Hedonic Consumption: Emerging Concepts, Methods and Propositions

Author(s): Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook

Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46, No. 3, (Summer, 1982), pp. 92-101
Published by: American Marketing Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1251707
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 Elizabeth C. Hirschman & Morris B. Holbrook

This paper defines hedonic consumption as those

Hedonic facets of consumer behavior that relate to the
multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of
Consumption: product usage experience. After delineating these
concepts, their theoretical antecedents are traced,
followed by a discussion of differences between
Emerging the traditional and hedonic views, methodological
implications of the latter approach, and behavioral
Concepts, propositions in four substantive areas relevant to
hedonic consumption-mental constructs, product
classes, product usage and individual differences.
Methods and Conclusions concern the usefulness of the he-
donic perspective in supplementing and extend-

Propositions ing marketing research on consumer behavior.

Introduction sensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of one's expe-

rience with products. Because the terms multisensory,
URING the 1950s there was substantial discus-
sion concerning the symbolic aspects of products fantasy, and emotive evoke a variety of meanings, we
shall define them formally at the outset to forestall
(Gardner and Levy 1955, Levy 1959). As Levy noted, confusion in their subsequent interpretation.
"People buy products not only for what they can do,
but also for what they mean" (p. 118). This line of By multisensory we mean the receipt of experi-
ence in multiple sensory modalities including tastes,
thought went forward during the 1960s to incorporate
the notion of congruence between the lifestyle a con- sounds, scents, tactile impressions and visual images.
While consumer researchers typically assume these
sumer chose and the symbolic meaning of the prod-
ucts he/she purchased (Levy 1963). experiences to be afferent (e.g., a product taste test),
the hedonic perspective also posits efferent experi-
However, during the 1970s there was a hiatus of
research and discussion regarding product symbolism. encing of multisensory impulses as an important form
of consumer response (Berlyne 1971). Individuals not
This dearth of interest possibly was due to the ex-
cesses of the motivation research era, yet there is only respond to multisensory impressions from exter-
much to be gained-both pragmatically and concep- nal stimuli (a perfume) by encoding these sensory in-
puts but also react by generating multisensory images
tually-from inquiries into the esthetic, intangible and
within themselves. For example, smelling a perfume
subjective aspects of consumption (Hirschman 1980a,
Holbrook 1980, Levy 1980). These factors pertain to may cause the consumer not only to perceive and en-
code its scent but also to generate internal imagery
phenomena that we shall refer to as "hedonic con-
sumption." Hedonic consumption designates those containing sights, sounds and tactile sensations, all of
which are also "experienced."
facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multi-
These internal, multisensory images can be of two
types. First, historic imagery involves recalling an
ElizabethC. Hirschman
is AssociateDirector,
Instituteof RetailMan- event that actually did occur. The scent of a perfume,
agement, andanAssociateProfessor
of Marketing,
Graduate Schoolof for example, can cause the consumer to evoke a past
Business,NewYorkUniversity.
MorrisB.Holbrook is anAssociatePro-
fessorof Marketing,
GraduateSchoolof Business,
Columbia University. episode involving a romance with one who wore the
perfume. Second, fantasy imagery occurs when the

92 / Journalof Marketing,Summer1982 Journal of Marketing

Vol. 46 (Summer 1982), 92-101.
 consumer responds by producing a multisensory im- However, the theoretical origins of the field may be
age not drawn directly from prior experience (Singer traced to several specialized subfields in a variety of
1966). Instead of replaying a historic sequence the behavioralsciences: cultureproductionsystems within
consumer constructs an imaginary one. The colors sociology (Becker 1973, Crane 1976, Hirsch 1972),
and shapes that are seen, the sounds that are heard, esthetics within philosophy (Jaeger 1945), affective
and the touches that are felt have never actually oc- response within psycholinguistics (Osgood, Suci and
curred,but are broughttogetherin this particularcon- Tannenbaum1957), and fantasy imagery/daydream-
figurationfor the first time and experiencedas mental ing studies within psychology (Singer 1966, Swanson
phenomena. 1978).
Of course, even those sensations that originate in In marketing an importantprecursorof research
the consumer's mind draw upon real events for their on hedonic consumption involved the stream of in-
construction(Singer 1966). It is unlikely that a con- vestigations termed Motivation Research. This re-
sumer could generate a detailed, multisensory imag- search began in the 1950s (Dichter 1960) and contin-
inative sequence without having some access to rel- ued into the 1970s; it focused on the emotional
evant real experiences. Thus, one should view aspects of products and the fantasies that products
multisensoryimagery as a continuumfrom purely his- could arouse and/or fulfill. However, many of the
toric recollections to complete fantasy. Although both clinically oriented studies conducted by motivation
may play roles in hedonic consumption, we shall fo- researchers were subject to well-known criticisms
cus here on the latter, less explored area of fantasy. concerning their rigor and validity (Kassarjian1971,
In additionto the developmentof multisensoryim- Wells and Beard 1973). Hence their long-term con-
agery, another type of response related to hedonic tributionhas been limited.
consumption involves emotional arousal. Emotions A thematically related but more conceptually ro-
representmotivationalphenomenawith characteristic bust body of literaturerelevant to hedonic consump-
neurophysiological,expressive and experientialcom- tion dealt with productsymbolism (Grubband Grath-
ponents(Izardand Beuchler 1980). They include feel- wohl 1967, Levy 1959, 1964). The intellectual debt
ings such as joy, jealousy, fear, rage and rapture owed to these earlier efforts is quite apparentin sev-
(Freud 1955). Emotive response is both psychological eral recent studies of symbolic consumption and its
and physiological in nature, generating altered states relationto hedonic experiences (Hirschmanand Hol-
in both the mind and body (Orstein 1977, Schacter brook 1981).
and Singer 1962). It includes but extends beyond the The literaturefrom these varied areas provides in-
affect or preference variables often studied by mar- sights thatcan usefully extend and supplementthe tra-
keting researchers. ditional orientationtowardconsumerresearchin mar-
Rarely in marketingresearchhas the full scope of keting. These insights are evolutionary progressions
emotional response to products been investigated. In of current paradigms and perspectives; however, in
research on hedonic consumption, however, this some ways they represent a fundamentallydifferent
range of feelings plays a major role. The seeking of orientationtoward the examinationof the interaction
emotional arousal is posited to be a major motivation between consumers and products. Using a hedonic
for the consumption of certain product classes, e.g., consumptionperspective, products are viewed not as
novels, plays and sporting events (Holbrook 1980). objective entities but rather as subjective symbols.
Further, emotional involvement is tied to the con- The researcheris concerned not so much with what
sumptionof even simple products such as cigarettes, the productis as with what it represents.Productim-
food and clothing (Levy 1959). age, not strict reality, is a central focus; consumer
In sum, hedonic consumptionrefers to consumers' emotive response, ratherthan just semantic learning,
multisensoryimages, fantasies and emotional arousal is a key criterion.Thus, the hedonic perspectiveseeks
in using products. This configurationof effects may not to replace traditionaltheories of consumptionbut
be termed hedonic response. The characteristicsand ratherto extend and enhance their applicability.
causes of hedonic response are furtherdeveloped in Hedonic perspectives can be applied to several
the sections that follow. areas of currentconcern to marketers. In this paper
we examine four: Mental Constructs,ProductClasses,
Product Usage and Individual Differences. In each
Theoretical Background area contrastsbetween the traditionaland hedonic ap-
The systematic, empirical investigation of hedonic proaches are delineated. The incremental contribu-
response in consumptionis quite new, with most rel- tions that the study of hedonic consumptioncan make
evant research dating from the late 1970s (e.g., toward increasing knowledge of consumer behavior
Hirschmanand Holbrook 1981; Holbrook 1980, 1981; are explored by developing a series of propositions.
Holbrook and Huber 1979; Levy and Czepiel 1974). These propositions highlight some discoveries that

HedonicConsumption: Concepts,MethodsandPropositions
Emerging / 93
have been made using a hedonic focus. Most of these perceive and experience products. Pictorial stimuli
could not have been anticipated from the vantage appearto be particularlyimportantin this light (Hol-
point of traditionaltheory. Also, we shall cite some brook and Moore 1981). Thus, this approachsupple-
key deficiencies of currenthedonic consumerresearch ments verbal data with that supplied by other sensory
in each area. These limitations lie primarily in the modalities and the internal generation of sensory
domain of conceptualization and measurement and impressions.
representchallengingobstacles to be overcome by re-
searchersin this area. Propositions
Several propositions can be derived from a consid-
eration of hedonic mental constructs. First, in some
Mental Contructs instances, emotional desires dominate utilitarian mo-
tives in the choice of products (Maslow 1968). For
Comparison of Traditionaland Hedonic
example, as was clearly recognized by the motivation
Approaches researchers,thereare contexts in which emotions such
Plato theorized that the human mind possessed three as love, hate or jealousy will override consumers'
distinct faculties: cognition or knowing, emotion or economic decision rules based on deductivereasoning
feeling, and conation or willing (Scott, Osgood and (Dichter 1960). Although they are depicted with great
Peterson 1979). Remarkablyenough, these three con- frequencyin classical and popularliterature(Candide,
structshave remainedlargely intactover the years and The Godfather), plays (Othello, Romeo and Juliet),
are doubtless recognizable to most marketing re- movies (Kramer vs. Kramer) and television shows
searchers as the belief, affect and intention compo- (Dallas), and firmly supported by psychoanalytic
nents of the familiar multiattributeattitudeparadigm work (Freud 1955), situations such as this have re-
(Holbrook 1978). In much presentconsumerresearch mained largely unexplored in much recent consumer
there is an emphasis on the belief componentof men- research.
tal activities. Further, currentinvestigations of con- Second, consumers imbue a product with a sub-
sumer information processing focus almost exclu- jective meaning that supplements the concrete attri-
sively on verbal information. Informationoccurring butes it possesses (Hirschman 1980a, 1981b). This
in other modalities-gustatory, olfactory, tactile, pic- process may be reinforcedby exposure to evaluative
torial, aural-remains largely unexamined(Holbrook (as opposed to factual) advertisingcontent (Holbrook
and Moore 1981). Additionally, within the multiat- 1978). For some products such as esthetic objects,
tributeframeworkemotion is representedalmost en- these intangible, symbolic attributescan be key de-
tirely by the subconstructof affect. Emotive response, terminantsof brand selection. Indeed, perceptionsof
however, as it is usually measured, representslittle the productas a subjective symbol ratherthan a con-
more thana consumer'sevaluationof tangibleproduct crete object can account for the selection of brands
attributes.The broaderdimensions of emotion, such that are clearly inferior in terms of their tangible fea-
as strong feelings of anguish or rapturein response tures but are viewed as subjectively superiorsymbols
to products,are little explored or accountedfor (Hol- (Levy 1959).
brook 1980). Third, hedonic consumption is tied to imaginative
This neglect probablyresults from the traditional constructions of reality (Singer 1966). Thus, hedonic
economic view of products as objects for which the consumption acts are based not on what consumers
consumer desires to maximize utility, where utility know to be real but ratheron what they desire reality
typically is measured as some function of the prod- to be. This, of course, echoes a propositionraised 20
uct's tangible attributes.While this approachis quite years ago by motivation researchers (Dicter 1960).
valid and useful for goods whose tangible qualities Indeed, the consumer'sinternalconstructionof reality
and utilitarianperformance serve as primary deter- may not be congruent with the external, objectively
minantsof their value to the consumer, it would seem verifiable world. It follows that researchersprobing
inappropriatefor productswhose selection and use are the mental imagery that the consumer constructs
based upon satisfying emotional wants, rather than arounda productrequiremeasuresof how the product
fulfilling utilitarianfunctions. is seen in the consumer's subjective reality, beyond
Traditionalconsumerresearchhas largely ignored its objective context. One way of accomplishingthis
multisensoryafferentand efferentconsumerresponse, is to ask consumers if they ever pretend that some-
while measuringsemanticratherthanemotive and im- thing other than reality is occurring when they are
aginal reactions to products. While not denying the consuming a product (Swanson 1978).
utility of the traditionalview, hedonic consumer re- For example, recent researchindicates that mem-
search seeks to augment its focus by acknowledging bers of an audience may imagine themselves as one
the several sensory channels used by consumers to of the actors while viewing a movie, play or other

94 / Journalof Marketing,
Summer1982
performance;there is evidence that some of those who the use of verbal descriptions in consumer research
engage in this type of projective fantasy may pur- needs to be supplemented with data on consumers'
posely attend a performancebecause they have fore- use of other sensory impressions in experiencing
knowledge that it contains a role in which they would products. Some researchersalready make use of pic-
like to imagine themselves (Hirschman1982a). Sim- torial (Holbrook and Moore 1981), aural (Huber and
ilarly, the great popularity of pornographysuggests Holbrook 1980) and gustatory stimuli and employ
that many who consume pornographicbooks, movies nonverbalresponse measures such as the information
and paraphernaliaare doing so to act out or enhance display boardor eye-movement camera (Jacoby et al.
their sexual fantasies (Green 1981). Thus, fantasies 1976). However, the underlying nonverbal stimulus-
on various themes are important determinants and responseconnectionsrequiremore systematic, empir-
consequentsof hedonic consumption.Swanson (1978) ical investigation.
terms these absorbing experiences because the con- Another need concerns the nature of emotional
sumeris absorbedinto the reality createdby the prod- response. Reliable and valid operationalizationof
uct. emotions is essential in two areas. The first involves
Anotherexample of self-constructedreality is that the role emotion plays in the selection of products.
of cigarettesmokers who enjoy imagining themselves The choice contexts in which emotion may operate
as "MarlboroMen." The traditionalassumptionhas have not yet been fully identified but representgreat
been that the effectiveness of the cowboy theme de- potentialfor bettercomprehendingconsumerdecision
pended on lending the cigarette and, hence its user, making. This could be especially appropriatein sit-
a masculine image. It is likely, however, that the im- uationswhen the productis being purchasedprimarily
age adoptedby some Marlboroconsumers is a much as an expressive symbol, for example, as a gift or to
more literal one-that these consumers actually want commemoratean importantlife event.
to generate self-images as the idealized cowboy. Second, measures of emotional arousal during
Thus, one importantset of motives for consumption acts of product consumptionare needed. Consumers
is the desire to enter or create an alteredstate of real- may purchasecertainproductswith the intent of gen-
ity. eratingan emotional reactionwithin themselves. This
Fourth, a growing body of evidence suggests that interveninghedonic response must be monitoreddur-
sensory-emotivestimulationseeking and cognitive in- ing consumptionso as to determineits linkage to con-
formation seeking are two independent dimensions. sumer satisfaction and product enjoyment. One po-
Extensive investigationsby Zuckerman(1979) on the tential source of such process measures is chemical
constructof sensation seeking (the desire for sensory- changes in blood serum and cortical areasof the brain
emotional arousal) followed by recent studies on he- (Kroeber-Riel1979). Anotherinvolves overt, observ-
donic consumption (Hirschman 1982) indicate that able behaviors that evince the consumer's emotional
consumers seek sensory-emotional and/or cognitive response (Izard and Beuchler 1980). A third deals
stimulation-that is, some consumers are above av- with alterationsof vital signs indicating arousal and
erage on both dimensions, others above average on excitement (Schachterand Singer 1962).
one dimension only, and others below average on
both.
This orthogonality of sensory-emotive and cog- Product Classes
nitive stimulation seeking could lead to a major re-
formulationof notions concerningoptimal stimulation Comparison of Traditionaland Hedonic
level and innovativeness (Hirschman 1980b). Appar- Approaches
ently, two (or more) distinct optimums exist for any A second difference between hedonic consumption
given consumer. and traditionalconsumer researchconcerns the prod-
uct classes selected for investigation. Traditionalcon-
Limitations
sumerresearchhas tended to focus on package goods
The hedonic approach to consumer behavior raises (toothpaste, cigarettes, cereal, detergent, beer) and
importantissues concerning the role of mental con- major durables (appliances, automobiles) as objects
structs such as multisensory imagery and emotional of study (Holbrook 1980). In contrast, hedonic con-
arousal.However, to examine these areasrequiresthe sumer research investigates the performingarts (op-
furtherdevelopment of research methodologies, the era, ballet, moder dance, legitimate theater), the
operationalizationof several new variablesand an ex- plastic arts (painting, photography, sculpture, crafts)
tended conceptual framework. and the corollaries of these high culture products
First, techniquesfor bettermanipulatingand mea- withinpopularculture(movies, rock concerts, fashion
suring consumer acquisition and processing of mul- apparel).Numerous examples of these latter substan-
tisensoryimages are needed. The presentemphasison tive concernsmay be found in the conference sessions

Hedonic
Consumption:
Emerging Methods
Concepts, andPropositions
/ 95
 edited by Hirschman and Holbrook (1981), Hirsch- Such consumptionbehaviorseems irrationalif one
man and King (1980) and Holbrook (1980). assumes that consumers pursue maximizationof the
The divergenceof productfocus between hedonic "sum-of-pleasures-minus-pains"according to Ben-
and traditionalconsumer research mirrorsthe diver- tham's felicific calculus. Using the traditionalutility-
gence in theoreticalphilosophies underlyingeach dis- maximizing multiattributeparadigm, such behavior
cipline. Each has chosen productswhere a priori one would representselection of a productin which sev-
might anticipatethatthe assumptionsand propositions eral strong, negative attributeswere known to be pres-
it advanced would most likely be found valid. For ent. However, the hedonic perspectiveacknowledges
example, one might logically expect that selection that consumers can utilize painful knowledge to ex-
decisions concerning utilitarian products such as pend emotions and construct fantasies that enable
washing machines would be best predicted and ex- them to deal with unhappyrealitiesbetter. In this light
plainedusing the expectancy-valueformulationof the such consumption behavior is constructive and ra-
traditional multiattributeattitude model. Similarly, tional (Freud1955, Suomi and Harlow 1976). Indeed,
hedonicconsumptionresearchershave typicallyplayed recent exploratoryresearchreveals that consumption
their strong suit by selecting emotion laden, subjec- of movies, plays and books is often consciously un-
tively-experiencedproductssuch as ballet, music and dertaken to help consumers deal with "unhappy
theater. events they had experienced" (Hirschman1982a).
This emphasis on esthetic productsis constructive Two psychological theoriesprovide furtherration-
for several reasons. First, it provides an impetus for ales for such acts of painful hedonic consumption.
exploring several classes of products that have been Psychoanalytictheory (Freud 1955) suggests thatpur-
largely ignored in traditionalconsumer research:au- poseful exposure to frightening experiences enables
dio records and tapes, novels, plays, movies, opera, the consumer to purge anxieties. If left unattended,
sporting events and so forth. Such productsplay an these anxieties might eventually emerge as neurotic
importantrole in the consumer's life-providing him/ symptoms. For example, Jews who are unable con-
her with entertainmentand an outlet for emotion and sciously to deal with knowledge of their historic per-
fantasy. Second, despite the fact that all productscan secutionmay later manifest their anxieties in the form
be hedonicallyexperiencedby consumers, those upon of paranoia.An alternativebut noncompetingration-
which research has been focused deserve special at- ale for the consumptionof anxiety-arousingproducts
tentionbecause of theircapacityto generateunusually stems from work on behavior modification (Suomi
strong emotional involvement (Holbrook 1980). In and Harlow 1976). By exposing oneself to such ex-
contrastto the low involvement experienced in using perienceson a self-controlledbasis, the consumercan
toothpasteor detergent, the response to observing a build up a gradual tolerance (desensitization) con-
sportingevent, watchinga film or hearinga rock con- cerningthe frighteningknowledge and therebyreduce
cert is more intense, more involving and potentially its ability to arouse fear and anxiety.
more importantin the life of the consumer (Maslow
1968). Propositions
Third, an intriguingcharacteristicof esthetic prod- Some importantpropositionsare suggested by the he-
ucts is that, while they may be consumed in antici- donic perspectiveregardingproductclasses. First, the
pationof the pleasurethey provide, the consumermay product classes discussed tend to be more emotionally
also choose to consume them even with foreknowl- involving than those traditionally examined in con-
edge that they will cause emotional pain (Suomi and sumer research. Products such as movies, concerts,
Harlow 1976). Such consumptionsituationsmay help plays and novels can evoke complex fantasiesand ful-
consumers deal with unpleasant or unhappy events fill deep-seated and salient emotional needs. Their
that they feel the need to confront, via fantasy and consumptionoften representsan act of profoundim-
emotional arousal (Freud 1955). Two instructiveex- portanceto the consumer.
amples are the recently televised docu-dramas,Roots Second, the consumption of such products gen-
andHolocaust. Paradoxically,viewing of these series erates and requires substantial mental activity on the
was especially strong, respectively, among blacks and part of the consumer. This is true because of the mul-
Jews whose consumption of the product was certain
tisensory imagery inspired by (say) a ballet and the
to evoke violent and fearful images drawnfrom their
expenditureof emotionalresourcesused to experience
own history (Time 1980). Other recent examples of and interpretthe product. Further,it is likely that the
painfulhedonic consumptionwould include the view- mental activity engendered by consuming hedonic
ing of Kramer vs. Kramer by parents involved in products is predominatelyright brain-oriented(Orn-
child custody fights, Unmarried Woman and stein 1977), since the capacity for respondingto vi-
Starting
Over by people deserted by their spouses, or And
sual-spatial stimuli and emotion laden events is be-
Then You Cry by persons afflicted with cancer. lieved centered in this hemisphere. If later research

96 / Journalof Marketing,Summer1982
supports this contention, then it is likely that such gically orientedconcern of marketerswith the predic-
products may also be experienced as gestalts, since tion and explanation of brand choice. While the he-
the rightbrainseems to respondto stimuli in a holistic donic perspective in no sense advocates a reduction
ratherthan analytical fashion. of researchon consumer decision making, it does ar-
Third, patronage decisions regarding hedonically gue for increased attentionto phenomenainvolved in
consumed products are based primarily on the sym- product usage. The hedonic perspective includes the
bolic elements of the products rather than their tan- psychological experiences that accompany product
gible features. A novel or play is selected primarily usage. Thus, hedonic responses may be viewed as the
because of its ability to transportthe consumer to a essence of the usage experience.
more desirable reality and/or to help in coping with Within this general frameworkthe dynamic inter-
an unpleasant emotional dilemma. Recent research action between product and consumer is especially
indicates that even physical activities such as bicycle important.For example, the reaction of an audience
riding and skiing can be undertakenbecause of their has complex reciprocaleffects on both performers-and
symbolic qualities (Hirschman 1982a). viewers duringa play or sportingevent (Rolling Stone
1980). Many hedonic products are consumed over
Limitations time. An opera may last several hours;a paintingmay
The primary limitation encountered with respect to be contemplatedin a museum for a few minutes or
hedonically-consumed product classes involves the in the home for years. The emotions and fantasy im-
special challenges they pose in developing adequate ages experienced by the consumer are in continuous
measurementmethodologies. First, as a threatto re- flux throughoutthis usage period. One objective of
liability, many of the products discussed (a concert, hedonic consumption research is to monitor and, if
ballet or play) are live performancesand subject to possible, to predict emotional reactions and fantasy
variabilityacross time. The composition of perform- imagery during productusage.
ing units may change, as in the substitutionof an un- Duringproductusage the consumer'smentalener-
derstudyfor the leading lady. Further,even if the cast gies expended in emotional and imaginal responses
of performersis constant, the quality of their perfor- pose a problemof resourceallocation (Orstein 1977,
mance is susceptible to variation. In either case, the Schacterand Singer 1962, Singer 1966). Thus, if con-
content of the productchanges, thereby reducing the sumers know in advance that hedonic consumption
reliability of measures taken. Moreover, even for will require a certain level of imaginal participation
products not created via live performance (movies, and emotional expenditure, they may choose to use
records), such external factors as instrumentation (or to avoid) a certain productbecause they wish (or
(poor quality TV reception, speaker distortion) and refuse) to make such an investmentof their imaginal-
consumption conditions (hot and crowded theaters, emotional resources (Singer 1966, Zuckerman1979).
street noises) may threatenreliability. This notion of imaginal-emotional effort allocation
A second measurement problem concerns the during product usage extends the traditionalmarket-
question of validity. Achieving valid measurementis ing focus on money expenditures,while also moving
difficult enough in most behavioral research. Yet beyond the emphasis of informationtheorists on cog-
these difficulties are compounded when the stimulus nitive processing effort duringdecision making (Bett-
of interestis composed of both real and imagined as- man 1979).
pects and when the consumer's hedonic response may Consider a consumer who is contemplatingenter-
be manifested both physically and mentally. Here, a tainment choices on Friday night and has narrowed
combinationof traditionalscaling techniques (seman- the options to two movies both costing $4 per person,
tic differentialscales, forced-choice tasks) and phys- thereby controlling for demands on money resources
iological indices of arousal (galvanic skin response, across alternatives.One movie is a noninvolving sit-
brain waves) will doubtless be requiredto reflect the uation comedy (Nine to Five) while the second is an
complexity of hedonic consumer responses (Krober- intense saga of love, hate, violence and sexuality
Riel 1979). (Raging Bull). We believe that consumers desiring a
minimal expenditureof their imaginal-emotionalen-
ergy would likely choose the former, while those de-
Product Usage siring a more catharticexperience would probablyopt
for the latter.
Comparison of Traditionaland Hedonic
Approaches Propositions
Withintraditionalconsumerresearchthe most studied Some interestingpropositionsemerge from regarding
consumption activity is the decision making process hedonic consumptionas a dynamic usage experience.
(Bettman 1979). This focus originates in the strate- First, there appears to be a preferred or most desir-

HedonicConsumption: Concepts,MethodsandPropositions
Emerging / 97
 able pattern of emotional arousal for products expe- periences. Sensation seeking encompasses four inter-
rienced over a specific timeframe (Osborneand Far- related dimensions: thrill and adventureseeking, ex-
ley 1970). For example, a novel, a movie, a rock perience seeking, disinhibition and boredom sus-
concert or a football game are products that are ex- ceptibility (Zuckerman1979). The construct is mea-
perienced over time, during which varied emotions sured using a 72-item, forced-choice instrument.
and fantasies are aroused in the consumer. Often the Despite the pencil-and-papernatureof this operation-
most preferredpattern of arousal is one that begins alization the scale has been found to correlate quite
at a low level, increasesin intensity, reaches a climax strongly with several indicative behaviors, such as
and then gradually subsides. This patternappears in risky physical activities (hang gliding), drug and li-
the structureof most operas, ballets, movies, novels, quor consumption, frequency and variety of sexual
plays, jazz solos, and orchestralpieces and is more intercourse, preference by women for infant breast-
formallyrepresentedby the prologue, chorus, climax, feeding and enjoymentof complex visual and auditory
epilogue sequence of classical Greek literatureand stimuli.
drama(Jaeger 1945). In a clear parallel to sexual in- The measures developed by Hilgard (1970) for
tercourse, the sequence representsa classic instance assessing tendencies toward absorbing experiences
of art imitatinglife, perhapswith characteristicrhythm have been shown to correlate with susceptibility to
drawn largely from the survival value of procreation hypnosis and altered states of consciousness. More-
(Berlyne 1971, Maslow 1968). over, the absorbingexperiences scales appliedin clin-
According to Zuckerman(1979), sexual arousal ical settings have recently been revised by Swanson
is one of the primaryconcomitantsof many types of (1978) for applicationto normal, consuming popula-
hedonic consumption. For example, a popular he- tions. Exploratoryresearchhas shown that tendencies
donic experience for high school and college students towardabsorbingexperiences are related to the seek-
is the rock concert. A vivid account of the role the ing of sensory-emotionalarousal and to the escape
rock concert can play in fulfilling the sexual fantasies from reality by engaging in fantasy (Hirschman
of both audience and performers was recently pro- 1982a).
vided by David Lee Roth, lead singer in a popular Both the sensation seeking and absorbingexperi-
rock group: "As for me personally, I feel sexy a ences scales are readily administeredin survey re-
whole lot of the time. That's one of the reasons I'm search designs and are, therefore, potentially usable
in this job: to exercise my sexual fantasies. When I'm in the large sample studies favored by marketingre-
onstage, it's like doing it with 20,000 of my closest searchers.Need for their use is suggested by the fact
friends. And you don't have to ask them if they that sensation seeking has been found to be indepen-
'came.' They'll let you know" (Rolling Stone 1980, dent of cognitive informationprocessing characteris-
p. 21). tics such as divergent processing ability, short-term
A second proposition stems from recent findings memorycapacityand informationtransfer,but strongly
that the capacity and desire for expending imaginal- related to other hedonic consumptionmeasures such
emotional resources varies within one consumerover as imagery and projective consumption (Zuckerman
time (Zuckerman1979). Such temporal shifts in he- 1979).
donic energy raise importantquestionsconcerningthe An accompanyingdisadvantagestems from their
dynamic patterns of product usage. However, their essentially static nature, which renders them poorly
investigationraises serious methodologicalproblems, suitedto trace the dynamicchanges in the consumer's
to which we now turn. general degree of hedonic effort and capacity. More-
Limitations over, it is likely thatthey tap chroniclevels of hedonic
energy associated with basic personality structure
Exploration of hedonic consumption as a dynamic ratherthan acute levels of momentarysensory-emo-
process requiresthe developmentof appropriatemea- tive expenditures.In this sense, they are less appro-
sures of imaginal-emotiveeffort, capacity and desire. priateto the study of usage experience than to the in-
Yet, in contrast to the progress that has been made vestigation of individual differences, a subject to
in measuring cognitive effort and capacity (Jensen which we now turn.
1980, Sternberg1977), the measurementof imaginal-
emotive effort and capacity remains largely unex-
plored.
IndividualDifferences
In seeking measuresof imaginal-emotiveexpendi- Comparison of Traditionaland Hedonic
tures, there are two primary sources from which to Approaches
draw: Zuckerman's (1979) sensation seeking scale A final area of demarcationbetween the hedonic and
and the scales Hilgard (1970) and Swanson (1978) traditionalapproachesto consumerresearchconcerns
developed to assess tendencies toward absorbingex- the issue of individual differences. In accord with its

98 / Journal
of Marketing,
Summer
1982
strategic orientation, much traditionalmarketingre- pressive, whereassuch displaysare discouragedamong
search has taken a post hoc approachto sources of Protestants(Patai 1977). It has also been found that
interpersonalvariance, in which consumers evincing fantasizingand complexity of imagery are distributed
certainbehaviors (brandloyalty, high usage rate, low in similar fashion across these three religious groups
satisfaction) are profiled according to their discrimi- (Singer 1966). Jews and Catholic Italians not only
nating characteristics. This descriptive profile ap- report more and richer fantasies than do Protestants
proach is one common method of market segmenta- but also report significantly more erotic and sensual
tion and also appears in the many audience profile content in their fantasies (Singer 1966).
studies conducted by hedonic consumption research- Third, subcultural groups vary in their perception
ers (Andreasenand Belk 1980). However, a comple- of what products are appropriate for hedonic con-
mentaryorientationmore typical of hedonic research sumption. For example, consumers of many hedoni-
employs an approachin which subculturalgroups are cally-experiencedproducts are characterizedby very
defined a priori-before being comparedon the basis distinctive social class profiles (Lapso 1981, Wachtel
of hedonicresponses(Hirschman1982a, Singer 1966). 1981). Operagoersare typically older, wealthier and
Here, the central propositionis that individualdiffer- higher in social status than theatergoers. Similarly,
ences in ethnic background, social class and gender large socioeconomic differences exist between those
cause products to vary greatly in the emotions and who patronize basketball games and those attending
fantasies they inspire in a consumer. museum exhibits (though cost differentials between
Given this premise, recent research has begun to these two products are minimal or even countervail-
investigatedifferences between various subculturesin ing). These differences suggest that social class acts
their emotions toward and fantasies about products. as a subculturalsocialization agent, channeling con-
For example, six ethnic groups (Chinese, English, sumers into those hedonic activities appropriateto
Greek, Irish, Italian, Jewish) were found to differ their social positions. Marketersattemptingto broaden
greatly in their emotional motives for pursuing con- the performing arts audience confront the problem
sumption activities, their tendencies toward fantasy that, if middle-class consumers begin attending in
and altered states of consciousness, and their projec- large numbers,upper-classpatronsmay leave in favor
tion into consumptionexperiences(Hirschman1982a). of something more exclusive. Notions of social ap-
This subcultural approach to individual differences propriatenessappear to extend to gender and ethnic
helps enrich researchresults by focusing attentionon group influences on hedonic consumption. Ethnic
the social origins of variation in hedonic response. groups share norms that encourage and discourage
Further,it helps efforts to identify and understandthe certain kinds of hedonic consumption. For example,
culturalsources of images-both of a real and fantasy recent research on weekend evening entertainment
nature-that guide consumers in their adoption and choices by Catholics, Jews and Protestantsshows sev-
usage of products. eral significantdifferences (Hirschman1982b). There
are also various social norms concerning masculine
Propositions entertainmentforms (e.g., sporting events) and fem-
Given this perspective, some importantpropositions inine entertainmentforms (e.g., shopping).
follow. First, differences in consumer emotional and
imaginal response to products appear closely tied to
Limitations
a variety of subcultural differences. Ethnic groups, Research on subculturaldifferences in hedonic con-
whether defined along racial, religious or nationality sumptionhas thus far neglected the effects of cultural
dimensions represent complex systems of socializa- pluralism associated with the heterogeneous ethnic
tion, educating their members into a certain world composition of American society. For example, be-
view and enforcing adherence to a set of customs cause religious affiliation transversesthe social class
(Hirschman 1981a, 1982b). Hence, an individual hierarchy, mutually facilitative or suppressive mod-
tends to treat a product according to the perspective erating effects may occur. Thus, if Protestants(say)
learnedfrom his/her ethnic group. Similarly, the val- are predisposedto the consumptionof literature,one
ues sharedby membersof a given social class or gen- might find upper-, middle- and lower-class members
der affect desires for and responses to products. of this religious denomination reading philosophy,
Second, subcultures vary in the amount offantasy best-sellers and romance paperbacks, respectively.
and emotionality encouraged/permitted in their mem- Such potential interaction effects have not yet been
bers (Hirschman1982b, Singer 1966). Differences of explored systematically in hedonic research.
this type can greatly influence the potential for and
exhibition of hedonic response by consumers. For in- Conclusions
stance, Jews and Italian Catholics are generally per- We have defined hedonic consumptionas those facets
mitted by their ethnic norms to be emotionally ex- of consumerbehavior that relate to the multisensory,

HedonicConsumption: Concepts,MethodsandPropositions
Emerging / 99
fantasy and emotive aspects of productuse. We have tualizationand study. Four areashave been examined
argued that this hedonic viewpoint representsan im- in termsof comparisonswith the traditionalapproach.
portantextension of traditionalconsumerresearchand These four areas include Mental Constructs,Product
offers a complementaryperspective for conceptual- Classes, ProductUsage and IndividualDifferences.
izing many otherwise neglected consumption phe- The frameworkoffered is admittedlyboth tenta-
nomena. Accordingly, constructsof multisensoryex- tive and ambitious. We expect that it will provoke
perience, fantasy imagery and emotive response have controversybut hope that it will also stimulatereflec-
been introduced, defined and linked to various con- tion on the natureof consumerbehavior.The behavior
sumptionprocesses. of consumers, we believe, is far more sensorily com-
Hedonic consumptionis tied theoreticallyto work plex, imaginative and emotion laden than has been
in several of the behavioral sciences-including so- reflected in the traditionalapproachto marketingre-
ciology, esthetics, linguistics, psychology and psy- search. The hedonic approach, while certainly no
cholinguistics-as well as to motivation research and complete solution, may take us furthertoward com-
product symbolism in marketing theory. Given its prehending the multiple facets of the consumption
comparativeneglect in marketingresearch, we have experience.
sought to put forward a framework for its concep-

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Hedonic
Consumption:
Emerging Methods
Concepts, andPropositions
/ 101