Logical Equivalences

Logical Equivalences contd…

 The Predicate Logic

✓Predicate is a declarative sentence whose true/false

value depends on one or more variables.
✓The statement “x is greater than 3” has two parts:
the subject: x is the subject of the statement
the predicate: “is greater than 3” (a property that
the subject can have).
✓We denote the statement “x is greater than 3” by P (x),
where P is the predicate “is greater than 3” and x is the
variable.
✓ The statement P(x) is also called the value of
propositional function P at x.
 The Predicate Logic
✓ Consider, for example, the statement
p: n is an odd integer
✓ A proposition is a statement that is either true or false.
✓ The statement p is not a proposition because p is true
or false depends upon the value of n. For example p is
true if n = 103 and false if n = 8. Since most of the
statements in mathematics and computer science use
variables, we must extend the system of logic to
include such statements.
✓ Let P(x) be a statement involving the variable x and let
D be a set. We call p a propositional function or
predicate(with respect to D). If for each x in D P(x) is
a proposition, we call D the domain of discourse of P.
 The Predicate Logic
✓ Example: Let p(n) be the statement
n is an odd integer
✓ And D be the set of the positive integers. Then p is the
propositional function with the domain of discourse D.
Since for each n in D, p(x) is a proposition .i.e. for
each n in D, p(n) is true or false but not both.
✓ If n=1, we obtain the proposition,
p(1): 1 is an odd integer
which is true.
✓ If n=2, we may obtain the proposition,
p(2): 2 is an odd integer
which is false.
 The Predicate Logic
✓ A propositional function p by itself is neither true nor
false. However, for each x in its domain of discourse,
p(x) is a proposition and is, therefore, either true or
false. For example, if P is a propositional function
with domain of discourse equal to the set of positive
integers, we obtain the class of propositions P(1), P(2),
…. … …
✓ Each of P(1), P(2), …. … …, is either true or false.
 Universally Quantified Statement
✓ Let P be a propositional function with the domain of
discourse D. The statement,
for every x, P(x)
is said to be a universally quantified statement. The
symbol  means “for every”.
✓ Thus the statement
for every x, P(x)
may be written as:
x P(x)
✓ The symbol  is called a universal quantifier.
✓ The statement, x P(x) is true if P(x) is true for every
x in D.
✓ The statement, x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at
least one x in D.
 Universally Quantified Statement
✓ Example: Consider the universally quantified
statement x(x2≥0) with the domain of discourse the
set of real numbers.
✓ The statement is true because, for every real number x,
it is true that the square of x is positive or zero.
✓ According to the definition, the universally quantified
statement x P(x) is false if for at least one x in the
domain of discourse D, the proposition P(x) is false. A
value of x in the domain of discourse that makes P(x)
false is called a counter example to the statement
x P(x)
#. Consider the universally quantified statement
x (x2-1>0)
With domain of discourse the set of real numbers. The
statement is false since, if x=1, the proposition 12– 1>0 is
false.
The value 1 is a counterpart example to the statement x
(x2-1>0)
Although there are values of x that makes the
propositional function true, the counterpart example
provided shows that the universally quantified statement
is false.
 Existentially Quantified Statements
✓ Let P be a propositional function with domain of
discourse D. The statement
there exists x, P(x)
is said to be an existentially quantified statement. The
symbol  means “there exists”
✓ Thus the statement,
there exists x, P(x)
may be written as
x P(x)
✓ The symbol  is called an existential quantifier.
✓ The statement, x P(x), is true if P(x) is true for at
least one x in D.
✓ The statement, x p(x), is false if P(x) if false for
every x in D.
# Consider the existentially quantified statement
 x 2

x  2 =
1 5
x +
With domain of discourse the set of real numbers. The
statement is true because it is possible to find at least one
real x for which
x 2
x2 + 1 = 5
is true. For example if x = 2, we obtain the true
proposition.
2 2
22 + 1 = 5
It is not the case that every value of x results in a true
proposition. For example, if x = 1, the proposition,
 1 2
12 + 1 = 5
is false.
According to the definition, the existentially quantified
statement, x P(x)
is false if for every x in the domain of discourse D, the
proposition P(x) is false.
 Generalized De-Morgans Law for Logic
✓ If P is a propositional function, each pair of
proposition in (a) and (b) has the same truth
values(either both are true or both are false.)
a. ┐(x P(x)); x ┐P(x)
b. ┐( x P(x)); x ┐P(x)
Proof:
a. ┐(x P(x)); x ┐P(x)
Let ┐(x P(x)) is true.
⇒x P(x) is false
x P(x) is false if P(x) is false for at least one x in the
domain of discourse D.
⇒ ┐P(x) is true for at least one x in D.
 the proposition x ┐P(x) is true.
 If ┐(x P(x)); x ┐P(x) is true.
 Generalized De-Morgans Law for Logic
Proof:
b. ┐( x P(x)); x ┐P(x)
Let ┐( x P(x)) is true.
⇒ x P(x) is false
This means that P(x) is false for all x in D. which
implies that ┐P(x) is true for all x in D.
i.e. x ┐P(x) is true.
Thus if, ┐( x P(x)) is true then x ┐P(x) is also true.
 Problem Solving Tips:
✓To prove that the universally quantified statement
x P(x) is true show that for every x in domain of
discourse, the proposition P(x) is true. Showing that P(x)
is true for a particular value of x does not prove x P(x)
is true.
✓To prove that the existentially quantified statement
x P(x) is true, find one value of x in the domain of
discourse for which the proposition P(x) is true.
✓To prove the universally quantified statement x P(x) is
false, find one value in x(or counter example in the
domain of discourse D for which the proposition P(x) is
false.
 Problem Solving Tips contd…
✓To prove that the existentially quantified statement
 x P(x) is false, show that for every x in the domain of
discourse, the proposition P(x) is false. Showing that P(x)
is false for particular value of x doesn't prove that x P(x)
is false.
 Nested Quantifiers
Consider writing the statement,
The sum of any two positive real numbers is positive.
Symbolically, we first note that since two numbers are
involved, we will need two variable say x and y. The
assertions can be restated as if x>0 and y>0 then x + y>0.
The given statement says that the sum of any two positive
real numbers is positive, so we need two universal
quantifiers. Thus, the given statement can be written
symbolically as:
x y((x>0) ˄ (y>0))→(x+y>0)
In words, for every x and for every y, if x>0 and y>0 then
x+y>0. The domain of discourse is the set of real
numbers. Multiple quantifiers such as x y are said to
be nested quantifiers.
 Nested Quantifiers
# Restate m n (m<n) in words. The domain of
discourse is the set of integers.
We may first rephrase this statement as
For every m, there exists n such that m<n. Formally this
means that if you take any integer m whatsoever, there is
an integer n greater than m.
Quantification of two variables
 Argument and Validity
✓ An argument is a sequence of propositions written
p1
p2
.
.
.
pn

q
Or, p1, p2 , …, pn/q
✓ The symbol  is read “therefore”. The propositions
p1, p2 , …, pn are called the hypotheses(or premises)
and the proposition q is called the conclusion.
 Argument and Validity
✓ The argument is valid provided that if p1, p2 , …, pn
are all true then q must also be true, otherwise, the
argument is invalid
✓ In a valid argument, we sometimes say that the
conclusion follows from the hypotheses. Determine
whether the argument
p→q
p
q
is valid.
 Odd and Even Integer
Direct Proof

✓ An integer n is even if there is an integer k such that

n= 2k. AN integer n is odd if there is an integer k such
that n = 2k + 1.
✓ Example:
a. The integer n= 12 is even integer because there is an
integer k(namely k=6) such that n=2k. i.e. 12 = 2.6
b. The integer n = -21 is odd integer because there is an
integer k = -11 such that n = 2k+1. i.e. -21 = 2* -11 +1
✓ # Give the direct proof of the following statement
For all integers m and n , if m is odd and n is even, then
m+n is odd.
Proof:
We assume that m and n are the arbitrary integers and that
m is odd and n is even.
Is true. We then prove that
m+n is odd
Is true.
By definition since m is odd, there is an integer k1 such
that m = 2k1 +1. Also, by definition, since, n is even,
there is an integer k2 such that n = 2 k2
Notice that we cannot assume k1 = k2 .
Now the sum is:
m+n = (2k1+1)+2k2 = 2 (k1+k2)+1
Thus, there is an integer k namely k = k1+k2 such that
m+n = 2k+1. Therefore, m+n is odd.
Hence proved.