A P P L I C AT I O N N O T E

Fundamentals of RF and Microwave

Noise Figure Measurements

Keysight NFA simplifies noise

What is Noise Figure? figure measurements
Modern receiving systems must often process very weak signals, but the noise
added by the system components tends to obscure those very weak signals.
Sensitivity, bit error ratio (BER) and noise figure are system parameters that
characterize the ability to process low-level signals. Of these parameters, noise The reason for measuring
figure is unique in that it is suitable not only for characterizing the entire system noise properties of networks
but also the system components such as the pre-amplifier, mixer, and IF amplifier is to minimize the problem
of noise generated in
that make up the system. By controlling the noise figure and gain of system receiving systems. One
components, the designer directly controls the noise figure of the overall system. approach to overcome
Once the noise figure is known, system sensitivity can be easily estimated from noise is to make the weak
signal stronger. This can be
system bandwidth. Noise figure is often the key parameter that differentiates one
accomplished by raising the
system from another, one amplifier from an other, and one transistor from another. signal power transmitted in
Such widespread application of noise figure specifications implies that highly the direction of the receiver,
or by increasing the amount
repeatable and accurate measurements between suppliers and their customers
of power the receiving
are very important. antenna intercepts, for
example, by increasing the
aperture of the receiving
antenna. Raising antenna
The other approach is to minimize the noise generated within receiver components. gain, which usually means a
Noise measurements are key to assuring that the added noise is minimal. Once larger antenna, and raising
noise joins the signals, receiver components can no longer distinguish noise in the the transmitter power,
are eventually limited by
signal frequency band from legitimate signal fluctuations. The signal and noise get government regulations,
processed together. Subsequent raising of the signal level with gain, for example, engineering considerations,
will raise the noise level an equal amount. or economics.

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This application note is part of a series about noise measurement. Much of what is discussed
is either material that is common to most noise figure measurements or background
material. It should prove useful as a primer on noise figure measurements. The need for highly
repeatable, accurate and meaningful measurements of noise without the complexity of
manual measurements and calculations has lead to the development of noise figure
measurement instruments with simple user interfaces. Using these instruments does not
require an extensive background in noise theory. A little noise background may prove
helpful, however, in building confidence and understanding a more complete picture of
noise in RF and microwave systems. Other literature to consider for additional information
on noise figure measurements is indicated throughout this note. Numbers appearing
throughout this document in square brackets [ ] correspond to the same numerical listing
in the References section. Related Keysight Technologies literature and web resources
appear later in this application note.

Table of Contents
What is Noise Figure?............................................................... 1
The Importance of Noise In Communication Systems............ 3
Sources of Noise................................................................. 5
The Concept of Noise Figure................................................ 6
Noise Figure and Noise Temperature..................................... 8
Noise Characteristics of Two-Port Networks.............................. 9
The Noise Figure of Multi-Stage Systems.............................. 9
Gain and Mismatch. ........................................................... 11
Noise Parameters.............................................................. 12
The Effect of Bandwidth..................................................... 13
The Measurement of Noise Figure........................................... 14
Noise Power Linearity........................................................ 14
Noise Sources................................................................... 14
The Y-Factor Method......................................................... 16
The Signal Generator Twice-Power Method. ........................ 18
The Direct Noise Measurement Method.............................. 18
Corrected Noise Figure and Gain........................................ 19
Jitter................................................................................. 20
Frequency Converters........................................................ 21
Noise Figure Measuring Instruments................................... 23
Glossary .. .............................................................................. 26
Symbols and Abbreviations................................................ 26
Glossary Terms. ................................................................. 27
References............................................................................. 33
Related Literatures and Additional Resources.......................... 34

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 The Importance of Noise In Communication Systems
The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio at the output of receiving systems is a very important
criterion in communication systems. Identifying or listening to radio signals in the presence
of noise is a commonly experienced difficulty. The ability to interpret the audio information,
however, is difficult to quantify because it depends on such human factors as language
familiarity, fatigue, training, experience and the nature of the message. Noise figure
and sensitivity are measurable and objective figures of merit. Noise figure and sensitivity
are closely related (see Sensitivity in the glossary). For digital communication systems,
a quantitative reliability measure is often stated in terms of bit error ratio (BER) or the
probability that any received bit is in error. BER is related to noise figure in a non-linear
way. As the S/N ratio decreases gradually, for example, the BER increases suddenly
near the noise level where 1s and 0s become confused. Noise figure shows the health
of the system but BER shows whether the system is dead or alive.

Figure 1-1, which shows the probability of error versus carrier- to-noise ratio for several
types of digital modulation, indicates that BER changes by several orders of magnitude
for only a few dB change in signal-to-noise ratio.

10–3
4-P

8-P

16-

16-P
BPS

10–4
SK

SK

APK
K

SK
(QAM

or 1

10–5
6
)

QAM

10–6
Probability of error - (P(e))

Class

10–7
I OPR

8-APK

10–8

10–9

10–10

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Carrier to noise ratio - dB

Figure 1-1. Probability of error, P(e), as a function of carrier-to-noise ratio (C/N, which can
be interpreted as signal-to-noise ratio), for various kinds of digital modulation. From Kamilo
Feher, DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS: Microwave Applications, ©1981, p.71. Reprinted by
permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ

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In satellite systems, noise figure may be particularly important. Consider the example
of lowering the noise figure of a direct broadcast satellite (DBS) receiver. One option
for improving receiver noise figure is to increase the transmitter power, however, this
The output signal-to-noise
option can be very costly to implement. A better alternative is to substantially improve
ratio depends on two
the performance of the receiver low noise amplifier (LNA). It is easier to improve LNA things—the input signal-
performance than to increase transmitter power. to-noise ratio and the
noise figure. In terrestrial
systems the input signal-
to-noise ratio is a function
of the transmitted power,
transmitter antenna gain,
atmospheric transmission
coefficient, atmospheric
temperature, receiver
antenna gain, and receiver
noise figure. Lowering
the receiver noise figure
has the same effect on
the output signal-to-noise
ratio as improving any one
of the other quantities.

DBS receiver

In the case of a production line that produces satellite receivers, it may be quite easy
to reduce the noise figure 1 dB by adjusting impedance levels or carefully selecting
specific transistors. A 1 dB reduction in noise figure has approximately the same effect
as increasing the antenna diameter by 40 percent. But increasing the diameter could
change the design and significantly raise the cost of the antenna and support structure.

Sometimes noise is an important parameter of transmitter design. For example, if a linear,

broadband, power amplifier is used on a base station, excess broadband noise could
degrade the signal-to-noise ratio at the adjacent channels and limit the effectiveness
of the system. The noise figure of the power amplifier could be measured to provide a
figure of merit to insure acceptable noise levels before it is installed in the system.

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Sources of Noise
The noise being characterized by noise measurements consists of spontaneous fluctuations
caused by ordinary phenomena in the electrical equipment. Thermal noise arises from
vibrations of conduction electrons and holes due to their finite temperature. Some of the
vibrations have spectral content within the frequency band of interest and contribute noise
to the signals. The noise spectrum produced by thermal noise is nearly uniform over RF
and microwave frequencies. The power delivered by a thermal source into an impedance
matched load is kTB watts, where k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 x 10-23 joules/K), T
is the temperature in K, and B is the system’s noise bandwidth. The available power is
independent of the source impedance. The available power into a matched load is directly
proportional to the bandwidth so that twice the bandwidth would allow twice the power to
be delivered to the load. (See thermal noise in the glossary.)

Shot noise arises from the quantized nature of current flow (see shot noise in the glossary).
Other random phenomena occur in nature that are quantized and produce noise in the
manner of shot noise. Examples are the generation and recombination of hole/electron
pairs in semiconductors (G-R noise), and the division of emitter current between the base
and collector in transistors (partition noise). These noise generating mechanisms have
the characteristic that like thermal noise, the frequency spectra is essentially uniform,
producing equal power density across the entire RF and microwave frequency range.

There are many causes of random noise in electrical devices. Noise characterization
usually refers to the combined effect from all the causes in a component. The combined
effect is often referred to as if it all were caused by thermal noise. Referring to a device
as having a certain noise temperature does not mean that the component is that physical
temperature, but merely that it’s noise power is equivalent to a thermal source of that
temperature. Although the noise temperature does not directly correspond with physical
temperature there may be a dependence on temperature. Some very low noise figures
can be achieved when the device is cooled to a temperature below ambient.

Noise as referred to in this application note does not include human-generated interference,
although such interference is very important when receiving weak signals. This note is
not concerned with noise from ignition, sparks, or with undesired pick-up of spurious
signals. Nor is this note concerned with erratic disturbances like electrical storms in the
atmosphere. Such noise problems are usually resolved by techniques like relocation,
filtering, and proper shielding. Yet these sources of noise are important here in one sense—
they upset the measurements of the spontaneous noise this note is concerned with.
A manufacturer of LNAs may have difficulty measuring the noise figure because there
is commonly a base station neaby radiating RF power at the very frequencies they are
using to make their sensitive measurements. For this reason, accurate noise figure
measurements are often performed in shielded rooms.

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The Concept of Noise Figure
The most basic definition of noise figure came into popular use in the 1940’s when Harold
Friis[8] defined the noise figure F of a network to be the ratio of the signal-to-noise power
ratio at the input to the signal-to-noise power ratio at the output.

S1 / Ni (1-1)
F=
So / No

Thus the noise figure of a network is the decrease or degradation in the signal-to-noise
ratio as the signal goes through the network. A perfect amplifier would amplify the noise
at its input along with the signal, maintaining the same signal-to-noise ratio at its input
and output (the source of input noise is often thermal noise associated with the earth’s
surface temperature or with losses in the system). A realistic amplifier, however, also
adds some extra noise from its own components and degrades the signal-to-noise ratio.
A low noise figure means that very little noise is added by the network. The concept of
noise figure only fits networks (with at least one input and one output port) that process
signals. This note is mainly about two-port networks; although mixers are in general
three-port devices, they are usually treated the same as a two-port device with the local
oscillator connected to the third port.

It might be worthwhile to mention what noise figure does not characterize. Noise figure
is not a quality factor of networks with one port; it is not a quality factor of terminations
or of oscillators. Oscillators have their own quality factors like carrier-to-noise ratio and
phase noise. But receiver noise generated in the sidebands of the local oscillator driving
the mixer, can get added by the mixer. Such added noise increases the noise figure of
the receiver.

Noise figure has nothing to do with modulation or demodulation. It is independent of the

modulation format and of the fidelity of modulators and demodulators. Noise figure is,
therefore, a more general concept than noise-quieting used to indicate the sensitivity of
FM receivers or BER used in digital communications.

Noise figure should be thought of as separate from gain. Once noise is added to the signal,
subsequent gain amplifies signal and noise together and does not change the signal-to-
noise ratio.

Figure 1-2(a) shows an example situation at the input of an amplifier. The depicted signal
is 40 dB above the noise floor: Figure 1-2(b) shows the situation at the amplifier output.
The amplifier’s gain has boosted the signal by 20 dB. It also boosted the input noise
level by 20 dB and then added its own noise. The output signal is now only 30 dB above
the noise floor. Since the degradation in signal-to-noise ratio is 10 dB, the amplifier has
a 10 dB noise figure.

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 –40 –40

Output power level (dBm)

Input power level (dBm)

–60 –60

–80 –80

–100 –100

–120 –120
2.6 2.65 2.7 2.6 2.65 2.7
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
(a) (b)

Figure 1-2. Typical signal and noise levels versus frequency (a) at an amplifier’s input and
(b) at its output. Note that the noise level rises more than the signal level due to added
noise from amplifier circuits. This relative rise in noise level is expressed by the amplifier
noise figure.

Note that if the input signal level were 5 dB lower (35 dB above the noise floor) it would
also be 5 dB lower at the output (25 dB above the noise floor), and the noise figure would
still be 10 dB. Thus noise figure is independent of the input signal level.

A more subtle effect will now be described. The degradation in a network’s signal-to-noise
ratio is dependent on the temperature of the source that excites the network. This can
be proven with a calculation of the noise figure F, where Si and Ni represent the signal
and noise levels available at the input to the device

F
Si / Ni
So / No
(1-2)
Si / Ni

GSi / (Na  GNi )

Na  GNi

GNi

under test (DUT), So and No represent the signal and noise levels available at the output,
Na is the noise added by the DUT, and G is the gain of the DUT. Equation (1-2) shows
the dependence on noise at the input Ni. The input noise level is usually thermal
noise from the source and is referred to by kT0B. Friis[8] suggested a reference source
temperature of 290 K (denoted by T0 ), which is equivalent to 16.8°C and 62.3°F. This
temperature is close to the average temperature seen by receiving antennas directed
across the atmosphere at the transmitting antenna.

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The power spectral density kT0, furthermore, is the even number 4.00 x 10-21 watts per
hertz of bandwidth (–174 dBm/Hz). The IRE (forerunner of the IEEE) adopted 290 K as
the standard temperature for determining noise figure[7]. Then equation (1-2) becomes:
Na  kToBG
F (1-3)
kToBG

This is the definition of noise figure adopted by the IRE.

Noise figure is generally a function of frequency but it is usually independent of bandwidth

(so long as the measurement bandwidth is narrow enough to resolve variations with
frequency). Noise powers Na and Ni of equation (1-2) are each proportional to bandwidth.
But the bandwidth in the numerator of (1-2) cancels with that of the denominator—
resulting in noise figure being independent of bandwidth.

In summary, the noise figure of a DUT is the degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio as a signal
passes through the DUT. The specific input noise level for determining the degradation is
that associated with a 290 K source temperature. The noise figure of a DUT is independent
of the signal level so long as the DUT is linear (output power versus input power).

The IEEE Standard definition of noise figure, equation (1-3), states that noise figure is the
ratio of the total noise power output to that portion of the noise power output due to
noise at the input when the input source temperature is 290 K.

While the quantity F in equation (1-3) is often called noise figure, more often it is called
noise factor or sometimes noise figure in linear terms. Modern usage of noise figure
usually is reserved for the quantity NF, expressed in dB units:

NF = 10 log F (1-3)

This is the convention used in the remainder of this application note.

Noise Figure and Noise Temperature

Sometimes effective input noise temperature (Te) is used to describe the noise
performance of a device rather than the noise figure (NF). Quite often temperature units
are used for devices used in satellite receivers. Te is the equivalent temperature of a
source impedance into a perfect (noise-free) device that would produce the same added
noise, Na. It is often defined as

Na
Te = (1-4)
kB

It can be related to the noise factor F:

Te  To (F  1), where To is 290K (1-5)

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 The input noise level present in terrestrial VHF and microwave communications is often
close to the 290 K reference temperature used in noise figure calculations due to the
earth’s surface temperature. When this is the case, a 3 dB change in noise figure will
result in a 3 dB change in the signal-to-noise ratio.

In satellite receivers the noise level coming from the antenna can be far less, limited by
sidelobe radiation and the background sky temperature to values often below 100 K.
In these situations, a 3 dB change in the receiver noise figure may result in much more
than 3 dB signal-to-noise change. While system performance may be calculated using
noise figure without any errors (the 290 K reference temperature need not correspond to
actual temperature), system designers may prefer to use Te as a system parameter.

10
Ts = 5 K
9
S/N degradation (dB)

8 Ts = 30 K
7
6 Ts = 50 K
5
4 Ts = 100 K
3
2 Ts = 290 K
1 (Gives noise figure)
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Te(K)

Figure 1-3. Degradation in the S/N ratio versus Te of a device for various values of temperature
for the source impedance. Noise figure is defined for a source temperature of 290 K.

Noise Characteristics of Two-Port Networks

The Noise Figure of Multi-Stage Systems
The noise figure definition covered in Chapter 1 can be applied to both individual components
such as a single transistor amplifier, or to a complete system such as a receiver. The
overall noise figure of the system can be calculated if the individual noise figures and
gains of the system components are known. To find the noise figure of each component
in a system, the internal noise added by each stage, Na, must be found. The gain must
also be known. The actual methods used to determine noise and gain are covered
in Chapter 3, The Measurement of Noise Figure. The basic relationship between the
individual components and the system will be discussed here.

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 BG1, Na1 BG2, Na2
Input
noise 2nd stage
R
kT0B
Na2
Total
1st stage Total
noise
noise
Na1G2 added
Na1 power
output

kT0BG1 kT0BG1G2
kT0B

Na = (F-1) kT0BG
Noise input x System gain

Figure 2-1. The effect of second stage contribution.

For two stages see Figure 2-1, the output noise will consist of the kT 0B source noise
amplified by both gains, G1G2, plus the first amplifier output noise, Na1, amplified by
the second gain, G2, plus the second amplifiers output noise, Na2. The noise power
contributions may be added since they are uncorrelated. Using equation (1-3) to express
the individual amplifier noise contributions, the output noise can be expressed in terms
of their noise factors, F.

 F  1 (2-1)
No  kToBG1G1 F1  2 
 G1 

With the output noise known, the noise factor of the combination of both amplifiers can
be calculated using equation (1-1). This is the overall system noise figure of this two-
stage example. The quantity (F2-1)/G1 is often called the second stage contribution. One
can see that as long as the first stage gain is high, the second stage contribution will be
small. This is why the pre-amplifier gain is an important parameter in receiver design.

F2  1
Fsys  F1  (2-2)
G1

Equation (2-2) can be re-written to find F1 if the gain and overall system noise factor is
known. This is the basis of corrected noise measurements and will be discussed in the
next chapter.

This calculation may be extended to a n-stage cascade of devices and expressed as

F2  1 F3  1 Fn  1
Fsys  F1   +... (2-3)
G1 G1 G2 G1 G2 ...Gn1

Equation (2-3) is often called the cascade noise equation.

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Gain and Mismatch
The device gain is an important parameter in noise calculations. When an input power
of kT0B is used in these calculations, it is an available power, the maximum that can
be delivered to a matched load. If the device has a large input mismatch (not unusual
for low-noise amplifiers), the actual power delivered to the device would be less. If the
gain of the device is defined as the ratio of the actual power delivered to the load to the
maximum power available from the source we can ignore the mismatch loss present at
the input of the device since it is taken into account in our gain definition. This definition
of gain is called transducer gain, Gt. When cascading devices, however, mismatch errors
arise if the input impedance of the device differs from the load impedance. In this case
the total gain of a cascaded series of devices does not equal the product of the gains.

Available gain, (Ga), is often given as a transistor parameter, it is the gain that will result
when a given source admittance, Ys, drives the device and the output is matched to
the load. It is often used when designing amplifiers. Refer to the glossary for a more
complete description of the different definitions of gain.

Most often insertion gain, Gi, or the forward transmission coefficient, (S21)2, is the quantity
specified or measured for gain in a 50Ω system. If the measurement system has low
reflection coefficients and the device has a good output match there will be little error
in applying the cascade noise figure equation (2-3) to actual systems. If the device has
a poor output match or the measurement system has significant mismatch errors, an
error between the actual system and calculated performance will occur. If, for example,
the output impedance of the first stage was different from the 50Ω source impedance
that was used when the second stage was characterized for noise figure, the noise
generated in the second stage could be altered. Fortunately, the second stage noise
contribution is reduced by the first stage gain so that in many applications errors involving
the second stage are minimal. When the first stage has low gain (G²F2), second stage
errors can become significant. The complete analysis of mismatch effects in noise
calculations is lengthy and generally requires understanding the dependence of noise
figure on source impedance. This effect, in addition to the gain mismatch effect, will
be discussed in the next section (Noise Parameters). It is because of this noise figure
dependence that S-parameter correction is not as useful as it would seem in removing
the errors associated with mismatch.[4]

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Noise Parameters
Noise figure is, in principle, a simplified model of the actual noise in a system. A single,
theoretical noise element is present in each stage. Most actual amplifying devices
such as transistors can have multiple noise contributors; thermal, shot, and partition
as examples. The effect of source impedance on these noise generation processes
can be a very complex relationship. The noise figure that results from a noise figure
measurement is influenced by the match of the noise source and the match of the
measuring instrument; the noise source is the source impedance for the DUT, and the
DUT is the source impedance for the measuring instrument. The actual noise figure
performance of the device when it is in its operating environment will be determined by
the match of other system components.

Designing low noise amplifiers requires tradeoffs between the gain of a stage and its
corresponding noise figure. These decisions require knowledge of how the active
device’s gain and noise figure change as a function of the source impedance or admittance.
The minimum noise figure does not necessarily occur at either the system impedance,
Zo, or at the conjugate match impedance that maximizes gain.

To fully understand the effect of mismatch in a system, two characterizations of the

device-under-test (DUT) are needed, one for noise figure and another for gain. While
S-parameter correction can be used to calculate the available gain in a perfectly matched
system, it can not be used to find the optimum noise figure. A noise parameter characterization
uses a special tuner to present different complex impedances to the DUT.[29]

The dependence of noise factor on source impedance presented by the tuner is described by

 2 
4Rn   opt   s  (2-4)
F  Fmin 
 opt 
Z o  1  2 1   2
s  



where the Γ is the source reflection coefficient that results in the noise factor F. In the
equation, Fmin is the minimum noise factor for the device that occurs when Γ = Γopt. Rn
is the noise resistance (the sensitivity of noise figure to source admittance changes).
Fmin, Rn, and Γopt are frequently referred to as the noise parameters, and it is their
determination which is called noise characterization. When Γ is plotted on a Smith chart
for a set of constant noise factors, F, the result is noise circles. Noise circles are a convenient
format to display the complex relation between source impedance and noise figure.

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 F min = 1.1 dB
F = 1.2 dB
F = 1.6 dB
F = 2.1 dB
F = 3.1 dB
F = 4.1 dB

Figure 2-2. Noise circles

The available gain, Ga, provided by a device when it is driven by a specified source impedance,
can be calculated from the S-parameters of the device[35, 40] and the source reflection
coefficient, Γ using equation (2-5). S-parameters are commonly measured with a
network analyzer.

(1 |  s |2 ) | S21 |2
Ga 
 S S   (2-5)
| 1 S11 s |2  1 | S22  12 21 s |2 
 1 S11 s | 

When the source reflection coefficient, Γs, is plotted on a Smith chart corresponding to a
set of fixed gains, gain circles result. Gain circles are a convenient format to display the
relation between source impedance and gain.

The Effect of Bandwidth

Although the system bandwidth is an important factor in many systems and is involved in the
actual signal-to-noise calculations for demodulated signals, noise figure is independent of
device bandwidth. A general assumption made when performing noise measurements is that
the device to be tested has an amplitude-versus-frequency characteristic that is constant
over the measurement bandwidth. This means that noise measurement bandwidth should
be less than the device bandwidth. When this is not the case, an error will be introduced.[34] The high
performance Keysight NFA X-Series noise figure analyzers have variable bandwidths to facilitate
measurement of narrow-band devices, as do spectrum analyzer-based measurement systems.

Most often the bandwidth-defining element in a system, such as a receiver, will be the IF or
the detector. It will usually have a bandwidth much narrower than the RF circuits. In this case
noise figure is a valid parameter to describe the noise performance of the RF circuitry. In
the unusual case where the RF circuits have a bandwidth narrower than the IF or detector,
noise figure may still be used as a figure of merit for comparisons, but a complete analysis
of the system signal-to-noise ratio will require the input bandwidth as a parameter.

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 The Measurement of Noise Figure
Noise Power Linearity
The basis of most noise figure measurements depends on a fundamental characteristic
of linear two-port devices, noise linearity. The noise power out of a device is linearly
dependent on the input noise power or temperature as shown in Figure 3-1. If the slope
of this characteristic and a reference point is known, the output power corresponding
to a noiseless input power, Na can be found. From Na the noise figure or effective input
noise temperature can be calculated as described in Chapter 1. Because of the need for
linearity, any automatic gain control (AGC) circuitry must be deactivated for noise figure
measurements.

P DUT
Zs, Ts POUTPUT
Power output (W)

slope = kGaB

Na
0 Source temperature (K) Ts

Figure 3-1. The straight-line power output versus source temperature characteristic of
linear, two-port devices. For a source impedance with a temperature of absolute zero,
the power output consists solely of added noise Na from the DUT. For other source
temperatures the power output is increased by thermal noise from the source amplified
by the gain characteristic of the DUT.

Noise Sources
One way of determining the noise slope is to apply two different levels of input noise
and measure the output power change. A noise source is a device that will provide these
two known levels of noise. The most popular noise source consists of a special low-
capacitance diode that generates noise when reverse biased into avalanche breakdown
with a constant current[5]. Precision noise sources such as the Keysight SNS-Series have an
output attenuator to provide a low SWR to minimize mismatch errors in measurements.
If there is a difference between the on and off state impedance an error can be introduced
into the noise figure measurement [23]
. The N4000A noise source has a larger value of
attenuation to minimize this effect.

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When the diode is biased, the output noise will be greater than kTcB due to avalanche
noise generation in the diode [11, 12, 13, 15, 20, 21]; when unbiased, the output will be the thermal noise
produced in the attenuator, kTcB. These levels are sometimes called Th and Tc corresponding
to the terms hot and cold. The N4001A produces noise levels approximately equivalent
to a 10,000 K when on and 290 K when off. Diode noise sources are available to 50 GHz
from Keysight. The 346C Option K40 has excellent match up to 40 GHz.

SNS-Series noise source

To make noise figure measurements a noise source must have a calibrated output noise
level, represented by excess noise ratio (ENR). Unique ENR calibration information is
supplied with the noise source and, in the case of the SNS-Series, is stored internally on
non-volatile memory. Other noise sources come with data in less convenient form. ENRdB
is the ratio, expressed in dB of the difference between Th and Tc, divided by 290 K. It should
be noted that a 0 dB ENR noise source produces a 290 K temperature change between
its on and off states. ENR is not the on noise relative to kTB as is often erroneously believed.

T T 
ENRdB  10log  h c  (3-1)
 To 

Tc in equation (3-1) is assumed to be 290 K when it is calibrated. When the noise source
is used at a different physical temperature, compensation must be applied to the
measurement. The SNS-Series noise sources contain a temperature sensor which can
be read by Keysight’s analyzers. The temperature compensation will be covered in the
next section of this chapter.

In many noise figure calculations the linear form of ENR will be used.
ENRdB
ENR = 10 10 (3-2)

Noise sources may be calibrated from a transfer standard noise source (calibrated traceable
to a top level National Standards laboratory) or by a primary physical standard such as a hot/
cold load. Most noise sources will be supplied with an ENR characterized versus frequency.

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Hot and cold loads are used in some special applications as a noise source. Ideally the
two loads need to be kept at constant temperatures for good measurement precision.
One method immerses one load into liquid nitrogen at a temperature of 77 K, the other
may be kept at room temperature or in a temperature controlled oven. The relatively
small temperature difference compared to noise diode sources and potential SWR
changes resulting from switching to different temperature loads usually limits this method
to calibration labs and millimeter-wave users.

Gas discharge tubes imbedded into waveguide structures produce noise due to the kinetic
energy of the plasma. Traditionally they have been used as a source of millimeter-wave
noise. They have been essentially replaced by solid-state noise diodes at frequencies
below 50 GHz. The noise diode is simpler to use and generally is a more stable source of
noise. Although the noise diode is generally a coaxial device, integral, precision waveguide
adapters may be used to provide a waveguide output.

R347B and Q347B millimeter-wave noise sources

The Y-Factor Method

The Y-Factor method is the basis of most noise figure measurements whether they are
manual or automatically performed internally in a noise figure analyzer. Using a noise
source, this method allows the determination of the internal noise in the DUT and
therefore the noise figure or effective input noise temperature.

With a noise source connected to the DUT, the output power can be measured corresponding
to the noise source on and the noise source off (N2 and N1). The ratio of these two powers
is called the Y-factor. The power detector used to make this measurement may be a
power meter, spectrum analyzer, or a special internal power detector in the case of noise figure
meters and analyzers. The relative level accuracy is important. One of the advantages
of modern noise figure analyzers is that the internal power detector is very linear and
can very precisely measure level changes. The absolute power level accuracy of the
measuring device is not important since a ratio is to be measured.

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 N2
Y= (3-3)
N1

Sometimes this ratio is measured in dB units, in this case:

YdB
Y = 10 10 (3-4)

The Y-factor and the ENR can be used to find the noise slope of the DUT that is depicted
in Figure 3-1. Since the calibrated ENR of the noise source represents a reference level
for input noise, an equation for the DUT internal noise, Na can be derived. In a modern
noise figure analyzer, this will be automatically determined by modulating the noise source
between the on and off states and applying internal calculations.

 ENR  (3-5)
Na  kT0BG1   1
 Y 1 

From this we can derive a very simple expression for the noise factor. The noise factor
that results is the total system noise factor, Fsys. System noise factor includes the noise
contribution of all the individual parts of the system. In this case the noise generated in
the measuring instrument has been included as a second stage contribution. If the DUT
gain is large (G1>>F2), the noise contribution from this second stage will be small. The
second stage contribution can be removed from the calculation of noise figure if the
noise figure of the second stage and the gain of the DUT is known. This will be covered
in the section on corrected noise figure and gain. Note that the device gain is not
needed to find Fsys.
ENR
Fsys  (3-6)
Y 1

When the noise figure is much higher than the ENR, the device noise tends to mask
the noise source output. In this case the Y-factor will be very close to 1. Accurate
measurement of small ratios can be difficult. Generally the Y-factor method is not
used when the noise figure is more than 10 dB above the ENR of the noise source,
depending on the measurement instrument.

This equation can be modified to correct for the condition when the noise source cold
temperature, Tc, is not at the 290 K reference temperature, T0.

T 
ENR  Y  c  1
 T0 
Fsys 
Y 1
(3-7)

This often used equation assumes that Th is unaffected by changes in Tc as is the case
with hot and cold loads. With solid-state noise sources, Th will likely be affected by changes
in Tc. Since the physical noise source is at a temperature of Tc, the internal attenuator
noise due to Tc is added both when the noise source is on and off. In this case it is better
to assume that the noise change between the on and off state remains constant (Th-Tc).
This distinction is most important for low ENR noise sources when Th is less than 10 Tc.

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An alternate equation can be used to correct for this case.

T  (3-8)
ENR  c 
Fsys   T0 
Y 1

The Signal Generator Twice-Power Method

Before noise sources were available this method was popular. It is still particularly useful for
high noise figure devices where the Y-factors can be very small and difficult to accurately
measure. First, the output power is measured with the device input terminated with a
load at a temperature of approximately 290 K. Then a signal generator is connected,
providing a signal within the measurement bandwidth. The generator output power is
adjusted to produce a 3 dB increase in the output power. If the generator power level
and measurement bandwidth are known we can calculate the noise factor. It is not
necessary to know the DUT gain.

There are some factors that limit the accuracy of this method.
Pgen
Fsys = (3-9)
kT0B

The noise bandwidth of the power-measuring device must be known, perhaps requiring
a network analyzer. Noise bandwidth, B, is a calculated equivalent bandwidth, having
a rectangular, “flat-top” spectral shape with the same gain bandwidth product as the
actual filter shape. The output power must be measured on a device that measures true
power since we have a mix of noise and a CW signal present. Thermal-based power
meters measure true power very accurately but may require much amplification to read
a low noise level and will require a bandwidth-defining filter. Spectrum analyzers have
good sensitivity and a well-defined bandwidth but the detector may respond differently
to CW signals and noise. Absolute level accuracy is not needed in the power detector
since a ratio is being measured.

The Direct Noise Measurement Method

This method is also useful for high noise figure devices. The output power of the device
is measured with an input termination at a temperature of approximately 290 K. If the
gain of the device and noise bandwidth of the measurement system is known, the noise
factor can be determined.
No
Fsys = (3-10)
kT0BG

Again with this method the noise bandwidth, B, must be known and the power-measuring
device may need to be very sensitive. Unlike the twice-power method, the DUT gain must
be known and the power detector must have absolute level accuracy.

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Corrected Noise Figure and Gain
The previous measurements are used to measure the total system noise factor, Fsys,
including the measurement system. Generally it is the DUT noise figure that is desired.
From the cascade noise-figure equation it can be seen that if the DUT gain is large, the
measurement system will have little effect on the measurement. The noise figure of high
gain DUTs can be directly measured with the previously discussed methods. When a low gain
DUT is to be measured or the highest accuracy is needed, a correction can be applied
if we know the gain of the DUT and the noise figure of the system. Using equation (2-2)
and re-writing to solve for F1 gives the equation for the actual DUT noise factor.

F2  1
F1  Fsys 
G1 (3-11)

Both the gain of the DUT and the measurement system noise factor, F2, can be determined
with an additional noise source measurement. This step is called a system calibration.
With a noise-figure analyzer this calibration is usually performed before connecting the
DUT so that all subsequent measurements can use the corrections and the corrected noise
figure can be displayed. The necessary calculations to find the gain and the corrected
noise figure are automatically performed internally. When manual measurements are
made with alternative instruments, a calibrated noise figure measurement can be
performed as follows:

1. Connect the noise source directly to the measurement system and measure the
noise power levels corresponding to the noise source “on” and “off”. These levels;
N 2 and N1 respectively, can then be used to calculate the measurement system
noise factor F2 using the Y-factor method.

2. The DUT is inserted into the system. The noise levels N2 and N1 are measured when
the noise source is turned on and off. The DUT gain can be calculated with the
noise level values.

N2'  N1' (3-12)

G1 
N2  N1

The gain is usually displayed in dB terms:

G db= 10logG

3. The overall system noise factor, Fsys, can be calculated by applying the Y-factor
method to the values N2' and N1'.

4. The DUT noise factor, F1, can be calculated with equation (3-11). The DUT noise
figure is 10logF1.

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Jitter
Noise can be thought of as a series of random events, electrical impulses in this case.
The goal of any noise measurement is to find the mean noise level at the output of the
device. These levels can be used, with appropriate corrections, to calculate the actual
noise figure of the device. In theory, the time required to find the true mean noise level
would be infinite. In practice, averaging is performed over some finite time period. The
difference between the measured average and the true mean will fluctuate and give rise
to a repeatability error.

Variation (dB)

Noise Signal
Amplitude Mean

Time

Figure 3-2. Noise jitter

For small variations, the deviation is proportional to 1/ (t ) so that longer averaging times
will produce better averages. Because the average includes more events it is closer
to the true mean. The variation is also proportional to 1/ (B ) . Larger measurement
bandwidths will produce a better average because there are more noise events per unit
of time in a large bandwidth; therefore, more events are included in the average. Usually
noise figure should be measured with a bandwidth as wide as possible but narrower
than the DUT.

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Frequency Converters
Frequency converters such as receivers and mixers usually are designed to convert
an RF frequency band to an IF frequency band. While the noise figure relationships
discussed in this application note apply to converters as well as non-converters,
there are some additional characteristics of these devices that can affect noise figure
measurements. In addition to DUTs that are frequency converters, sometimes the noise
measurement system uses mixing to extend the measurement frequency range.

Loss
Amplifiers usually have a gain associated with them, while passive mixers have loss.
All the equations for noise figure still apply; however, the linear gain values used will
be less than one. One implication of this can be seen by applying the cascade noise
figure equation; the second stage noise contribution can be major (See Equation 2-2).
Another is that passive mixers, if measured using the Y-factor technique, can have small
Y-factors owing to their high noise figures. This may increase measurement uncertainty.
High ENR noise sources can be used to provide a larger Y-factor.

LO Noise
Receivers and mixers have local oscillator (LO) signals that may have noise present.
This noise can be converted in the mixer to the IF frequency band and become an
additional contribution to the system’s noise figure. The magnitude of this effect varies
widely depending on the specific mixer type and how much noise is in the LO. It is
possible to eliminate this noise in fixed frequency LO systems with a band-pass filter on
the LO port of the mixer. A filter that rejects noise at fLO+/-fIF, fIF, and fRF while passing
fLO will generally eliminate this noise. There may also be higher order noise conversions
that could contribute if the LO noise level is very high. A lowpass filter can be used to
prevent noise conversions at harmonics of the LO frequency.

LO Leakage
A residual LO signal may be present at the output (IF) of a mixer or converter. The
presence of this signal is generally unrelated to the noise performance of the DUT
and may be acceptable when used for the intended application. When a noise figure
measurement is made, this LO signal may overload the noise measurement instrument
or create other spurious mixing products. This is most likely to be an issue when the
measuring system has a broadband amplifier or other unfiltered circuit at it’s input. Often
a filter can be added to the instrument input to filter out the LO signal while passing the IF.

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Unwanted Responses
Sometimes the desired RF frequency band is not the only band that converts to the
IF frequency band. Unwanted frequency band conversions may occur if unwanted
frequencies are present at the RF port in addition to the desired RF signal. Some of
these are: the image response (fLO + fIF or fLO – fIF depending on the converter), harmonic
responses (2fLO ± fIF, 3fLO ± fIF, etc.), spurious responses, and IF feed-through response.
Often, particularly in receivers, these responses are negligible due to internal filtering.
With many other devices, especially mixers, one or more of these responses may be
present and may convert additional noise to the IF frequency band.

(1) (2) Noise from (3)

noise source

Device
input

fIF fLO-fIF fLO fLO+fIF 3fLO-fIF 3fLO 3fLO+fIF

Frequency

Downconverted noise

Figure 3-3. Possible noise conversion mechanisms with mixers and converters.
(1) IF feedthrough response, (2) double sideband response, (3) harmonic response.

Mixers having two main responses (fLO + fIF and fLO – fIF) are often termed double side-
band (DSB) mixers. fLO + fRF is called the upper side-band (USB). fLO – fIF is called the lower
side-band (LSB). They convert noise in both frequency bands to the IF frequency band.
When such a mixer is part of the noise measurement system, the second response will
create an error in noise figure measurements unless a correction, usually +3 dB, is
applied. Ideally filtering is used at the RF port to eliminate the second response so that
single side-band (SSB) measurements can be made.

When a DSB mixer is the DUT we have a choice when measuring the noise figure. Usually the
user wants to measure the equivalent SSB noise figure. In passive mixers that do not have
LO noise, the equivalent SSB noise figure is often close in value to the conversion loss
measured with a CW signal. There are two ways to make this measurement; an input filter
can be used, or the +3 dB correction can be applied. There are accuracy implications
with these methods that must be considered if precision measurements are to be made;
an input filter will add loss that should be corrected for, the +3 dB correction factor
assumes equal USB and LSB responses.

Converters used in noise receivers, such as radiometers and radiometric sensors are often
designed to make use of both main responses, in which case it is desirable to know the
DSB noise figure. In this case, no correction or input filter is used; the resulting noise
figure measured will be in DSB terms.

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Noise Figure Measuring Instruments
Noise Figure Analyzers
The noise figure analyzer represents a dedicated version of noise figure measurement
solutions. A noise figure analyzer in its most basic form consists of a receiver with an
accurate power detector and a circuit to power the noise source. It provides for ENR entry
and displays the resulting noise figure value corresponding to the frequency it is tuned to.
Internally a noise figure analyzer computes the noise figure using the Y-factor method.

A noise figure analyzer allows the display of swept frequency noise figure and gain and
associated features such as markers and limit lines.

NFA noise figure analyzer

Signal/Spectrum Analyzers
Signal/spectrum analyzers are often used to measure noise figure because they are already
present in the test racks of many RF and microwave production facilities performing
a variety of tasks. With software and a controller they can be used to measure noise
figure using any of the methods outlined in this application note. They are particularly
useful for measuring high noise figure devices using the signal generator or direct power
measurement method. With the available noise figure measurement application, they
can achieve uncertainties negligibly degraded from the capabilities of the noise source
used. The variable resolution bandwidths allow measurement of narrow-band devices.

One of the advantages of a signal/spectrum analyzer is multi-functionality. Typically,

measurement applications may be added to make measurements specific to a particular
communications standard.

EXA X-Series signal analyzer

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Network Analyzers
Like spectrum analyzers, network analyzers are common multi-use instruments. Products
are available that offer noise figure measurements in addition to the usual network
measurements. An advantage is that they can offer other measurements commonly
associated with devices: such as gain and match. Because network measurements are
usually made with the same internal receiver architecture, there can be some performance
limitations when used in noise figure applications. Often the receiver is of the double
side-band (DSB) type, where noise figure is actually measured at two frequencies and an
internal correction is applied. When a wide measurement bandwidth is used this may result
in error if the device noise figure or gain is not constant over this frequency range. When
narrow measurement bandwidth is used to measure narrow-band devices, the unused
frequency spectrum between the upper and lower side-band does not contribute to the
measurement and a longer measurement time is needed to reduce jitter (see Jitter in
this chapter).

Network analyzers have the ability to measure the S-parameters of the device. It has been
considered that S-parameter data can reduce noise figure measurement uncertainty
by offering mismatch correction. Ideally this mismatch correction would provide a more
accurate gain measurement of the device so that the second stage noise contribution
can be subtracted with more precision. Unfortunately, the mismatch also effects the noise
generation in the second stage which cannot be corrected for without knowing the noise
parameters of the device. The same situation occurs at the input of the device when a
mismatch is present between the noise source and DUT input. (see Noise parameters
in Chapter 2)[4]. Network analyzers do not, by themselves, provide measurement of the
noise parameters. The measurement of noise parameters generally requires a tuner and
software in addition to the network analyzer. The resulting measurement system can be
complex and expensive. Error correction in a network analyzer is primarily of benefit for
gain measurements and calculation of available gain.

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Noise Parameter Test Sets
A noise parameter test set is usually used in conjunction with software, a vector network analyzer
and a noise analyzer to make a series of measurements, allowing the determination of the
noise parameters of the device [29] (see Noise parameters in Chapter 2). Noise parameters
can then be used to calculate the minimum device noise figure, the optimum source
impedance, and the effect of source impedance on noise figure. The test set has an
adjustable tuner to present various source impedances to the DUT. Internal networks
provide bias to semiconductor devices that may be tested. A noise source is coupled
to the test set to allow noise figure measurements at different source impedances. The
corresponding source impedances are measured with the network analyzer. From this
data, the complete noise parameters of the device can be calculated. Generally the
complete device S-parameters are also measured so that gain parameters can also be
determined. Because of the number of measurements involved, measurement of the full
noise parameters of a device is much slower than making a conventional noise figure
measurement but yields useful design parameters. Noise parameters are often supplied
on low-noise transistor data sheets. Noise parameters are generally not measured on
components and assemblies that are intended to be used in well matched 50 Ω (or
75 Ω) stems because the source impedance is defined in the application.

Power Meters and True-RMS Voltmeters

As basic level measuring devices, power meters and true-RMS voltmeters can be used to
measure noise figure with any of the methods described in this note with the necessary
manual or computer calculations. Being broadband devices, they need a filter to limit their
bandwidth to be narrower than the DUT. Such a filter will usually be fixed in frequency
and allow measurements only at this frequency. Power meters are most often used to
measure receiver noise figures where the receiver has a fixed IF frequency and much
gain. The sensitivity of power meters and voltmeters is usually poor but the receiver may
provide enough gain to make measurements. If additional gain is added ahead of a power
meter to increase sensitivity, care should be taken to avoid temperature drift and oscillations.

EPM Series power meter

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Glossary
Symbols and Abbreviations
B Noise bandwidth
BER Bit error ratio
|bs|2 Power delivered by a generator to a non reflecting load
C/N Carrier to noise ratio
DBS Direct broadcast by satellite
DSB Double sideband
DUT Device under test
ENRdB Excess noise ratio
F Noise factor
F 1 First stage noise factor
FM Frequency modulation
Fmin Minimum noise factor
Fsys System noise factor
1/f Flicker noise
G p Power gain
G ass Associated gain
G a Available gain
G i Insertion gain
G t Transducer gain
G/T Gain-to-temperature ratio
IEEE Institute of electrical and electronics engineers
IF Intermediate frequency
IRE Institute of radio engineers
K Kelvins (unit of temperature)
k Boltzmann’s constant
LNA Low noise amplifier
LSB Lower sideband
M Noise measure
M u Mismatch uncertainty
N a Noise added
NF Noise figure
Noff =N1 (see Y factor)
Non =N2 (see Y factor)
N 1 Nout for Tc (see Y factor)
N 2 Nout for T h (see Y factor)
N i Input noise power
N o Output Noise power
RF Radio frequency
RMS Root mean square
R n Equivalent noise resistance
r n Equivalent Noise resistance, normalized
RSS Root Sum-of-the-squares
S/N Signal to noise ratio
SSB Single sideband
|S21|2 Forward transmission coefficient
S i Input signal power
S o Output signal power
Ta Noise temperature
Tc Cold temperature (see Tc)
Te Effective input noise temperature
Th Hot temperature (see T h)
T ne Effective noise temperature
Toff Off temperature (see Toff)

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Glossary Terms
Associated gain (Gass). The available gain of a devicewhen the source reflection coefficient is theoptimum
reflection coefficient Γopt corresponding with Fmin.

Available gain (Ga). [2, 35, 40] The ratio, at a specific frequency, of power available from the output of the network
Pao to the power available from the source Pas.

Pao
Ga = (1)
Pas

For a source with output |bs|2 and reflection coefficient Γ

2
bs
Pas  2
(2)
1  s

Pao 
2
bs S21 1 2
2
 2
 (3)
1  s S11  1 2 * S22    s 2 * S12S21
2

where
S12S21 s
T2  S22  (4)
1 S11 s

An alternative expression for the available output power is

2 2
bs S21
Pao 

1  s S11
2
 1   (5)
2
2

These lead to two expressions for Ga

Ga  S21
2
1  s
2
1   2
2
(6)
1  s S11  1 2S22    s 2 * S12S21
2

2
2 1  s
Ga  S21
 
2 2 (7)
1  s S11 1 2

NOTE: Ga is a function of the network parameters and of the source reflection coefficient Γ L. G a is independent
of the load reflection coefficient ΓL. Ga is often expressed in dB

Pao
Ga (dB) = 10 log
Pas (8)

Bandwidth (B). See noise bandwidth.

Boltzmann’s constant (k). 1.38 x10-23 joules/kelvin.

Cascade effect. [8] The relationship, when several networks are connected in cascade, of the noise
characteristics (F or Te and Ga) of each individual network to the noise characteristics of the overall or
combined network.

If F1, F2, . . ., Fn (numerical ratios, not dB) are the individual noise figures and Ga1, Ga2, …,Gan (numerical ratios)
are the individual available gains, the combined noise figure is

F2 -1 F3 -1 Fn  1
F  F1    ...  (1)
Ga1 Ga1Ga2 Ga1Ga2 ...Ga( n1)

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the combined available gain is

Ga = Ga1Ga2 ...Gan
(2)

In terms of individual effective input noise temperatures Te1, Te2, …, Ten the overall effective input noise
temperature is

Te2 T Ten (3)

Te  Te1   e2  ... 
Ga1 Ga1Ga2 Ga1Ga2 ...Ga( n1)

NOTE: Each Fi, Tei, and Gai above refers to the value for the source impedance that corresponds to the output
impedance of the previous stage.

Diode noise source. [11, 12, 13, 15, 20, 21] A noise source that depends on the noise generated in a solid state
diode that is reverse biased into the avalanche region. Excess noise ratios of well-matched devices are usually
about 15 dB (Tne = 10000 K). Higher excess noise ratios are possible by sacrificing impedance match and flat
frequency response.

Double sideband (DSB). See Single-sideband (SSB).

Effective input noise temperature (Te). [17] The noise temperature assigned to the impedance at the input
port of a DUT which would, when connected to a noise-free equivalent of the DUT, yield the same output
power as the actual DUT when it is connected to a noise-free input port impedance. The same temperature
applies simultaneously for the entire set of frequencies that contribute to the out put frequency. If there are
several input ports, each having a specified impedance, the same temperature applies simultaneously to all
the ports. All ports except the output are to be considered input ports for purposes of defining Te. For a two-
port transducer with a single input and a single output frequency, Te is related to the noise figure F by

Te  290(F  1) (1)

Effective noise temperature (Tne). [1] (This is a property of a one-port, for example, a noise source.) The
temperature that yields the power emerging from the output port of the noise source when it is connected
to a nonreflecting, nonemitting load. The relationship between the noise temperature Ta and effective noise
temperature Tne is

Tne  Ta (1  ) (1)

2

where Γ is the reflection coefficient of the noise source. The proportionality factor for the emerging power is kB
so that

Pe
Tne = (2)
(kB )

where Pe is the emerging power, k is Boltzmann’s constant, and B is the bandwidth of the power
measurement. The power spectral density across the measurement bandwidth is assumed to be constant.

Equivalent noise resistance (r n or Rn). See noise figure circles.

Excess noise ratio (ENR).[1] A noise generator property calculated from the hot and cold noise temperatures
(Th and Tc) using the equation

Th  Tc (1)
ENRdB  10 log
T0

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where T0 is the standard temperature of 290 K. Noise temperatures Th and Tc should be the “effective” noise
temperatures. (See Effective Noise Temperature)[25]. The ENR calibration of diode noise sources assumes
Tc=T0.

A few examples of the relationship between ENR and Th may be worthwhile. An ENR of 0 dB corresponds to
T h = 580 K. Th of 100°C (373 K) corresponds to an ENR of –5.43 dB. Th of 290 K corresponds to an ENR of
–∞ dB.

Flicker noise and 1/f noise. [33, 39] Any noise whose power spectral density varies inversely with frequency.
Especially important at audio frequencies or with GASFET’s below about 100 MHz.

Forward transmission coefficient (S21)2. The ratio, at a specific frequency, of the power delivered by the
output of a network, to the power delivered to the input of the network when the network is terminated by a
nonreflecting load and excited by a nonreflecting generator.

The magnitude of this parameter is often given in dB.

2 2 (1)
S21 (dB ) = 10 log S21

Gain to temperature ratio (G/T). [32, 41] A figure of merit for a satellite or radio astronomy receiver system,
including the antenna, that portrays the operation of the total system. The numerator is the antenna gain,
the denominator is the operating noise temperature of the receiver. The ratio is usually expressed in dB, for
example, 10log(G/T). G/T is often measured by comparing the receiver response when the antenna input is a
hot celestial noise source to the response when the input is the background radiation of space (3K).

Gas discharge noise source. [25, 26] A noise source that depends on the temperature of an ionized noble
gas. This type of noise source usually requires several thousand volts to begin the discharge but only about
a hundred volts to sustain the discharge. Components of the high turn-on voltage sometimes feed through
the output to damage certain small, frail, low-noise, solid-state devices. The gas discharge noise source has
been replaced by the avalanche diode noise source in most applications. Gas discharge tubes are still used at
millimeter wavelengths. Excess noise ratios (ENR) for argon tubes is about 15.5 dB (10000 K).

Gaussian noise. [6] Noise whose probability distribution or probability density function is gaussian, that is, it
has the standard form

x2
1  2
p( x )  e 2 (1)
 2

where σ is the standard deviation. Noise that is steady or stationary in character and originates from the sum
of a large number of small events, tends to be gaussian by the central limit theorem of probability theory.
Thermal noise and shot noise are gaussian.

Hot/cold noise source. In one sense most noise figure measurements depend on noise power measurements
at two source temperatures—one hot and one cold. The expression Hot/Cold, however, frequently refers to
measurements made with a cold termination at liquid nitrogen temperatures (77 K) or even liquid helium (4 K),
and a hot termination at 373 K (100°C). Such terminations are sometimes used as primary standards and for
highly accurate calibration laboratory measurements.

Insertion gain (Gi). The gain that is measured by inserting the DUT between a generator and load. The
numerator of the ratio is the power delivered to the load while the DUT is inserted, Pd. The denominator, or
reference power Pr, is the power delivered to the load while the source is directly connected. Measuring the
denominator might be called the calibration step.

Pd (1)
G1 =
Pr

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The load power while the source and load are directly connected is

2
2 1 1 (2)
Pr  br 2
1 1 s

where the subscript r denotes the source characteristics while establishing the reference power, i.e., during
the calibration step. The load power while the DUT is inserted is
2
2 2 1 1 (3)
Pd  bd S21
1  sd S11  1 1S22   1S12S21
2

or

2
2 2 1 1
Pd  bd S21
(4)
1  sd S11  1 12
2 2

S12S21 sd
T2  S22  (5)
1  sd S11

In equations (3,4, and 5) the subscript d denotes the source characteristics while the DUT is inserted. The
S-parameters refer to the DUT. The source characteristics while calibrating and while the DUT is inserted are
some times different. Consider that the DUT, for example, is a microwave receiver with a waveguide input and
an IF output at 70 MHz. During the calibration step, the source has a coaxial output at 70 MHz, but while the
DUT is inserted the source has a waveguide output at the microwave frequency. Using the above equations,
insertion gain is

2
2 |bd |2 1 1 sr (6)
Gi  S21
1  sd S11  1 1S22   1 sd S12S21
2 2
br

2
(7) 2 |b |
2
1 1 sr
Gi  S21 d 2
1  sd S11  1 12
2 2
br

In those situations where the same source at the same frequency is used during the calibration step and DUT
insertion, |bd|2= |br|2 and Gsr= Gsd. This is usually the case when measuring amplifiers.

Instrument uncertainty. The uncertainty caused by errors within the circuits of electronic instruments. For
noise figure analyzers/meters this includes errors due to the detector, A/D converter, math round-off effects, any
mixer non-linearities, saturation effects, and gain instability during measurement. This uncertainty is often
mistakingly taken as the overall measurement accuracy because it can be easily found on specification sheets.
With modern techniques, however, it is seldom the most significant cause of uncertainty.

Johnson noise. [19]

The same as thermal noise.

Minimum noise factor (Fmin). See Noise Figure Circles.

Mismatch uncertainty (Mu). Mismatch uncertainty is caused by re-reflections between one device (the source)
and the device that follows it (the load). The re-reflections cause the power emerging from the source (incident
to the load) to change from its value with a reflectionless load.

An expression for the power incident upon the load, which includes the effects of re-reflections, is

|bs |2 (1)
Pi  2
1  s 1

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where |bs|2 is the power the source delivers to a non-reflecting load, Γs is the source reflection coefficient, and
Γ l is the load reflection coefficient. If accurate evaluation of the power incident is needed when |bs|2 is given
or vice versa, then the phase and magnitude of Γs and Γ l is needed—probably requiring a vector network
analyzer.

When the phase of the reflection coefficients is not known, the extremes of |1– Γ sΓl|2 can be calculated from
the magnitudes of Γ s and Γl, for example, Ps and Pl. The extremes of |1– Γ sΓl|2 in dB can be found from the
nomograph (Figure 4-l).

Mu  20 log(1 PsPs )

The effect of mismatch on noise figure measurements is extremely complicated to analyze. Consider, for
example, a noise source whose impedance is not quite 50Ω.

Return loss: 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
dB = 20 log ρ

Mismatch loss: 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 2 5 10 20

dB = 10 log (1- ρ2)
1.02 1.05 1.1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 10 ∞
SWR: σ = (1+ ρ)/(1-ρ)
Reflection coefficient: ρ 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1.0

Example: 29 dB return loss corresponds

to a mismatch loss of 0.0055 dB, a SWR
of 1.074, and a reflection coefficient of
0.035.
Mismatch uncertainty limits
dB = 20 log (1- ρ1ρ2) –0.001 –0.01 –0.1 –1 –2 –5 –10 –20∞
dB = 20 log (1+ ρ1ρ2)
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 2 6

Example: Consider a load of ρ 0.25 and a

generator ρ of 0.45. The power incident
upon a Zo load could be 1.03 dB lower
than to 0.93 dB higher than for the
ρ = 0.25 load.
Reflection coefficient: ρ 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1

SWR: σ = (1+ ρ)/(1-ρ)

1.02 1.05 1.1 1.2 1.5 2 3 4 5 10 ∞

Figure 4-1. This nomograph gives the extreme effects of re-reflections when only the reflection coefficient
magnitudes are known. Mismatch uncertainty limits of this nomograph apply to noise figure measurement
accuracy for devices that include an isolator at the input.

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The source takes part in re-reflections of its own generated noise, but it also reflects noise originating in
the DUT and emerging from the DUT input (noise added by a DUT, after all, is a function of the source
impedance). The changed source impedance also causes the DUT’s available gain to change (remember that
available gain is also a function of source impedance). The situation can be complicated further because the
source impedance can change between the hot state and the cold state. [23] Many attempts have been made
to establish a simple rule-of-thumb for evaluating the effect of mismatch—all with limited success. One very
important case was analyzed by Strid [36] to have a particularly simple result. Strid considered the DUT to
include an isolator at the input with sufficient isolation to prevent interaction of succeeding devices with the
noise source. The effect of noise emerging from the isolator input and re-reflections between the isolator and
noise source are included in the final result. The result is that the error in noise figure is

where Fact is the noise figure for a reflectionless noise source,

F (dB )  Fact (log)  Find (dB) (2)

F (dB )  Fact (log)  Find (dB)

1 (3)
 10 log 2
1 S111 sh

Find is the measured noise figure, S11 is the reflection coefficient looking into the DUT, for example, into the
isolator input, and Gsh is the reflection coefficient looking back into the noise source when in the hot or on
condition. Strid also assumed that the isolator and Tcold are both 290 K. Note that the result is independent of
the DUT noise figure, Y factor, and the noise source reflection coefficient for Tcold.

Mismatch uncertainty may also occur while characterizing the noise contribution of the measurement system
and also at the output of DUT during gain measurement. Gain measurement mismatch effects can be
calculated by evaluating the difference between available gain and insertion gain.

Mismatch uncertainty is often the most significant uncertainty in noise figure measurements. Correction usually
requires full noise characterization (see noise figure circles) and measurement of phase and amplitude of the
reflection coefficients.

N1 See Y factor.

N2 See Y factor.

Noff Same as N1. See Y factor.

Non Same as N2. See Y factor.

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References
[1] Accuracy Information Sheet, United States National Bureau of Standards (NBS), enclosure returned with noise
sources sent to NBS for calibration.
[2] Anderson, R.W., S-Parameter Techniques for Faster, More Accurate Network Design, Hewlett-Packard AN 95-1.
[3] Beatty, Robert W., Insertion Loss Concepts, Proc. of the IEEE, June, 1964, pp. 663-671.
[4] Boyd, Duncan, Calculate the Uncertainty of NF Measurements. Microwaves and RF, October, 1999, p.93.
[5] Chambers, D. R,. A Noise Source for Noise Figure Measurements, Hewlett-Packard Journal, April, 1983, pp. 26-
27.
[6] Davenport, Wilbur B. Jr. and William L. Root., An Introduction to the Theory of Random Signals and Noise,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc, New York, Toronto, London,1958.
[7] Description of the Noise Performance of Amplifiers and Receiving Systems, Sponsored by IRE subcommittee 7.9
on Noise, Proc. of the IEEE, March,1963, pp. 436-442.
[8] Friis, H.T., Noise Figures of Radio Receivers, Proc. of the IRE, July, 1944, pp. 419-422.
[9] Fukui, H., Available Power Gain, Noise Figure and Noise Measure of Two-Ports and Their Graphical
Representations, IEEE Trans. on Circuit Theory, June, 1966, pp. 137-143.
[10] Fukui, H. (editor), Low Noise Microwave Transistors and Amplifiers, IEEE Press and John Wiley & Sons, New
York,1981. (This book of reprints contains many of the articles referenced here.)
[11] Gupta, M-S., Noise in Avalanche Transit-Time Devices, Proc. of the IEEE, December, 1971, pp. 1674-1687.
[12] Haitz, R.H. and F.W. Voltmer, Noise Studies in Uniform Avalanche Diodes, Appl. Phys. Lett, 15 Nov, 1966, pp. 381-
383.
[13] Haitz, R.H. and F.W. Voltmer., Noise of a Self Sustaining Avalanche Discharge in Silicon: Studies at Microwave
Frequencies, J. Appl. Phys., June 1968, pp. 3379-3384.
[14] Haus, H.A. and R.B. Adler., Optimum Noise Performance of Linear Amplifiers, Proc. of the IRE, August, 1958, pp.
1517-1533.
[15] Hines, M.E., Noise Theory for the Read Type Avalanche Diode, IEEE Trans. on Electron devices, January, 1966,
pp. 158-163.
[16] IRE Standards on Electron Tubes. Part 9, Noise in Linear Two-Ports, IRE subcommittee 7.9, Noise, 1957.
[17] IRE Standards on Electron Tubes: Definitions of Terms, 1962 (62 IRE 7.52), Proc. of the IEEE, March, 1963, pp.
434-435
[18] IRE Standards on Methods of Measuring Noise in Linear Twoports, 1959, IRE Subcommittee on Noise, Proc. of the
IRE, Jan, 1960, pp. 60-68. See also Representation of Noise in Linear Twoports, Proc.of the IRE, Jan,1960, pp. 69-
74.
[19] Johnson, J.B., Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors, Physical Review, July, 1928, pp. 97-109.
[20] Kanda, M., A Statistical Measure for the Stability of Solid State Noise Sources, IEEE Trans. on Micro. Th. and
Tech, August, 1977, pp. 676-682.
[21] Kanda, M., An Improved Solid-State Noise Source, IEEE Trans. on Micro. Th. and Tech, December, 1976, pp. 990-
995.
22] Kuhn, N.J., Simplified Signal Flow Graph Analysis, Microwave Journal, November 1963, pp. 59-66.
[23] Kuhn, N.J., Curing a Subtle but Significant Cause of Noise Figure Error, Microwave Journal, June, 1984, p. 85.
[24] Maximizing Accuracy in Noise Figure Measurements, Hewlett Packard Product Note 85719A-1, July 1992, (5091-
4801E).
[25] Mumford, W.W., A Broadband Microwave Noise Source, Bell Syst. Tech. J., October,1949, pp.608-618.
[26] Mumford, W.W. and Elmer H. Scheibe. Noise Performance Factors in Communication Systems, Horizon House-
Microwave, Inc., Dedham, Massachusetts, 1968.
[27] NBS Monograph 142, The Measurement of Noise Performance Factors: A Metrology Guide, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,1974.
[28] NBS Technical Note 640, Considerations for the Precise Measurement of Amplifier Noise, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.,1973.
[29] Noise Parameter Measurement Using the HP 8970B Noise Figure Meter and the ATN NP4 Noise Parameter Test
Set, HP Product Note HP 8970B/S-3, Dec, 1998, (5952-6639).

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References (continued)
[30] Nyquist, H., Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors, Physical Review, July,1928, pp.110-113.
[31] Oliver, B.M., Noise Figure and Its Measurement, Hewlett-Packard Journal, Vol.9, No. 5 (January, 1958), pp.3-5.
[32] Saam, Thomas J., Small Computers Revolutionize G/T Tests, Microwaves, August, 1980, p. 37.
[33] Schwartz, Mischa., Information Transmission, Modulation and Noise, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York,
Toronto, London, 1959.
[34] Slater, Carla, Spectrum-Analyzer-Based System Simplifies Noise Figure Measurement, RF Design, December, 1993,
p.24.
[35] S-Parameter Design, Hewlett Packard Application Note 154, March, 1990, (5952-1087).
[36] Strid, E., Noise Measurements For Low-Noise GaA FET Amplifiers, Microwave Systems News, Nov 1981, pp.
62-70.
[37] Strid, E., Noise Measurement Checklist Eliminates Costly Errors, Microwave Systems News, Dec, 1981, pp.
88-107.
[38] Swain, H. L. and R. M. Cox, Noise Figure Meter Sets Record for Accuracy, Repeatability, and Convenience,
Hewlett-Packard J., April, 1983, pp. 23-32.
[39] van der Ziel, Aldert, Noise: Sources, Characterization, Measurement, Pentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1970.
[40] Vendelin, George D., Design of Amplifiers and Oscillators by the S-Parameter Method, Wiley-Interscience,
1982.
[41] Wait, D.F., Satellite Earth Terminal G/T Measurements, Microwave Journal, April, 1977, p. 49.
[42] Lu, Guoquan, Ken Wong and Joe Gorin, Effects of Noise Source Mismatch on Y-Factor Noise Figure
Measurements in the Millimeter-Wave Range,. Not yet published. A draft copy is available on a tab of the Excel
version of the NF uncertainty calculator at: www.keysight.com/find/nfu

Related Literatures and Additional Resources

10 Hints for Making Successful Noise Figure Measurements, Application Note,
literature number 5980-0288E

Noise Figure Measurement Accuracy, Application Note, literature number 5952-3706E

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