Earth and its Systems

Area : Total surface area 509,700,000 sq. km;

km; Land area about 148,400,000 km (about 29 percent of the total area) Water area about 361,300,000
sq. km (about 71 percent of the total surface area).
Motions ; (i) Rotation (spinning motion on polar axis), once every 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds.

 Ocean Depths:: Deepest area—

area Mariana Trench in Pacific Ocean southwest of Guam (11,033 meters below sea surface). The average depth of oceans
3,730 meters .
Chemical Make up of the Earth’s Crust (percent by weight): oxygen 46.6. silicon 27.7, aluminium 8.1, iron 5.0, calcium 3.6, sodium
sodium 2.8, potassium 2.6,
magnesium 2.0 and other elements 1.6.
1.

Rotation of Earth

 Earth rotates along its axis from west to east.

 It takes approximately 24 hrs to complete on rotation.

 Days and nights occur due to rotation of the earth.

 The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.

 Earth rotates on a tilted axis.. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal i.e. it makes an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane. Orbital
plane is the plane of earth’s orbit around the Sun.

 Rotation (spinning motion on polar axis), once every 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds.

 Revolution (around the sun), once every 365 days, 6 hours, 9

minutes and 9.54 seconds.

 Geo and Magnetic South and North

 Why temperature falls with increasing latitude (as we move from equator to
towards
wards poles)?

Revolution

 The second motion of the earth around the sun in its orbit is called revolution. It takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve around the sun.

 Six hours saved every year are added to make one day (24 hours) over a span of four years.

Solstice

 On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun

sun.. The rays of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas
receive more heat.

 The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.

 The north pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous daylight for about six months.
  Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and
the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June.

 At this time in the southern hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The nights are longer than the days. This position of
the earth is called the summer solstice.

 On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the south pole tilts towards it. As the sun’s rays fall vertically at
the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of the southern hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the southern hemisphere with
longer days and shorter nights. The reverse happens in the northern hemisphere. This position of the earth is called the winter solstice.

 Equinox
 On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards

 the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.

 On 23rd September, it is autumn season [season after summer and before the beginning of winter] in the northern hemisphere and spring
season [season after winter and before the beginning of summer] in the southern hemisphere. The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is spring
in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere.

 Thus, you find that there are days and nights and changes in the seasons because of the rotation and revolution of the earth respectively.

 Rotation === Days and Nights.

 Revolution === Seasons.

 Why regions beyond the Arctic circle receive sunlight all day long in summer?

Constellations

 Different groups of stars form various patterns and they are called constellations. Saptarshi is an example of constellations.

 The solar system is made up of the Sun, eight planets, satellites and other celestial bodies.

 99.8% mass is Sun, 0.2 planets, satellites

 Movement around the axis- West to east except Venus and Uranus

Asteroids

 Asteroids are numerous tiny bodies which also move around the Sun apart from the stars, planets and satellites.

 They are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

 Vesta- largest Asteroid, Rygu

Meteoroids

 Meteoroids are small pieces of rocks which move around the sun. Made of Ni, Fe. Lonar lake

 Dwarf Planets- Orbit around Sun, Distance more tha neptune. Now 5- Ceres, Haumea, Eris, Pluto, Make Make

Inner planets

 Less mass

 Less Satellites

 Denser

 Revolve rapidly around Sun

 Rotate Slow around axis, to maintain its movement around Sun.

 Circular orbit.

Outer planets

 Less denser

 More Satellite

 Revolve Slow

 Rotate fast

 Orbits are elliptical

 Perhelion(Near) & Aphelion(Far)

Mercury

 Fast revolution(88earth days)

 Not hottest(less mass)

 H, He in atm

 No Satellite

 Marnier 10- first Spacecraft to visit Mercury

 Bepi Coloumbus- Sent by EU and Japan

Venus

 Hottest, Driest

 Atm- Co2(90%),CO, N

 Rotate east to west

 No Satellite

 2nd most brightest element in Solar Sys

 Only planet whose rotation period is more than revolution

Mars

 Red Plan bc of Iron Oxide

 Inclined axis

 Polar sheets made up of co2

 2 Satellite- Phobos, Dlimos

 Olympus Moon- Highest mountain Solar sys

Jupiter

 Mass- 320 times earth, H, He in atm

 Rings, Most Volume

 Ganymeda- Biggest Sattelite.

Saturn

 2nd Biggest, H, He

 Titan, Casine- Satellites

Uranus

 East to west, Roll around the sun(90)

 3rd largest, Coldest Planet

Neptune

 H, He, NH4,Acetylene

 Methane presence appears blue

 Satellite- Triton- Coldest body on earth

Kupier Belt Objects

 Region beyond Solar sys extending the orbit of Neptune

 Massive and large than Asteriod belt

 Dwarf Planets in this region

 Oort Region, Kirkwood gap

Comets

 Asteriod like obj covered with Ice, Ammonia- Frozen rocky body

 Definate orbits(we see only when sun come in b/w)

 Tail like str- halleys(once in 70 years) 2061

 Latitudes and Longitudes
अ ांश और दे शांतर
 Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary lines used to determine the location of a place on earth.

 The location of a place on the earth can be mentioned in terms of latitudes and longitudes.

 As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a little
longer than that at the equator.

For example at the equator (0°) it is 68.704 miles, at 45° it is 69.054 miles and at tthe
he poles it is 69.407 miles. The average
is taken as 69 miles (111km).

 Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the northern hemisphere.

 Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the southern hemisphere.

 Arctic circle at 66½° north of the equator.

 Antarctic circle at 66½° south of the equator.

Equator

 Equator is an imaginary line running on the globe that divides it into two equal parts.

 Northern half of the earth is known as the Northern Hemisphere and Southern half is known as the Southern
Hemisphere.
Heat zones of the earth

 The mid-day
day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone.

 Torrid Zone is the tropical

tropical region. The temperature remains high. The Torrid Zone forms the hottest region of
the world with two annual seasons namely a dry and a wet season. This zone includes most of Africa, southern
Mexico, Central America and northern South America.

 Equatorial and Hot Tropical Zone. Heat Budget

 The mid-dayday sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of
Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas bounded by the
Tropic off Cancer and the Arctic circle in the northern hemisphere, and the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic
circle in the southern hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. These are, therefore, called temperate zones.

 Climate is mild, generally ranging from warm to cool. The four annual seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn and
Winter occur in these areas. The North Temperate Zone includes Great Britain, Europe, northern Asia, North
America and northern Mexico. The South Temperate
Temperate Zone includes southern Australia, New Zealand,
southern South America and South Africa.

 Areas lying between the Arctic circle and the north pole in the northern hemisphere and the Antarctic circle
and the south pole in the southern hemisphere, are very
ve cold. It is because here the sun does not raise much
above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting. These are, therefore, called frigid zones.

 Coldest temp is in Antarctica area because it is land with thick ice sheets

Longitude

 Longitude is an angular distance, measured in degrees along the equator east or west of the Prime (or First)
Meridian.

 On the globe longitude is shown as a series of semi-circles

semi circles that run from pole to pole passing through the
equator.
  Unlike
like the equator which is centrally
centrally placed between the poles, any meridian could have been taken to begin
the numbering of longitude.

 zero meridian the one which passes through the Royal Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near London.

 This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which allll other meridians radiate eastwards and westwards up to 180°.

 As the parallels of latitude become shorter poleward, so the meridians of longitude, which converge at the
poles, enclose a narrower space.

 They have one very important function, they determine local time in relation to G.M.T. or Greenwich Mean
Time, which is sometimes referred to as World Time.

 Ground dist at given lat = Cos(angle)*111

 Lat and log make 90 everywhere

Longitude and Time

 Since the earth makes one complete revolution of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it passes through 15° in one
hour or 1° in 4 minutes.

 The earth rotates from west to east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1 hour. Conversely,
Con
if we go westwards, local time is retarded by 1 hour.

 We may thuss conclude that places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time, whereas places west of
Greenwich see the sun later and lose time.

 If we know G.M.T., to find local time, we merely have to add or subtract the difference in the number of hours
fromm the given longitude.
Standard Time and Time Zones

 If each town were to keep the time of its own meridian, there would be much difference in local time
between one town and the other.

 Travelers going from one end of the country to the other would have to keep changing their watches if they
wanted to keep their appointments. This is impractical and very inconvenient.

 To avoid all these difficulties, a system of standard time is observed by all countries.

 Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries.

 In larger countries such as Canada, U.S.A., China, and U.S.S.R, it would be inconvenient to have single time
zone. So these countries have multiple time zones.

 Both Canada and U.S.A. have five time zones—the Atlantic, Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific Time Zones.
The difference between the local time of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts is nearly five hours.

 US.S.R had eleven time zones before its disintegration. Russia now has nine time zones.

 A traveler going eastwards gains time from Greenwich until he reaches the meridian 180°E, when he will be
12 hours ahead of G.M.T.

 Similarly in going westwards, he loses 12 hours when he reaches 180°W. There is thus a total difference of 24
hours or a whole day between the two sides of the 180° meridian.

 This is the International Date Line where the date changes by exactly one day when it is crossed. A traveler
crossing the date line from east to west loses a day (because of the loss in time he has made); and while crossing
the dateline from west to east he gains a day (because of the gain in time he encountered).

 The International Date Line in the mid-Pacific curves from the normal 180° meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji,
Tonga and other islands to prevent confusion of day and date in some of the island groups that are cut through
by the meridian.

Indian Standard Time

The Indian Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5° east for the standard time which is 5 hours 30 mins, ahead
of Greenwich Mean Time.
 Moon System
Moon

 No atmosphere

 Full of rocks and mountain

 Neil Armstrong- 1969- Apollo II Mission

 Temp- 265- 170 degree Fah

 One Lunar day on earth – Interval b/w appearance of moon- 24hr 53 Min

 Amount of time moon take to revolve around earth is same as it take to rotate around it axis.

 It changes its shape every day. This is because, the heavenly body has no light of its own; it can only
reflect light from the sun. Only the side of the moon which faces the sun can reflect this light and can
appear bright; the other side appears dark. As this celestial bod revolves around the earth we can
see different amounts of the region illuminated by the sun. Thus it appears to change its shape.


 When this heavenly body is behind the earth and sun, we can see the entire illuminated portion –
this is a full-moon (Paurnami). When it is between the sun and earth we can only see the dark portion
and a new moon (Amavasya) occurs. Between these two extremes we see intermediate phases such as
a half moon and crescent.

 This Planetoid takes almost 27 days to revolve around the earth. But between two full moons there are
29.5 days. This is because the earth also travels a distance through space during that time around the
sun. It has to cover an extra distance (which takes 2 more days) if it has to be exactly behind the earth
and sun again.(Sideral, Synodic)
  The celestial body only shows us only one side of itself. One side of it called dark side or far side never
faces the earth. This is because the moon takes the same amount of time to rotate about its axis as it
does to revolve around the earth. This known as Tidal Locking

Solar Eclipse
 occurs when the moon comes in between the sun and the earth.

 As a result, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the earth’s surface and casts a shadow
on it.

 This occurs on a new moon phase. We can observe up to 5 solar eclipses per year.

Lunar Eclipse
 known as the eclipse of the moon,

 it occurs when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon.

 As a result, the earth blocks the light of the sun from reaching the moon’s surface and casts its
shadow on the moon.

 It occurs on a full moon day. We can observe up to 3 lunar eclipses per year.
Rocks
It is collection of minerals Dominant elements

Core- No rock oxy-46.6%

Mantle- Only in upper part sil-27.7%

Crust-Rocks
Rocks Al
Al-8.1%

Iron-5%

Classification of Rocks:
 Igneous Rocks Solidified from magma and lava

 Sedimentary Rocks The result of the deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous processes

 Metamorphic Rocks Formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallization

Igneous Rocks
  Formed out of magma and lava and are known as primary rocks.

 If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.

 Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains.

 Granite, gabbro, pegmatite,

pegmatite, basalt, etc.are some of the examples of igneous rocks.

 There are two types of igneous rocks: intrusive rocks (Granite) and extrusive rocks (Basalt-Deccan
Deccan
Traps).

 Granite- Quartz, Potash, Mica

 Upper mantle – gabbro

 Crust- Granite

 Plutonic Rocks or intrusive

intrusi rocks

 Sometimes, the molten matter is not able to reach the surface and instead cools down very slowly at
great depths.

 Slow cooling allows big-sized

big sized crystals (large grains) to be formed.

 Eg- Granite

Lava or Volcanic Rocks or Extrusive rocks

 These are formed by rapid cooling of the lava thrown out during volcanic eruptions.

 Rapid cooling prevents crystallization, as a result such rocks are fine

fine-grained.

 Eg-Basalt
Basalt (most common on earth surface-
surface ocean crust).The Deccan traps in the peninsular re
region
gion is of
basaltic origin.

 Gabbro Basalt

 Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are
thus denser and darker in colour.

 Acidic rocks

 High content of silica—

—upto 80 per cent

 Granite, quartz, feldspar

par etc.

 Basic rocks

 Poor in silica; magnesia content (40 per cent)

  Basalt, gabbro, dolerite etc..

Sedimentary Rocks

 Sedimentary or detrital rocks.

 Formed as a result of denudation (weathering and erosion).

 These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.

 Cover 75 per cent of the earth’s crust

 They are layered or stratified of varying thickness. Example: sandstone, shale etc.

 Loess == Wind deposited sediments.

Depending upon the mode of formation, they are classified into

 mechanically formed — sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc.

 organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal etc.

 chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite, potash etc..

Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

 Formed by mechanical agents like running water, wind, ocean currents, etc.

 These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata

 These rocks are characterized by marks left behind by water currents and waves etc..

 These rocks have fossils of plants and animals.

 These rocks are generally porous and allow water to percolate through them.

 Different varieties of sandstone are spread over Madhya Pradesh, eastern Rajasthan, parts of
Himalayas, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.

 The great Vindhyan highland in central India consists of sandstones, shales, limestones.

 Coal deposits occur in river basins of the Damodar, Mahanadi, Godavari in the Gondwana sedimentary
deposits.

 Sedimentary rocks are not as rich in minerals of economic value as the igneous rocks.

 But important minerals such as hematite iron ore, phosphates, building stones, coals, petroleum and
material used in cement industry are found.

Metamorphic Rocks

 The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.

  Form under the action of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes.

 Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when
molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks.

 Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo recrystallization and

reorganization of materials within original rocks.

In the process of metamorphism in some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an
arrangement is called foliation or lineation.

Causes of Metamorphism

 Orogenic (Mountain Building) Movements

 Thermal Metamorphism

 Dynamic Metamorphism

 Igneous or Sedimentary rock

 Influence

 Metamorphosed rock

 GranitePressureGneissClay, ShalePressureSchistSandstoneHeatQuartziteClay, ShaleHeatSlate ==>

PhylliteCoalHeatAnthracite ==> GraphiteLimestoneHeatMarble

Igneous or Sedimentary rock Influence Metamorphosed rock

Granite Pressure Gneiss

Clay, Shale Pressure Schist

Sandstone Heat Quartzite

Clay, Shale Heat Slate ==> Phyllite

Coal Heat Anthracite ==> Graphite

Limestone Heat Marble

Rock cycle

 Rock cycle is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
 Climate जलवायु
Climate/जलवायु
 Climate holds an important place in our own life. Our life and various economic activities (agriculture, industries,
commerce, etc.) are affected by climate.
 Climate has also an important
important place in physical geography.
 Climate is a measure of the average pa
pattern
ttern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,
precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of
time
 The difference between weather and climate is that weather co
consists
nsists of the short-term
short term (minutes to months) changes
in the atmosphere while climate is the average of weather over time and space. In most places, weather can change
from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour,
hour, day to-day, and season-to--season.
season. Climate, however, is the average of weather
over time and space.

Factors affecting climate

Latitude:
Due to the earth's inclination, the mid-day
mid day sun is almost overhead within the tropics but the sun's rays reach the earth at
an angle outside the tropics. Thus, temperature diminishes from equatorial regions to the poles.
Altitude:
 Earth’s atmosphere is mainly heated through conduction from the surface, so places near the surface are warmer
than those higher up
 Thus temperature decreases with increasing he height
ight above sea level. This rate of decrease in temperature with altitude
(lapse rate) is never constant, varying from place to place and from season to season. However, for all practical
purposes, it may be reckoned that a fall of 6.5°C occurs with an ascent
ascent of 1000 meters or 1o C per 165 meters
.
Continentality (Distance from sea):
sea
 Land surfaces have higher specific heat capacity of heat as compared to water bodies i.e. it takes less energy to raise
the temperature of a given volume of land by 1 degree C as compared to same volume of water body. This accounts
for temperature extremes in the continental interiors as compared to maritime areas
Oceans Currents:
Currents
 Marine areas are influenced by the warm or cold ocean currents. Ocean currents like the Gulf Stream
Stre or the North
Atlantic Drift warm the coastal districts of Western Europe keeping their ports ice-free.
ice free. Ports located in the same
latitude but washed by cold currents, such as the cold Labrador Current off north-east
north east Canada, are frozen for several
months

Local winds:
 If winds are warm i.e. they have been blown from a hot area, they will raise temperatures. If winds have been blown
from cold areas, they will lower temperatures. Local winds like Fohn, Chinook, Sirocco and Mistral also produce
marked changes in temperature.
Natural Vegetation and Soil:
 Natural vegetation affects the temperature of the region significantly. Often areas with dense forest cover like areas in
thick foliage of Amazon jungles receive less insolation and are, often, cooler than
than the areas in open space. dry soils like
sands are very sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much moisture and warm up or
cool down more slowly.
 El Nino & El Nana
 El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of what is known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle. The ENSO
cycle is a scientific term that describes the fluctuations in temperature between the ocean and atmosphere in the east-
central
Equatorial Pacific. (The area between South America and Australia near the equator
 La Nina is sometimes referred to as the cold phase of ENSO and El Nino as the warm phase of ENSO. These deviations
from normal surface temperatures and have large-scale impacts not only on ocean processes, but also on
global weather and climate, including India

NORMAL CONDITION
 In a normal year,surface low pressure develops in the region of northern Australia and Indonesia and a high
pressure system over the coast of Peru. As a result, the trade winds over the Pacific Ocean move strongly from east to
west.
 The easterly flow of the trade winds carries warm surface waters westward, bringing convective storms
(thunderstorms) to Indonesia and coastal Australia. Along the coast of Peru, cold bottom cold nutrient rich water wells
up to the surface to replace the warm water that is pulled to the west.
Walker circulation (Occurs during Normal Years)
The Walker circulation (walker cell) is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the
eastern Pacific ocean, and a low pressure system over Indonesia

During El Nino year

 In an El Niño year, air pressure drops over large areas of the central Pacific and along the coast of South America.
  The normal low pressure system is replaced by a weak high in the western Pacific
Pa (the southern oscillation). This change
in pressure pattern causes the trade winds to be reduced == Weak Walker Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might even get
reversed.
 This reduction allows the equatorial counter current (current along doldrums) to accumulate
mulate warm ocean water along
the coastlines of Peru and Ecuador.
 This accumulation of warm water causes the thermocline to drop in the eastern part of Pacific Ocean which cuts off the
upwelling of cold deep ocean water along the coast of Peru.
 Climatically, the development of an El Niño brings drought to the western Pacific, rains to the equatorial coast of
South America, and convective storms and hurricanes to the central Pacific.

Effects of El Nino
 The warmer waters had a devastating effect on marine life existing off the coast of Peru and Ecuador.
 Fish catches off the coast of South America were lower than in the normal year (Because there is no upwelling).
 Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India and southern Africa.
 Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of Mexico.
 El Nino and Indian monsoon are inversely related.
 Normal Conditions
 Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good for Fishing.
 Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Warm Oc
Ocean
ean Water == Plenty of rains.
 El Nino Condition
 Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.
 Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Cold Ocean Water == Drought.

Classification वग करण
Group A: Tropical Humid Climates
 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
 Inter-Tropical
Tropical Convergence Zone makes the climate hot and humid.
 The annual range of temperature in this region is very low whereas the annual rainfall is high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types. They are:
 Af – Tropical wet climate
 Am – Tropical monsoon climate
 Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)/Tropical rainforest/Equitorial/Selva
 Tropical wet climate is seen near the equator.
 The chief areas that lie in this climate are:
o Amazon Basin in South America
o Western Equatorial Africa
o The islands of East Indies
 A substantial amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year.
 These regions receive
receive thundershowers in the afternoon.
 The temperature is uniformly high.
 The annual range of temperature is negligible.
 The maximum temperature during daytime is about 30°C whereas the minimum temperature is about 20°C. Avg is 27
 The region is bestowed with Tropical evergreen forests and large biodiversity
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)
 Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over:
o The Indian sub-continent
sub
o North Eastern part of South America
o Northern Australia
 These regions receive heavy rainfall in summer b/c of reversal of winds(land to sea and sea to land)
  Alternating peroid of Rainfall and draught.
 Winter in this area seems to be dry.
 In winters central asia have High pressure, north east trade winds blows over south east asia but Himalayas prevent
them from entering into India
Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)/Savanna/Sudan
 Tropical grassland of North Australia, Guiana Highlands, campos of Brazil
 It is a transitional Zone which gets convection rainfall in during summer whereas remains dry during rest of year
 Temperature is High(23), Rainfall (160cm)
 The diurnal ranges of temperature are extreme in the dry season.
 The wet season is shorter in this region.
 The dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.
 Savanna is tropical grassland with decidu
deciduous tree
 Tropical wet and dry climate is found in north and south of Tropical Wet Climate (Af) type climate regions.(between wet
& dry)

Group-B
B Climates/Dry Climates/Desert Climate
 These arid and semiarid climates cover about a quarter of the land surface of the Earth.(Arid=Dessert & Semi Arid=
Steppe)
 predominantly seen in the 15–30°
15 30° latitude belts in northern and southern hemispheres.
 These regions have intense solar radiation and clear skies.
 Sahara, Arabia, Thar
 Annual Temperature is 38 on west coast Atacama,Nambia
 These regions experience
o Low precipitation
o Great variability in precipitation from year to year
o Low relative humidity
o High evaporation rates
 The maximum temperature in this region in summer is very high.
 The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature are also high b/c of cloudless skyà heat not retainedà Nights cold
 The inconsistency in the rainfall distresses the life in the steppe much more than in the desert, more frequently causing
famine.
 Steppe- b/c of interior position
Koeppen's Group
roup C Climates--Warm
Climates Warm Temperate (Mid
(Mid-Latitude)
Latitude) Climates
 Warm temperate (mid-latitude)
(mid latitude) climates stretch from 30° – 50° of latitude mainly on the western and eastern margins
of continents.
 These climates usually have warm summers with mild winters.
  They are classified into four types:
o Humid subtropical – Cwa
o Mediterranean Climate – Cs
o Marine west coast climate – Cfb
o Humid Subtropical Climate/China Type (Cwa)
o Eastern Coasts of continents between 25-40 latitude.
o South eastern US, Uruguay, Argentina,South Brazil, Eastern China, South Japan and east coast of Australia
o The Humid Subtropical Climate is similar to Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw) climate excluding that the temperature
in winter is mild, summers are hot and humid
o Hurricanes and typhoons are experienced in late summers.
 Mediterranean climate is found around Mediterranean sea, along the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
between 30° – 45° latitudes
 The climate is predominantly found in the
o Central Chile
o Central California
o Along the coast in South Eastern
o South Western Australia
 These areas come under the influence of westerly wind(low pressure) in winter and sub-tropical high in summer.
 Therefore, the climate is characterized by hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter
Koeppen's Group D Climates
 Tiaga Climate Conniferous forest found- b/c evaporation is less. Polar winds
 In a major portion of the middle and high latitudes lie a group of climates classified within the Koeppen scheme as C and
D.
 The average temperature is above 10 °C in their warmest months.
 The average temperature in the coldest month is below −3 °C.
 This climatic condition is generally found in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, typically north of
40°N.
 Group D climates are very rare in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and
the almost complete absence of land at 40–60° south.
 It exists only in some highland locations.
 old snow forest climate is found in the large continental area in the northern hemisphere between 40°-70° North
latitudes.
 The regions lying in this climate are:
o Europe
o Asia
o North America
 Cyclones & Anticyclones
च वात और ितच वात
Air Masses
 Over a homogeneous area, when air remains for a sufficiently long time, it acquires
the characteristics of that area.
 Homogeneous area can be vast plains or oceans where only little horizontal variation
occurs in temp. & moisture.
 Homogeneous regions over which air masses form are called source regions

Fronts
 When two different type of air masses meet, the boundary zone b/w them is called
a front
 Process of its formation is known as frontogenesis
Warm Front
 When a warmer & lighter air mass moves against a colder & denser air mass
 the former rises over the latter one & warm front is formed

Cold Front

When a colder air mass forces its way under a warmer air mass & pushes the latter upward, cold front is formed
 Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and
move over to the coastal areas bringing about large scale destruction due to violent
winds (squalls), very heavy rainfall (torrential rainfall) and storm surge.
 They are irregular wind movements involving closed circulation of air around a low
pressure center. This closed air circulation (whirling motion) is a result of rapid
upward movement of hot air which is subjected to Coriolis force. The low pressure
at the center is responsible for the wind speeds.
Conditions Favorable for Tropical Cyclone Formation
 Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C
 Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex
 Small variations in the vertical wind speed
 A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation
Why cyclones occur mostly in late summers?
 At this time, there are two advantages—the air is overheated and the sun is exactly
over the equator.
 The Coriolis force is zero at the equator (no cyclones at equator because of zero
Coriolis Force) but it increases with latitude. Coriolis force at 5° latitude is significant
enough to create a storm [cyclonic vortex].
 About 65 per cent of cyclonic activity occurs between 10° and 20° latitude.
 because of the rising warm humid air, a true cyclonic vortex may develop very
rapidly. However, only a few of these disturbances develop into cyclones.
 the convergence of trade winds air masses of different temperatures and the
resulting instability are the prerequisites for the origin and growth of violent tropical
storms.

 Energy that intensifies the storm comes from the condensation process in towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding center of the storm.
 Hence, with constant supply of moisture from the sea, storm is further
strengthened
 On reaching land, moisture supply is cut off & the storm dissipates
  Place where tropical cyclone crosses the land is called landfall of the cyclone
 Central low pressure is known as eye of the cyclone → Calm with subsiding air having
lowest pressure & highest temp.
Origin and Development of Tropical Cyclones
 The tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas
during late summers (August to mid-November).
 At these locations, the strong local convectional currents acquire a whirling motion
because of the Coriolis force.
 After developing, these cyclones advance till they find a weak spot in the trade wind
belt.
How Anticyclones work
 Anticyclones are areas of high pressure. The sinking air spreads out when it reaches
the ground, producing a divergence at the surface. Aloft, air rushes in to fill the
void, creating a convergence aloft.
 Anticyclones produce a stable atmosphere. Anticyclones, or highs, are also referred
to as blocking highs because they tend to force areas of low pressure to travel around
them
Naming of cyclones
Within the North Indian Ocean between 45°E – 100°E, tropical cyclones are named by the
India Meteorological Department (IMD/RSMC New Delhi) when they are judged to have
intensified into a cyclonic storm with 3-minute sustained wind speeds of at least 34 kn
(39 mph; 63 km/h).

च वात और ितच वात

वायु मान

 एक सजातीय े म, जब हवा पया प से लंबे समय तक रहती है, तो वह उस े क िवशेषता

को ा कर लेती है।

 सजातीय े िवशाल मैदान या महासागर हो सकते ह जहां तापमान म के वल थोड़ा ैितज प रवतन
होता है। और नमी।

 सजातीय े , िजन पर वायु मान बनता है, ोत े कहलाते ह

मोच
 जब दो अलग-अलग कार के वायु मान िमलते ह, तो सीमा े b/w उ ह अ भाग कहते ह

 इसके गठन क या को अ जनन के प म जाना जाता है

वाम ं ट

 जब एक गम और ह का वायु मान ठं डे और सघन वायु मान के िव गित करता है

 पूव बाद वाले पर उगता है और गम मोचा बनता है

 Earthquakes and Volcanos
भूकंप और वालामुखी
Earthquakes

An earthquake is the shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the sudden movement of a part of the
earth’s crust. They result from the sudden release of energy in the Earth’s crust that creates seismic waves or
earthquake waves.

Terms associated with earthquakes

Focus

The place of origin of an earthquake inside the earth.

Epicenter

Point on the earth’s surface vertically above the focus.

Maximum damage is caused at the epicenter.

Causes of Earthquakes

 Most earthquakes are causally related to compressional or tensional stresses built up at the margins of the
huge moving lithospheric plates.

 The immediate cause of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault, or fracture
in the earth’s crust.

 Sudden slipping of rock formations along faults and fractures in the earth’s crust happen due to constant
change in volume and density of rocks due to intense temperature and pressure in the earth’s interior.

 Volcanic activity also can cause an earthquake but the earthquakes of volcanic origin are generally less
severe and more limited in extent than those caused by fracturing of the earth’s crust.

 Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to
one another. The major fault lines of the world are located at the fringes of the huge tectonic plates that
make up Earth’s crust.

 Plate tectonics: Slipping of land along the fault line along, convergent, divergent and transform boundaries
cause earthquakes. Example: San Andreas Fault is a transform fault where Pacific plate and North American
plate move horizontally relative to each other causing earthquakes along the fault lines.

 Earthquakes in the reservoir region, mining sites etc. are human induced.

Seismic Waves or Earthquake Waves

 The slipping of land generates seismic waves and these waves travel in all directions.

 Earthquake is any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through Earth’s
rocks.

 Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released, usually
when masses of rock straining against one another suddenly fracture and “slip.
Types of Seismic Waves

Earthquake waves are basically of two types — body waves and surface waves.

 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions travelling
through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves.

 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves called surface waves. These
waves move along the surface.

There are two types of body waves. They are called P and SS-waves.

 Primary waves or P waves (longitudinal)(fastest)

 Secondary waves or S waves (transverse)(least destructive)

 Surface waves or L waves (transverse)(slowest)(most destructive)

Primary Waves (P waves)

 Also called as the longitudinal or compressional waves.

 Analogous to sound waves.

 Particles of the medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave.

 P-waves move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface.

 These waves are of high frequency.

 They can travel in all mediums.

 Velocity of P waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases

Secondary Waves (S waves)

 Also called as transverse or distortional waves.

 Analogous to water ripples or light waves.

 S-waves arrive at the surface with some time lag.

 A secondary wave cannot pass through liquids or gases.

 These waves are of high frequency waves.

Surface Waves (L waves)

 Also called as long period waves.

  They are low frequency, long wavelength, and transverse vibration.

 Generally affect the surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller depth.

 Develop in the immediate neighborhood of the epicenter.

 They cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse of structures occurs.

 These waves are the most destructive.

 Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic plates.

 The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which affects many populated coastal
regions around the Pacific Ocean—for example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian
Islands, Alaska, and the western coasts of North and South America.

 The seismic activity is by no means uniform throughout the belt, and there are a number of branches at
various points. Because at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic activity, it has been
popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire.” The Pacific Ring of Fire accounts for about 68 per cent of all
earthquakes.

 A second belt, known as the Alpine Belt (Himalayas and Alps). The energy released in earthquakes from this
belt is about 15 percent of the world total. The mid-world mountain belt (Alpine Belt) extends parallel to the
equator from Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea from Alpine-Caucasus ranges’ to the
Caspian, Himalayan mountains and the adjoining land

Volcanism

A volcano is a vent in the earth’s crust from which molten rock material (magma), explosive bursts of gases and
volcanic ashes erupt..

Causes of Volcanism

 The chemical reactions of radioactive substances deep within the interior of the earth generate
tremendous amount of heat. Some heat is already present in the form of residual heat (heat captured at the
center during earth’s formation) is already present at the earth’s interior.
  There is a huge temperature difference between the inner layers and the outer layers of the earth due to
differential amount of radioactivity. This temperature difference gives rise to convectional currents in the
outer core as well as the mantle.

Geysers and Hot Springs

 Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, New Zealand and Yellowstone
Park of U.S.A.

 Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Some of them have been harnessed to heat houses, swimming pools
and for other domestic purposes.

 Hot springs and geysers have become tourist attractions e.g. in Japan and Hawaii.

 Water that percolated into the porus rock is subjected to intense heat by the underlying hard rock which is
in contact with hot magma in the mantle or the lower part of crust.

 Under the influence of intense heat the water in the capillaries and narrow roots in the porous rock
undergoes intense expansion and gets converted to steam resulting in high pressure.

 Circum-Pacilic region, popularly termed the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’, has the greatest concentration of active
volcanoes. Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely overlap along the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’.

 ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’ is estimated to include two-thirds of the world’s volcanoes.

Volcanos in India

 There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or in the Indian peninsula.

 Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair became active again in 1991 and 1995. After its activity
in the nineteenth century, it passed through a mild solfataric stage as evidenced by the sublimations of
sulphur on the walls of the crater.

 The other volcanic island in Indian territory is Narcondam, about 150 km north-east of Barren Island; it is
probably extinct. Its crater wall has been completely destroyed.
 Ocean Currents through maps.
( मानिच के मा यम से महासागरीय
धाराएँ।)

 The movements that occur in oceans are categorized as: waves, tides and currents.

 Waves are formed due to friction between wind and surface water layer. The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave. They die out
quickly on reaching the shore or shallow waters.

 The movements of water in oceans can be categorized into currents, waves, and tides. Among these, ocean currents are the large
masses of surface water that circulate in regular patterns around the oceans.

Ocean Current

 Depending upon their temperature, ocean currents can be classified into warm currents and cold currents.

 Warm currents flow from equatorial regions towards the polar regions and hence have a higher surface temperature. [from lower
latitudes to higher latitudes].

 Cold currents flow from polar regions towards the equator and have a lower surface temperature [ from higher latitudes to lower
latitudes].

Factors responsible for Ocean Currents

The following are the factors responsible for ocean currents:

 The Planetary winds,

 Temperatures,

 Salinity,

 The earth s rotation,

 Obstruction from land

 The Planetary winds

 The general distribution of winds in the lower atmosphere is called as Planetary winds. The Earth's atmosphere is divided into
permanent pressure belts - The Equatorial low-pressure belt, The Sub-tropical high-pressure belt, Sub-polar low-pressure belt and Polar
high-pressure belts. The planetary winds are permanent winds that blow from one pressure belt to the other. Accordingly, they have
been divided into - Tradewinds, Westerlies and Polar Easterlies.

The Planetary winds

 The general distribution of winds in the lower atmosphere is called as Planetary winds. The Earth's atmosphere is divided into
permanent pressure belts - The Equatorial low-pressure belt, The Sub-tropical high-pressure belt, Sub-polar low-pressure belt and Polar
high-pressure belts. The planetary winds are permanent winds that blow from one pressure belt to the other. Accordingly, they have
been divided into - Tradewinds, Westerlies and Polar Easterlies.

 Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and the water surface affects the
movement of the water body in its course.

 Winds are responsible for both magnitude and direction [Coriolis force also affects direction] of the ocean currents.

Temperature

 The differential heating of the Sun at the equator and the poles causes a difference in the temperature of ocean water. At the
equator, since the temperature is higher the ocean water gets heated up and expands. This makes the warm water lighter and hence
rises while at the poles, cold water is denser and sinks. Warm water from the equator slowly moves along the surface towards the poles,
while the cold water from the poles slowly creeps along the bottom of the sea towards the equator.
  Hence, the difference in heating and surface temperatures play a key role in movements of ocean water.

Salinity
 The density of water also depends on its salinity and the salinity of water varies from place to place. Waters of low salinity flow on
the surface of waters of high salinity while waters of high salinity flow at the bottom.

 The earth's rotation and Coriolis force

 The earth's rotation deflects moving objects to the right and ocean currents are no exception. Under the action of Coriolis force, the
movement of ocean currents in the northern hemisphere is in the clockwise and in the southern hemisphere it is in the anti-clockwise
direction. Hence it can be said that ocean currents obey Ferrel's law.

Currents in the Pacific Ocean

 North Equatorial Current (Warm)

 South Equatorial Current (Warm)

 Counter Equatorial Current (Warm)

 Kuroshio System (Warm)

 Oyashio Current (Cold)

 California Current (Cold)

 Peruvian or Humboldt Current (Cold)

 East Australia Current (Warm)

 North Pacific Drift (Warm)

Currents in the Atlantic Ocean

 North Equatorial Current (warm)

 South Equatorial Current (warm)

 Equatorial Counter Current

 Gulf Stream (warm)

 Florida Current (Warm)

 Canaries Current (Cold)

 Labrador Current (Cold)

 Brazilian Current (Warm)

 Falkland Current (Cold)

 South Atlantic Drift (Cold)

 Benguela Current (Cold)

Currents in the Indian Ocean

 The North East Monsoon Drift

 The South West Monsoon Drift

 North Equatorial Current (Warm)

 South Equatorial Current (Warm)

 Somali Current (Cold)

 Mozambique Current (Warm)

 Madagascar Current (Warm)

 Agulhas Current (Warm)

 West Australian Current (Cold)

Impact of Ocean Currents

 Local Climate

 Warm and Cold currents affect the local climate of a region.

Rains and Desert Formation

 Warm ocean currents bring rains to the coastal regions and also the interiors while cold currents do not.

 Warm currents flow along the east coast of continents in tropical and sub-tropical latitudes resulting in warm and rainy climates while
cold currents flow along the west coast of continents.

 Cold currents are one of the reasons why deserts are located the western margins of continents in the sub-tropical belts
  Fishing grounds The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favor the growth of planktons which is the
regions are rich in microscopic marine plants and animals.

 These are crucial for the survival of marine ecosystems.

TIDES
 The periodical rise and fall of the water level in oceans and sea, once or twice a day, due to the gravitational pull of the sun and the, is
called a tide. The study of tides is very complex, spatially and temporally, as it has great variations in frequency, magnitude and
height.The Ocean's Tide

 There are three major forces causing an occurrence of tides they are

 Moon s gravitational pull

 Sun s gravitational pull.

 Centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational pull of the earth.

 Tides occur due to an imbalance between the various forces acting on the ocean water at a point in time. In general, the tide-
generating force is the difference between these two forces; i.e. the gravitational attraction due to the mass of the moon and the
centrifugal force due to rotation of the earth.

 MECHANISM

 When the two forces are not in balance, it gives rise to the tide-generating force. The side of the Earth which is closest to the moon has
the strongest gravitational attraction towards the moon while water on the other side of the Earth experiences a weaker gravitational
force.

 The moons gravitational force has a greater effect than the sun's gravitational force due to the relative distance of moon and sun
respectively. The tide-generating force is proportional to the product of the mass of the two bodies but also inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.

 The tide-generating force due to the Sun is 0.46 that of the moon.

TYPES OF TIDES
based on frequency

 Semi-diurnal Tide: This is the most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each day.

 Diurnal Tides: Only one high tide and one low tide each day. The successive high and low tides are approximate of the same height.

 Mixed Tide: Tides having variations in heights are known as mixed tides. They generally occur along the west coast of North America and
also in the Pacific Ocean.

Based on sun, moon and earth s positions

 Spring Tides: When the position of the sun, the moon, and the earth are aligned in such a way that it forms a straight line, the height of
the tide will be higher than normal. These are called as spring tides. It occurs twice in a month-one on the full moon and the other on
the new moon.

 Neap Tides: After seven days of spring tides the sun and the moon form a 90-degree angle between each other. The resultant force of
gravitation gives rise to a tide of very low magnitude which is termed as the neap tide. It also occurs twice in a month.

Based on magnitude

 Perigee: When the moon s orbit is closest to the earth, it is called as perigee. During this period, unusual heights of high and low tide
occur.

 Apogee: When the moon s orbit is farthest from the earth, it is called as apogee. Tidal ranges will be much less than average height
during this period.

 Perihelion: It is the position where the earth is closest to the sun (around January 3rd). Unusually high and low tides occur at this time.

 Aphelion: It is the position where the earth is farthest from the sun (around July 4th). Tidal ranges will be much less than the average
height during this period.

महासागरीय धाराएँ
 महासागर म होने वाली गितिविधय को इस कार वग कृ त कया जाता है: लहर, वार और धाराएँ।

 लहर हवा और सतही जल परत के बीच घषण के कारण बनती ह। हवा िजतनी तेज होगी, लहर उतनी ही बड़ी होगी। कनारे या उथले पानी म
प च
ँ ने पर ये ज दी मर जाते ह।

 महासागर म पानी क गित को धारा , लहर और वार म वग कृ त कया जा सकता है। इनम से, महासागरीय धाराएँ सतही जल का िवशाल
मान ह जो महासागर के चार ओर िनयिमत प से प रचािलत होती ह।

सागर क लहर

 उनके तापमान के आधार पर, महासागरीय धारा को गम धारा और ठं डी धारा म वग कृ त कया जा सकता है।
 &
Pressure Systems

 Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled. This results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure.

 The differences in atmospheric pressure causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure,
setting the air in motion

 Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the column of air at any given place and time. It is measured by
means of an instrument called barometer.

 Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on
pressure, it is measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.

 The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and direction of pressure changes and is referred to as pressure
gradient.

 There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts’. On
the earth’s surface, there are in all seven pressure belts.

The seven pressure belts are :

 equatorial low,

 the sub-tropical highs,

 the sub-polar lows, and

 the polar highs.

 Equatorial Low Pressure Belts

 Lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes.

 Width may vary between 5°N and 5°S and 20°N and 20°S.

 High temp, Air expands, earth rotation centrifugal

 Isobars wide spread

 This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds from two hemispheres from sub-tropical
high pressure belts.
  This belt is also called the Doldrums, because of the extremely calm air mov

ements.

Subtropical High Pressure Belts

 Temp is high, pressure should be low but expelled air from equator

 At about 30°North and South of Equator lies the area where the ascending equatorial air currents descend.
This area is thus an area of high pressure. It is also called as the Horse latitude. Winds always blow from high
pressure to low pressure. So the winds from subtropical region blow towards Equator as Trade winds

Circum-Polar Low Pressure Belts

 These belts located between 60° and 70° in each hemisphere are known as Circum-Polar Low Pressure
Belts.

 Polar winds gets more area

 Due to earth’s rotation, the winds surrounding the Polar region blow towards the Equator. Centrifugal forces
operating in this region create the low pressure belt appropriately called Circumpolar Low Pressure Belt. This
region is marked by violent storms in winter.

Polar High Pressure Areas

 At the North and South Poles, between 70° to 90° North and South, the temperatures are always
extremely low. The cold descending air gives rise to high pressures over the Poles.

 Area is also very small

 These areas of Polar high pressure are known as the Polar Highs.

 Outward divergent flow

 These regions are characterized by permanent Ice Caps.

 Belts are not continuous but vary as per the land mass

 Cont in Southern hemisphere

 B/c of high and low pressure system, atmosphere of troposphere is circulated and the system of winds is
developed.
Classification of Winds

 Permanent winds or Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds

 The trade winds, westerlies and easterlies.

 Secondary or Periodic Winds

 Seasonal winds: These winds change their direction in different seasons. For example monsoons in India.

 Periodic winds: Land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze.

 Local winds

 These blow only during a particular period of the day or year in a small area.

 Winds like Loo, Mistral, Foehn, Bora.

 Coriolis Force- b/c of earth rotationà deflecting force, Max at poles, zero at equator

 In N.H- make the wind to deflect towards right

 In S.H- make the wind to deflrct towards left

Primary Winds or Prevailing Winds or Permanent Winds or Planetary Winds

 These are the planetary winds which blow extensively over continents and oceans.

 The two most well- understood and significant winds for climate and human activities are trade
winds and westerly winds.

Trade Winds/Easterlies

 The trade winds are those blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure areas towards the equatorial low
pressure belt.

 Therefore, these are confined to a region between 30°N and 30°S throughout the earth’s surface.

 The trade winds from two hemispheres meet at the equator, and due to convergence they rise and cause
heavy rainfall.

Westerlies

 The westerlies are the winds blowing from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the sub polar low
pressure belts.

 They blow from southwest to north-east in the northern hemisphere and north-west to south-east in the
southern hemisphere.

 The westerlies are best developed between 40° and 65°S latitudes. These latitudes are often called Roaring
Forties, Furious Fifties, and Shrieking Sixties – dreaded terms for sailors.

Polar easterlies

 The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from north-east to south-west direction in
Northern Hemisphere and south-east to north-west in Southern Hemisphere.

 They blow from the polar high-pressure areas of the sub-polar lows.

Secondary Winds or Periodic Winds

  These winds change their direction with change in season.

 Monsoons are the best example of large-scale modification of the planetary wind system.

 Other examples of periodic winds include land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze, cyclones and
anticyclones, and air masses.

 Monsoons were traditionally explained as land and sea breezes on a large scale. Thus, they were
considered a convectional circulation on a giant scale.

 The monsoon winds flow over India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, the Arabian Sea,
Bay of Bengal, southeastern Asia, northern Australia, China

Land Breeze and Sea Breeze

 The land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently. During the day the land heats up faster and
becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise to a low pressure area,
whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively high. Thus, pressure gradient from
sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea to the land as the sea breeze. In the night the
reversal of condition takes place

Tertiary Winds or Local Winds

 Local differences of temperature and pressure produce local winds.

 Such winds are local in extent and are confined to the lowest levels of the troposphere. Some examples of
local winds are discussed below.

Hot Local Winds:

 Loo: Loo are hot and dry winds, which blow very strongly over the northern plains of India and Pakistan in
the months of May and June. Their direction is from west to east and they are usually experienced in the
afternoons. Their temperature varies between 45 degree C to 50 degree C.

 Foehn: Foehn is strong, dusty, dry and warm local wind which develops the Leeward side of the Alps
mountain ranges. It affects the Switzerland most. The temperatures of the winds vary from 15 degree to 20
degree Celsius which helps in melting snow. Thus making pasture land ready for animal grazing and help the
grapes to ripe early.

 Chinook: Chinook is the name of hot and dry wind which moves down the eastern slopes of the Rockies in
U.S.A. and Canada. The literal meaning of Chinook is ‘snow eater’ as they help in melting the snow earlier.
They keep the grasslands clear of snow

 Cold Local Winds:

 The local cold winds originate in the snow-capped mountains during winter and move down the slopes
towards the valleys. They are known by different names in different areas.
 Mistral: Mistrals are the most common local cold winds. They originate on the Alps and move over France
towards the Mediterranean Sea through the Rhone valley. They are very cold, dry and high velocity winds.
They bring down temperature below freezing point in areas of their influence

 Some Popular Local Winds of the World:

 Sirocco: This is a warm, dry and dusty wind which blows in northerly direction from the Sahara Desert and
after crossing over the Mediterranean sea reaches Italy, Spain, etc.,where it is also known as Blood Rain
because of its redish sand brought along with it from Sahara desert. There are different local names for
Sirocco in Africa e.g. ‘Khamish’ in Egypt, ‘Gibli’ in Libya and ‘Chilly ‘in Tunisia, ijn Spain and Canary and
Maderia island , it is known as ‘Leveche’ and ‘Leste’ respectively.

 Black Roller: These are the warm and dry dusty winds, blowing in the great plains of North America.

 Yoma: This is the warm and dry wind like ‘Santa Ana’ , blowing in Japan. Temporal: This is the monsoon wind
blowing in the Central America.

 Simoom : This is the warm and dry wind blowing in the Arabian Desert. It causes storms and obstructs
visibility.

 Samoon: This is the wind blowing in Kurdistan region of Iran and Iraq and has the characters similar to Foehn

 Karaburan: These are the dust Laden fast blowing winds in the Tarim Basin in the central Asia.

 Harmattan: This is the warm and dry wind blowing in from north-east and east to west in the Sahara Desert.
The weather becomes suddenly dry and pleasant in the western coast of Africa, at the arrival of Harmattan.
Therefore it is called ‘Doctor’ in the New Guniea.

 Brick Fielder: This is the warm and dry wind blowing in the Victoria province of Australia.

 Norwester: This is the warm and dry wind blowing in northern New Zealand.

 Santa Ana: This is the warm and dry wind blowing in California (USA).

 Zonda: This is a warm wind blowing in Argentina and Uruguay , from the Andes to the plains. This is also
called ‘cool Foehn’.

 Blizzard: It is a violent stormy cold polar wind laden with dry snow and is prevalent in north and south Polar
Regions. These winds affect Canada and USA.

 Pampero: These are the cold polar winds blowing very fast in the pampas region of South America

दबाव णाली
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