1. What is PAPA?

Parallax Aircraft Parking Aid: A large board is positioned to the right of the stand into which a horizontal slot has
been cut. A vertical light can be seen through the slot which, when aligned from the left-hand seat of an aircraft
with the appropriate mark on the front of the board for the aircraft type, indicates the correct stopping position.

2. What is AGNIS?
Azimuth Guidance Nose in Stand: Two closely spaced lights which illuminate different combinations of red and
green lights to indicate the aircraft's position relative to the centerline. They are mounted in a box at cockpit level
at the end of the stand, aligned with the centreline.

3. What is PAPI?

The Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) is a light system positioned beside the runway that consists of
two, three, or four boxes of lights that provide a visual indication of a fixed-wing aircraft's position on the glide
path for the associated runway. The PAPI is usually located on the left side of the runway and can be seen up to
five miles during the day and twenty miles at night. It has two or four lights installed in a single row instead of far
and near bars that would be characteristic of Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI).

4. What are LAAS and WAAS?

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an all-weather landing system based on real-time differential
correction of the GPS signal. Local reference receivers send data to a central location at the airport. This data is
used to formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to users via a VHF data link. A receiver on an
aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then provides a standard ILS-style display to use while
flying a precision approach. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) calls this type of system a
Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS).

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an extremely accurate navigation system developed for civil
aviation by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in conjunction with the United States Department of
Transportation (DOT). Its accuracy is less than 3 meters 95% of the time, and it provides integrity information
equivalent to or better than receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). This is achieved through 25
ground stations throughout the US and Alaska which measure the difference between their surveyed location and
the GPS signal. These ground stations send the measured difference to a master relay station which sends the
corrections to two geostationary satellites at the same longitudes as the East and West coasts. Those satellites
beam the correction signal back to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receivers apply the correction to their
computed GPS position.

Before WAAS, the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) did not have the ability to provide horizontal and
vertical navigation for precision approaches for all users at all locations, as ground-based systems are quite
expensive. WAAS provides service for all classes of aircraft in all flight operations, including en route navigation,
airport departures, and airport arrivals, including all-weather precision approaches throughout the NAS.

5. Define CAVOK?
Visibilities greater or equal to 10 km, no cumulonimbus, no cloud below 5000 ft or highest MSA (greater) and no
weather significant to aviation.
6. What is a VOR? What are its errors? And what is its protected range?
Very high frequency Omni bearing Range. It works in the frequency range of 108-111.95 MHz. The emission
pattern is A9W. The range of the VOR depends on the height of the transmitter and receiver and the power of the
transmitter.
Errors associated with the VOR are:
Beacon alignment: - The state is responsible to make sure that 000 is aligned with Magnetic North.
Site error: - Uneven terrain or physical obstacles in the vicinity of VOR.
Propagation error: After the signals leave the transmitter they can still be reflected by obstacles or terrain over
which they pass. These reflected waves further reduce the accuracy of VOR.
Airborne equipment error: Manufacturing inaccuracies.
Pilotage error:
Cone of Confusion: It is the area above the VOR where the a/c instrument cannot compare the signals and rather
than giving TO/FROM indication, it displays a Nav Flag.
Protected Range: Also known as DOC (Designated Operational Coverage) covers the area where it is said to be
free from any interference from other VORs. The maximum limits are given in protected range, i.e. 25000/100.

7. What is EGPWS? What are the different modes of EGPWS?

Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System: It gives aural and visual warning to pilot when aircraft is entering
potentially dangerous ground proximity. This works on the database and GPS feedback along with feedback from
RA, VSI, glide slope indicator, flap and landing gear switches. EGPWS modes in order of priority are:

Mode 2a Excessive rate of terrain closure, a/c 50’-1800’ Whoop x 2 Pull Up

Not in landing configuration. Terrain Terrain
Mode 2b Excessive rate of terrain closure, a/c 220’-790’ Whoop x 2 Pull Up
In landing configuration Terrain Terrain
Mode 4a Unsafe terrain, a/c not in landing config gear up 50’-500’
Mode 4b Unsafe terrain, a/c not in landing config flaps up 50’500’
Mode6 Descending below minimums Minimums
Mode 1 Excessive ROD with terrain 50’-2450’ Sink Rate WW Pull Up
Mode 3 Negative ROC after TO or GO 50’-700’ don’t Sink no warning
Mode 5 Descending before glide slope 100’-500’ Glide Slope no warning

8. What’s the speed of electromagnetic waves?

3 x 10 power 8 m/s or 162,000 nm/sec or 186,000 sm/sec.

9. ILS? What are the different categories of ILS?

Instrument Landing System: main component are: Localizer, Glide slope, marker beacon and runway
environment. Works on the principle of Difference in Depth modulation.
Cat I- DH not lower than 60 mtr, RVR not lower than Wha550 mts
Cat II- H lower than 60 but above 30 mtrs, RVR not lower than 350 mtrs
CATIII- DH below 30 mtrs and appropriate RVR.

10. What is MEA?

Minimum Enroute Altitude. The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that meets obstacle clearance
requirements and assures acceptable nav signal coverage.

11. What is MOCA?

Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude: The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR
airways. It meets the obstacles clearance requirement for the entire segment but assures navigation signal only
22nm from the VOR station.

12. What is MORA?

Minimum off route altitude: This is an altitude derived by Jeppesen. MORA provides known obstruction
clearance within 10 nm of the route centerline.

13. Difference between INS and IRS?

INS: Inertial Navigation System; it is a stand alone navigation system where the coordinates are fed in they
system before the aircraft moves. Up to five waypoints can also be fed in the computer and INS coupled with
autopilot can navigate the aircraft to programmed waypoints. INS usually consists of two stable gyros that use
double integration to find N/S and E/W movements.

IRS: Inertial Reference system; as the name suggests, it is a reference system and it is unable to navigate on its
own. It feeds the information to FMS or FMGS and the FMGS computer calculates how to navigate. IRS is
usually consists of strap down gyro which are Ring LASOR gyros. There are no moving parts in these gyros
hence there is no frictional losses and these gyros are more accurate.
14. What is CP or ETP?
Critical Point or Equal Time Point is a point enroute from which the flight time is same to either destination or
point of departure.
Lets assume that A to B, distance is d nm, ground speed out is O and ground speed home is H. Also if CP falls X
nm from A, than distance remaining will be “d-X”.

x d-x

“t” time to fly CP back to departure = X/H ………………………………… 1

“t” time to fly from CP to destination= d-X/O ………………………………2
From 1 and 2
X/H = d-X/O or XO= dH-XH or XO+XH = dH or X (O+H) = dH

Therefore X = dh/ (O+H)

15. What is PNR?

Point of No Return, it is the farthest point on a track where can fly and return back to departure point.

Ht

OT
PNR
Distance = d

Let the ground speed out be O and home be H. Lets say time taken from departure to PNR is T and PNR to
departure is t. Where t+T = E (endurance)

“t” time from PNR to A = d/H…………………………………1

“T” time from A to PNR= d/O…………………………………2
From 1 and 2

t+ T = d/H+ d/O or E = d (O+H)/ OH

therefore d = EOH/O+H

16. What are the factors that effect DCP?

DCP depends on three factors: Distance A-B, Wind Velocity and TAS.
Effect of W/V: CP moves into the wind and CP is midway when O=H
Effect of TAS:
• In Nil/XW Wind conditions CP is unchanged (always midway)
• For HW, increase in TAS will decrease the DCP and vice versa
• For TW, increase in TA will increase the DCP and vice versa.
• CP is always ahead of PNR.
• CP & PNR may be collocated if E is just enough to fly to destination.
17. What are the factors that effect PNR?
PNR depends on E, with the knowledge of DPNR E can be calculated. DPNR is maximum in nil wind conditions.
Let TAS be T knots, therefore ground speed = T knots (both H&O)
DPNR= EOH/O+H = ETT/2T ……………………………………..1

Let HW be W knots, therefore GS out= T-W and GS home= T+W

DPNR=EOH/O+H = E(TT+WW-2TW)/T-W+T+W = TT-WW/2T…………….2

Let TW be W knots, therefore GS out= T+W and GS home= T-W

DPNR= TT-WW/2T…………………………………………………..3

Comparing 1, 2 and 3, in nil wind DPNR is maximum.

18. What are the factors effecting left turning tendencies of single engine aircraft?
a. P Factor-
b. Spiraling slip stream-
c. Gyroscopic-
d. Torque

19. How would you know the movement of storm?

Using hold switch on AWR. The Anvil shape of the thunderstorm will show the movement of the TS.

20. What is TDZE, runway gradient and where is it specified in the chart?
Touchdown zone elevation, it is the elevation of the touch down zone that starts from 500’ marker. The runway
gradient is either the up or down slope of the runway. The effective runway gradient is the maximum difference in
the runway centerline elevation divided by the runway length.

21. What is TCH and TZ and where is it indicated on the chart?

Threshold crossing height and touch down zone elevation.

22. What is the difference between track error and drift?

Track error: It is the angular difference between the required track and the track made good.
Drift: It is the angular difference between the course of the aircraft and the track made good.

23. What is Mushing error?

It is an error in Radio Altimeter and it occurs due to difference in height of transmitting and receiving antenna.

24. What is Grid MORA?

It is an altitude derived by Jeppesen or State authority. The Grid MORA is an altitude that provides terrain and
man made structure clearance within the sectors outlined by latitude and longitude. MORA does not provide
NAVAID signal coverage or communications coverage. The GM values clear all obstacles by 1000’ in areas
where the highest elevation is 5000’ or lower and by 2000’ in areas where higher elevation is higher than 5000’.

25. What is convergency?

The inclination between any two meridians is called convergency. It is zero at equator and dlong at poles.
Convergency at any given latitude is dlong x sin lat.

26. What is a great circle?

A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and the radius are those of the sphere itself.

27. What is Rhumb line?

It is a line that cuts all the meridians at same angle. In other words the direction is constant.

28. What is RVR?

Runway Visual Range, it is the horizontal visibility calculated along the runway using transmissometer. There are
total three values given, touch down RVR, mid RVR and roll out RVR.

29. What is VDP?

Visual Descent Point, it is the point on a non precision approach at which a descent below MDA can be initiated
provided runway or runway environment is in sight.
30. What is Pseudo Range in GPS?
It is the range calculated by the receiver on the basis of almanac (where the satellite should be). It calculates the
actual range after it receives the code from satellite (ephemeris). When using GPS, ranges from three satellites are
needed even for a two dimensional fix and either separate altitude information or a fourth satellite is needed for a
three dimensional fix. As the clock in the aircraft is less accurate than its atomic counterpart the initial range,
called a pseudo range, is invariable inaccurate, an error known as receiver clock bias. The pseudo range from
several satellites would produce a cocked hat instead of a precise fix. The aircraft equipment has the capability to
run a series of simultaneous equations to correct the pseudo ranges to a precise fix.

31. What are the P, Q and R component in magnetism?

P-Component: It is the horizontal fore and aft component of a/c’s permanent magnetism.
Q-Component: It is the horizontal arthwartship (lateral) component of a/c’s permanent magnetism.
R-Component: It is the vertical component of the a/c’s permanent magnetism.

32. How is dip in the magnetic compass reduced?

It is reduced by pivoting the magnet system symmetrically vertical above its CG.

33. What are the errors associated with Altimeter?

a. Pressure setting error:
b. Non standard pressure- temperature error.

34. What is the formula to calculate DA if PA and temperature deviations are provided?
DA= PA +- (dev from ISA x 120’)

35. What are the errors associated with ASI?

Instrument errors: manufacturing defects present in all instruments.
Position error: due to position of static and Pitot tube.
Density error: due to variation in density of atmosphere from that at which the ASI has been calibrated.
(TAS= RAS + 1.75% of RAS/1000’)
Compressibility error: At speeds higher than 300 knots. The correction is always negative.

36. Principle and errors of mach meter?

It measures the ratio between TAS and local speed of sound. MN = TAS/LSS. Where the LSS= 39 x root A
Errors: Instrument and position error, very small and can be neglected.
It is free from density, temperature and compressibility error.

37. What are the principles of Gyro?

Rigidity in space or Gyroscopic inertia: It is the reluctance of a gyro to change the direction of its spin axis. It
depends on: Speed of rotation, Mass of rotor and radius of rotation.
Precession: If a force is applied to a moving rotor it will be felt 90 degrees in the direction of rotation.

38. How many type of gyro’s are there?

Space gyro: It has freedom of rotation in all the three planes in an a/c.
Tied gyro: It is a space gyro with external control (DGI is a tied gyro).
Earth gyro: Is a space gyro controlled by Earth’s gravity (AI)
Rate gyro: It has the freedom of rotation in one plane only (turn and slip indicator).

39. What is Wander? What is apparent wander?

It is the deviation of the axis of rotation of gyro from the direction in which it is set. Wander is due to:
a) Frictional effects in gimbals’ bearings and it known as Real wander.
b) Due to rotation of the Earth and is known as Apparent wander.
Apparent wander can be resolved in two components : Drift in Hz plane and Topple in Vertical plane.

40. What are the principle, limitation and errors associated with Direction Indicator?
A DI is a tied gyro, it indicates changes in heading, and it has no directional properties of its own.
Principle: Rigidity in space, axis of rotation is horizontal and rotates at about 12000 rpm.
Limitations: 55 degrees in pitch and roll.
Errors: a) No directional properties. b) Real wander- frequently setting of direction. c) Apparent wander:
compensated by means of latitude nut.

41. What are the advantages of electrically driven gyro?

a) High RPM can be achieved hence the property of rigidity in space can be better utilized.
b) There is no air tubing, so instrument is easier to maintain.
c) At high level the accuracy will not go down due to rarity of space.
d) The corrosion, dust and moisture which effect in case of air driven gyro does not occur in e gyros.
 42. Drift and Gyro problems?
a) Drift= 15 sin lat (the readings decrease in NH and increase in SH)
b) Apparent wander due to convergency= Change of long x sin lat (+ if E and – if W travel. Also change of
long = GS/60 x tan lat)
c) Sum of A & B is total wander
d) Add the real wander (or lat nut)
e) The sum of c and d is total drive.

43. Give the formula for Ram Rise?

Ram Rise= (TAS/100)x(TAS/100). TAT= SAT + Ram Rise

44. What is Transition Altitude, Transition layer and Transition Level?

Transition Altitude is an altitude in the vicinity of an aerodrome, at or below which the vertical position of the
aircraft is controlled with reference of QNH. It is determined as 1500’ AAL or 1000’ above highest obstruction
within a radius of 25 nm. (It is subject to not less than 4000’ in Indian airspace).
Transition level is the lowest FL available for use above transition altitude.
Transition layer is airspace between transition altitude and transition lever. Its width is between 1000’- 1499’.

45. NDB and ADF?

It stands for Non directional beacon and automatic direction finder. The frequency range for an NDB is 200-450
KHz and that of ADF is 190 to 1750 KHz.

Range: 200 nm or more by day and about 70 nm by night.

Range factors:
Transmission power: Range is proportional to square root of the power.
Night effect: Sky wave interference reduces the maximum safe range to 70 nm.
Frequency: Low frequency means less attenuation of surface wave so greater range.
Emission: NON A2A has less range than NON A1A.
Terrain: Smooth terrain and especially sea surface gives less attenuation so greater range.

Accuracy: +- 5 degrees within protected range.

Accuracy factors:
Night effect: At night aircraft may receive both ground and sky waves, which distorts the null. If outside 70 nm,
the sky wave can cause errors of +-30 degree at night.
Terrain: In addition to coastal refraction, reflections from hills will change the signal direction. Flying high will
reduce both problems.
Static: Nearby thunderstorm not only cause static noise, but their electrical fields can be so strong they provide a
stronger signal than the NDB transmissions.
Quadrantal error: This is calibrated in most aircrafts but if the station is 45 degrees from aircraft the reading will
be erroneous.
Station interference: Do not use an NDB outside its protected range and other stations may interfere with signals.
Loop alignment: If the ADF system is not aligned with the longitudinal axis, errors will result.

CO (M) +- RB = QDM & CO(T) +- RB = QUJ

EQUIPMENT FREQUENCY PRINCIPLE RANGE ERRORS

NDB 200-450 KHz 200 nm (day) 70 night See above
VOR 108-116 MHz. Only Phase comparison VHF Line of sight Beacon alignment, site,
even decimals propogation, airborne equipment
between 108-112. and pilotage error.
ILS 108-112 MHz odd Diff in depth Loc: 350 to 17 nm &
frequencies only modulation 100 to 25 nm
GS: 80 to 10 nm
DME 962-1213 Mhz Tpdr Secondary Radar Line of sight, 200 nm, Beacon saturation= 100 aircraft
changes freq by 63 A/c interrogates slant range only Accuracy= .5 nm or 3%
MHz station transponds
AWR 10 GHz Primary Radar 120-125 nm
GPS 1575.2 & 1227.6 Satellite sends 800 N/S Satellite pos error: clock and
MHz Pos and time. 21 active and 3 ephemeris error.
Time x C= dist, standby satellite Ion group delay, Multipath
DME type pseudo errors, Rx measurement errors.
range
ADF 190-1750 KHz Same as NDB Same as NDB
46. What are the classifications of VDF bearings?
a. Class A: +- 20
b. Class B: +-50
c. Class C: +- 100
d. Class D: less than class C

47. What is a Critical Mach Number?

Critical mach number is a mach number at which airflow over any surface of the aircraft reaches speed of sound.

48. What is the frequency of Sky waves and space waves?

Sky Waves: The frequencies above HF penetrates through ionospheric layer, therefore, frequencies of 30 MHz or
below will return to earth during day and at slightly lower frequencies during the night.
Space Waves: Direct + ground reflected waves are known as space waves. All frequencies can be received as
direct wave (line of sight).

49. How would you calculate wind velocity if total distance, DCP and TAS is given?
DCP=D x (w/v) / 2 TAS

50. What is swept gain?

In Aviation Weather Radar, returns within 25 nm are returned normally, but as the time from transmission
increases, the sensitivity of receiver is also proportionally increased. This allows for iso-echo or color
discrimination at longer ranges up to 70 nm. This increase in sensitivity is called swept gain.