HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT 6 – NERVOUS SYSTEM

Dr. Nasser A. Jawadil

 NERVOUS SYSTEM

Major regulatory system of the body.

The body’s command system.

Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, and Sensory receptors.

 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) Division Motor (Efferent) Division

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous

System System

Two MAJOR divisions of the Nervous System are the Central Nervous System
and the Peripheral Nervous System
CNS – Brain and Spinal Cord
PNS – Nerves and Ganglia
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) Division Motor (Efferent) Division

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous

System System

The Enteric Nervous System is a unique subdivision of the PNS controlling the
digestive tract.
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) Division Motor (Efferent) Division

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous

System System

Sensory Division conducts action

potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS
(Sensory Neurons)
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) Division Motor (Efferent) Division

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous

System System

Motor Division conducts action

potentials from CNS to effector organs, such as muscles and glands.
(Motor Neurons)
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) Division Motor (Efferent) Division

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous

System System

Somatic Nervous System transmits action potentials from the CNS to skeletal
muscles.
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Enteric Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) Division Motor (Efferent) Division

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous Parasympathetic Nervous

System System

Autonomic Nervous System transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac
muscles, smooth muscles, and glands.
 CELLS
OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
TWO TYPES:

Neurons

Glial Cells
 NEURONS
Receive stimuli,
conduct action potentials, and
transmit signals to other neurons or effector organs.

There are three parts to a neuron:

a cell body and two types of processes, called dendrites and axons.
Each neuron cell body contains a
single nucleus.
Dendrites (“trees”) are short, often
highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that
are tapered from their bases at the
neuron cell body to their tips.

Most dendrites are extensions of

the neuron cell body
 Dendrites

receive information
from other neurons or from sensory receptors
and transmit the information toward the
neuron cell body.
Each neuron has an AXON , a single long
cell process extending
from the neuron cell body.

The area where the axon leaves the neuron cell

body is called the axon hillock.

The Axon Hillock is the region
where the cell membrane
generates nerve impulses.
Axons can be surrounded by a highly specialized
insulating layer of cells called the

myelin sheath
 GLIAL CELLS

Neuroglia (“nerve glue”)

Primarily the supportive cells of the CNS and PNS

Do NOT conduct action potentials

Far more numerous than neurons (20 times)

Most neuroglia retain the ability to divide, whereas neurons do not.

 GLIOMAS – Most Prevalent brain tumor (80%)
Astrocytoma – The most common glioma, accounting for about half of all primary brain and
spinal cord tumors
 Astrocytes
serve as the
major supporting cells
in the CNS.

Astrocytes participate with the blood vessel

endothelium to form a permeability barrier, called
the
blood-brain barrier,
between the blood and the CNS.

5 Types of Glial Cells

 Ependymal cells
line the fluid-filled cavities (ventricles and canals) within the CNS.

Some ependymal cells produce cerebrospinal fluid, and others, with cilia on
the surface, help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS.

5 Types of Glial Cells

 Microglia
act as immune cells of the CNS.

They help protect the brain by removing

bacteria and cell debris.

5 Types of Glial Cells

 Oligodendrocytes
in the CNS and
Schwann cells
in the PNS
provide an insulating material
that surrounds axons

5 Types of Glial Cells

MYELIN SHEATH
Myelin Sheath
Specialized layers that wrap
around the axons of some
neurons.

These myelin sheaths are formed

by the cell processes of
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS.
Myelin Sheath
Gaps in the myelin sheath, called
Nodes of Ranvier, occur about
every millimeter between the
oligodendrocyte segments or
between individual Schwann
cells.

Ion movement can occur at the

nodes of Ranvier.
Myelin Sheath

Myelination of an axon
increases the speed
and efficiency of action
potential generation along
the axon.
Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons
Continuous Conduction in
an Unmyelinated Axon
 Saltatory Conduction:
Action Potential Conduction in a Myelinated Axon
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
EXCITATORY INHIBITORY EITHER

Serotonin

Gamma Aminobutyric Acid

Acetylcholine
Norepinephrine (GABA)
Dopamine
Glycine

Endorphins
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

GRAY MATTER

WHITE MATTER
 Gray Matter
Consists of groups of neuron cell
bodies and their dendrites, where there is very little myelin.

In the CNS, gray matter on the surface of the brain is called the cortex,
and clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain are
called nuclei.

In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell bodies is called

a ganglion
 White Matter
White matter consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin
sheaths, which are whitish in color.

White matter of the CNS forms nerve tracts, or conduction pathways,

which propagate action potentials from one area of the CNS to another.

In the PNS,
bundles of axons and associated connective tissue form nerves.
SPINAL CORD
The spinal cord extends from
the foramen magnum at the
base of the skull to the
second lumbar vertebra.
 Spinal nerves
communicate between the
spinal cord and the body.
The inferior end of the spinal cord and
the spinal nerves exiting there
resemble a horse’s tail and are
collectively called the

cauda equina
The white matter consists of
myelinated axons.

The gray matter is mainly a

collection of neuron cell
bodies.
 The
central canal
is a fluid-filled space in the center of the cord.
 Each column of the spinal cord
contains ascending and descending
tracts, or pathways.

Ascending tracts
consist of axons that conduct action
potentials toward the brain,
(SENSORY)
and

descending tracts
consist of axons that conduct action
potentials away from the brain.
(MOTOR)
 GANGLION – A collection of neuronal bodies outside the CNS.

Dorsal Root Ganglion – Collection of cell bodies of the afferent sensory fibers

There are NO Ventral Root Ganglion

SPINAL NERVES
 SPINAL NERVES

NERVE – A collection of nerve fibers that convey impulses between CNS and the
body.

The spinal nerves arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots
and ventral roots.
Spinal nerves are categorized by the region of the vertebral column from
which they emerge:

cervical (C),
thoracic (T),
lumbar (L),
sacral (S), and
coccygeal (Co).
The 31 pairs of spinal nerves are
therefore

C1 through C8,
T1 through T12,
L1 through L5,
S1 through S5, and Coccygeal
Most of the spinal nerves are organized into
three major PLEXUSES where neurons of
several spinal nerves come together and
intermingle.

The three major plexuses are

the CERVICAL plexus,
the BRACHIAL plexus, and
the LUMBOSACRAL plexus

PLEXUS – A bundle of intersecting nerves.

 CERVICAL PLEXUS

Originates from Spinal Nerves C1 to C4

Innervate muscles attached to the hyoid bone,

the skin of the neck, , and posterior portion of
the head.

PHREIC NERVE innervates the diaphgragm

 BRACHIAL PLEXUS

Originates from C5 to T1

Five Major Nerves emerge from the brachial plexus to supply the upper limb and shoulder.
BRACHIAL PLEXUS

Axillary Nerve
Musculocutaneous Nerve
Radial Nerve
Median Nerve
Ulnar Nerve
 AXILLARY NERVE

Motor innervation to the:

Deltoid
Triceps long head
Teres Minor

Sensory innervation to the:

Shoulder joint
Skin around the deltoid area
 Sensory: Lateral half of the forearm
MUSCULOCUTANEOUS NERVE
Motor: Biceps brachii, brachialis, coracobrachialis
 Sensory: Lateral Posterior portion of the arm, forearm, and
hand

RADIAL NERVE Motor: Extensor muscles of the hands

 Sensory: Medial portion of the forearm and arm
Lateral portion of the hand

MEDIAN NERVE Motor: Anterior muscles in the forearm

BRACHIAL PLEXUS

Axillary Nerve
Musculocutaneous Nerve
Radial Nerve
Median Nerve
Ulnar Nerve
LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS

Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4.

Four major nerves exit the plexus to supply the lower

limb.

Obturator Nerve
Tibial Nerve
Common Fibular Nerve
Femoral Nerve
 OBTURATOR NERVE

Innervates the muscles of the medial thigh and

the skin over the same region.
 FEMORAL NERVE

Innervates the anterior thigh muscles and the skin over

the anterior thigh and medial side of the leg.
FEMORAL NERVE
 TIBIAL NERVE

Innervates the posterior thigh muscles,

the anterior and posterior leg muscles,
and most of the intrinsic foot muscles.

It also innervates the skin over the sole of the foot.

LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS

The tibial and common fibular nerves are bound together

within a connective tissue sheath and is called the
SCIATIC NERVE.
 SCIATIC NERVE INJURY

COMMON FIBULAR NERVE

Foot drop (inability to dorsiflex foot)
Numbness on dorsum of the foot

TIBIAL NERVE
Dorsiflexion of the foot
Eversion with loss of sensation on plantar surface of the
foot
BRAIN
The major regions of the brain are the brainstem, the cerebellum,
the diencephalon, and the cerebrum
BRAINSTEM
BRAINSTEM
 BRAINSTEM

The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain.

It consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain.

The brainstem contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions, such as
the control of heart rate, blood pressure and breathing.
 BRAINSTEM

Damage to small areas of the brainstem can cause death, whereas

damage to relatively large areas of the cerebrum or cerebellum often do not.
 BRAINSTEM

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Most inferior portion and is

continuous with the spinal cord.
 BRAINSTEM

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

Regulates:

Heart Rate
Breathing
Blood Vessel Diameter
Swallowing
Vomiting
Coughing
Sneezing
DEXTROMETHORPHAN
 BRAINSTEM

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

A large tumor or hematoma, can cause

increased pressure within the skull.

This pressure can force the medulla oblongata

downward toward the foramen magnum.

The displacement can

compress the medulla oblongata and lead to
death.
 BRAINSTEM

PONS

Serves to bridge between the cerebrum and

cerebellum.

Breathing
Swallowing
Balance
Chewing
Salivation
 BRAINSTEM
MIDBRAIN

Smallest region of the brainstem

The two inferior colliculi are major relay centers

for the auditory nerve pathways in the CNS.

The two superior colliculi are involved in visual

reflexes and receive touch and auditory input.

Turning the head toward a tap on the shoulder,

a sudden loud noise, or a bright flash of light is a
reflex controlled in the superior colliculi.
BRAINSTEM

LOCKED-IN SYNDROME

Brainstem stroke

A rare neurological disorder characterized by complete paralysis of

voluntary muscles, except for those that control the eyes.
 MIKE The Headless Chicken

Lived for 18 months

Jugular vein was missed, and a blood clot

prevented blood loss.

Brainstem is intact
 BRAINSTEM
RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYNDROME
Found in the brainstem, plays an important role in arousing and
maintaining consciousness and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle.

Stimuli such as a ringing alarm clock, sudden bright lights, smelling salts, or cold
water splashed on the face can arouse consciousness.

Conversely, removal of visual or auditory stimuli may lead to drowsiness or sleep.

General anesthetics suppress the reticular activating system.

Damage to cells of the reticular formation can cause coma.

CEREBELLUM
 CEREBELLUM
CEREBELLAR INJURY
Loss of coordination of motor movement
Inability to judge distance and when to stop (DYSMETRIA)
Inability to perform rapid alternating movements (DYSDIADOCHOKINESIA)
Movement Tremors
Staggering, wide based walking (ATAXIC GAIT)
Tendency toward falling.

One effect of alcohol is to inhibit cerebellar function.

FINGER TO NOSE TEST – A test for dysmetria
ATAXIC GAIT
DIENCEPHALON
 DIENCEPHALON
Components:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
Epithalamus
 DIENCEPHALON
Components:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
Epithalamus
 DIENCEPHALON
Components:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
Epithalamus
 DIENCEPHALON
Components:
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
Epithalamus
 DIENCEPHALON
Components:
Thalamus – relay sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus – body temperature, endocrine system, autonomic nervous

system.

Subthalamus – regulates skeletal muscle movements.

Epithalamus – involved in the maintenance of circadian rhythms

 DIENCEPHALON

EPITHALAMUS

PINEAL GLAND - play a role in controlling some long-term cycles that are influenced
by the light-dark cycle.
Melatonin is synthesized in this gland.
CEREBRUM
 GYRI

Folds in the cerebrum to increase the surface area of the

cortex
 SULCI

Intervening grooves
 LONGITUDINAL FISSURE

Separates the right and left hemispheres

 CENTRAL SULCUS

Separates the frontal and parietal lobes

 CENTRAL SULCUS

Separates the frontal and parietal lobes

 LATERAL FISSURE

Separates the temporal lobe from the rest of the cerebrum

Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into lobes, which are
named for the skull bones overlying them.
 FRONTAL LOBE

Control of voluntary motor functions, mood, aggression, olfaction, motivation.

The Curious Case of PHINEAS GAGE
HOMUNCULUS
 PARIETAL LOBE

Sensory information, touch, pain, temperature, balance

HOMUNCULUS
In most people, the speech area is in the left cerebral cortex. Two major cortical areas
are involved in speech:

1. The sensory speech area (WERNICKE AREA), located in the parietal lobe, functions in
understanding and formulating coherent speech.

2. The motor speech area (BROCA AREA), located in the frontal lobe, controls the
movement necessary for speech.
 Damage to these parts of the brain or to associated brain regions may result in
APHASIA, absent or defective speech or language comprehension.

The most common cause is a stroke. It is estimated that 25–40% of stroke survivors
exhibit aphasia.
 CENTRAL SULCUS

Separates the frontal and parietal lobes

 OCCIPITAL LOBE

Visual input.
Cortical blindness is partial or total blindness in a normal-appearing eye due to
damage to the occipital lobe.
 TEMPORAL LOBE

Auditory, olfaction, and memory.

END
CIRCLE OF WILLIS
 CIRCLE OF WILLIS

It is an anatomical structure that provides an

anastomotic connection between the anterior and
posterior circulations, providing collateral flow to
affected brain regions in the event of arterial
incompetency.
 CIRCLE OF WILLIS
The arteries involved are the:
(1) Anterior Cerebral Artery
(2) Anterior Communicating Artery
(3) Internal Carotid Artery
(4) Posterior Cerebral Artery
(5) Posterior Communicating Artery.

The middle cerebral arteries supplying the brain, are not

considered part of the Circle of Willis
LIMBIC SYSTEM
 LIMBIC SYSTEM
The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical
regions and nuclei of the cerebrum and the
diencephalon are grouped together under
the title limbic (“a boundary”) system

The limbic system influences long-term

declarative memory, emotions, visceral
responses to emotions, motivation, and mood.

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

A major source of sensory input to the limbic

system is the olfactory nerves.

The limbic system responds to olfactory

stimulation by initiating responses necessary
for survival, such as hunger and thirst.

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

The limbic system is connected to, and

functionally associated with, the
hypothalamus.

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

Stimulation of the Lateral Hypothalamic Nuclei

causes thirst and drink.

It also increases the general level activity,

sometimes leading to overt rage and fighting

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

Stimulation of the Ventromedial Nuclei causes

a sense of satiety, decreased eating, and
tranquility.

Its effects are opposite to those caused by

Lateral Hypothalamic Nuclei

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

Stimulation of the Paraventricular Nuclei leads

to fear and punishment reactions

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 LIMBIC SYSTEM

Stimulation of the Anterior and Posterior

Hypothalamic Nuclei stimulates the sexual
drive.

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 Reward and Punishment
Function of the
LIMBIC SYSTEM

Reward Centers of the Limbic System are the

Lateral and Ventromedial Nuclei

Weak stimuli in Lateral Nuclei –

Sense of Rewards

Strong stimuli in Lateral Nuclei –

Sense of Rage

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
 Reward and Punishment
Function of the
LIMBIC SYSTEM

It is particularly interesting
that stimulation in the punishment centers can
frequently inhibit the reward and pleasure
centers completely, demonstrating that
punishment and fear can take
precedence over pleasure and reward.

Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
Parker, S, The Concise Human Body Book, Penguin Random House, 2019
CRANIAL NERVES
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves connect to the brain directly, not via the spinal cord.

They are either a motor nerve, a sensory nerve, or a mixed nerve (both motor and
sensory).

Most of the cranial nerves are named according to the body parts they serve, such as the
optic nerves (eyes).

By convention, the nerves are also identified by Roman numerals,

CRANIAL NERVE I

Olfactory Nerve

Smell

I
 CRANIAL NERVE II

Optic Nerve

“Visual Acuity”
measure of the ability of the eye to distinguish
shapes and the details of objects at a given
distance

II
 CRANIAL NERVE III

Oculomotor Nerve

Opening of eyelids, eye movement:

Superior rectus, Medial rectus, Inferior rectus, III
and inferior oblique eye muscles
IV
VI
 CRANIAL NERVE IV

Trochlear Nerve

Eye movement
Superior Oblique eye muscle III

IV
VI
 CRANIAL NERVE V

Trigeminal Nerve

Facial Sensation and chewing movements

Three branches:
Ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular Nerves

V
 CRANIAL NERVE VI

Abducens Nerve

Eye movement
Lateral Rectus eye muscle III

IV
VI
 CRANIAL NERVE VII

Facial Nerve

Facial muscle movement (except chewing muscles)

and eyelid closing

VII
 CRANIAL NERVE VIII

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (Auditory Nerve)

Hearing and balance

VIII
 CRANIAL NERVE IX

Glossopharyngeal Nerve

Taste on the posterior third of the tongue

IX
 CRANIAL NERVE X

Vagus Nerve

Swallowing (gag reflex), vasomotor activity, coughing,

sneezing, vomiting, digestion, heart rate, and
respiratory rate.
It is also the longest cranial nerve.

X
 CRANIAL NERVE XI

Accessory Nerve

Supplies the sternocleidomastoid muscle and the

trapezius

XI
CRANIAL NERVE XII

Hypoglossal Nerve

Tongue movement

XII
END