Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 28 (2021) 4605–4612

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Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences

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Original article

Investigation of some physical, chemical, and bacteriological parameters

of water quality in some dams in Albaha region, Saudi Arabia
Ali Khalaf Ahmed Albaggar
Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Arts in Baljurashi, Albaha University, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study was conducted to evaluate the quality of water in selected dams in Albaha region, Kingdom of
Received 1 March 2021 Saudi Arabia. Water samples from eight dams were subjected to physical, chemical, and bacteriological
Revised 7 April 2021 assessment using standardized procedures of conductivity, total dissolved solids, ions, acidity & alkalin-
Accepted 21 April 2021
ity, and EC blue 100Ò coliform detection. About three fourth (75%) of dams’ water samples exceeded the
Available online 1 May 2021
permissible levels of pH, total dissolved solids, turbidity, Mn and NO3 set by Saudi standards. Average
levels of total dissolved solids, Fe, Mn, SO4, NO3, and NO2 were 3065.00, 0.10, 0.89, 68.25, 17.91 and
Keywords:
0.016 mg/L, respectively. However, the average pH of water samples was 7.95 ± 0.66 which still within
Coliform bacteria
Total dissolved solids
the accepted range set by national and global standards. Moreover, total dissolved solids also exceeded
Spatial distribution regular standards of Food and Agriculture Organization for irrigation water quality. Coliform bacteria
Turbidity were detected in 37.5% of dams without any significant spatial differences between dams and sites as
groups. Correlations were found between pH & NO3, SO4 & NO3, coliform bacteria & turbidity, coliform
bacteria & NO2 levels. Increased concentrations of assessed parameters in dams may be attributed to agri-
cultural activities as well as animal and human wastes deposited into dams via rainfalls and flash floods.
Proper treatment of dams needs to be taken into account before consumption and irrigation.
Ó 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an open access
article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction Several natural and anthropogenic factors are known to nega-

tively affect water quality. The natural factors affecting water qual-
Dams are considered one of the most important sources of ity include geological & hydrological processes and climatic
water in Saudi Arabia (Al-Ghamdi et al., 2014). Currently, the num- changes, which may be gradual or rapid. The natural factors range
ber of dams in Saudi Arabia is estimated to reach 237 dams collect- from bedrock weathering & atmospheric deposition of dust and
ing water from rainfalls for various purposes (Zaharani et al., pollutants to large scale disasters such as algal blooms, floods,
2011). Recent work on seventeen dams in Albaha region ordered droughts, and earthquakes (Khatri and Tyagi, 2015). On the other
the purposes of these dams in such area to recharge nearby wells, hand, anthropogenic factors are the most profound causes of dete-
protection against floods, and irrigation representing 76.5%, 17.6%, riorating water quality. Indeed, agricultural & farming activities,
59%, respectively (El-Hazek, 2013). However, the quality of water industrial & municipal wastes, constructions and mining opera-
stored in such constructed reservoirs is subjected to various factors tions are the main cause of water pollution with pesticides, xeno-
such as poisonous substances and microbial contaminants from biotic organic compounds, heavy metals, acids, and numerous
rainfalls, air, dead plants and animals, soil, and domestic wastes oxides (Bojarczuk et al., 2018).
(Arora and Arora, 2020). Additionally, increased salinity is a usual Chemical and physical parameters affecting water quality
outcome of water evaporation (Kalitsi, 2008). require continuous monitoring to avoid health hazards before
dam water is used for drinking, irrigation, and industrial purposes
(Chaudhari et al., 2016; Gulumbe et al., 2016; Mora et al., 2017;
Mulamattathil et al., 2015). Increased concentrations of certain
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University. metals and oxides may cause many diseases, mostly in young chil-
dren, such as methemoglobinemia, manifested by laxative gas-
trointestinal disturbance and hypertension (Chao et al., 2016; Fan
and Steinberg, 1996; Kisaka, 2018; WHO, 2017).
Production and hosting by Elsevier Waterborne diseases are considered to be the main concern of
E-mail address: alibaggar@hotmail.com public health authorities in developing and developed countries.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.04.067
1319-562X/Ó 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Khalaf Ahmed Albaggar Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 28 (2021) 4605–4612

The detection of indicator bacteria in water, such as coliform and (Behailu et al., 2017). After collection, samples were labeled and
fecal coliform suggests the presence of fecal contamination, and transported to the laboratory of the Biological Sciences depart-
thus water should be assessed to guarantee its safety for human ment, Faculty of Sciences and Arts, Albaha University. Samples
consumption (AlOtaibi, 2009; WHO, 2011). for Physico-chemical evaluation were transported to the labora-
The current study aimed at determining water quality of tar- tory of the Public Administration of Water Services in Albaha
geted dams in Albaha region, with specific objectives of: (i) exam- region.
ining of some physical, chemical, and bacteriological properties of
water, (ii) comparison of these parameters to Saudi and WHO 2.3. Analysis of physical parameters
drinking water quality standards, and also to FAO (Food and Agri-
culture Organization) for irrigation water quality (iii) addressing The physical parameters were assessed according to previously
the effects of spatial distribution on differences of addressed published methods (Albaggar, 2020). Total dissolved solids (TDS),
physico-chemical parameters of water and the correlations and turbidity, and pH were assessed in water samples by a stan-
between all the parameters. dard turbidimeter (HQ14D, Hach, USA) and a standard pH scale
(PHS-25, Bante, China). Recorded measures were compared to
standards of the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agri-
2. Materials and methods
culture Organization (FAO), and Saudi standards (FAO, 1992; SASO,
2002; WHO, 2017).
2.1. Study site

A total of eight dams from different locales (Fig. 1 & Table 1) 2.4. Analysis of chemical parameters
were incorporated in the current study conducted in 2017 in
Albaha region. Based on geographical locations, dams were divided Spectrophotometer DR 2800 (Hach, USA) was employed for
into four groups (Fig. 1 & Table 2). Albaha region is located in the assessment of Fe, Mn, SO4, NO3 and NO2. All values were evaluated
western south of Saudi Arabia containing six governorates and against Saudi standards (SASO, 2002), WHO standards for drinking
almost half a million capita of the population (El-Hazek, 2013). water quality (WHO, 2017), and FAO standards for irrigation water
(FAO, 1992).

2.2. Sample collection

2.5. Bacteriological evaluation
Water samples from targeted dams were collected in sterile
Detection of coliform bacteria was performed by EC blue 100p
bottles for bacteriological analysis, while samples for physico-
screening medium according to manufacturer’s instructions
chemical analysis were collected in polyethylene containers
(HyServe, Germany). Briefly, 100 mL of water sample along with
the EC blue 100p were added to the test container and mixed thor-
oughly for 10 s and incubated aerobically at 37 °C for 48 h. Change
in color to green or blue after the incubation period was considered
an indication of coliform presence (JWWA, 2001; Kodaka et al.,
2008).

2.6. Statistical analysis

Data were digitally stored and analyzed by version 20 of SPSS

(IBM Chicago USA). Data with non-normal distribution were ana-
lyzed by Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests and square root transformed.
The difference between the physico-chemical parameters in differ-
ent sites was tested by One-way ANOVA. The relationships
between these parameters were assessed by Spearman’s rank cor-
relation test (Bölter et al., 2002; Field, 2009)

3. Results

Physico-chemical and bacterial parameters of dams’ water

quality in Albaha region were evaluated and compared to Saudi
and WHO drinking water quality standards, and also to irrigation
water standards set by FAO. Results of physical, chemical and bac-
terial parameters are presented in Table 3 and Figs. 2 & 3.

3.1. Physical parameters of dams’ water

In the present study, TDS levels (3065 ± 7335.23 mg/L) ranged

from 177 to 21207 mg/L (Table 3 and Fig. 2). Approximately,
37.5% of dams exceeded the maximum concentrations of TDS spec-
ified by Saudi standards (max. 500 mg/L), while 25% exceeded the
maximum concentrations set by WHO (max. 1000 mg/L) for drink-
ing water quality. Similarly, 25% of dams exceeded the accepted
limits of turbidity defined by Saudi standards for drinking water
Fig. 1. Geographical location of targeted dams. quality (max. 1 NTU), while only one site slightly exceeded the
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Table 1
Names and locations of targeted dams in Albaha region (Saudi Arabia).

Dam no. Names of dams (location) coordination Altitude (m)

Latitude Longitude
1 Altalqiyah (Baljurashi) 19.854676 41.603843 2024
2 Alganabaeen (West of Albaha) 19.900708 41.710589 1801
3 Almalad (Baljurashi) 20.012891 41.486564 2105
4 Ajlan (Albaha) 20.110395 41.342832 1990
5 Alwadi Aldahyan, (Almandaq) 20.075923 41.385854 2077
6 Alaqiq (East of Albaha) 20.236442 41.570698 1636
7 Wadi Alssadr (Almandaq) 20.126844 41.358233 1945
8 Medhas (Almandaq) 20.222282 41.274311 1777

Table 2
Dams as groups in Albaha region, Saudi Arabia. 3.2. Chemical parameters of dams’ water

Group number Dams no. Group name Symbol

Average values of iron (Fe), sulfate (SO4), and Nitrite (NO2) are
1 1 and 2 South east of Albaha SA all within the standard ranges (Fig. 3 & Table 4). Nitrate (NO3) val-
2 3 Albaha city AB
ues ranged from 0.2 to 129.3 mg/L (17.91 ± 45.05 mg/L). Only site 8
3 4, 5, 7 and 8 North of Albaha NB
4 6 East of Albaha EA (12.5% of total dams) showed a high value of NO3 exceeding the
maximum level set by Saudi and WHO standards for drinking
accepted range set by WHO. The pH values ranged from 6.74 to water quality, and also exceeded severe concentration specified
8.95 SU in sites 8 and 3 (7.95 ± 0.66 SU). Only site 3 (12.5% of the by FAO (se. > 30 mg/L) for irrigation water quality. On the other
total dams) exceeded the maximum limits for drinking water spec- hand, Mn values ranged from 0.02 to 2.4 mg/L (0.89 ± 0.89 mg/L)
ified by Saudi & WHO standards and FAO guidelines (se. > 8 SU) for (Table 3 and Fig. 3). Approximately, 50% of the targeted (sites; 2,
irrigation water. 3, 4 and 8) exceeded the maximum concentrations of Mn specified

Table 3
Details of some physical, chemical and bacterial parameters of targeted dams in Albaha region.

Dam no. Parameters Coliform bacteria

pH TDS (mg/L) Turbidity (NTU) Fe (mg/L) Mn (mg/L) SO4 (mg/L) NO3 (mg/L) NO2 (mg/L)
1 8.50 402 0.120 0.20 0.30 88 0.20 0.016 –
2 7.69 346 0.340 0.06 1.90 70 1.90 0.014 –
3 8.95 360 0.710 0.20 0.80 12 0.80 0.001 +
4 7.62 517 0.400 0.02 2.40 95 5.80 0.025 –
5 8.28 435 4.040 0.01 0.30 102 3.80 0.013 +
6 7.98 177 0.400 0.02 0.02 22 0.20 0.054 –
7 7.88 21,207 0.290 0.18 0.10 54 1.30 0.003 –
8 6.74 1076 5.100 0.10 1.30 103 129.30 0.001 +
Mean ± SD 7.95 ± 0.66 3065.00 ± 7335.23 1.43 ± 1.97 0.10 ± 0.08 0.89 ± 0.89 68.25 ± 35.78 17.91 ± 45.05 0.016 ± 0.018 NA
Range 6.74 – 8.95 177–21207 0.120–5.100 0.01–0.2 0.02–2.4 12–103 0.2–129.3 0.001–0.054 NA
KSA PL 6.5–8.5 500 1 0.3 0.4 250 50 0.2 0 per 100 mL
WHO PL 6.5–8.5 500–1000 5 0.3 0.1–0.5 250 50 3 0 per 100 mL
FAO SE. >8 >2000 – >1.5 >1.5 – >30 – –

WHO: world health organization, PL: permissible limits, SD: standard deviation, NA: not applicable, FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization, SE: severe concentration.

Fig. 2. Variation of physical parameters of dams’ water between sites as groups.

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Fig. 3. Variation chemical parameters of dams’ water between sites as groups.

Table 4
Relationship between physico-chemical parameters of water in some dams in Albaha region.

Parameter pH TDS Turbidity Fe Mn SO4 (mg/L) NO3 (mg/L) NO2 (mg/L) The presence of
(mg/L) (NTU) (mg/L) (mg/L) coliform
pH – N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. rs = -0.743*, N.S. N.S.
p < 0.05
TDS (mg/L) N.S. – N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Turbidity (NTU) N.S. N.S. – N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. rs = 0.850**, p < 0.01
Fe (mg/L) N.S. N.S. N.S. – N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
Mn (mg/L) N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. – N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.
SO4 (mg/L) N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. – rs = 0.755*, N.S. N.S.
p < 0.05
NO3 (mg/L) rs = -0.743*, N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. rs = 0.755*, – N.S. N.S.
p < 0.05 p < 0.05
NO2 (mg/L) N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. – rs = -0.737*, p < 0.05
The presence of N.S. N.S. rs = 0.850**, N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. rs = -0.737*, –
coliform p < 0.01 p < 0.05

Key symbols: SU: standard unit, N.S.: not significant, rs: Spearman’s rank correlation.

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part of large hazardous pollution involving harmful organic com-

pounds and xenobiotic chemicals especially in water bodies near
intense agricultural and industrial activities (Jayaswal et al.,
2018; Schwarzenbach et al., 2010). The extreme increase in TDS
level may be attributed to human activities and agricultural prac-
tices around dams that can reach the reservoir of the dam, espe-
cially after rainfall events.
The Physical, chemical and bacterial properties of water can be
highly affected by its turbidity (WHO, 2004). The presence of dif-
ferent materials, such as nutrients, clay, silts, and suspended solids
result in increased turbidity especially after rainfall depositions
into dams. In Ghana, Bakobie found turbidity to be the only param-
eter that exceeded the maximum concentrations of WHO stan-
dards for drinking water quality compared with other physical
and chemical parameters investigated (Bakobie et al., 2015).
Results of the pH values in this study are consistent with those
reported by Bougarne (Bougarne et al., 2017) in the reservoir water
of Bab Louta in Morocco and also in another study in Jordan (Al-
Khashman et al., 2017). Indeed, changes in the pH values can occur
due to variations of carbon dioxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate
(Agbaire and Oyibo, 2009; Al-Khashman et al., 2017). Conse-
quently, pH variations in water affect water quality, such as solu-
bility and toxicity of metals (Ayoade and Agarwal, 2012).
Moreover, disinfection processes of water can result in higher pH
values, while corrosion can drop the values into the acidic range
(Trivedi et al., 2009). Similar results, in this study, of iron (Fe), sul-
fate (SO4), and Nitrite (NO2) were obtained by Gulumbe (Gulumbe
Fig. 4. Percentage of coliform presence in individual sites in some dams in Albaha et al., 2016) in Aliero dam water in Nigeria, and also by Bahroun &
region, Saudi Arabia during 2017. Chaib (Bahroun and Chaib, 2017) in dam reservoir Mexa in the
northeast of Algeria. Regarding nitrate level, the results of this
by Saudi and WHO standards. Also, 2 sites (25% of the total dams) work are in agreement with those obtained by Abdelali who found
show severe values of Mn adapted by FAO standards (se. > 8 SU). that all values of NO2 in Beyler Dam Lake were below the permit-
ted levels of the surface water quality regulations (Abdelali et al.,
3.3. Microbiological parameter of dams’ water 2018).
Agriculture activities, human waste as well as animal compost
Screening analysis revealed that 37.5% of dams are polluted may be the main cause of an increase in NO3 at site 8
with coliform bacteria (Table 3 and Fig. 4). (129.30 mg/L). In general, these results are consistent with the pre-
vious report from Nigeria and Iraq (Al-Hasawi et al., 2018;
Mustapha, 2008). The full oxidation of organic matter in water
3.4. Effects of spatial distribution on the variation of physico-chemical
can be indicated by the amount of nitrate (NO3) (Al-Hasawi
parameters
et al., 2018). In water sources, nitrification processes can produce
nitrate and nitrite (Xia et al., 2004). They come also from different
Geological processes, as well as human activities, play an
sources, such as agricultural practices and wastewater (Thakur and
important role in the variation of physico-chemical properties of
Medhi, 2019).
water (Carpenter et al., 1998). One –Way ANOVA analysis showed
The study of water quality of Saralasagar reservoir in India
no significant effects of sites either individually or as groups on the
which was carried out by Reddy (Reddy and Parameshwar, 2016)
variation of the assessed parameters.
found that all physical and chemical parameters including iron
(Fe) were within the permissible limits given by global standards.
3.5. Relationships between physico-chemical parameters Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn) are two metals that can be intro-
duced to dams from their natural sources (rocks and soils) and/or
Correlations between all physical, chemical and bacteriological agricultural activities in nearby areas. They cause an adverse
parameters are presented in table 4 and Fig. 5. Of note, the pH was impact on water quality and its palatability such as metallic taste
negatively correlated with NO3 (rs = 0.743) (Fig. 5A). On the other and odor (Betancourt et al., 2010). Moreover, high levels of Mn
hand, SO4 was positively correlated with NO3 (rs = 0.755) (Fig. 5B). can enhance the growth of bacterial biofilms in water bodies
Strong positive correlation was also found between coliform bacte- (Betancourt et al., 2010; Ljung and Vahter, 2007). A worth noting
ria and turbidity (rs = 0.850) (Fig. 5C). In contrast, the presence of point is that Mn levels tend to increase at the bottom of the reser-
coliform bacteria was negatively correlated with NO2 (rs = -0.737) voirs where oxygen is limited (Betancourt et al., 2010; Htiti et al.,
(Fig. 5D). 2015).
The total coliform test has long been used as an indicator for
4. Discussion fecal contamination of water (APHA, 2012; 1998). However, subse-
quent studies observed that coliform bacteria except E. coli can be
Total dissolved solids (TDS) include inorganic salts, such as isolated from a natural environment devoid of any fecal materials
bicarbonates, sodium and chlorides and also some dissolved (Doyle and Erickson, 2006). Viable count of coliform bacteria in
organic matter. Increased TDS levels in drinking water do not nec- drinking water must be 0 per 100 mL (RCER, 2015; WHO, 2017).
essarily reflect a health hazard. However, it may be a sign of chem- The coliform bacteria and E. coli in dams found in this work may
ical pollution (Muigai et al., 2010). Such pollution may be a small be attributed to the deposition of animal compost and fecal mate-
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A. Khalaf Ahmed Albaggar Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 28 (2021) 4605–4612

Fig. 5. Correlations between Physico-chemical parameters of dams ‘water in Albaha region, Saudi Arabia.

rials that enter reservoirs through runoff and flash floods. Deter- water, the fewer NO3 concentrations in water. Results of the corre-
mining the exact source of coliform bacteria found in water is a lation between SO4 and NO3 were positive, which are consistent
challenge to microbiologists, mostly due to the lack of reliable with the results of Ogrinc in the study of nitrate sources of the
techniques (Malakoff, 2002; Pandey et al., 2014). The presence of Ljubljansko Polije aquifer in Slovenia (Ogrinc et al., 2019).
coliform bacteria in drinking water is a potential health hazard. In this study, strong positive correlation was found between col-
Numerous diseases can be caused by water pollution with patho- iform bacteria and turbidity High turbidity concentrations in water
genic bacteria, such as diarrhea and gastrointestinal illnesses can affect disinfection processes giving a chance to pathogenic bac-
(Pandey et al., 2014). In the assessment of water quality of three teria to survive and replicate in water (WHO, 2017). It has been found
dams in Ghana, coliform bacteria were detected (Bakobie et al., by Armah (Armah, 2014) that the total coliform bacteria parameter
2015). Shekha and associates found fecal coliform bacteria in all can be used to predict the presence of turbidity in groundwater sam-
water samples collected from the Duhok reservoir in Iraq ples in Ghana. Similar correlation between coliform bacteria and
(Shekha et al., 2013). NO2 has also been recorded by Seo in the Nakdong River in South
One –Way ANOVA analysis showed no significant effects of sites Korea (Seo et al., 2019). To the best of the author’s knowledge, the
either individually or as groups on the variation of the assessed underlying cause of the negative correlation between bacteria and
parameters. These observations are in good agreement with the NO2 is unknown. High levels of nitrite were likely the cause since
study of the Tehri dam reservoir in India that found the only pH NO2 was found to inhibit active transport and oxidative phosphory-
that significantly differed among other physical and chemical lation in aerobic bacteria including E. coli by in vitro analyses (Philips
parameters investigated (Ayoade and Agarwal, 2012). On the con- et al., 2002; Weon et al., 2002; Yarbrough et al., 1980)
trary, Aregbe (Aregbe et al., 2018) assessed spatial variations of
physicochemical parameters in three dams in Nigeria and found 5. Conclusion
that most parameters varied significantly between sites except
hardness, biological oxygen demand (BOD) and color. In order to use the dams’ waters for drinking and irrigation pur-
In this study, a similar result of the negative correlation poses, they should be treated to satisfy the Saudi, WHO and FAO
between pH and NO3 was found by Dadgar & Payandeh (Dadgar standards. Site 8 (Medhas dam in Almandag) showed increases in
and Payandeh, 2017) in the study of the drinking water distribu- all the investigated parameters above the recommended values
tion system in Tabriz city. This result indicates that the more basic except pH and nitrite. No statistically significant variations of the
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A. Khalaf Ahmed Albaggar Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 28 (2021) 4605–4612

parameters were found between individual dam sites and also sites and bacterial water quality indicators along the river Białka, southern Poland.
Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 25, 10102–10114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-
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