PHYS111 LabManual

IZMIR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Physics
GENERAL PHYSICS I
LABORATORY MANUAL
October, 2020
physics.iyte.edu.tr
Contents
1 MEASUREMENT 21
2 INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS AVERAGE VELOCITY 27
3 PROJECTILE MOTION 33
4 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW 41
5 THE FORCE OF GRAVITY 47
6 MEASURING g, THE ACCELERATION CAUSED BY GRAVITY 55
7 ELASTIC-KINETIC ENERGY 59
8 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY 63
9 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 69
10 ROTATIONAL MOTION 77
11 FARADAY ICE PAIL 91
12 COULOMB’S LAW 99
13 EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 109
14 BASIC ELECTRICITY 119
15 CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS 141
16 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE 149
17 ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 159
1
18 MAGNETIC INDUCTION AND MAGNETISM OF MATTER 165
2
LABORATORY RULES
1 . Students may enter a laboratory only when a lecturer or demonstrator is present unless
special permission has been granted.
2. Eating and drinking in any laboratory is prohibited.
3. Before starting an experiment;
• Check that all apparatus is present and has no obvious defect.
• Report to the person in charge any damaged or missing equipment.
4. During an experiment the student should report to the person in charge;
• any equipment that does not seem to be functioning properly.
• any accidents and breakages that occur.
• NEVER borrow equipment from another bench without permission.
5. Before leaving the laboratory,
• Switch off all power supplies and remove all AC/DC power plugs.
• Disconnect electrical circuits and collect the leads in a neat bundle.
• Ensure that the apparatus has been left tidily.
3
ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS AND
EXPERIMENTAL UNCERTAINTIES
1. RANDOM UNCERTAINTIES
The arithmetic mean x̄ of a quantity obtained from a number (N) of readings xi is the most
probable value of that quantity. If the uncertainties are entirely random and is large, then
x̄ is close to the true value.
1 PN
x̄ = xi
N i=1
If the uncertainties of measurement are entirely random an estimate of the precision is given
by the standard deviation
s
PN (xi − x̄)2
S= i=1
N −1
where (xi − x̄) is the deviation of a reading xi from the mean x̄.
The standard error (SE) of the mean SE = (S/N)1/2 and the error at a 95% confidence
level is 2SE.
The significance of S can be seen by consideration of the distribution of a large collection

of measurements, known as the normal or Gaussian distribution. It can be shown that for
large N the probability of an individual reading differing from the mean by more than S is
about 32%. 2S is about 5% and 3S is less than 1%.
In practice, when N is less than 6 the statistical analysis is not appropriate and an
estimate of the uncertainty may be obtained from the range of values obtained.
2. PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES
Almost all experiments require calculations to be performed which involve manipulation of

the measured uncertainties. In order to calculate the uncertainty in the final result it is
necessary to know how the computed or estimated uncertainties in each quantity combine
or propagate.
2.1 A General Approach
The easiest method of estimating the uncertainty is to substitute the extreme values of the
quantities into the expression and calculate the result. The uncertainty is the difference
between this value and the preferred value. e.g.
4
d sin θ
λ=
n
Preferred value
d = (1.00x10−6 ± 0.05x10−6 )m
θ = 30.0o ± 0.5o , and n = 1
λ = 10−6 xsin 30.0o = 0.50µm
Maximum value of λ is obtained with maximum value of d and maximum value of θ.
λmax = (1 + 0.05)x10−6xsin(30 + 0.5) = 0.53µm
λmin = (1 − 0.05)x10−6 xsin(30 − 0.5) = 0.47µm
λ = 0.50 ± 0.03µm
Note: The same method may be used for any uncertainty calculation e.g.
Density = mass/volume.
Mass of object = (2.00 ± 0.01)kg

V olume of object = (2.50 ± 0.05)x10−3m3
Density(ρ) = 800kgm−3
Maximum value of ρ obtained using maximum mass and minimum volume
2.01kg
ρmax = = 820kgm−3
2.45x10−3 m3
Minimum value of ρ is obtained using minimum mass and maximum volume
1.99kg
ρmin = = 780kgm−3
2.55x10−3 m3
ρ = 800 ± 20kgm−3
2.2 Additions and Subtractions
It is usually fairly easy to write down the possible uncertainty in any single measurement.
Thus suppose that in an experiment with a spring the length of the spring is measured with
a metre scale. With care such a scale allows you to measure to about 1 mm. If you take
a number of careful readings with the scale you should find that they do not differ among
themselves by more than this. Thus for one particular reading you may be able to say:
Length of spring = 302 ± 1mm
5
If additional masses are added and the spring is re-measured, you may find
New length of spring = 488 ± 1mm
Now consider what you know about the change in length. According to our figures the
change is equal to 186 mm. But each of the figures may have been wrong by 1 mm. If
one of them happened to be too high by this amount while the other was too low, then the
uncertainty in the difference would be 2 mm. To be on the safe side we must assume
that the worst has happened. So we say
Change in length = 186 ± 2mm
The same thing applies if we are concerned with adding the two lengths. The worst possible
case will be when both figures were too high or both figures were too low. We assume the
worst possiblee case and say
Sums of lengths = 790 ± 2mm.
Thus if you are adding or subtracting two figures the actual uncertainty is the sum of the
separate uncertainties.
2.3 Multiplications and Divisions
Now suppose that you are measuring the volume of a cylinder. You measure the diameter d
and the length l and then calculate the volume from the equation
πd2 l
V olume =
4
In a case such as this the fractional uncertainty in the volume is the sum of the fractional
uncertainty in the length plus twice the fractional uncertainty in the diameter. The fractional
uncertainty in the diameter is doubled as a consequence of the fact that it is the square of
the diameter that comes into the formula. If the formula had involved d3 , three times the
fractional uncertainty would have been added and so on.
To take a very general case, suppose we are concerned with a formula of the type
k a tb
x=
mc nd
In this case:
△x a△k b△t c△m d△n
= + + +
x k t m n
Fractional uncertainty in x=a(fractional uncertainty in k)+ b(fractional uncertainty in t)

+c(fractional uncertainty in m) + d(fractional uncertainty in n)
6
This general rule can be proved, but the student is advised to accept the rule and leave the
proof until later.
The rule is simple: if you are multiplying together or dividing a number of figures, the possible
fractional uncertainty in the result is the sum of the separate fractional uncertainties
3.SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
In quoting a result only one uncertain figure should be retained; then the number of
figures indicates the order of accuracy. For example, suppose the speed of light was calculated
as 2.988x108ms−1 and is known to 1%. The possible uncertainty is then 0.03x108 ms−1
This shows that the third and subsequent significant figures are unreliable, hence we retain
only three figures and express the result in its neatest form as
(2.99 ± 0.03)x108 ms−1
4. GRAPHICAL UNCERTAINTIES
In laboratory work a graph is often used to illustrate the behaviou of system; to assist in the
calculation of a quantity or to determine the relationship between variables. It is essential
that the graph displays the characteristics of the results and their uncertainties as clearly as
possible. This involves the proper selection of scale and the physical arrangement
of the axis.
The best way to indicate the uncertainties of the variables is to locate the point of the graph
by a dot at the centre of bars indicating the range of uncertainty. A method of estimating
the uncertainty in the gradient of a straight line is to draw lines of maximum and minimum
gradient which are possible fits to the experimental points.The uncertainty in the gradient
of the line of best fit is then one half the difference between the maximum and minimum
gradients. A similar method can be used to estimate the uncertainty in an intercept. These
techniques are illustrated on the graph in Figure 1.
5. THE SI SYSTEM OF UNITS
5.1 Classes of SI Units
There are three classes of SI units. These are:

Base units
Derived units
Supplementary units.
The base units are seven well-defined units: metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela
and mole.
7
Figure 1:
The derived units are units which can be obtained by combining base units according to the
algebraic relations linking the corresponding quantities.
The supplementary units, the radian and steradian (symbol, rad and sr respectively) are
dimensionless quantities used when defining derived units for quantities such as angular
frequency.
5.2 Definition of Base Units
metre (unit of length, symbol m)

The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second. Note that the metre is defined in terms of the speed of light.
kilogram (unit of mass, symbol kg)

The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. Once the
mass of a litre of water, it may soon be redefined as the mass of a number of carbon-12
atoms.
second (unit of time, symbol s)

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
This is a highly monochromatic microwave emission.
ampere (unit of electric current symbol A)

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel con-
ductors of negligible circular cross-section, placed one metre apart in vacuum, would
8
produce beetwen these conductors a force equal to 2x10−7 Newton per metre of length.
Earlier metric systems used the coulomb as the base unit, but it was too hard to measure
with sufficient precision.
Kelvin (unit of thermodynamic temperature, symbol K)

The Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.15 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water. The Kelvin is used to express an interval or a difference in temperature, so it tends
to appear in the denominator of derived units.
(Celsius temperature, symbol T, is defined by the expression T = K − 273.15)
candela (unit of luminous intensity, symbol cd)

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro-
matic radiation of frequency 540x1012 Hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction
of 1/683 watt per steradian. This unit is used when the instrument of comparison is the
human eye. Its use is in decline.
mole (unit of amount of substance, symbol mol)

The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities
as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities
must be specified. It is properly used as a number, but is often used as a mass.
5.3 Writing of Symbols
Roman lower case is used for symbols of units unless the symbols are derived from proper
names, when capital roman type is used for the first letter. These symbols are not followed
by a stop.
Unit names and symbols do not change in the plural, even though we often add an ”s” in
common speech. (2K reads as two degree Kelvins.)
5.4 Derived Units, Special Names
Several derived units have been given special names and may be used to obtain further
derived units. This is much simpler than expressing all units in terms of base units. e.g.
1P a = 1Nm−2
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Table 1 Derived units which have been given special names
PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL IN TERMS OF BASE UNITS

activity becquerel Bq s−1
capacitance farad F m−2 kg −1s4 A2
conductance siemens S m−2 kg −1s3 A2
dose absorbed gray Gy m2 s−2
dose equivalent sievert Sv m2 s−2
electric charge coulomb C sA
electric potential volt V m2 kgs−3A−1
electric resistance ohm Ω m2 kgs−3A−2
energy, work, heat joule J m2 kgs−2
force newton N mkgs−2
frequency hertz Hz s−1
illuminance lux lx m−2 cdsr
inductance henry H m−2 kgs−2A−2
luminous flux lumen lm cdsr
magnetic flux weber Wb m2 kgs−2A−1
magnetic induction tesla T kgs−2 A−1
power, radiant flux watt W m2 kgs−3
pressure pascal Pa m−1 kgs−2
5.5 Recommendations for Use of Units
(i) It is preferable to indicate the product of two units with a dot when there is a risk of
confusion with another symbol. When no dot is used a space should be left between
the symbols for the two units.
(ii) A negative power, horizontal line, or a solidus (/), may be used to express a derived unit
obtained from two other units by division.
(iii) The solidus must not be repeated unless parentheses are used to avoid ambiguity.
5.6 Number Notation
The decimal point should be expressed by a dot placed on the line. Then multiplication
should be indicated by an ”x”. If a dot half-high is used for this purpose, the decimal point
must be a comma. A number should never commence with a decimal point.
Long numbers should be arranged in groups of three with a space, not a comma, separating
them. The grouping should start at the decimal point.
A space should be left between the number and the unit.
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5.7 Multiples and Sub-multiples
Table 2
FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL

1018 exa E 10−3 milli m
1015 peta P 10−6 micro µ
1012 tera T 10−9 nano n
109 giga G 10−12 pico p
106 mega M 10−15 femto f
103 kilo k 10−18 atto a
The prefixes hecto, deca, deci and centi are still legal but should be avoided in technical
work. An exponent attached to a symbol containing a prefix indicates that the multiple, or
submultiple, of the unit is raised to the power of the exponent: e.g. a sand grain of 2 mg has
a volume of about 1mm3 . (The metre is cubed and so is the milli). A prefix should not
appear in the denominator of a derived unit: e.g. thus the sand grain has a density
of about 2Mgm−3
NOTE: The kilogram is the only base unit containing a prefix, retained for historical reasons.
It may appear in the denominator: e.g. a specific activity of 1.5kBqkg −1, not 1.5Bqg −1.
5.8 Units which are not within the SI
Some units, not within the SI are in widespread use. They should be converted to SI units
before calculations. These are:
minute (min) tonne (t) (1 Mg)

hour (h) degree (o)
day (d) minute (’)
year (a) second (”)
litre (l,L)
Jargon survives in all disciplines despite a general willingness to conform (to SI) for the
general good. In physics, the following non-SI units have survived:
electronvolt (eV)
The energy acquired by an electron when moved through a potential difference of one volt.
(6 eV = 1 aJ approx; 6 MeV = 1 pJ approx)
atomic mass unit (u)

1/12 of the mass of one 12 C atom. An energy of 149 pJ or 931 MeV has approximately 1 u
of mass. Atomic masses are expressed in u.
11
light year (ly)
The distance light travels in a year. (1 ly = 10 Pm, approx).
curie (Ci)
An activity of 37 GBq. This number is similar to the number of events per second in a gram
of radium.
Other jargon units will be encountered in specialist areas; their conversion factors will be
found in the references below.
Other disciplines have their jargon units, too. For instance - engineering has rpm (1 Hz = 60
rpm), geophysics has milligals (1mgal = 10µms−2 ) and surveying has hectares (1ha = 104 m2 ,
1km2 = 100ha).
6. UNITS, ERRORS AND DIGITS
When an experimental value is to be reported, it must be put into the standard form. Here
is how to do it:
Take a fresh page. Lay out the value to be processed. Rewrite it as you make each of the
following corrections:
1. Reduce the units’ denominator to base units: (DENOM)
2. Reduce the units’ numerator to an appropriate unit: (NUM)
3 . Choose a 103N prefix which brings the main value to between 1 and 999 (PREFIX)
4. Express the error in the same units as the value: (SAME UNITS)
5. Round the error to one or two significant figures: (SIG. FIG.)
6. Round the main value and error to the same decimal place: (D.P.)
7. Check the spaces and cases: (FORMAT)
A difficult example: 605.643calories/gK ± 1.567%
=605643calorieskg −1K −1 ± 1.567% DENOM

=2537648.Jkg −1K −1 ± 1.567% NUM
=2.537648MJkg −l K −1 ± 1.567% PREFIX
=2.537648 ± 0.039765MJkg −1K −1 SAME UNIT
=2.537648 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 SIG. FIGS.
=2.54 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 D.P.
=2.54 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 FORMAT
Practice the following, using pencil, eraser and scratch paper
2.3 ± 0.37Jg −1
6.71 ± 0.022Bqcm−2
1191300GJ ± 15T J
12
171 ± 9.666666N/mm2
1050.3 ± 18.33hectopascals
55tonnes km−3 ± 2%
1.2345x10−7g ± 75875f g
∼ 6miles, ∼ 6f t, ∼ 17min., ∼ 3kW h, ∼ 100light years
∼ 60MeV, ∼ 10−5 kgs−2A−2 (magnetic unit)
7. USE OF GRAPHS
This session is designed to give an understanding of the use of graphs. For those who are
good at mathematics it will serve as revision, for the rest of you please use the time to master
the following:
• Knowledge and understanding of the equation of a straight line.

• Ability to write an equation for a straight line given the graph.
• Ability to draw the graph given the equation without plotting out all the points.
• Understanding of ”directly proportional”.
• Ability to use a graphical method to show direct proportion in a variety of situations.
• Understanding of the term ”inversely proportional”.
• Ability to use a graphical method to show inverse proportionality.
• Ability to check equations using log graphs.
7.1 Gradient of a Stright Line
The straight line shown in Figure 2 has a constant gradient. In other words, as point P moves
along the line in the direction of x increasing (i.e. from A to B) y changes at a constant
rate, and in this case it is a simple matter to find the gradient.
7.1.1 Calculation of Gradient
In moving from A to B the x-coordinate has increased by 10 (from 0 to 10) while the
y-coordinate has increased by 5 (from 2 to 7).
increase in y 5 1
Gradient = = =
increase in x 10 2
The gradient is positive as y is increasing as x increases. So we say that the gradient of the
line in Figure 2 is 1/2 or 0.5. In fact to find the gradient of the line we can take any two
points on the line; e.g. we could have considered the points C add D with co-ordinates (4,4)
and (8,6) respectively. To obtain the most accurate answer choose points which are as far
apart as is convenient.
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Figure 2:
7.1.2 Equation of a Straight Line
Consider the line shown in Figure 3. What is its gradient? Answer is 2. Now look at the
points marked and write down their coordinates. Answer:
A : (0,1)
B : (1,3)
C : (2,5)
D : (3,7)
E : (4,9)
You might like to add a few more points of your own. Can you now find a connection between
the y and x coordinates?
The first thing to notice is that the x-coordinate increases by 1 at each step as you go from
A to E, and as we would expect the y-coordinate increases by 2 each time, since 2 is the
gradient of the line (remember gradient is the change in y for an increase of 1 in x). Can
you find the rule which connects y with x? The answer is that to get the y-coordinate you
double the x-coordinate and add 1. Since the y-coordinate is referred to simply as ’y’ and
the x-coordinate as ’x’:
y = 2x + 1, (gradient)x + (intercept on y axis)
or in general terms y = mx + c
14
Figure 3:
7.2 Direct Proportion
Imagine you go shopping and buy items at $3 each. If you tabulated the cost then you would
get:
Number of items cost

1 $3
2 $6
3 $9
. .
. .
. .
10 $30
Draw a graph of cost on y-axis against number of items on the x-axis. The graph represents
a graph of two quantities which are proportional.
y ∝ x or y = kx
The two main features of a graph showing that two quantities are directly proportional are:
1. the graph is a straight line
15
2. the graph passes through the point (0,0).
If you added the cost of the journey to the shop then the cost would no longer be directly pro-
portional to the number of items. (If you bought twice the number of items it would cost less
than twice as much). The graph would still be a straight line but it would not pass through
(0,0), i.e. a straight line alone is not sufficient proof of direct proportionality.
Choose a value for the cost of the journey and plot the graph.
Write down the equation of the line. It should be

Cost = $3 x number of items + cost of journey
Another shopping example, this time the cost of tiling a square room at $10 a square metre.
side of room area of room cost

lm 1m2 $10
2
2m 4m $40
2
3m 9m $90
4m 16m2 $160
Question
Draw a graph of cost against side of room and of cost against (side of room)2 . What do
you find?
Which graph enables you to deduce the relationship between cost and the length of the side
of the room?
7.3 Inverse Proportion
The term inverse proportion is often wrongly used. It has a very precise meaning and refers
to the situation where doubling one quantity halves the other, trebling one causes the other
to be a third etc.
1
y∝ or xy = constant
x
Question
Which of the following sets of pairs of numbers are inversely proportional?
16
a b c d e f
l 24 1 20 1 144
2 12 2 16 2 48
3 8 3 12 3 32
4 6 4 8 4 16
5 4.8 5 4 5 8
6 4 6 0 6 6
Draw a graph of each. What do you notice?
What graph can you draw to establish without doubt that the two quantities are inversely
proportional?
Note: You need a straight line graph before you can be sure about the relationship between
two variables.
7.4 Linear Graph from Non-linear Equations
The aim of many experiments is to find an equation relating two variables. If the graph
obtained by plotting these two variables is a straight line, it is an easy matter to measure
the slope and intercept and write out an equation in the form y = mx + c. If the graph is a
curve, the solution is not so simple but it is often possible to choose the variables so that a
straight line is obtained. Here are distances moved by a trolley from rest after various times.
Time, t Distance, s
0.7 0.141
1.3 0.372
1.9 0.794
2.3 1.113
2.9 1.850
If s is plotted against t the graph will not be a straight line since s increases much more
rapidly than t because the trolley is accelerating.
For an object travelling with constant acceleration from rest, the equation relating acceler-
ation (a), distance (s) and time (t) is
s = (1/2)at2
comparing this with y = mx + c shows that a graph of s against t2 should be a straight line
passing through (0,0) and having a gradient of (1/2)a.
17
Question
How would you check graphically whether experimental results fit the following equations?
1. F = k/r 2 , where k is constant.

2. E = (1/2)mv 2 , where m is constant,
3. V = RE/(R + r), when E and r are constant.
7.5 Log Graphs
Sometimes, two variables are related by an equation of the form
y = Axn
where A and n are unknown constants.

You can use trial and error to try to find n but this would involve graphing;
y against x
y against x2
y against 1/x
etc. until you obtained a straight line and, in the end, you might give up without getting a
solution. However, if
y = Axn then
log y = log(Axn )
log y = logA + log xn
log y = logA + nlog x
(compare this with) y = mx + c.
The graph of logy against logx would be a straight line. The constant n is the gradient and
the intercept is logA. From this graph we would be able to find both A and n.
Question
Under certain conditions (when heat cannot flow into or out of the gas) the pressure p and
volume V are related by the equation
pV γ = k
where γ and k are constants.
18
If you obtained experimental data under these conditions, what graph would you plot to find
the values of γ and k and how would you find the values of γ and k?
Question
Theory suggests that the power P dissipated in a heated filament of resistance R is given by
an equation of the form
P = kRn
where k and n are constants.

Plot a suitable graph of the following data so that the values of n and k can be found.
P(W) R(Ω)
4.41 0.91
8.11 1.11
12.59 1.27
17.70 1.41
23.88 1.51
7.6 Use of Graphs-Assignment
1. A 100 watt heater and a thermometer were immersed in a copper calorimeter containing
water. The following readings were obtained:
temperature (o C) 22 36 40 45 49 54 58
time (minutes) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Plot a graph of temperature against time (reminder: this means that time should be on the
x axis).
The relevant equation is: power x time = heat capacity x temperature rise
Compare this equation with the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c
From your graph determine the initial temperature of the water and the heat capacity of the
calorimeter + water.
2. The tension of a vibrating string is kept constant and its length varied to tune it to a
series of tuning forks. The necessary lengths are given below:
Tuning Fork C D E F G
frequency of tuning fork (Hz) 256 288 320 384 512
19
length of string (cm) 117 104 94 78 59
Plot a graph of length against frequency. What possible relationship is there between the
frequency of vibration and the length of the string? Draw a suitable graph to confirm this.
20
Chapter 1
MEASUREMENT
Purpose
To give you some feeling for the magnitude of measurement uncertainties when using a metre
ruler, a vernier callipers, a micrometer and a balance,
To use the measurements obtained to calculate the density of the samples,
To see how measurement uncertainties affect the final results.
Introduction
In physics it is always important to be aware of the limitations of any equipment used and to
be able to estimate the uncertainty inherent in any measurement taken. This is often called
the error of the reading, a term which is itself misleading as it suggests that the experimenter
has made a mistake when taking the reading. An uncertainty is present on every reading
regardless of the care and skill of the experimenter or of the accuracy of the instrument.
Formulae Required:
mass
density =
volume
Volume of a cylinder = πr 2 h
(r is the radius of one of the bases and h is the length of cylinder)
4 3
Volume of a sphere = πr
3
(r is the radius of sphere)

√
3 2
Volume of a hexagonal based object = hd
2
(h is the length of object and d is the distance from one edge to the other of the base )
21
Densities of Materials
daluminum = 2.70 g/cm3
dbrass = 8.75 g/cm3
dcopper = 8.96 g/cm3
dsteel = 7.85 g/cm3
Equipments
A ruler
A vernier callipers
A micrometer
A balance
Brass, copper, aluminum and steel objects
Procedure
1. Record the smallest scale division for each measuring instrument in Table 1.1.
2. Then record your reasonable estimate of a ”reading uncertainty” for each instrument,
record in Table 1.1.
3. Measure each dimension three times at different places around the object in order to
obtain a reasonable average over the whole object. Do this with each measuring instrument
and record your data in Table 1.2 .
4. Calculate the densities of the objects and record in Table 1.3.
22
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 1: MEASUREMENT
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:
Data and Calculations

Table 1.1
Instrument Size of smallest division on scale Reasonable estimate of reading uncertainty
Table 1.2
Object Instrument Quantity measured Readings Mean Best estimate of uncertainty
Table 1.3
Object Mass (g) Volume (cm3 ) Density (g/cm3)
23
Questions
Is there a ”zero error” in your measuring instruments? If so, how do you make a correction
for this?
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How do the results of using different measuring instruments compare? Are they within your
combined uncertainty estimates? If not, then what does this signify?
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...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
What is the most accurate instrument?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
What, as a result of all your measurements would you give as the ’best’ values of mass,
length and diameter of the objects?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
24
Would you consider the uncertainties you have found to be random (i.e. the probability that
the reading is too high is the same as the probability that it is too low) or systematic’ (the
error is usually of the same sign, such errors may be produced by an incorrectly calibrated
measuring instrument or by a zero error)?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
How may random uncertainties be reduced?
...............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
How may systematic errors be detected and then eliminated or reduced?
...............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
What are the volumes of the objects? How accurate are your answers?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
25
What are the densities of the specimens? How accurate are your answers? What units have
you used g/cm3 or kg/m3?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
In the measurement of density of each object, is there a measuring instrument that has
contributed significantly more to the uncertainty in the density?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
If you needed to improve the precision of your density measurements, for each object, what
would be your first step?
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26
Chapter 2
INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS
AVERAGE VELOCITY
Purpose
To grasp the difference between the average and the instantaneous velocities and their most
proper places of applications.
Introduction
Average velocity of a motion is the total displacement achieved within the total time elapsed
from the start of the motion. Then the instantaneous velocity is the displacement for so small
a time interval that we cannot say when the motion started and ended, as if everything
occurred in one instant of time. However we can express it mathematically as in dx/dt,
where dx and dt are the infinitesimal displacement and the infinitesimal time.
Both average and the instantaneous velocities have their proper places of applications. For
example in the famous parable of a race between a hare and a turtle, it is the average velocity
that helps the slow turtle to win it. The hare, resting for the most part of the race (having
a zero instantaneous velocity) and dashing at the end (producing a very high instantaneous
velocity) looses it, simply because his average velocity does not add up to that of the turtle.
On the other hand, a karate master can break a wooden block, because he is well trained
and so able to produce an immensely high instantaneous velocity (and momentum) with his
hand at the moment of the blow.
In this experiment you’ll investigate the relationship between instantaneous and average
velocities, and see how a series of average velocities can be used to deduce an instantaneous
velocity.
27
Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Air Track System with one glider
Air Supply
Procedure
Figure 2.1:
1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 2.1, elevating one end of the track with a 1-2 cm
support.
2. Choose a point x1 near the center of the track. Measure the position of x1 on the air
track metric scale, and record this value in Table 2.1.
3. Choose a starting point xo for the glider, near the upper end of the track. With a pencil,
carefully mark this spot on the air track so you can always start the glider from the same
point.
4. Place the Photogate Timer and Accessory Photogate at points equidistant from x1 , as
shown in the figure. Record the distance between the photogates as D in Table 2.1.
5. Set the slide switch on the Photogate Timer to PULSE.
6. Press the RESET button.
7. Hold the glider steady at xo , then release it. Record time t1 , the time displayed after the
glider has passed through both photogates.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 at least two more times, recording the times as t2 through t3 .
28
9. Now repeat steps 4 through 9, decreasing D by approximately 10cm.
10. Continue decreasing D in 10cm increments. At each value of D, repeat steps 4-8.
You can continue using smaller and smaller distances for D by changing your timing tech-
nique. Tape a piece of cardboard on top of the glider. Use just one photogate and place it
at x1 . Set the timer to GATE. Now D is the length of the cardboard. Then start the glider
from xo as before, and make several measurements of the time it takes for the glider to pass
through the photogate. As before, record your times as t1 through t3 . Continue decreasing
the value of D, by using successively smaller pieces of cardboard.
29
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30
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 2: INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS AVERAGE VELOCITY
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Table 2.1
x1 =.....................
D(cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s) vavg (cm/s)
1. For each value of D, calculate the average of t1 through t3 . Record this value as tavg .
2. Calculate vavg = D/tavg . This is the average velocity of the glider in going between the
two photogates.
3. Plot a graph of vavg versus D with D on the x-axis.
31
Questions
1. Which of the average velocities that you measured do you think gives the closest approx-
imation to the instantaneous velocity of the glider as it passed through point x1 ?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
2. Can you extrapolate your collected data to determine an even closer approximation to the
instantaneous velocity of the glider through point x1 ? From your collected data, estimate
the maximum error you expect in your estimated value.
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
3. In trying to determine an instantaneous velocity, what factors (timer accuracy, object

being timed, type of motion) influence the accuracy of the measurement? Discuss how each
factor influences the result.
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
4. Can you think of one or more ways to measure instantaneous velocity directly, or is an
instantaneous velocity always a value that must be inferred from average velocity measure-
ments?
...............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
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32
Chapter 3
PROJECTILE MOTION
Purpose
To find how the range of the ball depends on the angle at which it is launched and the angle
that gives the greatest range.
Introduction
Let us consider a special case of two-dimensional motion: A particle moves in a vertical
plane with some initial velocity v~o but its acceleration is always the free-fall acceleration ~g ,
which is downward. Such a particle is called a projectile (meaning that it is projected or
launched) and its motion is called projectile motion. During its two-dimensional motion,
the projectile’s position vector and velocity vector change continuously, but its acceleration
vector is constant and always directed vertically downward. The projectile has no horizontal
acceleration.
In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent of each
other; that is, neither motion affects the other.
The Vertical Motion
The vertical motion is the motion for a particle in free fall. Most important is that the
acceleration is constant. Thus, the equations for motion with constant acceleration apply,
provided we substitute −g for a and switch to y notation.Then, for example, the equation
becomes
1
y − yo = voy t − gt2
2
1
y − yo = (vo sin θ)t − gt2
2
where the initial vertical velocity component voy is replaced with the equivalent vo sin θ.
33
The vertical velocity component behaves just as for a ball thrown vertically upward. It
is directed upward initially and its magnitude steadily decreases to zero, which marks the
maximum height of the path. The vertical velocity component then reverses direction, and
its magnitude becomes larger with time.
The Horizontal Motion
Because there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, the horizontal component vx of

the projectile’s velocity remains unchanged from its initial value vox throughout the motion.
At any time t, the projectile’s horizontal displacement x − xo from an initial position xo is
given by
x − xo = vox t
Because vox = vo cos θ, this becomes
x − xo = (vo cos θ)t.
The range is the horizontal distance, x, between the muzzle of the Launcher and the place
where the ball hits (Figure 3.1), given by x = (vo cos θ)t, where vo is the initial speed of the
ball as it leaves the muzzle, θ is the angle of inclination above horizontal, and t is the time
of flight. Of course in this type of experiment the air resistance is totally ignored.
Figure 3.1:
34
Equipments
Mini Launcher and steel ball
Photogate Mounting Bracket
Photogate Timer
Time of Flight Accessory
Procedure
Determining the Initial Velocity of the Projectile
1
The vertical distance the ball drops in time t is given by y = gt2 .
2
The initial velocity of the ball can besdetermined by measuring x and y. The time of flight
2y
of the ball can be found using : t =
g
x
and then the initial velocity can be found using vo = .
t
1. Put the steel ball into the Mini Launcher and cock it to short range position. Fire one
shot to locate where the ball hits the floor. At this position, tape a piece of white paper to
the floor. Place a piece of carbon paper (carbon-side down) on top of this paper and tape it
down. When the ball hits the floor, it will leave a mark on the white paper.
2. Fire about three shots.
3. Measure the vertical distance from the bottom of the ball as it leaves the barrel (this
position is marked on the side of the barrel) to the floor. Record this distance.
4. Use a plumb bob to find the point on the floor that is directly beneath the release point
on the barrel. Measure the horizantal distance along the floor from the release point to the
points where the ball hits the floor. Record these values in Table 3.1.
5. Find the average of the three distances and record the value in the table.
6. Using the vertical distance and the average horizontal distance, calculate the time of flight
and the initial velocity of the ball.
Determining the Time of Flight
Put the Photogate Mounting Bracket onto the Mini Launcher and mount the Photogate
Timer’s Photogate Head at the front of the launcher. Connect the Time-of-Flight Accessory
stereo phone plug into the side of the Photogate Timer as in Figure 3.2.
1. Adjust the angle of the Mini Launcher.
35
Figure 3.2:
2. Put the steel ball into the Mini Launcher and cock it to the short range position.
3. Test fire the ball to determine where to place the timer plate on the floor. Put the timer
plate where the ball hits.
4. Set the Photogate Timer to PULSE mode to measure the time of flight of the projectile
from the launcher to the pad.
5. Shoot the ball and record the time of flight.
Part I: Projectile Range Versus Angle (Shooting on a Level Surface)
1. Adjust the angle of the Mini Launcher to ten degrees.
2. Put steel ball into the Mini Launcher and cock it short range position.
3. Fire one shot to locate where the ball hits the table. At this position, tape a piece of
white paper to the table. Place a piece of carbon paper (carbon-side down) on top of this
paper and tape it down. When the ball hits the table, it will leave a mark on the white
paper.
4. Fire about three shots.
5. Measure the horizontal distance from the launch position of the ball to the leading edge
of the paper (x′). Record in Table 3.2.
36
6. Measure from the leading edge of the paper to each of the three dots and record these
distances (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in Table 3.2.
7. Find the average of the three distances and record it.
8. Add the average distance to the distance to the leading edge of the paper to find the total
measured range (xmeasured = x′ + xavg ) in each case. Record it in Table 3.2.
9. Using the values of initial velocity of the projectile and the time of flight, find the
calculated range, xcalculated = (vo cos θ)t. Compare with the measured value.
10. Increase the angle by 10 degrees and repeat all the steps for angles up to and including
80 degrees.
Part II: Projectile Range Versus Angle (Shooting from an Initial Height)
Set the Mini Launcher to a initial height and aim it so that the ball will hit the table. Repeat
steps 1 through 10 in Part I and record the data in Table 3.3.
37
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38
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 3: PROJECTILE MOTION
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Table 3.1
Vertical distance, y=...............

Calculated time of flight, t=...............
Initial velocity, vo =...............
Trial Number Distance

1
2
3
Average Distance
Table 3.2 Shooting on a Level Surface
θ t(s) x′(cm) x1 (cm) x2 (cm) x3 (cm) xavg (cm) xmeasured xcalculated

10o
20o
30o
40o
50o
60o
70o
80o
39
Table 3.3 Shooting from an Initial Height
yo =................
θ t(s) x′(cm) x1 (cm) x2 (cm) x3 (cm) xavg (cm) xmeasured xcalculated

10o
20o
30o
40o
50o
60o
70o
80o
For data in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3, plot the measured range versus angle and draw a smooth
curve through the points.
Questions
1. From the graph, what angle gives the maximum range for each case?
...............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
2. Is the angle for the maximum range greater or less for shooting from an initial height?
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...............................................................................................................................................
3. Is the maximum range further when the ball is shot from an initial height or on the level
surface?
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40
Chapter 4
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
Purpose
To demonstrate that the force to acceleration ratio is a constant dependent on the amount
of the matter that is subjected to the various forces, gravitational or not.
Introduction
There’s nothing obvious about the relationships governing the motions of objects. In fact, it
took around 4000 years of civilization and the genius of Isaac Newton to figure out the basic
laws. Fortunately for the rest of us, hindsight is a powerful research tool. In this experiment
you will experimentally determine Newton’s second law by examining the motion of an air
track glider under the influence of a constant force. The constant force will be supplied by
the weight of a hanging mass that will be used to pull the glider. By varying the mass of
the hanging weight and of the glider, and measuring the acceleration of the glider, you’ll be
able to determine Newton’s second law.
Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Pulley, Mass hanger and Masses (1x5g, 2x10g, 2x20g)
Procedure
1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 4.1. Level the air track very carefully by adjusting
the air track leveling feet. A glider should sit on the track without accelerating in either
direction. There may be some small movement of the glider due to unequal airflow beneath
the glider, but it should not accelerate steadily in either direction.
2. Measure the effective length of the glider and record your value as L in Table 4.1.
41
Figure 4.1:
3. Mount the hook into the bottom hole of the glider. To counterbalance its weight, add a
piece of similar weight on the opposite end as shown on Figure 4.1.
4. Add 60 grams of mass to the glider using 10 or 20gram masses. Be sure the masses are
distributed symmetrically so the glider is balanced. Determine the total mass of your glider
with the added masses and record the total as m in Table 4.1.
5. Place a mass of 5 grams on the mass hanger. Record the total mass (hanger plus added
mass) as ma .
6. Set your Photogate Timer to GATE mode.
7. Choose a starting point xo for the glider, near the end of the track. Mark this point with
a pencil so that you can always start the glider from this same point.
9. Hold the glider steady at xo , then release it. Note t1 , the time it took for the glider to
pass through the first photogate, and t2 , the time it took for the glider to pass through the
second photogate. Repeat this measurement two times. Take the average of your measured
t1 ’s and t2 ’s and record these averages as t1 and t2 in Table 4.1.
Note: Use the memory function of the timer to measure the two times. Turn the MEMORY
switch to ON. Press RESET. Run the experiment. When the first time t1 is measured, it
will be immediately displayed. The second time t2 will be automatically measured by the
timer, but it will not be shown on the display. Record t1 , then push the MEMORY switch to
READ. The display will now show the TOTAL time, t1 + t2 . Subtract t1 from the displayed
time to determine t2 .
10. Set the Photogate Timer to PULSE mode.
42
12. Again, start the glider from xo . This time measure and record t3 , the time it takes the
glider to pass between the photogates. Repeat this measurement two more times and record
the average of these measurements as t3 in Table 4.1.
13. Vary ma , by moving masses from the glider to the hanger (thus keeping the total mass,
m + ma , constant). Record m and ma and repeat steps 5 through 11. Try at least four
different values for ma .
14. Now leave ma , constant at a previously used value. Vary m by adding or removing mass
from the glider. Repeat steps 5-11. Try at least four different values for m.
43
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44
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 4: NEWTON’S SECOND LAW
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Table 4.1
Glider Length, L=.....................
m(g) ma (g) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s) a(m/s2 ) Fa (N)
For each set of experimental conditions:
1. Use the length of the glider and your average times to determine v1 (L/t1 ) and v2 (L/t2 ),
the average glider velocity as it passed through each photogate.
2. Use the equation a = (v2 − v1 )/t3 to determine the average acceleration of the glider as
it passed between the two photogates.
3. Determine Fa the force applied to the glider by the hanging mass. (Fa = ma g, g =
9.8m/s2 )
4. Draw a graph showing average acceleration as a function of applied force, Fa .
5. Draw a second graph showing average acceleration as a function of the glider mass with
ma being held constant.
45
6. Examine your graphs carefully. Are they straight lines? Use your graphs to determine the
relationship between applied force, mass, and average acceleration for the air track glider.
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
7. Discuss your results. In this experiment, you measured only the average acceleration of
the glider between the two photogates. Do you have reason to believe that your results also
hold true for the instantaneous acceleration? Explain. What further experiments might help
extend your results to include instantaneous acceleration?
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46
Chapter 5
THE FORCE OF GRAVITY
Purpose
Using Newton’s Second Law to measure the force exerted on an object by the Earth’s gravi-
tational field.
Introduction
In this experiment, we will use Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) to measure the force
exerted on an object by the Earth’s gravitational field. Ideally, you would simply measure
the acceleration of a freely falling object, measure its mass, and compute the force. However,
the acceleration of a freely falling object is difficult to measure accurately. Accuracy can be
greatly increased by measuring the much smaller acceleration of an object as it slides down
an inclined plane. Figure 5.1 shows a diagram of the experiment. The gravitational force
Fg can be resolved into two components; one acting perpendicular and one acting parallel
to the motion of the glider. Only the component acting along the direction of motion can
accelerate the glider. The other component is balanced by the force from the air cushion of
the track acting in the opposite direction. From the diagram, F = Fg sin θ, where Fg is the
total gravitational force and F is the component that accelerates the glider. By measuring
the acceleration of the glider, F can be determined and Fg can be calculated.
Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
A block of known thickness
Masses
47
Figure 5.1:
Procedure
Figure 5.2:
1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 5.2. Level the air track very carefully.
2. Measure d, the distance between the air track support legs. Record this distance.
3. Place a block of thickness h under the support leg of the track. Measure h with calipers
and record it.
4. Measure and record D, the distance the glider moves on the air track from where it
triggers the first photogate to where it triggers the second photogate.
48
5. Measure and record L, the effective length of the glider.
6. Measure and record m, the mass of the glider.
7. Set the Photogate Timer to GATE mode and press the RESET button.
8. Hold the glider steady near the top of the air track, then release it so it glides freely through
the photogates. Record t1 , the time during which the glider blocks the first photogate, and
t2 , the time during which it blocks the second photogate.
Use the memory function of the timer to measure the two times. Turn the MEMORY switch
to ON. Press RESET. Run the experiment. When the first time t1 is measured, it will be
immediately displayed. The second time t2 will be automatically measured by the timer, but
it will not be shown on the display. Record t1 , then push the MEMORY switch to READ.
The display will now show the TOTAL time, t1 + t2 . Subtract t1 from the displayed time to
determine t2 .
9. Repeat the measurement several times and record your data in Table 5.1. You needn’t
release the glider from the same point on the air track for each trial, but it must be gliding
freely and smoothly (minimum wobble) as it passes through the photogates.
10. Change the mass of the glider by adding weights and repeat steps 6 through 8. Do this
for at least five different masses, recording the mass m for each set of measurements.
49
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50
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 5: THE FORCE OF GRAVITY
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

d =......................
h =......................
D =.......................
L = ......................
θ =.......................
m (mass of the glider with the flag) = ......................
Table 5.1
m(g) t1 (s) t2 (s) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s) a(m/s2 ) F (N) Fg (N)
aavg =.....................
1. Calculate θ, the angle of incline for the air track, using the equation θ = arctan(h/d).
2. For each set of time measurements, divide L by t1 and t2 to determine v1 and v2 , the
velocities of the glider as it passed through the two photogates.
3. For each set of time measurements, calculate a, the acceleration of the glider, using the
equation v22 − v12 = 2a(x2 − x1 ) = 2aD.
4. For each value of mass that you used, take the average of your calculated accelerations to
determine aavg .
51
5. For each of your average accelerations, calculate the force acting on the glider along its
line of motion (F = maavg ).
6. For each measured value of F , use the equation F = Fg sin θ to determine Fg .
7. Construct a graph of Fg versus m, with m as the independent variable (x-axis).
Does your graph show a linear relationship between Fg and m? Does the graph go through
the origin? Is the gravitational force acting on the mass proportional to the mass? If so, the
gravitational force can be expressed by the equation Fg = mg, where g is a constant. If this
is the case, measure the slope of your graph to determine the value of g.
...............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
Questions
1. In this experiment, it was assumed that the acceleration of the glider was constant. Was
this a reasonable assumption to make? How would you test this?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
2. The equation v22 − v12 = 2a(x2 − x1 ) was used to calculate the acceleration. Under what
conditions is this equation valid? Are those conditions met in this experiment? (You should
be able to find a derivation for this equation in your textbook.)
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
52
3. Could you use the relationship Fg = mg to determine the force acting between the Earth
and the Moon? Explain.
...............................................................................................................................................
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...............................................................................................................................................
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53
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54
Chapter 6
MEASURING g, THE
ACCELERATION CAUSED BY
GRAVITY
Purpose
To familiarize the students with a practical measurement technique of the important me-
chanical constant g.
Introduction
The equation of motion for a body starting from rest and undergoing constant acceleration
can be expressed as: x = (1/2)at2 where x is the distance the object has traveled from its
starting point, a is the acceleration, and t is the time elapsed since the motion began. In
order to measure the acceleration caused by gravity, several questions must be answered:
Is the acceleration constant? If it is, then the distance an object falls will be proportional
to the square of the elapsed time, as in the above equation.
If the acceleration is constant, what is the value of the acceleration? Is it the same for all
objects or does it vary with mass or size of the object, or with some other quality of the
object? If it is not constant, how does it vary with time?
In this experiment you will answer these questions by carefully timing the fall of a steel ball
from various heights.
Thanks to our electronics age, we are much luckier than our good old Galilee Galileo when
he had to drop objects off the top of the leaning tower of Pizza and time them with his pulse.
55
Equipments
Free-Fall Timer with two steel balls
Rod stand
Multi clamp
Procedure
Figure 6.1:
1. First use the steel ball 13mm in diameter.
2. Set d, the height from which the ball drops. Measure the distance as accurately as possible
and record the distance in Table 6.1. Press the RESET button on the timer, then loosen
the thumbscrew so the ball drops. Record the measured time as t1 in Table 6.1. Repeat
the measurement at least two more times and record these values as t2 − t3 . Calculate the
average of your three measured times and record this value as tavg .
3. Set d to different values and repeat step 2 for each value of d. Be sure you measure it
carefully.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using the steel ball 16mm in diameter and record your data in Table
6.2.
56
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 6: MEASURING g, THE ACCELERATION CAUSED BY GRAVITY
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Table 6.1
d(cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s) t2avg (s2 )
Table 6.2
d(cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s) t2avg (s2 )
For each ball, plot a graph of d versus t2avg with d as the dependent value (y-axis). Within
the limits of your experimental accuracy, do your data points define a straight line for each
ball? Was the acceleration constant for each ball?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
57
If your graphs were linear, measure the slope of each graph. Using your measured slopes
and the equation shown in the introduction to this experiment, determine the acceleration
caused by gravity. Be sure to include the units. Was the acceleration the same for each ball?
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
Questions
Describe your laboratory experiment and discuss your results. Consider the following ques-
tions:
1. Is the acceleration caused by gravity constant?
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2. Is the acceleration caused by gravity the same for all objects?
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Discuss the conditions under which you believe your results to be true. Include a discussion
of the errors in your measurements and how they affect your conclusions. How linear was
your graph? How might you alter your technique, or the experiment, in order to reduce
experimental errors?
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58
Chapter 7
ELASTIC-KINETIC ENERGY
Purpose
To familiarize oneself with the idea that the kinetic energy can be stored and imparted at a
later time. Spring provides an ingenious mechanism to this effect.
Introduction
It takes work to stretch or compress a spring. Suppose a spring has a natural (unstretched)
length Lo and a spring constant k. If that spring is stretched or compressed to a new length,
L = Lo ± x, the work required is given by the expression (1/2)kx2 . If the energy stored in
the spring is then used to accelerate an object, the kinetic energy of the object, (1/2)mv 2 ,
will be equivalent to the work that was originally stored in the spring. In this lab you will
investigate this equivalency between the work stored in a stretched spring and the kinetic
energy it can impart to an object.
Equipments
Photogate Timer
Air Track with one glider
Mass hanger with masses
Spring (with a low spring constant)
Procedure
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 7.1 and level the track. As shown, attach a
cardboard flag to your glider with masking tape. The flag can be from 1 to 5cm wide. Make
a platform for your spring, so it will be supported horizontally and will not sag. Attach the
platform securely to the end of the air track. Connect the spring to the glider with a piece of
thread so that the glider is about in the middle of the air track with the spring unstretched.
Run another piece of thread from the glider over a pulley at the end of the track and attach
it to a hanger.
59
Figure 7.1:
2. Hang masses on the hanger and determine how far the spring stretches. This is easily
done using the metric scale on the side of the air track and using the glider to monitor the
distance the spring has extended. Record the masses added and the position of the glider in
Table 7.1. (The air flow should be on while gathering this data.) Then remove the hanger
and thread.
3. Measure and record m, the mass of your glider and flag, in Table 7.2. Then pass the
glider slowly through the photogate and note the position of the glider when the LED on
the photogate first goes on and again when the LED goes off. The difference between these
positions is ∆d. Record it.
4. Position the glider so the spring exerts no force on the glider, but the thread does not sag.
Record this glider position as xl . Position the photogate between the glider and the spring.
5. Pull the glider approximately 5cm farther away from the spring. Measure the distance
between this glider position and x1 and record this distance as the spring stretch in Table
7.2.
7. Hold the glider steady as you turn the air flow on. Release the glider, but catch it before
it crashes into the spring platform. Record the measured time as t1 in Table 7.2.
8. Repeat steps 5-8 two more times. Record your times as t2 through t3 in Table 7.2.
Determine the average of these three times and record this value as tavg .
9. Repeat steps 5-9 for different distances of stretch of the spring up to 20cm. Also try
varying the mass of the glider by adding masses to it. Note the new masses in Table 7.2.
60
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 7: ELASTIC-KINETIC ENERGY
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Table 7.1 Determining the spring constant
Hanging Mass,(g) Applied Force, mg(N) Spring Stretch, x(m)
Determine k, the spring constant of your spring by constructing a graph of the stretch of
the spring versus the amount of force applied to it by the hanging weights with the spring
stretch values on the x-axis. The slope of this graph in, newtons/meter, is equal to k.
k=......................
Table 7.2
x1 =..................
Flag width, ∆d=................
m(g) stretch,x(m) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s)
2
vavg (m/s) (1/2)mvavg (J) (1/2)kx2 (J) %Error
61
1. For each set of trials you performed for a given spring stretch and glider mass, divide ∆d
by your average time to determine the average velocity of the glider as it passed through the
2
photogate. Calculate the final kinetic energy of the glider, (1/2)mvavg .
2. Calculate the energy stored in the spring in each case, (1/2)kx2 where k is the spring
constant and x is the spring stretch.
3. For each trial, determine the percentage difference between the elastic potential energy
stored in the spring and the final translational kinetic energy of the glider.
62
Chapter 8
CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY
Purpose
To demonstrate that the sum total of potential and kinetic energies is another conserved
quantity in elastic collisions and mechanically isolated objects that are subjected to gravity
only.
Introduction
Though conservation of energy is one of the most powerful laws of physics, it is not an
easy principle to verify. If a boulder is rolling down a hill, for example, it is constantly
converting gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy (linear and rotational), and
into heat energy due to the friction between it and the hillside. It also loses energy as it
strikes other objects along the way, imparting to them a certain portion of its kinetic energy.
Measuring all these energy changes is no simple task.
This kind of difficulty exists throughout physics, and physicists meet this problem by creating
simplified situations in which they can focus on a particular aspect of the problem. In this
experiment you will examine the transformation of energy that occurs as an air track glider
slides down an inclined track. Since there are no objects to interfere with the motion and
there is minimal friction between the track and glider, the loss in gravitational potential
energy as the glider slides down the track should be very nearly equal to the gain in kinetic
energy. Stated mathematically:
∆Ek = ∆(mgh) = mg∆h
where ∆Ek is the change in kinetic energy of the glider (∆Ek = (1/2)mv22 − (1/2)mv12) and
∆(mgh) is the change in its gravitational potential energy (m is the mass of the glider, g is
the acceleration of gravity and ∆h is the change in the vertical position of the glider).
63
Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Air track system with one glider
A block of known thickness
Procedure
Figure 8.1:
1. Level the air track as accurately as possible.
2. Measure d, the distance between the air track support legs. Record this distance in Table
8.1
3. Place a block of known thickness under the support leg of the track. For best accuracy,
the thickness of the block should be measured with calipers. Record the thickness of the
block as h in Table 8.1.
4. Setup the Photogate Timer and Accessory Photogate as shown in Figure 8.1.
5. Measure and record D, the distance the glider moves on the air track from where it first
triggers the first photogate to where it first triggers the second photogate. (You can tell
when the photogates are triggered by watching the LED on top of each photogate. When
the LED lights up, the photogate has been triggered.)
6. Measure and record L, the effective length of the glider. (The best technique is to move
the glider slowly through one of the photogates and measure the distance it travels from
where the LED first lights up to where it just goes off.)
64
7. Measure and record m, the mass of the glider.
9. Hold the glider steady near the top of the air track, then release it so it glides freely through
the photogates. Record t1 , the time during which the glider blocks the first photogate, and
t2 , the time during which it blocks the second photogate. (The memory function of the
Photogate Timer will make it easier to measure the two times.)
10. Repeat the measurement several times and record your data in Table 8.1. You needn’t
release the glider from the same point on the air track for each trial, but it must be gliding
freely and smoothly (minimum wobble) as it passes through the photogates.
11. Change the mass of the glider by adding weights and repeat steps 7 through 10. Do this
for at least five different masses, recording the mass m for each set of measurements.
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REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 8: CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

d=............
D=...........
h=............
L=............
m=...........
Table 8.1
m θ t1 t2 v1 v2 Ek1 Ek2 ∆Ek ∆(mgh)
1. Calculate θ, the angle of incline for the air track, using the equation θ = arctan(h/d).
For each set of time measurements:
2. Divide L by t1 and t2 to determine v1 and v2 , the velocity of the glider as it passed

through each photogate.
3. Use the equation Ek = (1/2)mv 2 to calculate the kinetic energy of the glider as it passed
through each photogate.
4. Calculate the change in kinetic energy, ∆Ek = Ek2 − Ek1 .
5. Calculate ∆h, the distance through which the glider dropped in passing between the two
photogates (∆h = D sin θ).
67
6. Compare the kinetic energy gained with the loss in gravitational potential energy. Was
mechanical energy conserved in the motion of the glider?
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68
Chapter 9
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Purpose
To demonstrate that linear momentum is conserved in every collision that is free from any
other force except that is due to the collision itself and to demonstrate that if collision is
elastic and horizontal, the total kinetic energy of the system is a conserved quantity, ie, a
constant throughout the act.
Introduction
When objects collide, whether locomotives, shopping carts or your foot and the sidewalk,
the results can be complicated. Yet even in the most chaotic of collisions, as long as there
are no external forces acting on the colliding objects, one principle always holds and provides
an excellent tool for understanding the dynamics of the collision. That principle is called
the conservation of momentum. For a two-object collision, momentum conservation is easily
stated mathematically by the equation:
pi = m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f = pf
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects, v1i and v2i are the initial velocities of
the objects (before the collision), v1f and v2f are the final velocities of the objects (after the
collision), and pi and pf are the combined momentums of the objects, before and after the
collision. In this experiment, you will verify the conservation of momentum in a collision of
two air track gliders.
Momentum is always conserved in collisions that are isolated from external forces. Energy
is also always conserved, but energy conservation is much harder to demonstrate since the
energy can change forms: energy of motion (kinetic energy) may be changed into heat
energy, gravitational potential energy, or even chemical potential energy. In the air track
glider collisions you’ll be investigating, the total energy before the collision is simply the
kinetic energy of the gliders:
2 2
Eki = (1/2)m1 v1i + (1/2)m2 v2i
69
After the collision, the total kinetic energy of the system is:
2 2
Ekf = (1/2)m1 v1f + (1/2)m2 v2f
In this experiment you’ll examine the kinetic energy before and after a collision to determine
if kinetic energy is conserved in air track collisions.
Equipments
Two Photogate Timers
Air Track System with two gliders
Procedure
Figure 9.1:
1. Set up the air track and photogates as shown in Figure 9.1, using bumpers on the gliders
to provide an elastic collision. Carefully level the track.
2. Measure m1 and m2 , the masses of the two gliders to be used in the collision. Record
your results in Table 9.1.
3. Measure and record L1 and L2 the length of the gliders. (e.g., push glider through
photogate and measure the distance it travels from where the LED comes on to where it
goes off again.)
4. Set both Photogate Timers to GATE mode, and press the RESET buttons.
5. Place glider2 at rest between the photogates. Give glider1 a push toward it. Record four
time measurements in Table 9.1 as follows:
t1i = the time that glider1 blocks photogate1 before the collision.
t2i = the time that glider2 blocks photogate2 before the collision. (In this case, there is no
t2i since glider2 begins at rest.)
70
t1f = the time that glider1 blocks photogate1 after the collision.
t2f = the time that glider2 blocks photogate2 after the collision.
6. Repeat the experiment several times, varying the mass of one or both gliders and varying
the initial velocity of glider1 .
7. Try collisions in which the initial velocity of glider2 is not zero. You may need to practice
a bit to coordinate the gliders so the collision takes place completely between the photogates.
Optional Equipment
Design and conduct an experiment to investigate conservation of kinetic energy in an inelastic

collision in which the two gliders, instead of bounching off each other, stick together so that
they move off with identical final velocities. Replace the bumpers with the wax and needle.
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REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 9: CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Table 9.1
L1 =................ L2 =................
m1 (g) m2 (g) t1i (s) t2i (s) t1f (s) t2f (s)
v1i (m/s) v2i (m/s) v1f (m/s) v2f (m/s) pi (kg ∗ m/s) pf (kg ∗ m/s) Eki (J) Ekf (J)
1. For each time that you measured, calculate the corresponding glider velocity (e.g., v1i =
±L1 /t1i where the velocity is positive when the glider moves to the right and negative when
it moves to the left).
2. Use your measured values to calculate pi and pf , the combined momentum of the gliders
before and after the collision. Record your results in the table.
3. Use your measured values to calculate Eki and Ekf the combined kinetic energy of the
gliders before and after the collision. Record your results in the table.
73
Questions
1. Was momentum conserved in each of your collisions? If not, try to explain any discrep-
ancies.
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2. If a glider collides with the end of the air track and rebounds, it will have nearly the same
momentum it had before it collided, but in the opposite direction. Is momentum conserved
in such a collision? Explain.
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3. Suppose the air track was tilted during the experiment. Would momentum be conserved
in the collision? Why or why not?
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4. Was kinetic energy conserved in each of your collisions?
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5. If there were one or more collisions in which kinetic energy was not conserved, where did
it go?
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Chapter 10
ROTATIONAL MOTION
Purpose
To see how the reading on the Rotational Dynamics Apparatus display relates to the angular
velocity of the rotating disk.
Applying a constant force to the rotating disk under a variety of circumstances, in an attempt
to determine how the force on the disk relates to its angular acceleration.
Finally, to determine that if the angular momentum of rotating objects is conserved in a
collision as like their linear momentum.
Introduction
Suppose that our rotating body is at angular position θ1 at time t1 and at angular position
θ2 at time t2 . We define the average angular velocity of the body in the time interval ∆t
from t1 to t2 to be
θ2 − θ1 ∆θ
ωavg = =
t2 − t1 ∆t
in which ∆θ is the angular displacement that occurs during ∆t.
The (instantaneous) angular velocity ω is the limit of the ratio in equation above as ∆t
approaches zero. Thus,
∆θ dθ
ω (lim ∆t → 0) = =
∆t dt
If we know θ(t), we can find the angular velocity ω by differentiation.
The angular velocity ω of a rotating rigid body is either positive or negative, depending on
whether the body is rotating counterclockwise (positive) or clockwise (negative).
77
If the angular velocity of a rotating body is not constant then the body has an angular
acceleration. Let ω2 and ω1 be its angular velocities at times t2 and t1 , respectively. The
average angular acceleration of the rotating body in the interval from t1 to t2 is defined as:
ω2 − ω1 ∆ω
αavg = =
t2 − t1 ∆t
in which ∆ω is the change in the angular velocity that occurs during the time interval ∆t.
The (intantaneous) angular acceleration α is the limit of this quantity as ∆t approaches zero.
Thus,
∆ω dω
α (lim ∆t → 0) = =
∆t dt
If the motion of an object undergoing constant acceleration, then the average acceleration
is equal to the instantaneous acceleration.
Angular momentum of a system of particles that form a rigid body that rotates about a
fixed axis with constant angular speed ω, can be written as; L = Iω. I, in that equation is
the rotational inertia about that same axis. The law of conservation of angular momentum
can be written as;
Li = Lf (isolated system)
We can apply this law to a isolated body which rotates around a fixed axis. Suppose that the
initially rigid body somehow redistributes its mass relative to that rotation axis, changing its
rotational inertia about that axis. The law of conservation states that the angular momentum
of the body cannot change. So we write this conservation law as;
Ii ωi = If ωf
Here the subscripts refer to the values of the rotational inertia I and angular speed ω before
and after the redistribution of mass.
In this experiment you will use the Rotational Dynamics Apparatus. The optical readers of
the apparatus count the number of black bars that pass by them in one second. This is the
number that is displayed. R is the reading in bars/second. So you can use this information
to convert the measurement to radians/second.
ω = κR
where κ, is the rotation of the disk in radians for each bar detected by the optical reader.
78
Equipments
Rotational Dynamics Apparatus
Air Pump
Part I: Angular Velocity
Procedure
Figure 10.1:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 10.1. Use either the steel or aluminum disk as
the top disk.
2. Use the bubble level to check that the base of the apparatus is level. If not, adjust the
leveling feet.
3. Flip the switch on the display to UPPER, so the top disk is monitored by the optical
readers.
4. Check that the valve pin for the lower disk is in the storage position, so that the lower
disk rests firmly on the base plate.
5. Give the top disk a gentle spin, so that the digital display reads somewhere 100 and 200
counts/sec. Watch the reading on the digital display for several minutes. Is it constant or
does the reading increase or decrease?
6. Place a narrow piece of tape on the top of the top disk, at some point near the rim.
79
7. Give the disk a gentle spin (again to about 100-200 counts/sec) and record the initial
reading on the digital display (Ri ) in Table 10.1.
8. By watching the tape, count the number of revolutions of the disk in some specified time
interval, about one minute. Record the number of revolutions as N and the time interval as
t. At the end of the time interval, record the final reading on the digital display (Rf ).
9. From your data, calculate the total angle θ, in radians, through which the disk rotated
during the time t (θ = 2πN). From this, determine the average angular velocity (ωavg ) of
the disk during the time t (ωavg = θ/t).
10. Calculate the average display reading during the time t, Ravg = (Ri + Rf )/2.
11. Repeat the experiment a few more times.
Part II: Angular Acceleration

Procedure
Figure 10.2:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 10.2. Use the steel disk as the top disk, and use
the small torque pulley.
2. Attach the mass hanger to the end of the thread. When the thread is extended, the mass
should almost reach the floor.
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3. Check that the bottom disk sits firmly on the base plate. Only the top disk should spin.
4. Record the hanging mass (m), the radius of the torque pulley (r), and the mass of the
rotating disk (M) in Table 10.2. Be sure to include the mass of the hanger, 5g, in your value
for m.
To measure the acceleration of the disk under the force applied by the hanging mass:
5. Wind the thread onto the torque pulley, until the hanging mass is almost against the air
pulley.
6. Hold the disk still until the display reads zero.
7. Release the disk. As the disk rotates, record each successive, non-zero reading of the
display (R1 -R8 ) in Table 10.2. Record these values as the hanging mass falls, and again as it
rises back up. Do not record any values that appear after the mass has reached its highest
point and started back down. You should get at least six different values. If you don’t get
that many, raise the apparatus and use a longer piece of thread.
Two of your recorded values will not be useable data. The first is R1 . The second is the
value that was counted as the hanging mass reached its lowest point and then started back
up. Leave these values in your data table, but mark them clearly so you do not use them in
your later calculations.
8. Repeat steps 5-7 at least three times (the more the better).
9. Leaving all other experimental conditions the same, change the value of m, and repeat
steps 5-8.
10. Leaving all other experimental conditions the same, change the value of r (use the large
torque pulley), and repeat steps 5-8.
11. Leaving all other experimental conditions the same, change the value of M. Replace the
steel top disk with the aluminum top disk, and repeat steps 5-8.
Part III: Conservation of Angular Momentum
Procedure
1. Record the mass of all rotating disks (the top and bottom steel disks and the top aluminum
disk) and measure the inner and outer radii of the disks. Record your measurements in Table
10.4.
2. Set up the equipment as in Figure 10.3. Use the steel disk as the top disk.
81
Figure 10.3:
3. Insert one valve pin in the bottom disk valve and the other in the hole in the center of
the top disk. Spin the disks. They should rotate smoothly and independently.
4. Set the display switch so that the display monitors the motion of the upper disk.
5. Hold the bottom disk stationary and give the top disk a spin, so that the display reads
approximately 300-400 counts/s. Wait several seconds, then record the display reading for
the top disk as Rtop in Table 10.5. Immediately after recording the reading, pull the valve
pin from the top disk so that the top disk falls onto the bottom disk. Wait a full two seconds,
then record the reading, on the display as Rf inal in the data table. (The initial reading for
the bottom disk, Rbot , is zero, since it was held stationary.)
6. Repeat the experiment several times. Try different initial angular velocities for the top
disk. Also try some runs in which Rbot is not zero. Experiment with both disks spinning
initially in the same direction, and also with both disks spinning initially in opposite direc-
tions. (When both disks are spinning initially, you will need to flip the display switch to
measure both Rtop and Rbot , before removing the drop pin. Each time you flip the switch
or pull the pin, be sure to wait a full two seconds before recording the new display reading.
Also be sure to record the direction in which each disk spins, cw or ccw.)
7. Exchange the top steel disk for the aluminum disk, and repeat the experiment. Try a
variety of initial angular velocities.
82
REPORT SHEET
EXPERIMENT 10: ROTATIONAL MOTION
Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:

Part I: Angular Velocity
Table 10.1
Ri Rf N t θ ωavg Ravg κ
1. Using your calculated values, determine a constant κ, that relates the average display
reading to the average angular velocity (κRavg = ωavg ).
2. How accurate does your measured value of κ seem to be?
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3. Determine the number N of black bars on the circumference of the disk (count them or
determine the number per centimeter and multiply by the circumference of the disk or use
some other method).
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83
4. Divide 2π by N to determine κ. Convince yourself of this by comparing the units of the
relevant variables: R (bars/second), ω (radians/second), N (bars), 2π (radians). Notice that
(2π/N)R = ω gives the proper units.
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5. Compare your value of κ from step 2 with that from step 4. Are they the same? If
not, which value do you have more confidence in? If necessary, experiment some more to
determine a value of κ that you trust.
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84
Part II: Angular Acceleration
The display shows you the number of bars that pass by every second. However, there is
a dead time of one second between each counting interval, so the time between successive
displayed values is 2.00 seconds. Therefore, if you convert all your display readings into
angular velocities, you can easily calculate the average angular acceleration within each time
interval. For example; α3 = (ω3 − ω2 )/(t3 − t2 ) where t3 − t2 = 2.00 seconds, and ω is
determined using the conversion factor that you measured before (e.g., ω3 = κR3 ).
Table 10.2
m = 10g, r = 1.27cm, M = 1600g
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8
α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 αavg
m = 20g, r = 1.27cm, M = 1600g
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8
m = 10g, r = 2.54cm, M = 1600g
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8
m = 10g, r = 1.27cm, M = 600g
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8
85
For each trial of the experiment that you performed:
1. Calculate the angular velocity within each counting interval.
2. Calculate the average angular acceleration within each valid timing interval.
For each set of trials in which the experimental conditions were the same:
3. Determine the average of your measured values of α. Record this value as α in Table
10.3.
For each value of α that you determine:
4. Calculate and record the total moment of inertia (I) of the accelerated disk(s).
5. Calculate and record Iα.
6. Calculate the applied torque (τ ) and record this value in Table 10.3.
7. Calculate the percentage difference between τ and Iα.
Table 10.3
α I Iα τ %diff
86
Questions
1. Is it reasonable to assume that your measured values of α are the same as the instantaneous
angular acceleration within each counting interval? Explain your answer. (Hint: Is the
angular acceleration constant?)
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2. Within the limits of accuracy of your measurements, did τ = Iα for all your experimental
run? Discuss any discrepancies.
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87
Part III: Conservation of Angular Momentum
Table 10.4
Mass, M Inner Radius Outer Radius Moment of Inertia

Bottom steel disk 1600g
Top steel disk 1600g
Top aluminum disk 600g
1. Using the data you collected in Table 10.4, calculate I, the moment of inertia of each
1 2 2
rotating disk, I = M(rinner + router ). Record your results in the table.
2
Table 10.5
Itop Ibot Rtop Rbot Rf inal ωtop ωbot ωf inal Ltop Lbot Lf inal
For each run of the experiment that you performed:
2. Calculate the initial angular velocity of each disk (wtop and wbot ).
3. Multiply the calculated angular velocity of each disk by its moment of inertia to determine
the initial angular momentum of each disk, Ltop = Itop ωtop , etc.
4. Calculate the total final angular momentum of the disks, Lf inal = (Itop + Ibot )ωf inal .
5. Calculate the percent difference between the combined initial angular momentums and
the combined final angular momentums.
88
Questions
1. Within the limits of your experimental error, was angular momentum conserved in your
collisions. Discuss any discrepancies.
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2. Discuss the role of friction in the experiment. How might you change the apparatus,
and/or the design of the experiment, to compensate for frictional effects?
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3. Suppose you performed the experiment without the valve pin in the bottom disk valve,
so that the bottom disk was sitting firmly on the base plate. The initial angular momen-
tum would be that of the top disk. The final angular momentum would be zero. Would
momentum be conserved? Explain your answer.
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89

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IZMIR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

2 INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS AVERAGE VELOCITY 27

4 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW 41

5 THE FORCE OF GRAVITY 47

6 MEASURING g, THE ACCELERATION CAUSED BY GRAVITY 55

8 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY 63

11 FARADAY ICE PAIL 91

13 EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 109

14 BASIC ELECTRICITY 119

15 CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS 141

16 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE 149

17 ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 159

2. Eating and drinking in any laboratory is prohibited.

3. Before starting an experiment;

• Check that all apparatus is present and has no obvious defect.

• Report to the person in charge any damaged or missing equipment.

4. During an experiment the student should report to the person in charge;

• any equipment that does not seem to be functioning properly.

• any accidents and breakages that occur.

• NEVER borrow equipment from another bench without permission.

5. Before leaving the laboratory,

• Disconnect electrical circuits and collect the leads in a neat bundle.

• Ensure that the apparatus has been left tidily.

The significance of S can be seen by consideration of the distribution of a large collection

Almost all experiments require calculations to be performed which involve manipulation of

2.1 A General Approach

Maximum value of λ is obtained with maximum value of d and maximum value of θ.

λmax = (1 + 0.05)x10−6xsin(30 + 0.5) = 0.53µm

λmin = (1 − 0.05)x10−6 xsin(30 − 0.5) = 0.47µm

Mass of object = (2.00 ± 0.01)kg

Maximum value of ρ obtained using maximum mass and minimum volume

Minimum value of ρ is obtained using minimum mass and maximum volume

2.2 Additions and Subtractions

Length of spring = 302 ± 1mm

New length of spring = 488 ± 1mm

Change in length = 186 ± 2mm

Sums of lengths = 790 ± 2mm.

2.3 Multiplications and Divisions

Fractional uncertainty in x=a(fractional uncertainty in k)+ b(fractional uncertainty in t)

5. THE SI SYSTEM OF UNITS

5.1 Classes of SI Units

There are three classes of SI units. These are:

5.2 Definition of Base Units

metre (unit of length, symbol m)

kilogram (unit of mass, symbol kg)

second (unit of time, symbol s)

ampere (unit of electric current symbol A)

Kelvin (unit of thermodynamic temperature, symbol K)

(Celsius temperature, symbol T, is defined by the expression T = K − 273.15)

candela (unit of luminous intensity, symbol cd)

mole (unit of amount of substance, symbol mol)

5.3 Writing of Symbols

5.4 Derived Units, Special Names

PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL IN TERMS OF BASE UNITS

5.5 Recommendations for Use of Units

5.6 Number Notation

A space should be left between the number and the unit.

FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL

5.8 Units which are not within the SI