Soil Mechanics

CBE 421

Lecture[6]
Soil Consolidation

Dr. Ahmed Ismail Sarie-Eldin

Soil Consolidation

Soil Properties

Physical
Mechanical
(Soil Characteristics)

Specific Atterberg Strength

Gradation Compaction Permeability Compressibility
Gravity Limits (Shear)

Moisture Content
Unit Weight
Content

 Introduction
 Types of settlement
 Immediate settlement
 Fundamental of consolidation (piston-spring
model)
 One dimensional consolidation test
 Conclusion
Introduction to Soil Compressibility
Problems due to excessive settlement
1) Aesthetic view : the aesthetical value of the structure might
spoiled due to presence of cracks or tilt of the structure caused
by settlement.
2) Structure damage : the damages of some structure such as
buildings and also utilities drains, pumps or electrical lines.
3) Structure failure : cause a structure to fail structurally and
collapse.
Types of Settlement

Settlement

Primary Secondary
Immediate
consolidation consolidation
settlement
settlement settlement
+ +
Immediate Settlement

• Caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and

saturated soils without any change in the moisture content in the
soil.
• Usually occurred immediately after load is imposed.
• Completed quickly.
• Constitutes a relatively small amount of total settlement.
1 − 𝜈2
Where 𝑆𝑖 = ∆𝜎𝐵 𝐼𝑝
𝐸𝑠
∆𝜎 = additional stress
B = width of footing & 𝜈 = Poissons ratio of soil ≃ 0.3
E= modulus of elasticity of soil & 𝐼𝑝 = influence factor
Immediate Settlement

(Das, 2002)

• In the absence of data 𝐼𝑝 could be taken = 1

Compressibility of Cohesionless Soil

Coarse-grained soils do not undergo consolidation settlement due

to relatively high hydraulic conductivity compared to clayey soils.
Instead, coarse-grained soils undergo immediate settlement.

Because the compression in sand is small and immediate as

compared to clayey soil, elastic model could be used to represent
the stress strain relationship of sand.
consolidation Settlement
Definition
Consolidation is the process in which reduction in volume of soil takes
place by expulsion of water from soil voids under long term static loads.
Initial State Final State

Squeezed water

Concept of Consolidation
 As the time passes the water comes out of the soil voids and so the
volume of soil decreases, this is the cause of the settlement.
Fundamental of consolidation (piston-spring model)

Valve  in this analogy spring act

as the soil skeleton.
 while water act as the
water in the soil.
 the valve act as the void
in the soil which effect
the permeability of the
soil.
Water Spring
Fundamental of consolidation (piston-spring model)
Condition 1
(if load is imposed while the valve is closed)
Valve closed  Spring will not move due
to the incompressibility
of water.
 Therefore, no load
transferred to spring
because it was all carried
by water.
 This also called the
undrained condition in
soil.
Fundamental of consolidation (piston-spring model)
Condition 2
(if load is imposed while the valve is opened)
 Water were forced to flow out
Valve opened through the valve.
 The flow rate depend to the
diameter of the hole/valve.
 Some of the load carried by
water while some were
transferred to the spring.
 The load increment to the
spring depend to the decrease
of pore water pressure.
Fundamental of consolidation (piston-spring model)

 After all the water

extruded, the load were
totally carried by spring.
 Deformation continue to
occur until the spring
reach the final condition.
 This condition shows the
drained condition in soil.

No more
water inside
Assumptions of Theory of Consolidation

1. Clay is homogeneous, isotropic, and saturated

2. Water and clay particles are incompressible
3. Darcy’s law is valid
4. The clay layer is laterally confined
5. One-dimensional compression, and one-dimensional
flow
6. Consolidation parameters from test applies to clay
layer from which sample for test was taken
7. Soil properties are constant with time
Consolidation Test

 Objectives:
 Volume change-effective pressure relationship
 Stress history of soil
 Volume change – time – pore water dissipation relationship
 Plot e - log(p) curve
 Plot e - (p) curve
 Plot Deformation - (time) curve

 P =  (vertical stress)
Consolidation Test
Consolidation Test
Consolidation Test

 Equipment:
1. Compression cell / Oedometer
2. Loading frame to apply weights (Po)
3. Dial gage to measure soil compression
Note:
Load acting on the cell (P1) is magnified by the lever arm
ratio of the loading frame (LAR), where: P1 =LAR x Po
Consolidation Test

Procedure:
1. Trim the sample into the metal ring and place filter paper on
both sides of sample.
2. Measure initial conditions of sample: ho, eo, w.c.o, Gs
3. Place the ring into the compression cell between the two
porous stones.
4. A metal cap (loading head) is placed over the top porous stone
on which the load (P ) is applied (usually 0.25 kg/cm2)
5. Set-up the dial gage to zero reading. Fill the compression cell
with water until the top porous stone is covered with water.
Consolidation Test

Procedure:
6. Place the hanging load (Po) such that the pressure on the clay
sample is equal to the first loading step.
7. Record readings of dial gage (compression of sample) with
time until compression stops (usually within 24 hours).
8. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for subsequent loading
(0.5,1.0,2.0,4.0,8.0 kg/cm2) and unloading reloading cycles
can be carried out.
Consolidation Test
Consolidation Test
Applied Final ∆H H ∆e e
stress dial mm mm
H e
reading 
Hi (1  ei )

1.8 A 1.8 A
Virgin curve
Void ratio Void ratio
(e) (e)
Recompression
Clay
1.4 1.4 B
C C
B Slope (Cc)
D

D Sand
1.0 Sand
1.0
L M M E
E L

0.1 1 10
0 2 4 6 8 10

Effective stress() – kg/cm2 Effective stress() – kg/cm2

(Log. scale)
Consolidation Test
Coefficient of compressibility (av)
This is the ratio of the change in void ratio to the Void ratio
eo
(e)
corresponding change in stress. It is equal to the
numerical value of the slope of the (e - ) ) curve.
e
av   

Coefficient of volume compressibility(mv).
ei
e
The volumetric strain due to a unit increase in
stress is called the coefficient of volume change
(mv). mv    v
e
av
mv 
 ' (1  ei )
where:   volumetric strain
v

e i  Effective stress()

V e 1 av
   mv   mv 
Vi (1  ei ) (1  ei )   or
(1  ei )
Consolidation Test
1.8
A
 
Virgin curve
Void ratio
(e) ei
Recompression
e
1.4 B e
C Slope Cc : Compression
Slope (Cc) index
D

1.0 Sand
M E
L

0.1 1 10
i 
Effective stress() – kg/cm2
(Log. scale) Log. effective stress(log )

 Cc is a dimensionless value representing the slope of the linear portion of the

stress-void ratio curve on a semi-log plot, and is termed the compression index.
Consolidation Settlement

s f  mv  p  H

Where
𝑆𝑓 the final settlement due to consolidation of clay layer
∆𝑝 is the increase of stress due to external loads at center line of
clay layer (compressible layer)
H is the thickness of clay layer (compressible layer)
Consolidation Settlement
Cc p 'o  p
sf   H  log …… for Normally Consolidated Clay
1  ei p 'o
Where
𝑆𝑓 the final settlement due to consolidation of clay layer
∆𝑝 is the increase of stress due to external loads at center line of clay layer
(compressible layer)
H is the thickness of clay layer (compressible layer)
𝑃𝑜′ is the effective overburden stress at center line of
clay layer (compressible layer)
𝐶𝑐 compression index …. {can be obtained for the following empirical
relationship Cc = 0.009 (LL % - 10)}
1. For the shown building and soil formation, calculate the average settlement of the
building due consolidation of the clay layer. Use the approximate method for stress
distribution in soil.

Building
15 x 22 m

1.4 kg/cm2
1.5

Sand:
4.3 Sand
gb = 1.79 t/m3
G.W.T
7.3 gsat. = 2.1 t/m3
1:2 1:2

Clay:
4m
w = 40 %
Clay LL = 45 %
Gs = 2.75
Solution:

To calculate the overburden stress at C.L. of the clay layer:

𝑒𝑜 ∗ 𝑆𝑟 = 𝑤. 𝑐.∗ 𝐺𝑠 ----- 𝑒𝑜 ∗ 1 = 0.40 ∗ 2.75 = 1.1

𝐺𝑠 − 1 2.75 − 1
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝛾𝑤 = = 0.85 𝑡/𝑚3
1+𝑒 1 + 1.1
𝑃𝑜′ = 𝛾𝑏 ∗ 4.3 + 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 ∗ 3 + 𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏−𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 ∗ 2 = 1.79 ∗ 4.3 + 1.1 ∗ 3 + 0.85 ∗ 2 = 12.657𝑡/𝑚2

The average stress increase at C.L. of the clay layer due to the building is
calculated following the approximate method.
14  15  22
 p   6.8 t/m 2
(15  7.8)(22  7.8)
Cc  0.009(45  10)  0.315
0.315 12.657  6.8
s   400  log  11 .2 cm
1  1.1 12.657
Normal Consolidated & over consolidation Clay
Determination of pre-consolidation pressure:
Determination of Pre-consolidation Pressure

1. Determine point of maximum curvature (a).2. At (a), draw tangent to e-log(p)

curve.
3. At (a), draw horizontal line.
4. Draw a bisector to the angle enclosed between the tangent and horizontal lines.
5. Extend the linear portion of the curve until it intersects the bisector at point (b).
6. The pre-consolidation pressure (pc) is the x-coordinate of the point (b).

• Over consolidation ratio (OCR)

• OCR= Pc/P0
• where P0 is the over burden pressure at the level where the specimen is taken.
If OCR > 1 clay is over consolidated
OCR = 1 clay is normal consolidated ---- OCR < 1 clay is under consolidated
Normal Consolidated & over consolidation Clay

1. Normally consolidated clay:

Clay that has never been loaded in the past by more than the existing effective
overburden pressure (po) pc ≤ po --- OCR ≤ 1
2. For normally consolidated clay Cc is used for settlement calculation

Cc p 'o  p
sf   H  log
1  ei p 'o
Normal Consolidated & over consolidation Clay
 Normal Consolidated & over consolidation Clay

∆𝑒
𝐶𝑟 =
∆log(𝑝)

Empirical relationship for Cr

𝐶𝑟 ≃ (1/10 − 1/5)𝐶𝑐
𝐶𝑟 ≃ (1/8)𝐶𝑐
Normal Consolidated & over consolidation Clay

For overconsolidated clay, (𝑃0 + ∆𝑃) ≤ pc:

Cr p 'o  p
sf   H  log
1  eo p 'o
Normal Consolidated & over consolidation Clay

For overconsolidated clay, (𝑃0 + ∆𝑃) > pc:

Cr pc Cc p 'o  p
sf   H  log   H  log
1  eo p 'o 1  eo pc
Rate of Consolidation
 The rate at which the consolidation occurs depends mainly on the
permeability of the soil and the length of drainage path.
 Time rate of consolidation can be calculated using the following equation:
𝐶𝑣 ∗ 𝑡
𝑇𝑣 =
Where:
𝑑2
Cv = the coefficient of consolidation (From consolidation test) [or] 𝐶𝑉 = 𝐾 ∗ 𝑚𝑣 ∗ 𝛾𝑤
t = time to reach a particular percent of consolidation
Tv = time factor (dimensionless parameter) related to % of consolidation (U%)
d = length of the drainage path (H or H/2)
 The value of d = H/2, if a soil layer of thickness H is drained from both top and bottom ends,
and d = H, if a soil layer of thickness H is drained from one side only.
Rate of Consolidation

U= Degree or (%) of consolidation

𝑆𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
𝑈= 𝑥100
𝑆𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
Determination of the coefficient of consolidation (Cv):
(i) Taylor's method:
This method is known as the square root of time fitting method.
The compression readings are plotted against ( t).
Dial reading - R

Cv . t 9 0 Ri

TV (90)  Initial compression

(d 90 ) 2 Ro

H90 (height of specimen at 90% consolidation) √t90

corresponding to R90 and d90 = H90/2
𝑇𝑉(90) = 0.848 R90

Rf

L √time

1.15 L
 Determination of the coefficient of consolidation (Cv):
(i) Casagrande's method:
This method is known as the logarithm of time fitting method.
The compression readings are plotted against log t

Dial reading - R
Cv . t50

Ri
TV (50 )
(d 50 )2 R0 Initial compression

Parabola
t50
H50 (height of specimen at 50% consolidation)
R50
corresponding to R50 and d50 = H50/2 Straight line

𝑇𝑉(50) = 0.197
R100
Rf
Log - time
t1 t2 = 4 t1
2. The shown building is assumed to settle ultimately 12 cm. Measurements indicated
that it settled 3 cm in the first month. How long would it take to reach 50 % settlement.
What will be the settlement after 1 year.
Solution
For t  1 month :
3 Building
U  25 % From curve Tv  0.06
12
1
Cv ( )
0.06  12  C v  2.88 m2/year Sand
4
( )2
2 Clay
Clay 4 m
To find t 50 :
2.88  t 50 Sand
0.197  2
 t 50  3.28 month
4
 
2
To find settlement after 1 year :
2.88  1
Tv  2
 0.72  U  86 %
 
4
 
2
 s  12  0.86  10.3 cm
3. Calculate the settlement of points A, B, C and D at the foundation of the shown building
due to consolidation of the clay layer. Assume that the foundation is ideally flexible.

Solution
Find the stress increase () at the C.L. of the clay layer Building
under points A, B, C and D by using the Newmark chart. 1.5 kg/cm2
2
z = 6 - 2 + 1.5 = 5.5 m
6 Sand:
Draw plan for the building to scale: line AB = 5.5 m. From gb = 1.87 t/m3
G.W.T
the Newmark chart find N for each point. Calculate the
3m Clay:
stress increase:
gsat. = 2.05 t/m3 mv = 0.01 cm2/kg
 = 0.005 x 1.5 x N. Sand

Then calculate the settlement for each point from the

relation: B C

s = 0.01 () 300 Results are tabulated as follows:

5

D
3
A
5 6m 5
Quiz
For the shown building and soil formation, calculate the average settlement of the
building due consolidation of the clay layer, if the clay layer has been pre consolidated
and the pre-consolidation pressure is 22 t/𝑚2 . Assume 𝐶𝑟 = 1/6𝐶𝑐

Building
15 x 22 m

1.4 kg/cm2
1.5

Sand:
4.3 Sand
gb = 1.79 t/m3
G.W.T
7.3 gsat. = 2.1 t/m3
1:2 1:2

Clay:
4m
w = 40 %
Clay LL = 45 %
Gs = 2.75