Topics

• CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
• Fundamentals of consolidation
• One-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement
• One-dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
• Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional
Primary Consolidation
• TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
• 1-D theory of consolidation
• SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
Introduction
Why should soil compressibility be studied?
Ignoring soil compressibility may lead to unfavorable
settlement and other engineering problems.

Embankment and building constructed on

soft ground (highly compressible soil)

Crack

Soft ground

Settlement is one of the aspects that control the design of structures.

Why soils compressed?
• Every material undergoes a certain amount of strain when a
stress is applied.
• A steel rod lengthens when it is subjected to tensile stress,
and a concrete column shortens when a compressive load is
applied.
• The same thing holds true for soils which undergo
compressive strains upon loading. Compressive strains are
responsible for settlement of the structure.
• What distinguish soils from other civil engineering materials
is the fact that the deformation of soils is largely
unrecoverable (i.e. permanent). Therefore simple elasticity
theory like elasticity cannot be applied to soils.
What makes soil compressed?
In soils voids exist between particles and the voids
may be filled with a liquid, usually water, or gas ,
usually air. As a result, soils are often referred to as a
three-phase material or system (solid, liquid and gas).
• Solid (mineral particles)
Stress increase
• Gas (air),

• Liquid (usually water)

Components of settlement
The total settlement of a foundation can be expressed as:
ST = S e + S c + Ss
Where
ST = Total settlement
Se = Elastic or immediate settlement
Sc = Primary consolidation settlement
Ss= Secondary consolidation settlement
Total settlement S T

 It should be mentioned that Sc and Ss overlap each other and

impossible to detect which certainly when one type ends and the
other begins. However, for simplicity they are treated separately
and secondary consolidation is usually assumed to begin at the
end of primary consolidation.
Components of settlement
The total soil settlement S T may contain one or more of these types:

Immediate Primary
consolidation Secondary consolidation
settlement or creep
settlement
Due to distortion or Decrease in voids Due to gradual
elastic deformation volume due to squeeze changes in the
with no change in of pore-water out of the particulate structure
water content soil of the soil
Occurs in saturated Occurs very slowly,
Occurs rapidly fine grained soils long after the
during the (low coefficient of primary
application of load permeability) consolidation is
completed
Time dependent
Quite small quantity Time dependent
in dense sands, Most significant in
Only significant in saturated soft clayey
gravels and stiff clays clays and silts and organic soils and
peats
Rates of Drainage Coarse soils

soil type coeff. of permeability seepage rate

(k)
Gravel > 10-2 m/sec very quick
Sand 10-2 ~ 10-5 quick
Silt 10-5 ~ 10-8 slow
Clay < 10-8 very slow

For design purposes it is common to assume:

• Quick drainage in coarse soils (Sand and Gravel)
• Slow drainage in fine soils (Clay and Silt).
Fine soils
Rates of Drainage
For coarse grained soils…
Granular soils are freely drained, and thus the settlement is
instantaneous.settlement

time

0 0

ST = Se + Sc + Ss
Rates of drainage
For Fine grained soils…
GL

settlement
saturated clay

time
When a saturated clay is
loaded externally, the water This leads to settlements occurring over a
is squeezed out of the clay long time…..which could be several years
over a long time (due to low
permeability of the clay).

St = Se + Sc + Ss
negligible
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT ST = Se + Sc + Ss
Consolidation is the process of gradual reduction in volume
change of fully saturated low permeability soils (clays & silts) due
to the slow drainage (expulsion) of pore water from the voids.

Fundamentals of consolidation
 When a soil layer is subjected to a compressive stress, such as
during the construction of a structure, it will exhibit a certain
amount of compression. This compression is achieved through a
number of ways, including:
• Rearrangement of the soil solids
• Bending of particles
• Extrusion of the pore air and/or water
 If the soil is dry, its voids are filled with air and since air is
compressible, rearrangement of soil particles can occur rapidly.
 If soil is saturated, its voids are filled with incompressible water
which must be extruded from the soil mass before soil grains
can rearrange themselves.
• Incoarse soils (sands & gravels) any volume change
resulting from a change in loading occurs immediately;
increases in pore pressures are dissipated rapidly due to
high permeability. This is called drained loading.

• In fine soils (silts & clays) - with low permeability - the

soil is undrained as the load is applied. Slow seepage
occurs and the excess pore pressures dissipate slowly,
and consolidation settlement occurs.

• In coarse soils (sand & gravel) the

settlement takes place instantaneously.
• In fine soils (clay & silt): settlement takes coarse soils
far much more time to complete. Why?

Settlement
So, consolidation settlement: is decrease in
voids volume as pore-water is squeezed out Fine soils
of the soil. It is only significant in fine soil
(clays & silts).
Time (months or years)
 The gradual reduction in volume of a fully saturated soil of
low permeability due to drainage of the pore water is
called consolidation.
 In soils of high permeability this process occurs rapidly, so
the settlement is immediate and the theory of elasticity is
applied for its evaluation as has been discussed previously.
 However, in fine-grained soil the process requires along
time interval for its completion and the nature of
settlement is more difficult to analyze.
Gradual reduction in volume == gradual reduction in void
ratio, e. Therefore we have to know the change in e in order
to know settlement.

• e is our internal variable that through it we can follow the change in

soil volume.
Description of primary consolidation process:
1. When a saturated soil layer is subjected to a stress increase,
the external load is initially transferred to water causing
sudden increase in the pore water pressure (excess pore
water pressure).
2. Elastic settlement occurs immediately. However, due to the
low coefficient of permeability of clay, the excess pore
water pressure generated by loading gradually squeezes
over a long period of time.
3. Eventually, excess pore pressure becomes zero and the pore
water pressure is the same as hydrostatic pressure prior to
loading.
4. The associated volume change (that is, the consolidation) in
the clay may continue long after the elastic settlement.
5. The settlement caused by consolidation in clay may be
several times greater than the elastic settlement.
Consolidation process – Spring analogy
i. At equilibrium under overburden stress
Consolidation process- Spring analogy (cont.)

ii. Under Load (t = 0) • Soil is loaded by stress increment D s

• Valve is initially closed
• As water is incompressible and valve
is closed, no water is out, no
movement of piston.

• Stress is (D s) is transferred to water.

• Pressure gauge reads an excess pore
pressure (D u) such that:
Du = Ds
u = uo + D u

No
From the principle of effective stresses: Settlement
D s’ = D s– D u Then D s’ = 0
Consolidation process- Spring analogy (cont.)

ii. Under Load (t = 0) • Soil is loaded by stress increment D s

• Valve is initially closed
• As water is incompressible and valve
is closed, no water is out, no
movement of piston.

• Stress is (D s) is transferred to water.

• Pressure gauge reads an excess pore
pressure (D u) such that:
Du = Ds
u = uo + D u

No
From the principle of effective stresses: Settlement
D s’ = D s– D u Then D s’ = 0
Consolidation process- Spring analogy (cont.)

iii. Under Load (0 < t < ∞)

• To simulate fine grained cohesive
soil, where permeability is slow,
valve is slightly opened.

• Water slowly leave the chamber.

• As water flows out excess pore
pressure (D u) decreases, and load
is transferred to the spring.

• Settlement is observed.

From the principle of effective stresses:

Du < Ds D s’ = D s– D u D u < Ds Then Ds’ > 0
u = uo + D u
Consolidation process- Spring analogy (cont.)

iv. End of consolidation (t = ∞) • At the end of consolidation, no further

water is squeezed out, excess pore
pressure is zero.

• Pore water pressure is back to

hydrostatic.
Du = 0
u = uo
• The spring (soil) is in equilibrium with
applied stress.

• Final (ultimate) settlement is reached.

All stresses are
transferred to soil

From the principle of effective stresses:

D s’ = D s– D u D u = 0 Then D s’ = D s
Short-term and long-term stresses
 With the spring analogy in mind, consider the case where a
layer of saturated clay of thickness H that is confined
between two layers of sand is being subjected to an
instantaneous increase of total stress of Δσ.
 Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL, the stresses and pore
pressures are increased at point A and, they vary with time.

q The load q applied on the saturated

soil mass, is carried by pore water in
 the beginning.
A u
’
As the water starts escaping from
saturated clay
the voids, the excess water pressure
gets gradually dissipated and the
load is shifted to the soil solids
which increases the effective stress.
Short-term and long-term stresses
 , the increase in total stress remains the same during
consolidation, while effective stress Ds’ increases.
 u the excess pore-water pressure decreases (due to
drainage) transferring the load from water to the soil.
Excess pore pressure (u)
is the difference between the current pore
pressure (u) and the steady state pore
pressure (uo).
u = u - uo
uniformly distributed
q
pressure 
u
’
 
A u
’
’ q
u
saturated clay
Time
Short-term and long-term
stresses (cont.)
• Variation of total stress
[σ], pore water pressure
[u], and effective stress
[σ′] in a clay layer
drained at top and
bottom as a result of an
added stress, Δσ.

Remark:
If an additional load is
applied, the cycle just
described will be repeated
and further settlement will
develop.

This is noticed in the

consolidation test where for
each load increment we get
a t vs. e curve.
Example
The figure below shows how an extensive layer of fill will be
placed on a certain site.
The unit weights are:
Clay and sand = 20 kN/m³
Rolled fill =18 kN/m³
Water = 10 kN/m³
Calculate the total and effective stress at the mid-depth of the
sand and the mid-depth of the clay for the following
conditions:
(i) Initially, before construction
(ii) Immediately after construction
(iii) Many years after construction Fill

Note: You know how to handle these

cases from your background in CE382.
(we consider here the extreme cases
with respect to loading time and the
p.w.p is taken equal to the extended Sand
load).
Solution
(i) Initially, before construction
Initial stresses at mid-depth of clay (z = 2.0m)
Vertical total stress sv = 20.0 x 2.0 = 40.0kPa
Pore pressure u = 10 x 2.0 = 20.0 kPa
Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 20.0kPa

Initial stresses at mid-depth of sand (z = 5.0 m)

Vertical total stress sv = 20.0 x 5.0 = 100.0 kPa
Pore pressure u = 10 x 5.0 = 50.0 kPa
Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 50.0 kPa
(ii) Immediately after construction
The construction of the embankment applies a surface surcharge:
q = 18 x 4 = 72.0 kPa.
The sand is drained (either horizontally or into the rock below) and so there is
no increase in pore pressure. The clay is undrained and the pore pressure
increases by 72 kPa.

Initial stresses at mid-depth of clay (z = 2.0m)

Vertical total stress sv = 20.0 x 2.0 + 72.0 = 112.0kPa
Pore pressure u = 10 x 2.0 + 72.0 = 92.0 kPa
Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 20.0kPa (i.e. no change immediately)

Initial stresses at mid-depth of sand (z = 5.0m)

Vertical total stress sv = 20.0 x 5.0 + 72.0 = 172.0kPa
Pore pressure u = 10 x 5.0 = 50.0 kPa
Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 122.0kPa (i.e. an immediate increase)
(iii) Many years after construction
After many years, the excess pore pressures in the clay will have dissipated.
The pore pressures will now be the same as they were initially.
Initial stresses at mid-depth of clay (z = 2.0 m)
Vertical total stress sv = 20.0 x 2.0 + 72.0 = 112.0 kPa

Pore pressure u = 10 x 2.0 = 20.0 kPa

Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 92.0 kPa (i.e. a long-term increase)

Initial stresses at mid-depth of sand (z = 5.0 m)

Vertical total stress sv = 20.0 x 5.0 + 72.0 = 172.0 kPa

Pore pressure u = 10 x 5.0 = 50.0 kPa

Vertical effective stress s´v = sv - u = 122.0 kPa (i.e. no further change)

This gradual process of drainage under an

additional load application and the associated
transfer of excess pore water pressure to effective
stress cause the time-dependent settlement in the
clay soil layer. This is called consolidation.
Calculation of 1-D Consolidation Settlement
• A general theory for consolidation, incorporating three-
y x
dimensional flow is complicated and only applicable to a
very limited range of problems in geotechnical
z
engineering.
• A simplification for solving consolidation problems,
drainage and deformations are assumed to be only in
the vertical direction.
z
q kPa
GL

Sand

water squeezed
out

reasonable
saturated clay simplification if
the surcharge is of
Sand large lateral
extent
 ……….($)

The consolidation settlement can be determined knowing:

- Initial void ratio e0.
- Thickness of layer H
- Change of void ratio e
It only requires the evaluation of e
One-dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
• 1-D field consolidation can be simulated in laboratory.

• Data obtained from laboratory testing can be used to predict

magnitude of consolidation settlement reasonably, but rate
is often poorly estimated.
Wide foundation simulation of 1-D field consolidation in Lab
GL
Sand or
Drainage layer porous stone

Undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
(oedometer)
Saturated clay

field
lab
• The one-dimensional consolidation test was first
suggested by Terzaghi. It is performed in a consolidometer
(sometimes referred to as oedometer). The schematic
diagram of a consolidometer is shown below.

Consolidometer or Oedometer

Dial gauge Load

Water

Porous stone Soil specimen Specimen ring

Incremental loading
loading in increments
q1 q2
H1 H2
Ho eo eo- e1 e1- e2

Load increment ratio (LIR) = D q/q = 1 (i.e., double the load)

• Allow full consolidation before next increment (24 hours)

• Record compression during and at the end of each increment using dial gauge.

• Example of time sequence: (10 sec, 30 sec, 1 min, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 1 hr, 2, 4,
8, 16, 24)
• The procedure is repeated for additional doublings of applied pressure until
the applied pressure is in excess of the total stress to which the clay layer is
believed to be subjected to when the proposed structure is built.

• The total pressure includes effective overburden pressure and net additional
pressure due to the structure.
• Example of load sequence (25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, … kPa)
Presentation of results
• The results of the consolidation tests can be summarized in the following plots:
• Rate of consolidation curves (dial reading vs. log time or dial reading vs.
square root time)
• Void ratio-pressure plots (Consolidation curve)
e – sv’ plot or e - log sv’ plot
• The plot of deformation of the specimen against time for a given load
increment can observe three distinct stages:
Stage I: Initial compression, which is
Stage I caused mostly by preloading.
Stage II: Primary consolidation, during
which excess pore water pressure
Deformation

gradually is transferred into effective

Stage II stress because of the expulsion of pore
water.
Stage III: Secondary consolidation,
Stage III which occurs after complete dissipation
of the excess pore water pressure,
caused by plastic readjustment of soil
Time (log scale) fabric.
Presentation of results (cont.)
After plotting the time-deformation for various loadings are
obtained, it is necessary to study the change in the void ratio of
the specimen with pressure. See section 11.6 for step-by-step
procedure for doing so.

Proceeding in a similar manner, one can obtain the

void ratios at the end of the consolidation for all
load increments. See Example 11.2.
Presentation of Results (cont.)
e – ’ plot
loading

void ratio
’ increases & e decreases

unloading
’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)
’
 The figure above is usually termed the compressibility curve , where
compressibility is the term applied to 1-D volume change that occurs
in cohesive soils that are subjected to compressive loading.
 Note: It is more convenient to express the stress-stain relationship
for soil in consolidation studies in terms of void ratio and unit
pressure instead of unit strain and stress used in the case of most
other engineering materials.
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility [mv]
 mv is defined as the volume change per unit volume per unit
increase in effective stress

 mv is also known as Coefficient of Volume Change.

 The value of mv for a particular soil is not constant but

depends on the stress range over which it is calculated.
Coefficient of Compressibility av
 av is the slope of e-s’plot, or av = -de/ds’ (m2/kN)
 Within a narrow range of pressures, there is a linear
relationship between the decrease of the voids ratio e and the
increase in the pressure (stress). Mathematically,

 av decreases with increases in effective stress

 Because the slope of the curve e-s’ is constantly changing,
it is somewhat difficult to use av in a mathematical analysis,
as is desired in order to make settlement calculations.
Presentation of results
e – log ’ plot

loading
void ratio

’ increases &
e decreases

Unloading
’ decreases &
e increases

log ’
Compression and Swell Indices
As we said earlier, the main limitation of using av and mv in
describing soil compressibility is that they are not constant. To
overcome this shortcoming the relationship between e and v’
is usually plotted in a semi logarithmic plot as shown below.

Cc ~ compression index
void ratio

e1
Cc 

log 2
 1
De1 Cc
1 Cs or Cr ~ swell or
recompression
index e
De2 Cr Cr  2
 3
log
 4

s’4 s’3 s’1 s’2 log ’

Correlations for compression index, cc
• This index is best determined by the laboratory test results
for void ratio, e, and pressure s’ (as shown above).
• The recompression index is (1/5 to 1/10) times the
compression index.

• Determination of Cc
1.For undisturbed clay of medium sensitivity (S <=4)

Cc = 0.009(WL – 10)
where WL is liquid limit in %

2. For remoulded clay of medium to low sensitivity

Cc = 0.007(WL -10)
Normally consolidated and overconsolidated clays
The upper part of the e – log s’ plot is as shown below
somewhat curved with a flat slope, followed by a linear
relationship having a steeper slope.
This can be explained as follows:
 A soil in the field at some depth has been
subjected to a certain maximum effective
past pressure in its geologic history.
 This maximum effective past pressure
may be equal to or less than the existing
effective overburden pressure at the time
of sampling.
 The reduction of effective pressure may
be due to natural geological processes or
human processes.
 During the soil sampling, the existing effective overburden
pressure is also released, which results in some expansion.
 The soil will show relatively small decrease of e with load up
until the point of the maximum effective stress to which the
soil was subjected to in the past.
(Note: this could be the overburden pressure if the soil has
not been subjected to any external load other than the
weight of soil above that point concerned).

 This can be verified in the

laboratory by loading, unloading
and reloading a soil sample as
shown across.

Void ratio, e

Effective pressure, s’ (log scale)

 Normally Consolidated Clay (N.C. Clay)
A soil is NC if the present effective pressure to which it is
subjected is the maximum pressure the soil has ever been
subjected to.

The branches bc and fg are NC state of a soil.

 Over Consolidated Clays (O.C. Clay)
A soil is OC if the present effective
pressure to which it is subjected to is

Void ratio, e
less than the maximum pressure to
which the soil was subjected to in the Expa
nsio
past n or s
well
The branches ab, cd, df, are the OC state
of a soil.
The maximum effective past pressure is
called the preconsolidation pressure.
Effective pressure, s’ (log scale)
Preconsolidation pressure
 The stress at which the transition or “break” occurs in the
curve of e vs. log s’ is an indication of the maximum
vertical overburden stress that a particular soil sample has
sustained in the past.
 This stress is very important in geotechnical engineering
and is known as Preconsolidation Pressure.

c ’
Casagrande procedure of determination preconsolidation stress c’
Casagrande (1936) suggested a simple graphic construction to determine
the preconsolidation pressure s’c from the laboratory e –log s‘ plot.

Point B
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
o In general the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) for a soil can be
defined as:

Void ratio, e
where s ’ is the present
effective vertical pressure.

o From the definition of NC soils,

they always have OCR=1.
Effective pressure, s’ (log scale)
o To calculate OCR the preconsolidation pressure c’ should
be known from the consolidation test and s’ is the
effective stress in the field.
Field consolidation curve
 Due to soil disturbance, even with high-quality sampling and
testing the actual compression curve has a SLOPE which is
somewhat LESS than the slope of the field VIRGIN
COMPRESSION CURVE. The “break” in the curve becomes
less sharp with increasing disturbance.
Sources of disturbance:
• Sampling
• Transportation
• Storage
• Preparation of the specimen (like trimming)
 Graphical procedures to evaluate the slope of the field
compression curve
o We know the present effective overburden 0’ and void ratio e0.
o We should know from the beginning whether the soil is NC or OC by
comparing ’0 and ’C . ’0 =  z, ’C we find it through the procedures
presented in a previous slide.

Recall
Calculation of Settlement from 1-D Dimensional
Primary Consolidation
With the knowledge gained from the analysis of consolidation
test results, we can now proceed to calculate the probable
settlement caused by primary consolidation in the field
assuming one-dimensional consolidation.
I) Using e - log v prime
If the e-log / curve is
given, e can simply be void ratio
picked off the plot for the De
appropriate range and
pressures. This number
may be substituted into
Eq. ($) for the calculation
of settlement, Sc.
so sf log v’
 II) Using mv

= = =
 

But
  ∆𝑒
𝑆 𝑐= 𝐻 … … .(∗ ∗)
1+ 𝑒0
From (*) and (**)

𝑺 𝑪 =𝒎 𝒗 . 𝑯 . ∆ 𝝈 (∗∗ ∗)
 

 Disadvantage of (***) is related to mv since it is obtained from

e vs.  which is nonlinear and mv is stress level dependent.
This is on contrast to Cc which is constant for a wide range of
stress level.
III) Using Compression and Swelling or
recompression Indices
a) Normally Consolidated Clay (s ’ 0 = s c’ )

e  p   o
Sc  H
1 e
o
     

e  C c log o


e e
 o   

   Cc
 o 

log  
  o
b) Overconsolidated Clays
e e
 o   
 p
Sc  H e
1 e
o Cs

Case I: s ’ 0 +Ds ’ ≤ s c’

log  

 o
s c’
Case II: s ’ 0 +Ds ’ > s c’ e e1 Cs

 o   
e 2 Cc

log  
Summary of calculation procedure
1. Calculate s’o at the middle of the clay layer
2. Determine s’c from the e-log s/ plot (if not given)
3. Determine whether the clay is N.C. or O.C.
4. Calculate Ds
5. Use the appropriate equation
• If N.C.

• If O.C. If  o     c

If  o     c
Nonlinear pressure increase
q
Approach 1: Middle of layer (midpoint rule)

• For settlement calculation, the

pressure increase z can be
approximated as :
Compressible m
Layer
 z =  m

where m represent the increase in

the effective pressure in the middle of z
the layer.
z under the center
of foundation
Time Rate of Consolidation Settlement
• We now know how to evaluate total settlement of primary
consolidation Sc which will take place in a certain clay layer.
• However this settlement usually takes place over time,
much longer than the time of construction.
• One question one might ask is in how much time that
magnitude of settlement will take place. Also might be
interested in knowing the value of Sc for a given time, or
the time required for a certain magnitude of settlement.
• In certain situations, engineers may need to know the
followings information:
1. The amount of settlement Sc(t) ~ at a specific time, t,
before the end of consolidation, or
2. The time, t, required for a specific settlement
amount, before the end of consolidation.
How to get to know the rate of consolidation?
• From the spring analogy we can see that Sc is directly related to
how much water has squeezed out of the soil voids.
• How much water has squeezed out and thus the change in void
ratio e is in turn directly proportional to the amount of excess
p.w.p that has dissipated.
• Therefore, the rate of settlement is directly related to the rate
of excess p.w.p. dissipation.
• What we need is a governing equation that predict the change
in p.w.p. with time and hence e, at any point in TIME and SPACE
in the consolidation clay layer. In other words, we need
something to tell us how we get from the moment the load is
entirely carried by the water to the point the load is completely
supported by the soil. • Sc vs. water
• It is the THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION • Water vs. e
which tells us that. •  e vs. ’
•  vs. u
’
1-D Theory of Consolidation
 Terzaghi developed a theory based on the assumption that
an increment of load immediately is transferred to the
pore water to create excess pore water pressure (p.w.p).
 Then as the pore water squeezed out, the excess p.w.p.
relaxes gradually transferring the load to effective stress.
 He assumed that all drainage of excess pore water is
vertical toward one or two horizontal drainage faces. This is
described as ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION.
 3-D consolidation theory is now available but more
cumbersome.
 However 1-D theory is useful and still the one used in
practice, and it tends to overpredict settlement.
ASSUMPTIONS
 The soil is homogeneous.

 The soil is fully saturated.

 The solid particles and water are incompressible.

 Compression and flow are 1-D (vertical).

 Darcy’s law is valid at all hydraulic gradients.

 The coefficient of permeability and the coefficient of
volume change remain constant throughout the process.
 Strains are small.
Solution of Terzaghi’s 1-D consolidation equation
Terzaghi’s equation is a linear partial differential equation in
one dependent variable. It can be solved by one of various
methods with the following boundary conditions:

The solution yields (*)

Where
u = excess pore water pressure
uo = initial pore water pressure
M = p/2 (2m+1) m = an integer
z = depth
Hdr = maximum drainage path
Remarks
 The theory relates three variables:
 Excess pore water pressure u
 The depth z below the top of the clay layer
 The time t from the moment of application of load
Or it gives u at any depth z at any time t
 The solution was for doubly drained stratum.
 Finding degree of consolidation for single drainage is exactly
the same procedure as for double drainage case except here
Hd= the entire depth of the drainage layer when substituting
in equations or when using the figure of isochrones.
 Eq. (*) represents the relationship between time, depth, p.w.p
for constant initial pore water pressure u0 .

 If we know the coefficient of consolidation Cv and the initial

p.w.p. distribution along with the layer thickness and boundary
conditions, we can find the value of u at any depth z at any
time t.
Degree of consolidation
o The progress of consolidation after sometime t and at any
depth z in the consolidating layer can be related to the void
ratio at that time and the final change in void ratio.
o Thisrelationship is called the DEGREE or PERCENT of
CONSOLIDATION or CONSOLIDATION RATIO.
o Because consolidation progress by the dissipation of excess
pore water pressure, the degree of consolidation at a
distance z at any time t is given by:
  𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑼 𝒛=
𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆

……($)
Length of the drainage path, Hdr
• During consolidation water escapes from the soil to the surface or to a
permeable sub-surface layer above or below (where u = 0).
• The rate of consolidation depends on the longest path taken by a drop of
water. The length of this longest path is the drainage path length, Hdr

Hdr Hdr Hdr

Permeable layer H Clay Hdr
Hdr

L
• Typical cases are:
– An open layer, a permeable layer both above and below (Hdr = H/2)
– A half-closed layer, a permeable layer either above or below (Hdr = H)
– Vertical sand drains, horizontal drainage (Hdr = L/2)
Example 1
A 12 m thick clay layer is doubly drained (This means that a very pervious
layer compared to the clay exists on top of and under the 12 m clay layer.
The coefficient of consolidation Cv = 8.0 X 10-8 m2/s.
 61%

100%

46% 61%
Average degree of consolidation
o In most cases, we are not interested in how much a given
point in a layer has consolidated.
o Of more practical interest is the average degree or percent
consolidation of the entire layer.
o This value, denoted by U or Uav , is a measure of how much
the entire layer has consolidated and thus it can be directly
related to the total settlement of the layer at a given time
after loading.
o Note that U can be expressed as either a decimal or a
percentage.
o To obtain the average degree of consolidation over the
entire layer corresponding to a given time factor we have
to find the area under the Tv curve.
Variation of U with Tv

 𝑺 =𝑼 ( 𝒕) 𝑺 𝒄
𝒄 ( 𝒕)

Sc(t) = Settlement at any time, t

Sc = Ultimate primary consolidation settlement of the layer.
 Approximate relationships for U vs. TV
• Many correlations of variation of U with Tv have been proposed.
• Terzaghi proposed the followings:

Average degree of consolidation, U (%)

  𝟒𝑻𝒗
or 𝑼 =
√ 𝝅

or 𝑇 𝑣 −1.781
Time factor, Tv
  −
0.933
𝑈 =100 − 10
 or:  𝑺 =𝑼 ( 𝒕) 𝑺 𝒄
𝒄 ( 𝒕)

Note
These equations can be applied for all ranges of U value
with small errors .
Error in Tv of less than 1% for 0% < U < 90% and less than 3% for
90% < U < 100%.
Example 2
A soil profile consists of a sand layer 2 m thick, whose top is the ground
surface, and a clay layer 3 m thick with an impermeable boundary located
at its base. The water table is at the ground surface. A widespread load of
100 kPa is applied at the ground surface.
(i) What is the excess water pressure, Du 100 kPa
corresponding to:
• t = 0 (i.e. immediately after
applying the load) Sand 2m
• t = ∞ (very long time after applying
the load)
(ii) Determine the time required to reach
Clay 3m
50% consolidation if you know that
Cv= 6.5 m2/year.
Solution Impermeable layer
(i) Immediately after applying the load, the degree of consolidation Uz
= 0% and the pore water would carry the entire load:
at t = 0  D u0 = Ds = 100 kPa
Solution (cont.) Ds = 100 kPa
On contrary, after very long time, the degree
of consolidation U = 100% and the clay
particles would carry the load completely:
Sand 2m
at t = ∞  Du∞ = 0

(ii) The time required to achieve 50%

consolidation can be calculated from One-way drain
3m
the equation:
  𝐶𝑣𝑡 Clay
𝑇 𝑣= t = H dr .Tv / cv
2 2
𝐻 𝑑𝑟 Impermeable layer
• cv = coefficient of consolidation (given) = 6.5 m2/year
• Hdr = the drainage path length = height of clay = 3m (because the water
drain away from the sand layer only)
• Tv = is the time factor for U=50%, and can approximately be calculated
Can also be obtained from the theoretical
from: ≈ 0.197 relationship or graph

Substitution of these values in the above equation of t:

t ≈ 0.27 year
Example 3
The time required for 50% consolidation of a 25-mm-thick clay layer
(drained at both top and bottom) in the laboratory is 2 min. 20 sec.
(i) How long (in days) will it take for a 3-m-thick clay layer of the same clay
in the field under the same pressure increment to reach 50%
consolidation? In the field, there is a rock layer at the bottom of the
clay.
Laboratory Field
Porous stone GW
Clay 25mm Sand
(permeable)

(ii) How long (in days) will it take in the

field for 30% primary consolidation Clay
to occur? Assuming: 3m

Rock (impermeable)
Example 3 - solution
(i) As the clay in lab and field reached the same consolidation degree (U=50%),
Thus, The time factor in the lab test = The time factor for the field
Approach I: Approach II:
From Lab.
At U=50% …..> Tv = 0.197
From Tv = Cv t/Hd2 ....> Cv = 2.2 X 10-7 m2/S
or
In the field
0.197 = 2.2 X 10-7 X t
(3)2
12.5mm 3
/1000 m t = 93.3 days

(ii)
Tv = Cv X t
Hd2
Tv = 3.14 X (0.3)2 = 0.071 0.071 = 2.2X10-7 X t
(3)2 t = 33.5 days
4
Determination of coefficient of consolidation (Cv)
71

  In the calculation of time rate of settlement, the coefficient of

consolidation Cv is required. cv t
Tv 
H dr2
 Cv is determined from the results of one-dimensional consolidation test.
 For a given load increment on a specimen, two graphical methods are
commonly used for determining Cv from laboratory one-dimensional
consolidation tests.
o Logarithm-of-time method - by Casagrande and Fadum (1940),
o Square-root-of-time method - by Taylor (1942).

 The procedure involves plotting thickness changes (i.e. settlement)

against a suitable function of time (either log(time) or time) and then
fitting to this the theoretical Tv: Ut curve. 

 The procedure for determining Cv allows us to separate the SECONDARY

COMPRESSION from the PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION.
 The procedures are based on the similarity between the shapes of the
theoretical and experimental curves when plotted versus the square root
of Tv and t.
 logarithm-of-time method (Casagrande’s method)
Parabola portion

2
2
4

Note: This is only for the case of constant or linear u0.

 Square-root-of-time method (Taylor’s method)
1. Draw the line AB through the
early portion of the curve

2. Draw the line AC such that OC =

1.15 AB. Find the point of
intersection of line AC with the
curve (point D).

3. The abscissa of D gives the

square root of time for 90%
consolidation.

4. The coefficient of consolidation

is therefore:

  𝑻 𝟗𝟎 𝑯 𝟐𝒅𝒓   𝟎 . 𝟖𝟒𝟖 𝑯 𝟐𝒅𝒓

𝑪 𝒗= ¿
𝒕 𝟗𝟎 𝒕 𝟗𝟎
73
Notes
 For samples drained at top and bottom, Hd equals one-half of the
AVERGAE height of sample during consolidation. For samples drained
only on one side, Hd equals the average height of sample during
consolidation.
 The curves of actual deformation dial readings versus real time for a given
load increment often have very similar shapes to the theoretical U-Tv
curves.
 We take advantage of this observation to determine the Cv by so-called
“curve fitting methods” developed by Casagrande and Taylor.
 These empirical procedures were developed to fit approximately the
observed laboratory test data to the Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation.
 Often Cv as obtained by the square time method is slightly greater than Cv
by the log t fitting method.
 Cv is determined for a specific load increment. It is different from load
increment to another.
 Taylor’s method is more useful primarily when the 100 percent
consolidation point cannot be estimated from a semi-logarithmic plot of
the laboratory time-settlement data.
 Components of settlement
The total soil settlement S T may contain one or more of these types:

Immediate Primary
settlement consolidation Secondary
settlement consolidation or creep
Due to distortion or
elastic deformation Decrease in voids
with no change in volume due to Due to gradual changes
water content expulsion of pore- in the particulate
water from the soil structure of the soil

Occurs rapidly during Occurs in saturated fine

the application of Occurs very slowly, long
grained soils (low after the primary
load coefficient of consolidation is
permeability) completed
Quite small quantity in Time dependent Time dependent
dense sands, gravels
and stiff clays
Only significant in Most significant in saturated
clays and silts soft clayey and organic soils
and peats

ST = Se + Sc + Ss
Secondary Consolidation Settlement
• In some soils (especially recent organic soils) the
compression continues under constant loading after all of
the excess pore pressure has dissipated, i.e. after primary
consolidation has ceased.
• This is called secondary compression or creep, and it is due
to plastic adjustment of soil fabrics.
• Secondary compression is different from primary
consolidation in that it takes place at a constant effective
stress.
• This settlement can be calculated using the secondary
compression index, C.
• The Log-Time plot (of the consolidation test) can be used to
estimate the coefficient of secondary compression C as the
slope of the straight line portion of e vs. log time curve
which occurs after primary consolidation is complete.
• The magnitude of the secondary consolidation can be
calculated as:
𝐻

void ratio, e
 
𝑆𝑠= ∆𝑒
1+𝑒 𝑝

• ep void ratio at the end of

primary consolidation, H
thickness of clay layer.
  log (/) ep De

C = coefficient of secondary t1 t2
compression
  𝑪𝜶 𝑯 𝒕𝟐
𝑺𝒔=
𝟏+ 𝒆 𝒑
𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒕𝟏 ( )
• e0 = can still be used with only a minor error.
Remarks
 Causes of secondary settlement are not fully understood but
is attributed to:
• Plastic adjustment of soil fabrics
• Compression of the bonds between individual clay particles
and domains
 Factors that might affect the magnitude of Ss are not fully
understood. In general secondary consolidation is large for:
• Soft soils
• Organic soils
• Smaller ratio of induced stress to effective
overburden pressure.
Example 4
An open layer of clay 4 m thick is subjected to loading that increases
the average effective vertical stress from 185 kPa to 310 kPa. Assuming
mv= 0.00025 m2/kN, Cv= 0.75 m2/year, determine:

i. The ultimate consolidation settlement

ii.The settlement at the end of 1 year,
iii.The time in days for 50% consolidation,
iv.The time in days for 25 mm of settlement to occur.

Solution
(i) The consolidation settlement for a layer of thickness H can be
represented by the coefficient of volume compressibility mv defined
by:
Sc = mv H Ds´z
= 0.00025 X 4 X 125 = 0.125m = 125mm.
Example 4 – Solution (cont.)
(ii) The procedure for calculation of the settlement at a specific time
includes: 𝐶𝑣𝑡
 
 Calculate time factor:
𝑇 𝑣= 2 = ……. = 0.1875
𝐻 𝑑𝑟
 Calculate average degree of consolidation
Ut = ……………………….. = 0.49
 Calculate the consolidation settlement at the specific time (t) from:
St = Ut . Sc = …… ……. = 61 mm
  𝐶𝑣𝑡
(iii) For 50% consolidation Tv= 0.197 , therefore from 𝑣 𝑇 = 2
𝐻 𝑑𝑟
 ……. ………………..  t = 1.05 year = 384 days
(vi) For St = 25 mm Ut = 0.20 , therefore
 ……. ………………..  t = 0.1675 year = 61 days
Example 5
For a normally consolidated laboratory clay specimen drained on both
sides, the following are given:

• s‘0 = 150 kN/m2, e0 = 1.1

• s‘0 + Ds‘ = 300 kN/m2, e = 0.9
• Thickness of clay specimen = 25 mm
• Time for 50% consolidation = 2 min

i. For the clay specimen and the given loading range, determine the
hydraulic conductivity (also called coefficient of permeability, k)
estimated in: m/min.

ii. How long (in days) will it take for a 3 m clay layer in the field
(drained on one side) to reach 60% consolidation?
Example 5 – solution
i. The hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability, k) can be
calculated from:
= …….. x ……. x 9.81 = ……… m/min

mv
mv  = D e / (1+eo) / D s' = ...0.00063 m2/kN

for U=50%, Tv can be calculated from:

T50 ≈ … 0.197
cv

cv = Hdr2.Tv /t = (0.0125)2 x 0.197/2 = 0.000015

m2/min
Example 5 - solution (cont.)

ii. Time factor relation with time:

Because the clay layer has one-way drainage, Hdr = 3 m

for U=60%, T60 can be calculated from:

T60 ≈ 0.285

Hdr2.Tv /cv = (3)2 x 0.286 / (0.000015)… =………… min

=………… days
 Summary
–Consolidation Settlement
Fundamental of consolidation Spring analogy

– Calculation of Settlement from One-Dimensional

Primary Consolidation
From Phase diagram Handling of nonlinear stress

– One-Dimensional Consolidation

Consolidation test mv , av , Cc , Cs , s’c , NC, OC, OCR, Field Curve

–Time Rate of Consolidation Settlement

1-D theory of consolidation
Degree of consolidation, uz , Uz , U, Cv
– Secondary Consolidation Settlement
The end