Overview

1. Why Amplifiers?
2. Amplifier Characteristics
EECE488: Analog CMOS Integrated Circuit Design 3. Amplifier Trade-offs
4. Single-stage Amplifiers
3. Single-Stage Amplifiers
5. Common Source Amplifiers
1. Resistive Load
Shahriar Mirabbasi
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 2. Diode-connected Load
University of British Columbia 3. Current Source Load
shahriar@ece.ubc.ca
4. Triode Load
5. Source Degeneration
Technical contributions of Pedram Lajevardi in revising the course notes are greatly acknowledged.
SM 1 SM 2
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Overview Reading Assignments

6. Common-Drain (Source-Follower) Amplifiers • Reading:

Chapter 3 of Razavi’s book
1. Resistive Load
2. Current Source Load
• In this set of slides we will study low-frequency small-signal behavior of
3. Voltage Division in Source Followers single-stage CMOS amplifiers. Although, we assume long-channel
MOS models (not a good assumption for deep submicron technologies)
the techniques discussed here help us to develop basic circuit intuition
and to better understand and predict the behavior of circuits.
7. Common-Gate Amplifiers

6. Cascode Amplifiers
Most of the figures in these lecture notes are © Design of Analog
CMOS Integrated Circuits, McGraw-Hill, 2001.

SM 3 SM 4
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Why Amplifiers? Amplifier Characteristics - 1
• Amplifiers are essential building blocks of both analog and digital • Ideally we would like that the output of an amplifier be a linear
systems. function of the input, i.e., the input times a constant gain:

y
• Amplifiers are needed for variety of reasons including:
y = α1 x
– To amplify a weak analog signal for further processing x

– To reduce the effects of noise of the next stage

• In real world the input-output characteristics is typically a nonlinear
– To provide a proper logical levels (in digital circuits) function:

• Amplifiers also play a crucial role in feedback systems

• We first look at the low-frequency performance of amplifiers. Therefore,

all capacitors in the small-signal model are ignored!

SM 5 SM 6
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Amplifier Characteristics - 2 Amplifier Characteristics - 3

• It is more convenient to use a linear approximation of a nonlinear • A well-behaved nonlinear function in the vicinity of a given point can be
function. approximated by its corresponding Taylor series:
• Use the tangent line to the curve at the given (operating) point. f ' ' ( x0 ) f n ( x0 )
y ≈ f ( x0 ) + f ' ( x0 ) ⋅ ( x − x0 ) + ⋅ ( x − x0 ) 2 + L + ⋅ ( x − x0 ) n
y 2! n!

f n ( x0 )
• Let α n = to get:
n!
y ≈ α 0 + α 1 ( x − x0 ) + α 2 ( x − x0 ) 2 + L + α n ( x − x0 ) n

• If x-x0=∆x is small, we can ignore the higher-order terms (hence the

x name small-signal analysis) to get:
• The larger the signal changes about the operating point, the worse the y ≈ α 0 + α 1 ( x − x0 )
approximation of the curve by its tangent line.
• α0 is referred to as the operating (bias) point and α1 is the small-signal
gain.
• This is why small-signal analysis is so popular! ∆y = y − f ( x0 ) = y − α 0 ≈ α 1 ∆x

SM 7 SM 8
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Amplifier Trade-offs Single-Stage Amplifiers
• In practice, when designing an amplifier, we need to optimize for some • We will examine the following types of amplifiers:
performance parameters. Typically, these parameters trade 1. Common Source
performance with each other, therefore, we need to choose an 2. Common Drain (Source Follower )
acceptable compromise.
3. Common Gate
4. Cascode and Folded Cascode

• Each of these amplifiers have some advantages and some

disadvantages. Often, designers have to utilize a cascade combination
of these amplifiers to meet the design requirements.

SM 9 SM 10
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Common Source Basics - 1 Common Source Basics - 2

• In common-source amplifiers, the input is (somehow!) connected to the In a simple common source amplifier:
gate and the output is (somehow!) taken from the drain.

• We can divide common source amplifiers into two groups:

1. Without source degeneration (no body
effect for the main transistor):
• gate voltage variations times gm gives the drain current
variations,
• drain current variations times the load gives the output voltage
2. With source degeneration (have to take variations.
body effect into account for the main • Therefore, one can expect the small-signal gain to be:
transistor):
Av = g m ⋅ RD
SM 11 SM 12
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Common Source Basics - 3 Resistive Load - 1
• Different types of loads can be used in an amplifier: • Let’s use a resistor as the load.
1. Resistive Load • The region of operation of M1 depends on its size and the values of Vin
2. Diode-connected Load and R.

3. Current Source Load • We are interested in the small-signal gain and the headroom (which
determines the maximum voltage swing).
4. Triode Load
• We will calculate the gain using two different methods
1. Small-signal model
• The following parameters of amplifiers are very important:
1. Small-signal gain 2. Large-signal analysis

2. Voltage swing

SM 13 SM 14
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Resistive Load - 2 Resistive Load - 3

Gain – Method 1: Small-Signal Model Gain – Method 2: Large-Signal Analysis
• If VIN<VTH, M1 is off, and VOUT= VDD = VDS.
VOUT = VDD − RD ⋅ iD = VDD
∂VOUT
Av = =0
∂VIN
• This is assuming that the transistor is in saturation, and channel length • As VIN becomes slightly larger than VTH, M1 turns on and goes into
modulation is ignored. saturation (VDS≈ VDD > VGS- VTH ≈0).
• The current through RD: 1 W
V = V − R ⋅ i = V − R ⋅ ⋅ µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅ (V − V ) 2

i = g ⋅v
OUT dd D D dd D n ox IN TH
2 L
D m IN
∂V W
• Output Voltage: A = = − R ⋅ µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅ (V − V ) = − R ⋅ g
OUT

∂V
v D n ox IN TH D m
L
v OUT
= −i ⋅ R = − g ⋅ v ⋅ R
D D m IN D
IN

• As VIN increases, VDS decreases, and M1 goes into triode when

• Small-signal Gain: VIN- VTH = VOUT. We can find the value of VIN that makes M1 switch
v
A = v
OUT
= −g ⋅ R m D
its region of operation.
v 1 W
IN
V = V − R ⋅ i = V − R ⋅ ⋅ µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅ (V − V ) = (V − V )
OUT dd D D dd D n ox IN TH
2
IN TH
2 L
SM 15 SM 16
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Resistive Load - 4 Resistive Load - 5
Gain – Method 2: Large-Signal Analysis (Continued) Example: Sketch the drain current and gm of M1 as a function of VIN.
• As VIN increases, VDS decreases, and M1 goes into triode.
W ⎡ V2 ⎤
VOUT = VDD − RD ⋅ iD = VDD − RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ ⎢(VIN − VTH ) ⋅VOUT − OUT ⎥
L ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
∂VOUT W ⎡ ∂V ∂V ⎤
= − RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ ⎢(VIN − VTH ) ⋅ OUT + VOUT − VOUT ⋅ OUT ⎥
∂VIN L ⎢⎣ ∂VIN ∂VIN ⎥⎦
• We can find Av from above. It will depend on both VIN and VOUT.
• If VIN increases further, M1 goes into deep triode if VOUT<< 2(VIN- VTH).

W
VOUT = VDD − RD ⋅ iD = VDD − RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) ⋅ VOUT
L
VDD VDD RON
• gm depends on VIN, so if VIN changes by a large amount the small-
VOUT = = = VDD ⋅ signal approximation will not be valid anymore.
ON + RD
W 1 R
1 + RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) 1 + RD ⋅
L RON • In order to have a linear amplifier, we don’t want gain to depend on
parameters like gm which depend on the input signal.

SM 17 SM 18
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Resistive Load - 6 Resistive Load - 7

• Gain of common-source amplifier: • Now let’s consider the simple common-source circuit with channel
length modulation taken into account.
W V W VRD − 2 ⋅ VRD
Av = − g m ⋅ RD = − µ nCox (VIN − VTH ) ⋅ RD = − 2 µ nCox ⋅ =
L ID L ID Veff

• To increase the gain: • Channel length modulation becomes more important as RD increases
(in the next slide we will see why!).
1. Increase gm by increasing W or VIN (DC portion or bias). Either way,
ID increases (more power) and VRD increases, which limits the
voltage swing. • Again, we will calculate the gain in two different methods
2. Increase RD and keep ID constant (gm and power remain constant). 1. Small-signal Model
But, VRD increases which limits the voltage swing. 2. Large Signal Analysis
3. Increase RD and reduce ID so VRD remains constant.
¾ If ID is reduced by decreasing W, the gain will not change.
¾ If ID is reduced by decreasing VIN (bias), the gain will increase.
Since RD is increased, the bandwidth becomes smaller (why?).
• Notice the trade-offs between gain, bandwidth, and voltage swings.
SM 19 SM 20
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Resistive Load - 8 Resistive Load - 9
Gain – Method 1: Small-Signal Model Gain – Method 2: Large-Signal Analysis

• As VIN becomes slightly larger than VTH, M1 turns on and goes into
saturation (VDS≈ VDD > VGS- VTH ≈0).

⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) 2 ⋅ (1 + λ ⋅ VOUT )

1 W
• This is assuming that the transistor is in saturation. VOUT = VDD − RD ⋅ I D = VDD − RD ⋅
2 L
• The current through RD: ∂VOUT ⎡ ∂V ⎤
= − RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) ⋅ ⎢(1 + λ ⋅ VOUT ) + ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) ⋅ λ ⋅ OUT ⎥
W 1
i = g ⋅v
D m IN
∂VIN L ⎣ 2 ∂VIN ⎦

− RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) ⋅ (1 + λ ⋅ VOUT )

W
• Output Voltage: − RD ⋅ g m − RD ⋅ g m
v = −i ⋅ (R r ) = − g ⋅ v ⋅ (R r ) Av = L = =
+ ⋅ ⋅ λ
OUT D D o m IN D o
1 W 2 1 R I 1
1 + ⋅ RD ⋅ µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⋅ (VIN − VTH ) ⋅ λ D D 1 + RD ⋅
2 L ro
• Small-signal Gain:
A = v
vOUT
= − g ⋅ (R r )m D o
=
− ro ⋅ RD ⋅ g m
ro + RD
(
= − g m ⋅ RD ro )
v IN

SM 21 SM 22
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Resistive Load - 10 Diode Connected Load - 1

Example: • Often, it is difficult to fabricate tightly controlled or reasonable size
• Assuming M1 is biased in active region, what is the resistors on chip. So, it is desirable to replace the load resistor with a
MOS device.
small-signal gain of the following circuit?
• Recall the diode connected devices:
• I1 is a current source and ideally has an infinite impedance.
Body Effect RX (when λ≠0) RX (when λ=0)
= − g ⋅ (∞ r ) = − g ⋅ r
v
A =
v
OUT
m o m o
v 1 1
IN
NO R =r R =
• This is the maximum gain of this amplifier (why?), and is known as the
X o X
g
m
g m

intrinsic gain.

• How can VIN change if I1 is constant?

1 1
1 W YES R =r R =
I = ⋅ µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅ (V − V ) ⋅ (1 + λ ⋅ V ) g +g g +g
2 X o X

D n ox IN TH OUT m mb
2 L m mb

• Here we have to take channel-length modulation into account. As VIN

changes, VOUT also changes to keep I1 constant.

SM 23 SM 24
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Diode Connected Load - 2 Diode Connected Load - 3
• Now consider the common-source amplifier with two types of diode PMOS Diode Connected Load:
connected loads: • Note that this is a common source configuration
1. PMOS diode connected load: with M2 being the load. We have:
(No body effect) ⎛ 1 ⎞
= − g ⋅ (R r ) = − g ⋅ ⎜⎜
v
A = v
OUT
m1 X o1
r r ⎟⎟
m1 o2 o1
v IN ⎝g ⎠ m2

2. NMOS diode connected load: • Ignoring the channel length modulation (ro1=ro2=∞), we can write:
(Body effect has to be taken into account)
⎛W ⎞ ⎛W ⎞
2µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ I D1 µn ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ g ⎝ L ⎠1 ⎝ L ⎠1
Av = − g m1 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ∞ ∞ ⎟⎟ = − m1 = − =−
⎝ g m2 ⎠ g m2 ⎛W ⎞ ⎛W ⎞
2µ p ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ I D 2 µ ⋅
p ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠2 ⎝ L ⎠2
2 ⋅ I D1
g V −V VSG 2 − VTH 2
Av = − m1 = − GS1 TH 1 = −
g m2 2 ⋅ I D2 VGS1 − VTH 1
VSG 2 − VTH 2

SM 25 SM 26
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Diode Connected Load - 4 Diode Connected Load - 5

NMOS Diode Connected Load: • For a diode connected load we observe that (to the first order
approximation):
• Again, note that this is a common source configuration 1. The amplifier gain is not a function of the bias current. So,
with M2 being the load. We have: the change in the input and output levels does not affect the
⎛ ⎞ gain, and the amplifier becomes more linear.
= − g ⋅ (R r ) = − g ⋅ ⎜⎜
v 1
A = OUT
r r ⎟⎟
+
v m1 X o1 m1 o2 o1
v IN ⎝ g g ⎠m2 mb 2

• Ignoring the channel length modulation (ro1=ro2=∞), we can write: 2. The amplifier gain is not a function of the input signal
(amplifier becomes more linear).
⎛ 1 ⎞ g m1 g m1
Av = − g m1 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ∞ ∞ ⎟⎟ = − =−
⎝ m2
g + g mb 2 ⎠ g m2 + g mb 2 g m 2 ⋅ (1 + η )
3. The amplifier gain is a weak function (square root) of the
⎛W ⎞ transistor sizes. So, we have to change the dimensions by a
⎜ ⎟
1 ⎝ L ⎠1 1 VGS 2 − VTH considerable amount so as to increase the gain.
Av = − =− ⋅
1+η ⎛W ⎞ 1 + η VGS1 − VTH
⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠2

SM 27 SM 28
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Diode Connected Load - 6 Diode Connected Load - 6
4. The gain of the amplifier is reduced when body effect Example:
should be considered. • Find the gain of the following circuit if M1 is biased in saturation and
Is=0.75I1.
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= − g ⋅ (R r r ) = − g ⋅ ⎜⎜
5. We want M1 to be in saturation, and M2 to be on (M2 cannot v
A =
v
OUT
m1 X Is
r ∞r
o1 m1 o2 o1
⎟⎟ = − g ⋅ ⎜⎜
m1
r r ⎟⎟
o2 o1

be in triode (why?)): v IN ⎝g m2 ⎠ ⎝g m2 ⎠

• Ignoring the channel length modulation (ro1=ro2=∞) we get:

6. The voltage swing is constrained by both the required
overdrive voltages and the threshold voltage of the diode ⎛W
2 µ n ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⎜
⎞
⎟ ⋅ I D1 2 ⋅ I D1
connected device. ⎛ 1 ⎞ g m1 ⎝ L ⎠1 VGS1 − VTH 1
Av = − g m1 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ∞ ∞ ⎟⎟ = − =− =−
⎝ m2
g ⎠ g m2 ⎛W ⎞ 2 ⋅ I D2
M 1 : VOUT > VGS1 − VTH 1 = Veff 1 , M 2 : VOUT < VDD − VTH 2 2 µ p ⋅ Cox ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ I D 2 VSG 2 − VTH 2
⎝ ⎠2
L

7. A high amplifier gain leads to a high overdrive voltage for ⎞ ⎛W

⎟µn ⋅ ⎜
⎠1 VSG 2 − VTH 2
⎝ L
the diode connected device which limits the voltage swing. Av = −2 ⋅ = −4 ⋅
⎛W ⎞ VGS1 − VTH 1
µ p ⋅⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠2

SM 29 SM 30
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Diode Connected Load - 7 Current Source Load - 1

Example (Continued): • Note that current source M2 is the load.
•
• We observe for this example that: • Recall that the output impedance of M2 seen from Vout:
v
R = =r X

1. For fixed transistor sizes, using the current source increases the X
i
o2

gain by a factor of 2.
X

= − g ⋅ (R r ) = − g ⋅ (r r )
v
A =
v
OUT
m1 X o1 m1 o2 o1
v
2. For fixed overdrive voltages, using the current source increases IN
1 1 L2
the gain by a factor of 4. • For large gain at given power, we want large ro and ro = ∝ =
λ ⋅ ID 1 W
⋅ W
L L
3. For a given gain, using the current source allows us to make the Increase L and W keeping the aspect ratio constant (so ro increases
diode connected load 4 times smaller.
and ID remains constant). However, this approach increases the
capacitance of the output node.
4. For a given gain, using the current source allows us to make the
overdrive voltage of the diode connected load 4 times smaller. • We want M2 to be in saturation so
This increases the headroom for voltage swing.
VSD 2 = VDD − VOUT > VSG 2 − VTH = Veff 2 → VOUT < VDD − Veff 2

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Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Current Source Load - 2 Triode Load
• We also want M1 to be in saturation: • We recognize that this is a common source
configuration with M2 being the load. Recall that if
V =V > V −V = V →V >V
DS 1 OUT GS 1 TH eff 1 OUT eff 1
M2 is in deep triode, i.e., VSD<<2(VSG-|VTH|), it
• Thus, we want Veff1 and Veff2 to be small, so that there is more behaves like a resistor.
headroom for output voltage swing. For a constant ID, we can increase
If V << 2(V − V ):
W1 and W2 to reduce Veff1 and Veff2. SD SG TH

A = − g ⋅ (R )
1 1
R = = , r
µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅ (V − V ) µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅ (V − V − V )
ON 2
W W v m1 ON 2 o1

• The intrinsic gain of this amplifier is: A = − g ⋅ r v m o p ox SG TH p ox dd b TH

L L
• In general, we have:
W L 2
• Vb should be low enough to make sure that M2 is in deep triode region
g ∝ , r ∝ → A ∝L
m
L W
o v
and usually requires additional complexity to be precisely generated.
• But since current in this case is roughly constant: • RON2 depends on µp, Cox, and VTH which in turn depend on the
technology being used.
W W 1
g = 2µ ⋅ C ⋅ ⋅I ∝ , r = ∝L → A ∝ LW • In general, this amplifier with triode load is difficult to design and use!
m n ox
L
D
L
o
λ⋅I D
v

• However, compared to diode-connected load, triode load consumes less

headroom: M1 : VOUT > VGS1 − VTH = Veff 1 , M 2 : VOUT ≈ VDD
SM 33 SM 34
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Source Degeneration - 1 Source Degeneration - 2

• The following circuit shows a common source configuration Gain – Method 1: Small Signal Model
with a degeneration resistor in the source.
vOUT − iOUT ⋅ RS −vOUT
iOUT = g m ⋅ v1 + g mb ⋅ vBS + , iOUT =
rO RD
• We will show that this configuration makes the common
source amplifier more linear. vOUT vOUT
v1 = vIN − iOUT ⋅ RS = vIN + ⋅ RS , vBS = −iOUT ⋅ RS = ⋅ RS
RD RD
vOUT
• We will use two methods to derive the gain of this circuit: vOUT + ⋅ RS
− vOUT ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛v ⎞ RD
= g m ⋅ ⎜⎜ vIN + OUT ⋅ RS ⎟⎟ + g mb ⋅ ⎜⎜ OUT ⋅ RS ⎟⎟ +
1. Small-signal Model RD ⎝ RD ⎠ ⎝ RD ⎠ rO
2. Using the following Lemma ⎛ R R ⎞
vOUT ⋅ ⎜⎜1 + g m ⋅ RS + g mb ⋅ RS + D + S ⎟⎟ = − g m ⋅ vIN ⋅ RD
⎝ rO rO ⎠
Lemma:
vOUT − g m ⋅ rO ⋅ RD
In linear systems, the voltage gain is equal to –GmRout. Av = =
vIN rO ⋅ (1 + (g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) + RD + RS

SM 35 SM 36
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Source Degeneration - 3 Source Degeneration - 4
Gain – Method 2: Lemma Gain – Method 2: Lemma (Continued)
1. ROUT:
• The Lemma states that in linear systems, the voltage gain is We use the following small signal model to derive the small
equal to –GmRout. So we need to find Gm and Rout. signal output impedance of this amplifier:
v1 = −i X ⋅ RS , vBS = −i X ⋅ RS
1. Gm:
v X = i X ⋅ RS + (i X − g m ⋅ v1 − g mb ⋅ vBS ) ⋅ rO
Recall that the equivalent transconductance of the above
= i X ⋅ RS + (i X − g m ⋅ (− i X ⋅ RS ) − g mb ⋅ (− i X ⋅ RS )) ⋅ rO
Circuit is:
= RS + (1 + g m ⋅ RS + g mb ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO = RS + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO
vX
RX =
iX

ROUT = RX RD =
(RS + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS )⋅ rO ) ⋅ RD
(RS + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO ) + RD
iOUT g m ⋅ rO g m ⋅ rO
Gm = = = • Since typically rO>>RS:
vIN rO + rO ⋅ (g m ⋅ RS + g mb ⋅ RS ) + RS rO [1 + (g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ] + RS
RX = RS + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO = (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO = (g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ⋅ rO

SM 37 SM 38
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Source Degeneration - 5 Source Degeneration - 6

Gain – Method 2: Lemma (Continued) • If we ignore body effect and channel-length modulation:
g m ⋅ rO
Gm =
rO (1 + ⋅(g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) + RS
Method 1 – Small-signal Model:
v = −g ⋅ v ⋅ R , v = v − g ⋅v ⋅ R
(R + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO ) ⋅ RD
OUT m GS D GS IN m GS S

ROUT = S 1 v − g ⋅R
v =v ⋅ → A = =
RS + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO + RD
OUT m D

1+ g ⋅ R 1+ g ⋅ R
GS IN v
m S
v IN m S

Method 2 – Taking limits:

Av = −Gm ⋅ ROUT = −
g m ⋅ rO (r + (1 + g m ⋅ rO + g mb ⋅ rO ) ⋅ RS )⋅ RD
⋅ O g ⋅r g g
G = rolim = =
rO + rO ⋅ (g m ⋅ RS + g mb ⋅ RS ) + RS rO + (1 + g m ⋅ rO + g mb ⋅ rO ) ⋅ RS + RD
m O m m
→∞
m
g mb →0 r + r ⋅ ( g ⋅ R +
O
g ⋅ R ) + R
O
1 + ( g +
m
g S mb S S m mb
)⋅ RS
1+ g ⋅ R m S

− g m ⋅ rO ⋅ RD
= (r + (1 + g ⋅ r + g ⋅ r ) ⋅ R ) ⋅ R (1 + ( g + g ) ⋅ R ) ⋅ R
rO + (1 + ( g m + g mb ) ⋅ RS ) ⋅ rO + RD R = rolim O m O
= mb O S
=R D m mb S D
→∞
r + (1 + g ⋅ r + g ⋅ r )⋅ R + R 1 + (g + g ) ⋅ R
OUT D
g mb →0 O m O mb O S D m mb S

− g ⋅R
A = −G ⋅ R = m D

1+ g ⋅ R
v m OUT
m S

SM 39 SM 40
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Source Degeneration - 7 Source Degeneration - 8
Obtaining Gm and Rout directly assuming λ=γ=0: • If we ignore body effect and channel-length modulation:
1. Gm: g − g ⋅R
G = m
, R =R → A = m D

1+ g ⋅ R 1+ g ⋅ R
m OUT D v

i = g ⋅v , v = v − g ⋅v ⋅ R
m S m S

D m GS GS IN m GS S

1 i g • We Notice that as RS increases Gm becomes less dependent on gm:

v =v ⋅ → G = = D m

1+ g ⋅ R 1+ g ⋅ R
GS IN m
v
m S IN m S
gm 1
lim Gm = lim =
Rs →∞ Rs →∞ 1 + g m ⋅ RS RS
2. ROUT:
i 1
v = −g ⋅ v ⋅ R
GS m GS S
→ v =0 GS
• That is for large RS: G =
m
≈
OUT
→ v ≈ R ⋅i
IN S OUT
vIN
R S
v v
i = X
+ g ⋅v = X
m GS
X
• Therefore, the amplifier becomes more linear when RS is large enough.
R R D D
Intuitively, an increase in vIN tend to increase ID, however, the voltage
v drop across RS also increases. This makes the amplifier less sensitive
R = X
=R
to input changes, and makes ID smoother!
OUT D
i
X

− g ⋅R • The linearization is achieved at the cost of losing gain and voltage

A = −G ⋅ R = m D
v m OUT
1+ g ⋅ R m S
headroom.

SM 41 SM 42
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Alternative Method to Find the Output-Resistance of a

Source Degeneration - 9 Degenerated Common-Source Amplifier
• We can manipulate the gain equation so the numerator is the
resistance seen at the drain node, and the denominator is the
resistance in the source path.
− g ⋅R −R
A = = m D D

1+ g ⋅ R 1 v

+R m S
S
g m

• The following are ID and gm of a transistor without RS.

• ID and gm of a transistor considering RS are:

• When ID is small such that RS gm<<1, Gm ≈ gm.
• When ID is large such that RS gm>>1, Gm ≈1/ RS.

SM 43 SM 44
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Why Buffers? Resistive Load - 1
• Common Source amplifiers needed a large load impedance to provide • We will examine the Source follower amplifier with two different loads:
a large gain. 1. Resistive Load
2. Current Source Load
• If the load is small but we need a large gain (can you think of an
example?) a buffer is used. – Resistive Load:
• As shown below the output (source voltage) will follow the input (gate
• Source-follower (common-drain) amplifiers can be used as buffers. voltage). We will analyze the following circuit using large-signal and
small-signal analysis.
R =∞ , R
IN OUT
=0 , A =1
V

Ideal Buffer:
1. RIN=∞: the input current is zero; it doesn’t load the previous stage.
2. ROUT=0: No voltage drop at the output; behaves like a voltage source.

SM 45 SM 46
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Resistive Load - 2 Resistive Load - 3

Large Signal Analysis: Large Signal Analysis (Continued):
• The relationship between VIN and VOUT is: • The small signal gain can be found:
1 W ∂V
V = R ⋅I = µ C (V − V ) ⋅ (1 + λ ⋅ V ) ⋅ R 2
⋅ (1 + g ⋅ R + g ⋅η ⋅ R + I ⋅ R ⋅ λ ) = g ⋅ R
OUT

∂V
OUT S D n ox GS TH DS S m S m S D S m S
2 L IN

1
V = µC
W
(V − V − V ) ⋅ (1 + λ ⋅ V − λ ⋅ V 2
)⋅ R ∂V g ⋅R g ⋅R
OUT n ox IN OUT TH DD OUT S A = =
OUT
= m S m S

2 L ∂V R ⎛ 1⎞
V
IN
1+ g ⋅ R + g ⋅ R + 1 + ⎜⎜ g + g + ⎟⎟ ⋅ R
S

• Differentiate with respect to VIN:

m S mb S
r ⎝ r ⎠ o
m mb S

∂V ⎛ ⎞
) ⋅ ⎜⎜1 − ∂V − ∂V
o
W
OUT
=µC (V − V − V OUT TH
⎟⎟ ⋅ (1 + λ ⋅ V )⋅ R • If channel-length modulation is ignored (ro=∞) we get:
∂V ∂V ∂V
n ox IN OUT TH DS S
IN
L ⎝ IN IN ⎠
∂V ∂V g ⋅R
1
+ µC
W
(V − V ) ⋅ R ⋅ (− λ ) ⋅ A = = OUT m S

1 + (g + g ) ⋅ R
2
OUT

∂V
V

∂V
n ox GS TH S
2 L IN
IN m mb S

• Need to find the derivative of VTH with respect to VIN:

V =V
TH TH 0
+γ ⋅ ( 2⋅Φ +V − F SB
2⋅Φ F
) , V =V SB OUT

∂V ∂V ∂V γ ∂V ∂V
= TH
⋅ = ⋅
TH
=η ⋅ OUT OUT OUT

∂V ∂V
IN
∂V 2 2⋅Φ +V
OUT
∂V ∂V IN F SB IN IN

SM 47 SM 48
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Resistive Load - 4 Resistive Load - 5
Small Signal Analysis: • Graph of the gain of a source-follower amplifier:
• We get the following small signal model:
1. M1 never enters the triode region as long as VIN<VDD.
2. Gain is zero if VIN is less than VTH (because gm is 0).
3. As VIN increases, gm increases and the gain becomes:
v = (g ⋅ v + g ⋅ v )⋅ R r , v =v −v , v = −v g 1
OUT m GS mb BS S O GS IN OUT BS OUT
A ≈ = m

g +g 1+η
v

R ⋅r
= ( g ⋅ (v − v ) + g ⋅ (− v )) ⋅
m mb
v S O

R +r
OUT m IN OUT mb OUT
S O 4. As VOUT increases, η decreases, and therefore, the maximum gain
vOUT
⋅ (R + r + g ⋅ R ⋅ r + g ⋅ R ⋅ r ) = g ⋅ R ⋅ r ⋅ v
S O m S O mb S O m S O IN
increases.
v g ⋅R ⋅r g ⋅R ⋅r 5. Even if RS=∞, the gain is less than one:
A = OUT
= = m S O m S O

R + r + g ⋅ R ⋅ r + g ⋅ R ⋅ r R ⋅ (1 + g ⋅ r + g ⋅ r ) + r
v
v g
A ≈ <1
IN S O m S O mb S O S m O mb O O m

g ⋅R V
1
A = m S
g +g +
⎛1 ⎞
v m mb
r
R ⋅ ⎜⎜ + g + g ⎟⎟ + 1 o
S m mb 6. Gain depends heavily on the DC level of the input (nonlinear amplifier).
⎝r O ⎠
SM 49 SM 50
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Current Source Load Voltage Division in Source Followers - 1

• In a source follower with a resistive load, the • When Calculating output resistance seen at the source of M1,
drain current depends on the DC level of VIN, i.e., RM1,, we force vIN to zero and find the output impedance:
which makes the amplifier highly nonlinear.
1 1
• To avoid this problem, we can use a current R =r
source as the load.
M1 o1
g g m1 mb 1

• The output resistance is:

• However, if we were to find the gain of the amplifier, we would not
1 1 1 1
R =rM1 o1
, R =r I1 o2
→ R OUT
=R R =r M1 I1 o1
r o2
suppress vIN.
g g g g
m1 mb 1 m1 mb 1
• Here, we would like to find an equivalent circuit of M1, from which we can
• If channel length modulation is ignored (ro1=ro2=∞) : find the gain.

1 1 1 1 1 • Consider the small-signal model of M1:

R =∞ ∞= =
g +g
OUT
g g m1
g g mb 1 m1 mb 1 m1 mb 1

• Note that the body effect reduces the output impedance of the source
follower amplifiers.

SM 51 SM 52
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Voltage Division in Source Followers - 2 Voltage Division in Source Followers - 3
• For small-signal analysis vBS= vDS, so gmbvBS dependant current source Example:
can be replaced by a resistor (1/gmb) between source and drain. • Find the gain of a source follower amplifier with a resistive
• Note that, when looking at the circuit from the source terminal, we can load.
replace the gmvGS dependant current source with a resistor (of value • We draw the small signal model of this amplifier as shown
1/gm) between source and gate. below to get:
1 1
R r S O
R r
S O
g v g
vOUT
= mb
⋅v IN
→ A = v
OUT
= mb

1 1 v 1 1
R r S
+ O
IN
R r S
+ O
g g mb m
g g mb m

• Simplified circuit: • We can show that this is equal to what we obtained before:
1
1 1 R ⋅r
+ +g S O

R + r + R ⋅r ⋅g R ⋅r ⋅g
mb
R r
A = = S O
= S O S O mb S O m
v
1 1 R ⋅r 1 R + r + R ⋅r ⋅g + R ⋅r ⋅g
+ + S O S O S O mb S O m

1 1
+ +g g R + r + R ⋅r ⋅ g g m S O S O mb m
mb
R r S O

SM 53 SM 54
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Voltage Division in Source Followers - 4 Voltage Division in Source Followers - 5

Example: Example:
• Find the gain of a source follower amplifier with a current • Find the gain of a source follower amplifier with a resistive
source load. load and biased with a current source.
• Small-signal model of this amplifier is:
• Small-signal model of this amplifier is:
1 1
r r
O2 O1
r r
O2 O1
g v g
v
OUT
= mb 1
⋅v IN
→ A =
v
OUT
= mb 1

1 1 v 1 1
r r
O2
+
O1
IN
r r
O2 O1
+
g g mb 1 m1
g g mb 1 m1

• If we ignore channel length modulation: 1 1

r R r
O2 L O1
r R r
O2 L O1

1 1 g v g
= ⋅v → A = =
mb 1 mb 1
v OUT IN v
OUT

g v g 1 1 v 1 1
v = mb 1
⋅v → A = OUT
= mb 1
r R r +
IN
r R r +
OUT
1 1 IN v
v 1 1 O2
g
L
g
O1 O2 L
g
O1
g
+ IN
+ mb 1 m1 mb 1 m1

gmb 1
g m1
gmb 1
g m1

SM 55 SM 56
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Voltage Division in Source Followers - 6 Advantages and Disadvantages - 1
Example: 1. Source followers have typically small output impedance.
• Find the gain of a source follower amplifier with a resistive
load. 2. Source followers have large input impedance.

3. Source followers have poor driving capabilities..

• Small-signal model of this amplifier is:
4. Source followers are nonlinear. This nonlinearity is caused by:
¾ Variable bias current which can be resolved if we use a current
source to bias the source follower.
¾ Body effect; i.e., dependence of VTH on the source (output)
voltage. This can be resolved for PMOS devices, because each
PMOS transistor can have a separate n-well. However, because
1 1 1 1 1 1 of low mobility, PMOS devices have higher output impedance.
r r
O2 O1
r r
O2 O1 (In more advanced technologies, NMOS in a separate p-well,
g g g v g g g
vOUT
= mb 1 m2 mb 2
⋅v IN
→ A =
v
OUT
= mb 1 m2 mb 2
can be implemented that potentially has no body effect)
1 1 1 1 v 1 1 1 1
r r
O2 O1
+ IN
r r
O2 O1
+ ¾ Dependence of ro on VDS in submicron devices.
g g g g
mb 1 m2 mb 2 m1
g g g g
mb 1 m2 mb 2 m1

SM 57 SM 58
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Advantages and Disadvantages - 2 Common-Gate

5. Source followers have voltage headroom limitations due to level shift.
Consider this circuit (a common source followed by a source follower):

• If we only consider the common source stage, VX>VGS1-VTH1.

• If we only consider the source follower stage, VX>VGS3-VTH3+ VGS2.

• Therefore, adding the source follower will reduce the allowable voltage Av = (gm + gmb )RD = gm (1 + η)RD
swing at node X.

• The DC value of VOUT is VGS2 lower than the DC value of VX.

SM 59 SM 60
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Common-Gate Common-Gate

(gm + gmb )ro + 1

Av = R
ro + (gm + gmb )ro RS + RS + RD D

for RS = 0 : Av ≈ ( g m + g mb )(ro || RD )

(gm + gmb )ro + 1

Av = R
ro + (gm + gmb )ro RS + RS + RD D

SM 61 SM 62
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Common-Gate Input Impedance Common-Gate Input Impedance

• Input impedance of common-gate stage is relatively low only if
RD is small

• Example: Find the input impedance of the following circuit.

RD + ro RD ro
Rin = = +
1 + ( g m + g mb )ro 1 + ( g m + g mb )ro 1 + ( g m + g mb )ro
RD 1 1
Rin = + (ro || || )
1 + ( g m + g mb )ro g m g mb
SM 63 SM 64
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Example Common-Gate Output Impedance
• Calculate the voltage gain of the following circuit:

Rout = {[1 + ( g m + g mb ) RS ]ro + RS } || RD

Av = 1 + ( g m + g mb )ro

SM 65 SM 66
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Example Cascode Stage

• Cascade of a common-source stage and a common-gate stage is called a “cascode” stage.
• Compare the gain of the following two circuits (λ=γ=0 and 50Ω transmission
lines!)

Rout = {[1 + ( g m 2 + g mb 2 )ro1 ]ro 2 + ro1} || RD

≈ [( g m 2 + g mb 2 )ro1ro 2 ] || RD

AV ≈ gm1{[ro1 ro2 (gm 2 + gmb2 )] || RD ]}

SM 67 SM 68
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Cascode Stage Output Impedance Comparison

AV ≈ gm1 [(ro 1ro 2 gm2 ) || (ro 3ro 4 gm3 )]

SM 69 SM 70
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Shielding Property Board Notes

SM 71 SM 72
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Triple Cascode Folded Cascode
• What is the output resistance of this circuit?

• Problem?

SM 73 SM 74
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers

Output Impedance of a Folded Cascode

Rout = [1 + ( g m 2 + g mb 2 )ro 2 ](ro1 || ro 3 ) + ro 2

SM 75
Set 3: Single-Stage Amplifiers