gas industry employment 182
non-formal 89–90 environment fish farming 200, 213
pre-school 176 definition 190 subsistence 159, 168
primary and elementary 170, 177, 337 development and 166 see also agriculture
regional cooperation 246 environmental health 250 Fédération Internationale de Football
scholarships 179 maintaining a healthy environment 175 Association (FIFA) 248
secondary 20, 170, 177, 337 tourism and 23, 201, 323–4, 328, 335, feminism 19, 20, 25
statistics for 156–7 339–41, 347 fertility rates 4, 140, 154
tertiary 20, 38, 178–9, 230 utility companies and 97 festivals 12
trade union provision 100 see also conservation cultural diversity 66, 70, 71, 73, 94,
voting, effect on 115 environmental impact assessments 190, 207, 279–80
women and 20, 21, 25, 37, 153, 185 208 food 68
see also training Ethiopia 55 tourism and 320, 326, 345
Education for All programme 21, 177 European colonisation 8, 12, 14, 148 fishing 199
educational institutions 87, 88–91 culture 12, 14, 69, 70, 94 cooperatives 316
regional 90–1, 100, 247 development and 164 fish farming 200, 213
Edwards, Tryon 91 marriage 14, 32 overfishing 192, 199, 213
El Salvador 241, 242 European Union (EU) pelagic fish 190, 213

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 INDEX  

flags 265 governors 116, 117, 123, 124 political system 111, 118, 120, 124
floating voter 106 governors-general 116, 121, 123, 125 refugees 162
folkways 65, 66, 84 Great Houses 69, 325 tourism 333
Food and Agriculture Organisation 195, 196, greenhouse effect see global warming water scarcity 212
199, 213 greenhouse gases 207, 220, 221–2 heads of state 111, 116–17, 122, 123, 124, 230
food security 190, 210, 245, 308 Grenada health care
foodstuff and ACS 241, 242 children 142
cultural traditions 68–9 demography 149, 150, 153 environmental health 250
imported 23, 303 development 167 health tourism 120, 324
see also nutrition education 177 human resources development and 170–6
football (soccer) 246, 248, 325 energy supplies 214 immunisation 174–5
forests health care 175 labour force 182, 183
conservation 210–11 land use 196, 201 life expectancy and 154
deforestation 209, 210, 223 marine resources 199 provision 175
as a resource 191, 192, 201–2 and OECS 239 regional cooperation 246
formal groups 65, 74, 76, 78 People’s Revolutionary Government 107, special needs see special needs
fossil fuels 207, 220 118, 119 statistics for 153, 154, 157
see also oil and gas industry political system 107, 117, 118–19, 120, 133 substance abuse 39, 40, 42, 43, 184
France 118, 148, 244 and RSS 249 see also HIV/AIDS; sexually transmitted
franchise, voting 106 tourism 324, 329, 338 diseases
free trade 224, 230, 242, 253 US invasion 119, 249 heart disease 40, 171, 172, 173, 184
see also CARICOM Grenadines, the see St Vincent and the heritage see cultural heritage
Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) 253 Grenadines heroin 39, 41, 43
freedom of expression 132, 134, 260, 272, gross domestic product (GDP) 140, 166–7, see also substance abuse
277, 288 175, 333 hierarchies 65
French-speaking Caribbean GTE 286 Hinduism 15, 17
independence in 118 Guadeloupe demography 148, 149
settlers 10, 14, 118, 148 illegal drugs 41 description 73
Friendly Societies 310, 311 land use 196 institutionalisation of 92
music and dance 70 marriage 15, 32
Gairy, Eric 119 Guatemala 69, 241, 242 temples 69
Garifuna 67, 279 Guides movement 75, 78, 91 hire purchase 293, 294, 301, 314
Settlement Day 67, 326 Guyana Hispaniola 148
Garvey, Marcus 73 and ACS 241, 242 HIV/AIDS 28, 34
gas see oil and gas industry Amerindian groups 13, 148 in Africa 46, 47, 50
gender equality 19, 20 climate 192, 193 and children 47, 49, 50, 53
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade consumers 305, 307 dependency ratio and 150
(GATT) 251 cooperatives 316 description 45–6
geology of the Caribbean 191, 192 demography 143, 148, 150, 151, 153 living with 52–3
geothermal energy 216 development 167 mortality rates 46, 48, 154
Germany 148, 222, 317 East Indians in 9, 16, 17 myths 51
Global Polio Eradication Initiative 174 education 178 pregnancy 28, 46, 50
global warming 190, 202, 207, 220, 221–2 energy supplies 214 prevention 51–2, 93, 173, 246
globalisation 140, 169, 227, 244 fair trading 305 rates of infection 46–7, 48–50
advantages and disadvantages 254 health care 175 tests for 46, 52, 53
consumers and 312–13, 318 HIV/AIDS 53 transmission 46, 47, 50, 51–2
gold mining 202, 204 illegal drugs 42 treatments 45, 46, 50–1, 52–3, 170
golf 324, 325, 339, 340 joint-family households 9 UNAIDS 46, 51
gonorrhoea 45 land use 196, 201 in women 47
see also sexually transmitted diseases migration 162 see also sexually transmitted diseases
government mineral resources 202, 204 homosexuality 100
consumer information 299, 300, 305 music and dance 70 Honduras 241, 242
consumer protection 304–8 people trafficking 58, 59 household size 10
definition 106, 119 plantation societies 15 human capital 140, 141, 184–5
forming 107 political system 108–9, 117, 124 human resources
functions as an institution 129–30, 134 religion in 92 definition 140, 141, 189
good governance 131–2, 134 suicide prevention 57 development of 169–80, 189, 330
human resources development 170 tourism 324, 329, 330, 338 health care issues 184
investment by 181–2, 336 water scarcity 212 using 142
public attitude to 113, 114 Guyana National Bureau of Standards 307, 308 human rights 131
tourism and 327, 336, 342, 343, 347 hung parliament 106
see also systems of government Haile Selassie I, Emperor 73 hurricanes 210, 227, 228, 244, 330
government of national unity 106 Haiti hydro-electricity 165, 200, 214, 324
government structures 119–20 and ACS 241, 242 hygiene, personal 28, 171
cabinet 105, 121, 125–6 culture 71
civil service 119, 121, 126 deforestation 210 identity, sense of 24–5
executive 106, 119, 121, 122–3, 125–6 earthquake 162, 249 illegal drugs 38–9, 41–2, 43–4, 249
judiciary 119, 121, 126–9 HIV/AIDS 47 see also substance abuse
legislature see legislature land use 196 illegitimacy 8, 14, 31, 32, 60–1, 85
ministerial departments 125, 126, 160 people trafficking 58 immigration 141, 148, 161, 162, 164

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immigration offices 156 investment 182–3, 184, 205, 293, 311 occupational distribution 143, 146–7, 168
immunisation 174–5 tourism 330, 332, 336, 343, 347 supply of 183
imports 226, 297, 303 involuntary group membership 65, 74, 78 unionised 99
in vitro fertilisation 5 irrigation 200, 212 workers rights and responsibilities 188
incest 31, 53, 63 Islam 12, 15, 17 see also economically active population;
income parity 20 demography 148, 149 employment
indentured labourers 15, 16, 17, 67, 148 description 73 laissez-faire 82
independence, national 116, 117–18, 119, dress 78–9 land
229, 230, 239 institutionalisation of 92 conservation 207–8, 211
Indian subcontinent 15, 148 marriage 15, 32 land use 195–6
culture 12, 69, 70, 92 temples 69, 73 pollution 216–18
greenhouse gas emissions 221 women 78, 79 reclamation 208, 211, 340
polio 174 as a resource 192, 223
see also East Indians Jamaica language 67, 265
industrial action 101 and ACS 241, 242 barriers 270–1
industrial development 21 consumers 305 law
in CARICOM countries 236–7 cottage industries 334 applying 128–9
in Japan 142 demography 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 153 civil and criminal 127
pollution 218, 219, 220 development 167 creating laws 123, 126–7
infant mortality 141, 142, 153, 154 divorce rate 61 definition 65
infertility 5 education 177, 178, 179 mass media and 288–90
inflation 293, 297 elderly, care of 59 see also family law; legislation
informal (economic) sector 320, 334–5 energy supplies 214, 215 law courts 127–8
informal groups 65, 74, 76, 78 fair trading 305 Law of the Sea Convention, 1982 199
information technology (IT) 21–2, 166, 170 family law 60–1, 85 leadership, of social groups 76, 78, 81–2
see also computers; internet; health care 175 authority of 83, 120
telecommunications HIV/AIDS 47, 48 characteristics of a good leader 82
infrastructure 141, 155, 157, 161, 166 illegal drugs 41, 42 types of leader 82
tourism 336, 339 intellectual property 290 Leeward Islands 162
inheritance 31, 60–1 juvenile crime 45 see also individual islands
institutionalisation 65, 92 land use 196, 201 legal aid 61
institutions 66, 75 migration 161, 162, 163 legal marriage see marriage
characteristics of 86, 104 mineral resources 202, 203, 226 legal separation 31, 60, 62
cultural 87, 94, 280 Mona campus, UWI 178, 247 legislation 13, 67, 123, 124
definition 65, 86, 104 murder-suicide 57 see also law
economic see economic institutions music and dance 70 legislature 106, 121
educational 87, 88–91, 100, 247 people trafficking 59 bicameral 105, 117, 122, 123
functions of 88 plantation societies 15 role of 122–3
media 275 political system 107, 117, 120 structure 122–3
origin of 86–7 politics in 98 leisure activities 23, 88, 91–922
political 87, 97–103, 106, 119, 134 see also reforestation 210–11 less developed countries (LDCs) 165, 167,
political parties special needs provision 60 237, 2121
recreational 88, 91–2 street children 36 Lesser Antilles 16, 192, 324
religious 87, 92–3, 156 telecommunications 283 see also individual islands
social 87 tourism 323, 324, 329, 330, 333, 338, Lewis, Brigadier Rudyard 249
sporting 87, 248 340–1 LIAT 229
insurance 96, 282 trade 225 libel 260, 272
intellectual property rights 289–90 urbanisation 159 life expectancy 141, 153, 154
see also copyright visual arts 69 lifestyle changes 37–8, 64, 184
Inter-Governmental Task Force on Drugs women, status of 19 literacy 167, 169
(IGTF) 41 Jamaican Labour Party 98 literature 67–8
interaction, social 65, 74 Japan 142, 166, 222 Lomé Convention 251, 252
interest groups 65, 74, 75, 76 jerk chicken 68, 279
International Convention for the Prevention joint-family households 2, 9 mail order 302
of Pollution by Ships 213 journalism 260, 273 maize 29, 68
International Court of Justice 199 see also press, the malnutrition 154, 167, 183, 184, 245
International Labour Office 188 Judaism 73, 148 manifestos, party 97, 106, 113
International Organisation for Migration judicial precedence 128 Manley, Edna 279
(IOM) 59 judiciary 119, 121, 126–9 Manley, Michael 120
International Seabed Authority 199 juvenile delinquency 31, 36, 44–5, 64 Manley, Norman W. 98, 229
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea manufacturing see secondary industries
199 kinship 2, 12, 94 marginalisation, of men 25
International Women’s Rights Action Watch 19 Kyoto Accord 207, 221 marijuana see cannabis
internet, the 260, 274, 277, 285, 290 marine resources 198, 199–200, 339
internet cafés 269, 287 labels 78, 295, 306, 307, 308 conservation 212–13, 219
see also e-commerce; information labour force marriage 2, 3
technology; virtual communication definition 141 advantages of 62, 64
Interpol 45 health of 182, 183 annulment 31
intra-regional trade 224, 225, 253 migration of 164, 226 arranged 3, 15

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breakdown 9, 37, 61, 62, 64 see also multilateral trade agreements 224, 251, 253 Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
divorce multinational companies 95, 224, 244, (OECS) 63, 119
civil weddings 17 253–4, 255, 335 members 239
European ideas of 14 murder-suicide 57 objectives 239
Hindu 15, 32 music 23, 67, 69–70, 75 origins 240
Muslim 15, 32 musical instruments 67, 70 Sports Desk 240, 248
statistics, collecting 155, 156 piracy 289–90 structure 240–1
and virginity 14 regional 246, 279, 280 tourism 333
see also consensual unions see also festivals Organisation of the Islamic Conference 92
Martinique 93, 196, 324, 327, 335 Muslims see Islam Organisation of American States (OAS) 45,
mass media 261, 272–9, 291 53, 59, 343
advertising 299 Naipaul, V.S. 68 overfishing 192, 199, 213
and the law 288–90, 291 narcotics see substance abuse Owen, Robert 314
local 280 national debt 130, 226, 227
see also press; radio; television National Gallery of Jamaica 69 painting and drawing 264, 288
matriarchal societies 2, 94 National Parks and Reserves 211, 323–4, Pakistan 174
matrifocal societies 2, 16, 25 340–1 Palacio, Andy 279
matrilineal inheritance 2 natural resources 95, 167 Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO)
Maya 67, 68, 69, 210, 266, 279, 325 beaches 199, 202 50, 174, 250
Mayan sites 325, 330 climate as 193 Panama 161, 241, 242
Mead, Professor George 264 definition 190, 191 parastatal companies 190, 215, 294, 311
media 261, 290 forests see forests parenting 4–5, 18, 27–9
global 276–7, 291 land see land parliaments
ownership, in the Caribbean 277–9 soil 194–5, 208–10 dissolving 111
regional institutions 275 source of 191 members of 116, 119, 122
see also mass media tourism and 199, 202, 339–41 structure 122–3
medicines 68, 69 water see water resources see also legislature
Meeting Turn 310 see also conservation; resources passive smoking 28, 41, 43, 184
members of parliament 116, 119, 122 net migration 141 patriarchal societies 2, 15, 24
mercury 204 Netherlands, the 10, 148 patrifocal societies 2, 15, 24–5
Mexico 69, 241, 242, 330, 333 Netherlands Antilles 23, 93, 162 patrilineal inheritance 2
middle class 19, 20 see also St Maarten payment systems 274, 294, 300–2, 318
migrants 141 Nevis see St Kitts and Nevis peer groups 66, 74, 76, 89
migration news agencies 261 people trafficking 58–9
from Africa 14, 148 News Corporation 273, 278 People’s National Party, Jamaica 98
consequences of 162–3, 164, 226 newspapers see press, the People’s Revolutionary Government (PRG),
definition 141, 158 Nicaragua 241, 242 Grenada 107, 118, 119
dependency ratio and 150 Nigeria 148, 174 Petro-Caribe Agreement, 2005 237–8
emigration 140, 161–2, 163 noise pollution 222, 339 physical resources
from Europe 8, 12, 14, 148 non-government organisations (NGOs) 59, definition 141, 191
immigration 141, 148, 161, 162, 164 278, 308, 341 population distribution and 152
internal 158–61, 161 see also individual NGOs see also resources
international 161–2 non-renewable resources 141, 190, 191, 192, piracy, intellectual property 289
legal and illegal 162 207, 223 plantation societies 15–16, 19
net 141 norms, social 66, 84 compared to settler societies 15
‘pull’ and ‘push’ factors 158, 189 North America see Canada; Mexico; United police 128, 129, 342
regional 161, 162 States of America poliomyelitis 174
rural–urban 159–60, 161, 163, 189 nuclear families 2, 8, 14, 16, 37, 60 political institutions 87, 97–103, 106, 119, 134
‘shunting’ movement 160 nursing 20, 154, 162 see also government
Million-Tree Project, Jamaica 210–11 nutrition 153, 154, 170, 171–2 political parties 97–8, 134
mineral resources 192, 202–4, 226 Caribbean Food and Nutrition Plan 236, definition 106
development 167 245 elections and 111, 113
potential of 204–5 food groups 171, 172, 184 fundraising 112, 113
undersea 204 the Western diet 173, 1725 ideologies 97
see also individual minerals manifestos 97, 106, 113
mobile phones see cellphones Obeah 94 opposition parties 124
monarchy 105, 117, 118, 124 obesity 172, 173, 184, 245 voter loyalty to 114
money laundering 31, 44 Office of Naturalisation 156, 189 political union 231
money management 312 offshore financial institutions 22, 44, 142, pollution
monogamy 2 166, 167, 181 aesthetic impairment 219
monopolies 100, 273, 286 oil and gas industry 23, 202, 204–5 air pollution 220, 221, 339
Montserrat 85, 117, 167, 239 offshore 204, 205 chlorofluorocarbons 166, 220
disasters in 228, 244 Petro-Caribe Agreement, 2005 237–8 definition 190
land use 196, 201 pollution from 219, 220 development and 165, 166, 175
tourism 329 Ombudsman 130–1, 134 from mining 204, 205
more developed countries (MDCs) 165, 167, 237 one-party states 106, 107, 118 noise pollution 222, 339
mores, social 65, 84 OPEC 207 oil 219, 220
mortgages 294, 314 opinion polls 112, 113, 134 tourism 328, 339, 340
motor cars 299 oral traditions 261 from urbanisation 160
water 212, 213, 218–19, 339

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polygamy 2, 12 Rastafarians 39, 73, 92, 149 and RSS 249

population Recaribe 216 teenage pregnancy 32
age distribution 143–4 recessions 113, 181, 244, 313, 332 tourism 343
censuses 140, 155, 163 recreation see leisure activities St Lucia
decrease 140, 153, 154 referenda 106, 111, 135 and ACS 241, 242
definition 141, 142, 189 refugees 162 consumers 305
density 150–1, 155, 189 refuse 216–17 demography 149, 150, 151, 153
dependency ratio 140, 144, 150, 155, landfill sites 217, 218 development 167
169, 189 plastics 217, 218 education 20, 177, 179
distribution 141, 152, 155, 189 recycling 216, 217, 312 family law 61
ethnicity 148–9 toxic 217, 219 health care 175
geographical distribution 150, 151, 152 reggae music 67, 280, 326 intellectual property 290
growth 150, 153–5 regional integration 225 land use 196, 201
natural rate of increase 141, 153 areas of cooperation 247–51 and OECS 239
occupational distribution 143, 146–7, benefits of 155, 234, 235, 244–6 people trafficking 59
168, 180 factors affecting 243–4, 254, 255 political system 117
sex distribution 143, 144–6 key roles in 246–7, 255 poverty in 55
statistics 155–7, 189 mass media and 275–6, 290, 291 tourism 324, 326, 329, 333, 338
structure 142–9 stages in 229–43, 255 St Maarten 59, 93, 165, 305, 327
see also demography tourism 343, 345 see also Netherlands Antilles
port authorities 95, 96 Regional Security System (RSS) 249 St Vincent and the Grenadines
Port of Spain, Trinidad 73, 92, 241, 325 regionalism 225, 231 and ACS 241, 242
Portugal 148 Registrar’s Office 155, 189 child abuse 53, 63
Post Office services 267, 281–3, 290, 291, 314 religion demography 149, 150, 153
post-war social changes 20 in the Caribbean 72–3, 148–9 development 167
poverty 55, 56, 160 definition 72 education 20, 177, 179
pregnancy 28 festivals 70 energy supplies 214
HIV/AIDS 28, 46, 50 functions of 72 family law 63
nutrition 171 religious institutions 87, 92–3, 156 illegal drugs 42
smoking and 40 see also individual religions land use 196, 201
teenage pregnancy 28, 32–5, 64 renewable resources 141, 190, 191–2, 205–6, and OECS 239
presidents, national 82, 120, 121, 124, 126 214–16, 223 political system 117, 132
press, the 272–3 reorganised families 10, 30, 37 and RSS 249
Caribbean Media Corporation 251 representative democracy 106, 116 suicide prevention 58
freedom 116, 260, 273, 288 republicanism 106, 117, 118 teenage pregnancy 32
ownership 277–9 resources tourism 329, 338
see also mass media human see human resources Samaritans, the 57, 58
preventative medicine 170–1, 173, 176 man-made 190, 191, 197 sanctions, in social groups 66, 76, 83, 84–5
price mechanism 296, 303 mineral see mineral resources satellites 267, 268, 269, 283
see also supply and demand natural see natural resources savings schemes 129, 182, 293, 310–12
primary groups 66, 74, 75–6 non-renewable 141, 190, 191, 192, 207, 223 benefits of 313–14, 318
primary industries 23, 147, 164–5 renewable 141, 190, 191–2, 205–6, 214– scholarships 179
products 190, 227 16, 223 School Based Assessment
see also agriculture; mineral resources retail organisations 96 objectives 351
primary products 190, 204 revenue, government 106, 129, 327 requirements 351–2
prime minister 82, 119, 120, 121, 125 revolutions 107, 118–19 sample project 352–60
prison service 128, 129 Rhodes scholarships 179 schools see education
Privy Council, UK 127, 128 rice 29, 68 Scout movement 75, 78, 91
procreation 3, 4 Richards, Viv 82 sea transport 227
Programme on Caribbean Coastal Marine Rio de Janeiro 166 see also cruise tourism
Productivity (CARICOMP) 213 road transport 227 search engines 156, 261, 274
propaganda 261, 263, 276 Roman Catholic Church 87, 92, 148, 149 secondary groups 66, 74, 75–6
proportional representation 106, 108–9, 110 rural–urban migration 159–60, 161, 163, 189 secondary industries 22, 147, 164, 190, 204,
prostitution 27, 36, 50, 58, 342 Russia 166, 222, 316 334
protectionism 224 secular culture 17
public expenditure 106, 129 Saba 59 securities 293, 311
Puerto Rico 47, 70, 178, 196 St Eustatius 59 sedimentary rocks 190, 192
tourism 326, 327, 333, 338 St John’s Ambulance 78 self-determination 225, 234
St Kitts and Nevis self-employment 186, 187, 297, 333, 337
Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Barbados 32–4, and ACS 241, 242 senators 122, 132
35 consumers 305 separation of powers, in governments 122
questionnaires 25, 155, 353, 354–5 demography 145, 150, 153 service industries see tertiary industries
see also Choose-a-Job Flowchart development 167 settler societies 16, 19
education 177 compared to plantation societies 15
radio 269, 273–4, 277, 278, 280, 290 family law 63 sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) 28, 31,
consumers and 299, 300 land use 196, 201 34, 45, 52, 64
see also mass media and OECS 239 see also HIV/AIDS
Raiffeisen, Fredrick 317 people trafficking 59 Shiprider Agreement 42
rainfall 193–4, 197 political system 107, 117 sibling households 3, 9

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sibling rivalry 27 human resource development 170, 180 global ownership and 277, 278
sign language 265 regional 240, 243, 246, 248, 251 see also mass media
Sikhs 78 school sports 80, 81, 84 temples 69, 73
single market 225 tourism 320, 324–5, 326 tertiary industries 22, 147, 166
single-parent families 3, 4–5, 9 water sports 199, 324–5, 330 testing agencies 299
Sir Arthur Lewis Community College 20, 247 sporting institutions 87, 248 thrift 293, 310–12
slander 261, 272 Standing Conference of Ministers 87, 90 tobacco 40–1, 43
slavery 14, 15–16, 148, 149 steel pan music 70, 279 see also smoking
smallpox 174 step families 10, 27, 37 top-down development 141, 165
smoking 40–1, 44, 184 street children 36–7, 55, 64 totalitarian government 115, 118
addiction 40, 43 Su Su 94, 310, 311 tourism
parenthood and 28, 41 subsistence farming 159, 168 challenges facing 345, 347
passive 28, 41, 43, 184 substance abuse 31, 38–44, 64 community-based 326
soca music 67, 280 addiction 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 171 cruise 96, 319, 326–8, 330, 335
soccer see football children 40, 42–4, 45 cultural and heritage tourism 320, 325–6
social change 21–5, 146, 154 detoxification 42 definition 320
social control 66, 76, 84 health issues 39, 40, 42, 43, 184 destinations 322, 328–9, 331
anarchy 102 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (cot development 328–32, 333, 339–40, 343–5,
importance of 85–6 death) 28 347
social groups sugar cane 68, 151, 316 distribution system 322
acceptable behaviour 84, 85 suicide 31, 57–8 economic benefits 332–5, 347
behaviour patterns 80 supply and demand 293, 295, 296, 322 economic costs 336
characteristics of 76–7, 104 Suriname 9, 59, 201, 241, 242 effects of 23
common goals 77, 78 sustainable development 165–6 employment in 330, 333, 334–5, 336–7
common needs, interests and values 79 consumers’ role in 313, 318 and environment 23, 201, 320, 323–4,
competition and cooperation 80, 83, 84 definition 141, 190 328, 335, 339–41, 347
controlling 82–3 energy sources 214–16 expansion of 22, 345
definition 66, 74 forests 208 government role 327, 336, 342, 343, 347
formal groups 65, 74, 76, 78 of land 208, 211 health tourism 320, 324
functions of 80–1 pollution and 175 host countries 320, 322, 329–30, 332
informal groups 65, 74, 76, 78 Swan, Sir John 117 impact of 332–6, 339–43, 347
interest groups 65, 74, 75, 76 syphilis 45 investment 330, 332, 336, 343, 347
involuntary group membership 65, 74, 78 see also sexually transmitted diseases marketing 320
leadership see leadership, of social groups systems of government natural resources and 199, 202, 339–41
marks of identity 78–9, 80 cabinet 105, 121 poverty and 55
member commitment and loyalty 83 coalition 105, 107, 109 products 320, 322–8, 331, 347
peer groups 66, 74, 76, 89 constitutional monarchy 105, 117, 118 promotion 331
primary groups 66, 74, 75–6 crown colony 105, 116 regional integration 343, 345
roles and responsibilities 80 democracy 82, 105, 106, 115–16, 122 sports tourism 320, 324–5, 326
rules of 79 dictatorship 106, 118 sun and sand tourism 323
sanctions 66, 76, 83, 84–5 multi-party system 107, 109 supply and demand 322
secondary groups 66, 74, 75–6 one-party states 106, 107, 118 supply countries 320, 328–9, 331, 335, 342
social interaction 83–4, 104 predominant-party system 107 support services 343
structure 78 republicanism 106, 117, 118 technology and 346
unity of 81, 104 revolutionary 107, 118–19 training 330, 337–9
voluntary group membership 66, 74, 78 totalitarian 115, 118 ‘Tree of Tourism’ 321–2
social issues, contemporary 31–53 two-party system 107, 108 tourism multiplier 332
social norms 66, 84 see also electoral systems trade
social welfare 157, 176 international agreements 251–3
socialisation 3, 5, 87, 88 Tainos 12, 69, 148 intra-regional 224, 225, 253
in the family 5, 9, 66 taxation 129, 134, 176 liberalisation 225, 244, 254, 312–13
society incentives to industry 184, 237, 244 Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
definition 66 teaching see education Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement 289
soils 194 technological developments 21–2, 227 trade unions 94, 98
conservation 208–10 in communications 269, 283–8, 290, 346 future roles 101, 103
erosion 209–10 see also information technology main activities 100
fertility 208 technology transfer 254 membership 103
types 194–5 tectonic plates 191, 192 negotiations 100, 102
solar power 214, 215 teenage pregnancy 28, 32–5, 64 strategies of 100–1
solvent abuse 40 telecommunications 21, 23, 261, 263 structure 99
see also substance abuse carriers 286 types of 100, 103
South Africa 114 liberalisation 286–7 trading blocs 225, 244, 253
Spanish-speaking settlers 10, 14, 69, 148 modern forms 283–5, 287–8, 290, 291 training
special needs teleconferencing 178, 261, 275 importance of 184–5
care of family members 6, 7 telephones 263, 267, 271, 283, 290 tourism and hospitality 330, 337–9, 343
provision for 59, 60, 64 see also cellphones vocational training 184, 185, 339
sport television 23, 24, 251, 274 transmission, communication 261
broadcast 24, 274 consumers and 299, 300 transport
clubs and institutions 75, 79, 86, 87, 88, 94 and culture 276–7, 280 air 96, 222, 229, 346

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improvements to 290 United Nations Convention against Walcott, Derek 68

road 227 Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and water cycle 197
sea 227 Psychotropic Substances 41 water resources 193, 197–9
tourism and 331 United Nations Convention on the conservation 212, 219
trade and 227 Elimination of All Forms of minerals from 204
Treaty of Basseterre 240 Discrimination against Women pollution 212, 213, 218–19, 339
Treaty of Chaguaramas 232, 233, 249 (CEDAW) 19 tourism and 330, 331
protocols 234 United Nations Convention on the Rights of water sports 199, 324–5, 330
revised 237, 238, 304, 306 the Child 61 Watson, Grantley 249
Trinidad and Tobago United Nations Declaration on Education for wave power 200, 214–15
and ACS 241, 242 All 21 West Indian Federation 229, 230, 231, 240,
architecture 69 United Nations Educational Scientific and 244, 255
Carnival 325, 326 Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) 69, 91, West Indies Cricket Board 87, 94, 248
consumers 305 213, 325–6 West Indies Players Association 248
demography 143, 144, 148, 149, 150, United Nations Global Initiative to Fight wetlands 219, 339, 340
151, 153 Human Trafficking 59 Wigton Wind Farm, Jamaica 215
development 167 United Nations International Children’s wildlife 167, 191, 201, 323, 326
divorce rate 61 Emergency Fund (UNICEF) 28, 36, 45, 55 Williams, Eric 229
East Indians in 9, 16, 17 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 41 wind power 214
education 177 United Nations Seabed Authority 199 Windward Islands 162
employment 181 United States of America see also individual islands
energy supplies 214 cooperatives 316 women
health care 175 copyright law 289 attitudes towards 20
HIV/AIDS 47 culture, impact of 24 and education 20, 25, 37, 153, 185
illegal drugs 41, 42 divorce rate 61 employment for 19, 20
intellectual property 290 greenhouse gas emissions 221, 222 equality for 19, 20
joint-family households 9 and Grenada 119, 249 HIV/AIDS 47
juvenile crime 45 illegal drugs 39, 41, 42 independence 25, 32, 37
land use 196, 201 Kyoto Accord 221 roles of 18, 19–20
migration 162 mass media 276, 277, 278 social class 19, 20
murder-suicide 57 migration 162 status of 19, 20–1, 25, 32, 63
music and dance 70 people trafficking 58 working 19, 20, 24–5, 146
oil industry 23, 204, 205, 207 political system 126 women’s liberation movement see feminism
people trafficking 59 tourism 323 workforce see labour force
plantation societies 15 trade and 225, 244, 253, 254 working class 19
political system 107, 117, 124 United States Virgin Islands 338 working population 141, 146
press freedom 288 universal adult suffrage 106, 107, 108 World Bank 286
religion in 92 University of Guyana 178, 233, 247, 280 World Commission on Environment and
and RSS 249 University of Puerto Rico 178 Development (WCED) 166
street children 36 University of Technology, Jamaica 178, 179 World Health Organisation (WHO) 174, 250
suicide prevention 58 University of the West Indies (UWI) 42, 87, 178 World Heritage Sites 69, 325
tourism 325, 326, 333, 338, 346 cultural heritage 280 World Hindu Conference 92
water scarcity 212 Open Campus 90, 275, 277 World Trade Organisation (WTO) 242, 251,
women, status of 19 regional cooperation 90, 233, 246, 247 253, 289
Trinidad Muslim League 92 University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT) 178 World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) 333
Trinidad National Trust 69, 94 unmarried mothers 14 World Wide Fund for Nature 213
Trust Companies 311 urbanisation 23, 141, 152, 159, 168 World Wide Web see internet, the
T&T Airways 229 problems from 160–1, 168, 175 writing 266
Turks and Caicos Islands 85, 117, 200, 241 utility companies 95, 97
turtles 200, 340 yellow fever 175
Varah, Chad 58 Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA)
UNAIDS 46, 51 Venezuela 148, 178, 205, 237, 241, 242, 338 36–7
underdeveloped countries 141, 165 Verizon 286
underemployment 141, 176, 182, 226, 245 video-conferencing 288, 290
unemployable 141, 180 Virgin Atlantic 96
unemployment 154, 176 virtual communication 287–8
definition 141, 181 visiting unions 3, 9, 11, 15, 32, 61
effects of 180, 183, 226 visual arts 69
female 20 vocational training 184, 185, 339
measures to reduce 184, 245 Vodum 94
types of 181–2 voice mail 261, 273
UNESCO see United Nations Educational Voice of America 275
Scientific and Cultural Organisation volcanoes 192, 227, 228, 330
(UNESCO) voluntary group membership 66, 74, 78
unicameral legislatures 122 voting
United Kingdom 61, 85, 116–17 factors influencing 114–15
cooperative movement 314 turnout 114
migration 148, 161–2 voters’ list 106
trade 225, 244 ways of voting 108–9

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