FCE 351: ENGINEERING SURVEYING II

- Conduct of course.
- Course outline and topics.

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Control surveys.

For establishment of points with determined coordinates to be used
in subsequent lower level survey works.

1.1.1 What is survey control?

- Defined by coordinates x, y, z (rect.) or ,λ,h (curv.)
=Grid coordinates
Given by perpendicular distances Ep and Np from the two
Principal axes; Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
mostly used
=Polar coordinates
Given by parameters r and θ being distance of a point from
The origin and angular separation from a chosen reference
direction respectively
= Geographical Coordinates
Known as latitude and longitude which are angular
separation between a point to the equatorial plane along the line
of local meridian and that separation between the point and the
Greenwich meridian along the equator respectively. These are
rarely used in Engineering surveying

1.1.2 Types of Survey Controls

- Horizontal; represented in (x, y) or (,λ)
- Vertical; represented as z or h.
- Datum for controls.
= coordinates origin related for horizontal
= MSL or local for vertical
 Network of survey points with known positions in 2D or 3D and
their accuracy
Example:

Coordinates of point A; 1932.76m E, 770.47m N

‘ G; 2016.29 952.18
Length A to F ; 91.88m 9 (d)
Bearing AF ; 2950 25’ 45’’ (θ)

Find coordinates of F and length of FG

Solution;
∆EAF = dsinθ = -82.93m
∆NAF = dcosθ= 39.45m
EF = 1849.83m E
NF = 809.92m N

∆EFG = 166.46m
∆NFG = 142.26m
DFG =219.01m By Pythagoras’ theorem

1.1.3 Control networks provide a reference framework of points for;

 Topographic or large-scale mapping
 Dimensional control of construction works
 Deformation surveys for structures mornitoring
 Extension and densification of existing networks
Review of types of surveys: engineering,
Underground,hydrographic,control,photogrammetric,topogra
phical,cadastral, & remote sensing
1.1.4 Methods used for control surveys;
 Traversing
 Triangulation
 Trilateration
 Triangulateration
 Satellite positioning
 Inertial position fixing.
1.1.5 Fixing (coordinating) single points.
- Intersection; Use two directions and two known positions to fix
the unknown point
- Resection; Use three known points and two included angles to fix
P or two known points and two known distances.

1.2. Triangulation
- Network comprising triangles and a measured baseline
- Used to fix control, through angular observations from baselines.
- Angles provide fewer logistical problems than distances.
- Point sites on mountain tops for primary
network (Primary, Secondary and tertiary)
- Now moribund due to advent or new methods
Centred triangles and polygons

Baseline

1.3 Trilateration
- Distance measurement of triangle sides.
- Gained acceptance with advent of EDM.
- Geometric figures similar to those for triangulation.
- Liable to accumulation of azimuth error.
- In practice requires some minimal angular
Measurements

1.4 Triangulateration.
- Combination of triangulation and trilateration.
- Produces control networks with all angles and sides measured.
 - Strong network hence more accurate.
- More preferred than the two above

1.5 Traversing
- With advent of Electomagnetic Distance Measuring(EDM)
instruments it has become most popular for control surveys.
- The only method available in mining for underground surveys.
- In civil engineering it is suited for surveys for dimensional control
of route-type projects
- Offers comparable accuracy though logistically more superior.
- Consists of series of angles and distances to obtain coordinates of the
occupied points.
More treatment later

1.6 Satellite Position Fixing

- Most notable is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
- Uses artificial satellites flying at altitude of about 20,000km for point
positioning.
- Observing at two earth-based points allows baseline measurements.
- With one point known the coordinate of the other can be determined.
- Faster, accurate and convenient.
- Dominating the stage now
- Uses 3 or more satellites to fix the unknown point given that the
satellite positions are known. This is space trilateration

1.7 Inertial Surveying System

- ISS provides 3D positioning.
 - Doesn’t require intervisibility between the two points.
- Can progress at the speed of the vehicle housing.

- It consists of 3 accelerometers held in 3 mutually orthogonal axes by

3 orientated gyroscopes.
- Normally housed in a vehicle or helicopter.
- Starts from known position and computes coordinate differences to
obtain positions of new points.
- Measures accelerations and times which are processed to obtain
instantaneous positions.

1.8 Engineering Surveying.

1.8.1 - Engineering Surveying defined as any surveying carried out to
Support/facilitate the design, construction or maintenance of
works.
Three main components of Engineering Surveys are setting out,
earthworks and deformation monitoring.
 Earthworks – carrying out measurements to enable
computation of areas and volume.
 Setting out – tranferring plan information onto the ground
to realize the works.
  Deformation Monitoring – carrying out repeat
measurements for detection of displacements, shear and
rotations of structures on the earth’s surface.

1.8.2 Aspects of Engineering Surveying

- Setting out for engineering constructions (e.g. roads, railways,
bridges, dams)
- Monitoring deformation trends of engineering structures.
- Industrial alignments (e.g. installation of machines, crane routes
e.t.c)
- Vertical alignments (high rise buildings, roads).
- Prediction of deformation behavior of structures on the basis of
known deformation patterns.
- Mining surveying.
- Other surveys for engineering works (levelling for drainage,
railways, pipeline).

1.8.3 Principle of Engineering Surveying.

Largely same principles of general Land Surveying but guided or
distinguished by the factors:
- Small scale operations requiring large scale maps or plans.
- Higher accuracy requirements.
- Greater need for statistical analysis.
- More emphasis on difference in measured values (horizontal and
height)
- Repeat Measurements.
- Results may be based on arbitrary controls.
- Mostly uses high precision EDMs and precise leveling methods.
- First-hand information may be obtained through analysis of raw-
data.
- Meteorological data essential for high accuracy.
Most of these requirements are specific to Deformation
Surveys

1.8.4 Techniques
(i) Terrestrial techniques for horizontal information.
- EDM measurements.
 - High precision theodolites.
- Triangulation on deformation networks.

(ii) Precise leveling.

- provide vertical information.
- used to determine rate of settlement or uplift of structure.
- used to determine height differences required for drainage,
pipeline etc.

(iii) Global Positioning System.

- Provide both horizontal and vertical information.
- Appropriate when accuracies upto the millimeter level
are sought.
- Real Time Kinematic

(iv) Other techniques.

Required for peripheral, coarse or preliminary information.
- Photogrammetry
- Remote Sensing.

1.9 DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS

Distance- linear separation btwn 2 pts along a section in a specified
surface
Plan distances relates to horizontal distances.

 Gunters (Surveyor’s) chain.

- Oldest.
- 60 ft of 100 links each 8inches long
- Obsolete
 Steel/Metallic/Cloth tapes.
- Metallic woven tape with fine tinsel twisted round
- 30-100m long.
- Less accurate.
- Expansion/shrinkage not controlled.
 Invar tapes.
- Nickel/ steel alloy.
- Small 
- High precision surveys
- L is 1/30 of ordinary tape
 Odometer.
- Measures wheel revolutions
- With known wheel diameter distance is calculated.
- Used for coarse survey works or recce
 The Stadia.
- Measures interval of stadia hairs
- Simple, fast.
- Limited accuracy due to direct rod reading
- Gives slope distance.
- Rod interval obtained optically.
To treated later
 Subtense bar.
- Two targets at each end of a horizontal metal bar
- Fixed distance
- Optical.
- Measure inner horizontal angle
- Obsolete.

 Satellite derived/Extra terrestrial

- GPS-based
- Observe same satellite at the two terminal points.
 - Relative positions obtained.
- More accurate
- Baseline measurements

 EDM.
Uses Electromagnetic waves to measure distance between 2
points
- Longer distances.
- Accurate.
- Faster.
- Not Terrain dependent
 2. VERTICAL CONTROL

2.1 Levelling is comparison/determination of heights of points on

the surface of the earth.
- Height given to another point from a known value of a point.
- Heights referred to a plane called datum.
- Datum for heights normally chosen to be the Mean Sea Level (MSL).
 It makes comparison of heights at different points possible.
- In Kenya we use MSL at the coast.
- MSL determined by measuring water levels over a period of time.
- Small works use local or arbitrary datums.

2.2 Various methods for heighting

= Differential leveling
 Height differences from vertical distance from horizontal line of
sight.
 Uses the level and vertical staff

= Trigonometric heighting
  Height difference from measured slant distance and vertical angle.
-Used when leveling is not possible.
-Lower accuracy.
 Uses theodolite and a vertical staff or total station

= Barometric heighting
- Elevation differences from air pressure difference readings.
- Some barometers also carry scale graduated in elevation differences
(metres).
- Lower accuracy about 3m
- Uses a barometer for height or pressure measurements

= Satellite Positioning
 Poised for extensive use.
 Derives elevation from satellite observations of the point-
satellite range.
 Challenge is geoid-ellipsoid separation accuracy.

2.3 DEFINITIONS.

- Level line
= normal to g; curved
- Horizontal line
= tangential to level line at a point
- Datum
= level surface to which elevations of pts are referred; e.g. msl
- Reduced level
= the elevation of a point above or below a given datum
- Benchmarks
= point heighted to form network of reference points to which
levels of other points may be related.
= built on stable base
= Three types
+ Fundamental
+ Ordinary
+ Temporary
2.4 Basic Equipment In Levelling

 Device that gives a truly horizontal line (the level).

 Suitably graduated staff for reading vertical heights (the
leveling staff).

Difference in the readings on the vertical staff is a direct measure of

height difference.
2.5 Elements Of The Surveyor’s Level
The general features of the conventional level are:
 Telescope – gives extended lines of sight in the horizontal
plane.
 Bubble tube to enable those lines to be brought horizontal.

2.6 Uses Of Levelling

The main uses of leveling include;
i) Determination of difference in level between two points
ii) Longitudinal sections
iii) Cross-sections
iv) Contouring
v) Setting out levels

2.7 THE LEVELS

There are FOUR basic types of levels in common use:
i) Dumpy
ii) Tilting
iii) Automatic
iv) Digital

2.7.1 The bubble tube

Ensures horizontality of level tube when its central in the tube.
Two types exist
 Split bubble
 Circular bubble

2.7.2 The Levelling Staff

- Used for ordinary leveling work.
- Sections assembled either telescopically or by slotting one on another.
- Manufactured of aluminum alloy or of mahogany.
- Of lengths 3, 4 or 5m on extension.
- With upright figuring with graduations spaced at 10mm interval.
- Readings can be estimated to 1mm.
- Small circular spirit level attached to the back for setting the staff
vertically.
2.7.3 Precise levelling staff
- Used for more accurate work.
- Comprises a graduated invar strip fitted in a wooden frame to be
unaffected by temperature effects on the frame.
- Two invar strips with two graduation lines at 10mm intervals.
- The two are displaced and numbered differently so that reading
difference for each sighting is 3.0155m.
- This offers an independent field check.
- Used in geodetic leveling.
2.8 THE SURVEYOR’S LEVEL
Four basic types of level can be distinguished.

2.8.1 Dumpy level

- Telescope and vertical are cast as one piece.
- Levelling head consists of two plates with telescope mounted on the
upper plate while the lower plate screws directly on to a tripod,
- Two plates held apart by three leveling screws.
- Adjustment to the screws enables accurate leveling of the instrument.
- No facility for fine adjustment.
- Procedure for leveling the instrument involves setting the instrument
parallel to a pair of foot crews then turning a right angle until the
bubble is said to traverse.
- Takes longer time to level and dislevelment between readings being
common.
- Examples of these levels are wild NK 01, Zeiss Ni 5s

2.8.2 Tilting level

- Telescope not rigidly fixed to the vertical spindle.
- It’s capable of a slight tilt in the vertical plane about an axis below.
- This movement is governed by a fine-setting screw, the tilting screw.
- The line of collimation need not be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
- Tilting levels are robust and capable of the highest accuracy.
- Modern instruments incorporate prismatic coincidence reader where
prisms reflect an image of both ends of the bubble for refined levelling.
- Examples include Sokkisha TTL6, Kern GK1.

2.8.3 Automatic level

- This level gives horizontal line of sight (LOS) automatically by use of
a prismatic device called compensator.
- Requires approximate leveling by means of a circular bubble.
- It is not fitted with telescope bubble.
- It’s very popular owing to ease of use.
- Fairly unstable due to compensator.
- Examples include Wild NA-1, Nikon AP-5.
2.8.4 Digital Level
- First launched in 1990 with Wild NA2000.
- Capable of electronically scanning an encoded level staff.
- Eliminates the risk of human error in the reading.
- Allows data to be automatically collected in a portable computer or
data logger.
- Can still be used optically and read in the conventional way.
- In electronic use readings taken over distance of 1.8m to 100m on a
bar-coded scale.
2.9 PROCEDURE IN LEVELING
The basic operation is the determination of the difference in level
between two points.
 Consider two points A and B (diagram in slide12)
 Set up the level and take readings on a vertical staff on A and B
 The level assumed to be in perfect adjustment
 The readings at A and B are a and b respectively
 The difference a-b gives the level difference

Thus in any two successive staff readings,

 2nd reading less than 1st represents a RISE
 2nd reading greater than 1st represents a FALL

Level of second point

If the actual level of the first point is known then the level of the second
point can be deduced;

a) Level at B=Level at A+ Rise

= 128.480+1.480
= 130.288m above datum
b) Level at B= Level at A – Fall
= 128.480 – 0.262
= 128.218m above datum
This gives rise to two leveling booking methods namely;
 Rise and Fall
 Height of Collimation
General Levelling Procedure (pp19)

 The level (instrument) is set up at a convenient position P

 The nearest benchmark (BM) is then observed with the leveling staff
over it
 Intermediate sights (IS) observed
 Last reading to staff known as Foresight (FS) is made
 The instrument moved to the next station
 This last point is also the change point i.e staff position during which
the position of the level is being changed
 Backsight (BS) to the change point taken
 More IS observed and the process continued

Booking Methods
Two methods namely Rise and Fall and Height Of Collimation

Rise and Fall method

o The readings are booked in a level book specially printed for the
purpose
o Each reading is entered on a different line in the applicable column
o At change point (CP) both foresight and back sight occupy the same
line
o At CP staff is not moved
o As a check on the arithmetic involved in reducing the levels the
BS,FS,RISES and FALLS are summed up;

∑BS - ∑FS= ∑Rises - Falls

= Last RL – First RL
Height of collimation methods

- The height of collimation HOC is obtained by adding the staff reading

to the known RL.
- This reading must be a BS.
- All other readings are deducted from the HOC.
- Change the instrument setting.
- The arithmetical check to be applied to this system of booking are
ΣBS – ΣFS = Last RL – First RL.
- Reduction is earlier with HOC also known as Height of Instrument
(HI) and when large numbers of IS are to be observed.
Table above illustrates the above principles.

ACCURACY IN LEVELLING

Ordinary Levelling
- Main factors which affect accuracy of ordinary leveling are:-
 Reading of staff
 Magnification and clarity of image of staff.
 Bubble not being central.
 Instrument out of adjustment.
 Differential settlement of the tripod.
 Tilting and settlement of the staff.
 Sensitivity of bubble or compensator.
Acceptable Misclosures.
Maximum acceptable misclosures depend on:
- class of leveling
- Specifications for the survey.
The following figures give indications of misclosures for various classes.
- Precise leveling ±4√K.
- Second order levelling ±8 √K
- Third order leveling ±12 √K, K is total distance travelled in kilometers
while the accuracy value is in mm.

Precise Levelling
- This class requires further refinement to field techniques and
instrumentation to that applied in OL. The accuracy requirements are
more stringent.
- Typical rules governing field technique include:
 BS and FS made equal in length.
 Readings made to all three hairs.
 All lines of levels run twice in opposite directions, on
different days with different change points.
 All change points made on special footplates.
 Staff readings below 0.5m level avoided.
 Special staffs with invar strip and bubble to be used.
 Levels with parallel plate micrometer used.

CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

 LOC in a level is not a level line.

 It’s tangential to the level line.
 Corrections need to be applied to the length of LOC to obtain length
on the level line.
 This deviation becomes appreciable on long lines.
 the correction c  L2
2R
 Where L, R are as defined below.
 Taking this R = 6367km.
C= 0.078L2m where L is in kilometers.
 Refraction of the light rays through the air reduces the effect of
curvature.
 Refraction correction taken to be a 1/7th of the curvature correction.
  Refraction correction becomes 0.011L2 m.
 Hence the combined refractions and curvature correction becomes
0.067L2m.

RECIPROCAL LEVELLING
 True differences in height are obtained by ensuring that BS and FS
are equal.
 This eliminates the effects of collimation, curvature and refraction
errors.
 Where it is impossible to take readings with equal sight lengths,
reciprocal leveling can be adopted.
 This happens when a line of levels have to be taken over a wide gap
such as a river.
The diagram below is illustrative

 ∆HAB = ½ (a1 – b1) + (a2 – b2)

 The observations are taken over the same sighting distance with the
same level.

Leveling Misclosure
 Levelling starts from a benchmark and ends on a benchmark.
 The difference between the level value on the BM and the closing
RL value of the BM is known as the misclosure.
  The initial RL calculations will show the arithmetic checks on the
observed levels.
 The misclosure gives an indication of the accuracy of the readings.
 It must be within the standard specifications given above.
 The level readings have to be adjusted to absorb this misclosure.
 This allowable misclosure must be distributed throughout the
reduced levels.
 The usual method of correction is to apply an equal but cumulative
amount of the misclosure to each instrument position.
 If the misclosure is outside the allowable misclosure the levelling
must be repeated.
 The table below demonstrates how the distribution of the misclosure
is made to obtain the adjusted and final RLs.

Height of the Plane of the Collimation

∑IS+∑FS+∑RL=RL1*n +RL2*m+RL3*l

AREA LEVELLING AND CONTOURING

Definitions

- Spot height or Spot Level – level of a point or the ground with

reference to a point or datum
- Contour line or contour – imaginary line on the earth’s surface, every
point of which is at the same height or altitude.
- Vertical Interval – difference in height between successive contours.
  depends on
+ Scale of the map or plan
+ Purpose of the map.
+ Nature of the terrain surveyed.
 Gradient = Vertical Interval/horizontal equivalent.
- Interpolation for contouring.

Characteristics of Contours.

 Direction of the highest gradient is normal to the contour.

 Closer contours imply steeper slopes and vice-versa.
 An ‘Island’ implies a hill or a depression.
 Two islands closer together imply two hills with a pass or vice versa.
 Contour lines never cross each other.
 Contour lines loop back onto itself i.e. continuous.
 A peak indicated by a spot height.
 Values shown with top figures towards high ground.

METHODS OF COUNTOURING
 Direct
 Indirect

Direct
 Applied mostly in hilly terrain.
 Actual contour location on the ground and marked.
- Instrument set up at some convenient position.
- Back sight on BM made.
- The height of collimation of 33.99m of BM will require staff reading
of 0.99m to obtain the 33m contour.
- Surveyor directs staff man to move up and down the hill until staff
reading of 0.99m is obtained for a 33m contour and 1.99m for a 32m
contour.
- A series of these points gives the contours on the ground.
- The points can then be surveyed to obtain the contour maps of the area.

Indirect
- Spot heights covering the area are plotted on the plan.
- Interpolation for contours done on the plan using spot height values.

Methods of indirect contouring include:

- Gridding

+ Ideal for relatively flat land.

+ Levels taken at grid intersections

+ Intersection must be uniquely defined.

+ Reduced levels plotted on the plan.

+ Carry out interpolation for contours.

- Radiating lines.
+ Rays with known directions set out from a central point.
+ Levels taken along these lines.
+ Distance from a central point also measured.
+ Reduced heights and interpolation for contours done.
+ Suitable for small hills or knolls.

- Section levelling.
+ Suitable for long linear features e.g. roads, pipelines and
sewerage works.
+ Long line ranged through the area of interest (i.e. centre line)
+ Spot heights taken on both sides of the longitudinal line.
+ Reduced levels obtained for contouring.
TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING

 This is a technique for determining difference in height by

measuring vertical angles and deduced distances. Also known as
stadia tacheometry.
 This is achieved by means of stadia hairs engraved upon the
telescope diaphragm.
 Due to advent of more superior techniques, the use of stadia
tacheometry in engineering surveying are now restricted to;
survey of natural features like trees, hedges, river banks, gulleys, rock
outcrops and swamp outlines.
- Production of site plans.
- Spot heights for estimation of earthwork quantities.
- Contouring.
- Tacheometer gives distance from instrument to levelling staff and
height difference between instrument station and staff point.
 Horizontal distance D can be established using the formula.
D = Cs + K
Where C – Multiplying factor
s – Staff interval intercepted by the stadia lines in metres.
K – The additive constant.
 Manufacturers usually arrange for C and K to be 100 and 0
respectively in their instruments.

Inclined Sights

 Stadia survey can be carried out with the telescope level.

 Work would be tedious in broken and hilly terrain due to

horizontality of the line of sight

 Inclined sighting creates flexibility in fieldwork since the line of

sight can be obtained to any elevation as dictated by the relative
heights of instrument and target
FIG 4.21
 3.0 TRAVERSING
3.1 Definition
- A traverse is a means of providing horizontal control in which
rectangular coordinates are determined from a combination of angles
and distance measurements along lines joining adjacent stations.
For traversing,
 Angles between successive lines ( or bearings of each line)
 The length of each line
are observed or measured.

3.2. Types of Traverse.

- Mainly four types namely.
 Closed loop( start and end at same known point)
 Closed line(start at known point and end at another known
point)
 Oriented(start at known point with opening orienting line and
closing at known point with closing oriented line)-preferrable
 Unclosed or open( No known point used)

3.2.1 Closed traverse

- Two cases exist.
(i) Links, connecting or closed route traverse where it begins from a
known point and closes on a known point.
The most popular one.

(ii) Polygon, loop or closed-ring traverse where it begins at a known

point and closed on the same point.

First case
- Provides external checks on the observations since it starts and closes
on known or assumed points.
- Oriented traverse refers to closed traverse with opening and closing
rays to known points.

3.2.2. Open traverse

- Commences at a known point and finishes at an unknown
point, therefore not closed.
- Used in exceptional circumstances since
there is no check on the measurements.

3.3. Coordinate Systems

In most surveys, relative positions (coordinates differences) of the
control points are calculated in coordinate system rather than directly
plotted by scale and protractor.
- We obtain (∆x, ∆y) and not r, ϴ.
- In Cartesian form rather than polar.

This is most satisfactory because:

 It enables errors to be assessed and adjusted.
 Each station plotted independently.
 Not dependent on any angle measuring device.
- In plane surveying plane rectangular Cartesian coordinates
system is used to define positions of points in a plane.
- The axes are the north and east directions.

The principal direction or reference meridian is normally the north-south

axis chosen from:
- True meridian – related to true north.
- Magnetic north – related to magnetic needle.
- National grid north-also related to TN on grid.
- Arbitrary direction – line in a convenient direction.
Diagram

3.3.1 Grid coordinates

- These are perpendicular distances from the two principal axes.
- They are eastings E, and northings, N.
- For arbitrary directions x, y coordinates may be adopted.
- A network of eastings and northings lines may be drawn on a
plan at selected intervals.
- Origin usually located at the extreme south west of the area the plan
covers so that all coordinates are positive.
- To retain positivity large positive coordinates are assigned to the
origin.
- UTM has E- 500,000m.
N – 10,000,000m
3.3.2 Polar Coordinates
- Origin chosen at a convenient position and a convenient
reference direction to locate P by observing d and ϴ.

- Often used when fixing and plotting details in the plan or when
setting out points on the ground.

3.4 Traversing Fieldwork

Essentially consists of observation of series angles/ directions and
measurement of distances to obtain coordinates of the new survey points.
Diagram
3.4.1 Reconnaissance.
 The most important aspect of any survey.
 Must be undertaken before any angles or lengths are measured.
 Aimed at locating suitable positions for survey controls.
 Traverse brings coordinates from the existing surveys controls to the
subject area.
 Overall picture of the subject area obtained by walking all over the
site.
 When setting the stations their number to be kept to a minimum.
 Closed Traverses are preferred since check on new points is built-in.
 Choice of points dictated by nature of survey and configuration of
the area of interest.
 Stations to be placed on the firm and level grounds.
 When a reconnaissance is completed the stations are marked or even
monumented.

3.4.2. Traverse measurements.

 Once the traverse stations are on the ground, use of theodolite for
angular measurement begins.
 Measure either the included angle or bearings.
 Set the theodolite over each station and observe the angles.
 Suitable targets are placed at the points to be pointed to.
 Distance measurements are carried out using available linear
measuring devices discussed earlier.
3.4.3 Errors in Measurement for traverse angles.
 Inaccurate centering of the theodolite or target.
 Non-verticality of the target.
 Inaccurate bisection of the target.
 Parallax not eliminated.
 Lateral refraction, wind and atmospheric effects.
 Dislevelment of the theodolite.
 Mistakes in reading and booking.

For distance measurements EDM is assumed used with all the necessary
corrections done though other linear measurement devices can be
deployed.

3.2.2 Major tasks in traversing.

The major tasks in carrying out traverse field work and computations are:-
(i) Reconnaissance
(ii) Marking the traverse points on the ground.
(iii) Observation of angles on face left and face right and their
reductions.
(iv) Measurements of distances and their reductions.
(v) Booking of the observables.
(vi) Computation of datum joins
(vii) Preparation of traverse bearing sheet.
(viii) Computation of raw (unadjusted) coordinates of the new
traverse points.
(ix) Adjustment of the traverse coordinates to obtain final data.
No. Task Activity
1 Reconnaissance - Familiarization with site.
- appreciation of topography (terrain)
- identifying the existing controls
- Checking suitability and state of the existing
controls.
2 Marking traverse - Marking the points using wooden pegs or
points concrete pins.
- Retouching the old points if need be.
3 Computation of - Obtain coordinates of the existing points.
datum joins - Compute join to provide opening and closing
bearings.
4 Observation of - Set up the theodolite at suitable stations to
angles/directions obtain either included angles or directions.
- Always start with the back bearing and close
with the forward bearing at any instrument
station.
5 Measurement of - Use available linear distance measuring
distance equipment preferably EDM to obtain raw
distance.
- The distances must be reduced to the
appropriate mathematical surface e.g. to
MSL.
6 Preparation of the - Use the datum joins computed above.
bearing sheet. - Enter the bearing/angles from the field notes.
- Obtain the unadjusted bearings.
- Adjust bearings.
7. Computation of - Use adjusted bearings.
traverse - use the reduced distance
coordinates - Use the datum coordinates.
- Compute the traverse coordinates.
8 Adjustment of the - Use a chosen method to obtain the final
traverse coordinates of the traverse points.
THE BEARING SHEET
The raw angles/bearings observed must be reduced and adjusted to make
them conform to the datum coordinates. This entails;
 Entering the raw angular observations from the field book into
bearing sheet(BS)
 Computing the datum bearings by join computations
 Entering the datum joins in the BS
 Deducing bearing corrections at each instrument station
 Deducing corrected bearings
 Computing the angular adjustments
 Deducing the final/adjusted bearings

TRAVERSE COMPUTATION
 Enter bearing and distance at each instrument station
 Enter the datum coordinates of the starting and the
closing stations
 Compute ∆E and ∆N at each station
 Obtain ∑∆E, ∑∆N, ∑Li
 Compute traverse misclosures ∂E,∂N
 Deduce the magnitude of the traverse misclosure Ɫ
 Deduce traverse accuracy or proportional misclosure
 Compute adjustments for each leg
 Deduce final coordinates of the new points

TRAVERSE MISCLOSURE

When the ∆Ns have been computed for the whole traverse, checks can
then be applied.

 For polygon traverses

∑∆E = 0
∑∆E = 0
Since the traverse starts and finishes at the same point.

For the link traverses

∑∆E = Ey – Ex
∑∆E = Ny - Nx
 Where x is the starting point and y the final point of the traverse.
 Owing to field errors, the traverse is normally characterized by a
linear misclosure, ℓ, such that
ℓ = (ℓ2E + ℓ2N)1/2.
The fractional linear misclosure, also referred to as traverse accuracy
Is;

ℓ/Total traverse length

Total traverse length Lt =∑Li Li being Length of the ith traverse leg;

Distribution of the Misclosure

For most engineering traverses accuracies of 1 in 20,000 is normally
acceptable.
 Three methods of distributing the misclosure are:
 Bowditch method or Rule
 Transit method or Rule
 Equal adjustment.

Bowditch
Values of the adjustment are directly proportional to the length of the
individual traverse lines/leg.

δE (or δN) = ℓE (ℓN) x length of traverse leg

total traverse length
Transit
Adjustment values are proportional to the ∆E and ∆N for various lines.

For a particular traverse leg

δE = -ℓE X ∆E of traverse leg
∑∆E for traverse
Same for δN

Equal Adjustment
For traverses measured with EDM (Electronic Distance Measuring)
Instruments, the likely error in each distance will be independent of the
distance measured for normal work. Thus, the error in each measured
distance will be of the same order of magnitude and an equal distribution
of the misclosure is acceptable.

δE(or δN) for each leg = ℓE or ℓN/n

n is the number of traverse lines/legs

B TRAVERSE COMPUTATION EXAMPLE

FROM - TO ∆N ∆E AT -N +E

WI – FI WI 117 033. 460 15 743. 601

222 35 42
118.479 - 87.217 - 80.190 FI 117 120.688 15 663.426
- 0.011 + 0.015
FI – F2
87 54 44
95.417 + 3.476 + 95.354 F2 117 117.221 15 758.792
-0.009 + 0.012
F2 – F3
169 40 19
91.372 -89.892 + 16.382 F3 117 207.121 15 775.186
-0.008 + 0.012
F3 – F4
156 03 02
98.002 -89.564 + 39.782 F4 117 296.694 15 814.981
-0.009 + 0.013
F4 – F5
157 06 02
97.588 -89.897 + 37.973 F5 117 386.600 15 852.966
-0.009 + 0.012
F5 – F6
115 43 31 -104.322 +47.048 F6 117 490.933 15 900.029
114.440 -0.011 +0.015
F6 – W4
73 16 26 +300.488 + 101.453 W4 117 460.455 16 001.496
105.935 -0.010 + 0.014
∑L = 721.233 ∑∆N=- By datum W4 117 460.455 16 001.496
156.928 By traverse W4 117 460.388 16 001.403
∑∆E=257.802 -0.067 + 0.093

√e
Accuracy = = 1/6,292
∑𝐿
  Extract respective bearing from the bearing sheet
 With appropriate distances, compute polars for each traverse leg
 Compute ∑∆E, ∑∆N, ∑L
 Compute ℓ
 Compute adjustments δs
 Compute traverse accuracy

A
TRAVERSE BEARING SHEET PREPARATION

STATION FORWARD CORRECTION CORRECTED ADJ FINAL

BEARING (ORIETATION) BEARING BEARING
@ W1
W2 275 31 20 -40 275 30 40
FI 222 36 22 222 35 42 05 222 35 47
@ F1
W1 42 36 18 -36
F2 87 55 10 87 54 34 10 87 54 44
@ F2
F1 267 55 05 -31
F3 169 40 34 169 40 03 16 169 40 19
@ F3
F2 349 40 31 -28
F4 156 03 09 156 02 41 21 156 03 02
@ F4
F3 336 03 09 -28
F5 157 06 04 157 05 36 26 157 06 02
@ F5
F4 337 06 05 -29
F6 155 43 29 155 43 00 31 155 43 31
@ F6
F5 335 43 25 -25
W4 73 16 14 73 15 49 +37 73 16 26
@ W4
F6 253 16 08 -19
W3 357 22 27 357 22 08 +42 357 22 50

DATUM JOINS
OPENING
W1 - 117 033.460 +15 743.601
W2 - 117 015.040 + 15 552.730
2750 30’ 40’’ @ 191.753m
CLOSING
W4 - 117 460.455 +16 001.496
W3 - 117 295.694 + 15 993.931
3570 22’ 50’’ @ 164.358m.

 Instrument at W2 orienting to W1 then pointing to F1(new point)

  Move to F1 with back bearing to W2 then a forward bearing to F2
 At F2 back bearing to F1 then forward bearing to F3 ……
 Repeat upto W4
 At W4 back bearing to F6 then end with closing orientation to W3
At each instrument station measure distances W2-F1,F1-F2, F2-F3,….,
F6-W3

Demonstrate application of bowditch’s, Transit and Equal Adjustment

rules in traverse computations

Bowdich δN.Li/∑ Li

Transit δN.∆Ni/∑∆N

Equal Adjustment δN.Li/n

TYPICAL TRAVERSE FIELDNOTES

 Do a backbearing to either an opening datum point or to previous
traverse point
 Disturb the horizontal circle or transit the theodolite to
faceleft/faceright
 Deduce the difference in the two horizontal angles
 Deduce the orientation correction
 Apply to the forward bearing
 Measure distance and Vertical angle
 Move instrument to the next station