Fluid Machinery

UNIT – I
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY

Ideal inviscid fluids do not exert any force on the surfaces over which they flow.
Real fluidshave viscosity. When these fluids flow over surfaces, “no slip
condition” prevails. The layernear the surface has to have the same velocity as the
surface. If the surface is at rest, then thislayer comes to rest. The adjacent layer is
retarded to a lesser extent and this proceeds to layersmore removed from the
surface at rest. A velocity gradient forms leading to shear force beingexerted over
the layers. The velocity gradient is steepest at the interface and the shear is
alsohighest at the interface. Work is to be done to overcome the force. The
equations for the analysisof the complete flow field has been formulated by Navier
and Stokes. But solutions for theseequations for practical boundary conditions
were not available. For a long time empiricalequations based on experimental
results were used in designs.The development of boundary layer theory enabled the
analysis of such flows to befairly easy. The theory was proposed by Ludwig
Prandtl in 1904. He observed that in the caseof real fluids velocity gradient
existed only in a thin layer near the surface. Thislayer was named as
boundary layer. Beyond this layer the effect of viscosity was foundnegligible.
This was supported by measurement of velocity. The flow field now can be
dividedinto two regions, one in which velocity gradient and shear existed and
another where viscouseffects are negligible. This region can be dealt with as flow
of inviscid fluid or ideal fluid. In thestudy of flow over immersed bodies like
aircraft wings the analysis can be limited to the boundarylayer, instead of the field
extending to long distances for the determination of forces exerted onthe surface
by the fluid flowing over it.
BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS
In the solution of the basic equations describing the flow namely continuity
andmomentum equations of the boundary layer, one boundary is provided by the
solid surface. The need for the other boundary is met by edge of the boundary layer
determined by thethickness. The determination of the velocity variation along the
layer enables the determination of velocity gradient. This is made possible by these
two boundary conditions. Once the velocitygradient at the surface is determined,
the shear stress can be determined using the equation

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This leads to the determination of resistance due to the flow.

Displacement Thickness

Compared to the thickness δ in free stream, the flow in the boundary layer is
reduceddue to the reduction in velocity which is the result of viscous forces. In the
absence of theboundary layer the flow rate that would pass through the thickness δ
will be higher.

Fig.1 Displacement thickness

The reduction in volume flow is given by (for unit width)

If viscous forces were absent the velocity all through the thickness δ will be equal
to u∞.A thickness δdcan be defined by equating the reduction in flow to a uniform
flow with velocityu∞ or ρu∞δd

Displacing the boundary by a distance δdwould pass the flow in the boundary layer
atfree stream velocity.
Displacement thickness δdis the distance by which the solid boundary would
have to be displaced in a frictionless flow to give the same mass flow rate as with
theboundary layer

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Momentum Thickness
There is a reduction in momentum flow through the boundary layer as compared to
the momentumflow in a thickness δ at free stream velocity.
The thickness which at free stream velocity will have the same momentumflow as
the dificit flow is called momentum thickness

Fig.2 Momentum thickness

FLOW SEPARATION IN BOUNDARY LAYERS

Boundary layer is formed in the case of flow of real fluids. Viscous forces exist in
such flows. The shear stress at the wall is given by

The wall shear cannot be zero. Hence at This means that the velocity
gradient at the wall cannot be zero.Separation of flow is said to occur when the
direction of the flow velocity near the surfaceis opposed to the direction of the free
stream velocity, which means (du/dy) ≤ 0. Such a situationdoes not arise when
there is no pressure gradient opposed to the flow direction, ie., the pressure
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downstream of flow is higher compared to the pressure upstream. An example is

subsonicdiffuser. In the direction of flow the pressure increases. The increase in
area along the flowcauses a pressure rise.

Fig.3

If (dp/dx) increases to the extent that it can overcome the shear near the surface,
then separation will occur. Such a pressure gradient is called adverse pressure
gradient.In the case of incompressible flow in a nozzle a favorable pressure
gradient exists. Separationwill not occur in such flows. In the case of diverging
section of a diffuser, separation can occurif the rate of area increase is large. In
turbulent flow, the momentumnear the surface is high compared to laminar flow.
Hence turbulent layer is able to resist.

Q.1 find the displacement thickness, momentum thickness and energy thickness

for the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by ,where u is the
velocity at a distance y from plate and u =U, at y= ,where it is the boundary layer
thickness. Also calculate the value of

Solution:

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Question 2. Find the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness and energy

thickness for the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by

Solution:

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Question.

SOLUTION:

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Q. For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer

determine the boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force and co-
efficient of drag in terms of Reynold number.

Solution.
Given

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Q. For the velocity profile for laminar boundary layer

Obtain an expression for boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force on
one side of the plate and co-efficient of drag in terms of Reynold number.
Solution: Given

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Q. For the velocity profile for laminar boundary flow

Obtain an expression for boundary layer thickness, shear stress , drag force
on one side of the plate and co- efficient of drag in terms of Reynold number.
Solution: Given

Q. For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer as,

Find the thickness of the boundary layer and the shear stress 1.5 m from the
leading edge of a plate. The plate is 2 m long and 1.4 m wide and is placed in water
which is moving with a velocity of 200 mm per second. Find the total drag force
on the plate if µ for water =0.01 poise.

Solution: Given

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Q. air is flowing over a smooth plate with a velocity of 10 m/s. the length of the
plate is 1.2 m and width 0.8 m. if laminar boundary layer exists up to a value of R e
= 2×105 ,find the maximum distance from the leading edge up to which laminar
boundary layer exists, find the maximum thickness of laminar boundary layer If

the velocity profile is given by take kinematic viscosity for air

= 0.15 strokes

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TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLATE PLATE

Q. For the velocity profile for turbulent boundary layer obtain an

expression for boundary layer thickness, shear stress, drag force on one side of the
plate and co – efficient of drag in terms of reynold number. Given the shear stress

for turbulent boundary layer as

Solution : Given

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SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER

EFFECT OF PRESSURE CHANGES ON THEBOUNDARY LAYER
Let us consider a fluid flow along the surface with the pressureincreasing in the
direction of motion (due to the distortion of thestreamlines pattern) the boundary
layer formed on the surface may affect the main stream by producing the
separation (or breakaway)

Fig.4

increasing pressure force opposing the fluidmotionuniform distribution of the

pressure across the boundary layer _ uniformly distributed opposing force _
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nonuniformdeceleration of the fluidthe low-speed fluid near to the surface is more

easily retardedthan the fluid of the greater momentum flowing further fromthe
wallfinal effect: qualitative modification of the velocity profile (crosssection B-B)

modified distribution is characterized by:

 easily noticeable differences near the wall which disappearat the outer edge
of boundary layer
 the presence of inflexion point
point C (further downstream)

 boundary layer thickness increases

 more low-speed fluid close to the surface than at point B greater retardation
 the occurrence of the separation

 point C is called separation point

 downstream from point C opposing pressure force leads to
the reverse flow

Fig.5
reverse flow causes a creation of a large slowly rotated eddy
which is permanently present
 separation eddies are responsible for great energy losses
 they should not be confused with much more smallertemporary turbulent
vortices

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conclusion
separation occurs when there is superposition ofvelocity gradient ¶U/¶y and
adverse pressuregradient ¶p/¶x.Adverse pressure gradient (being the actual reason
ofseparation occurrence) is produced whenever there is atendency for the fluid to
decelerate, what may be deduced fromBernoulli's equation

for the case of constant energy (frictionless flow). Thus

The deceleration of fluid elements occurs when the streamlinestend to diverge (e.g.
in the rear of solid objects travellingrelative to the fluid). It implies directly from
continuityequation:cross sectional area increases - velocity decreases

FLOW AROUND A CIRCULAR CYLINDER

Let us discuss the separation appearing on the surface of a circularCylinder
ideal fluidno viscosity -no boundary layer - streamline pattern can be predicted
(potential flows theory) - knowledge about velocity field -pressure distribution

for 90° <Q < 180° the pressure gradient is opposing the
flow but there is no separation

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Fig.6
real fluid
 laminar boundary layer is formed and grows thicker for
increasing angle Q - there is a lot of retarded fluid on the surface of cylinder
for Q » 90° adverse pressure gradient occurs

 leading to the separation and the formation of a large eddy streamline

pattern is dramatically changed – pressuredistribution on the surface is
qualitatively and quantitativelymodified
 the integration of the pressure distribution (taken fromexperiment) gives the
form drag and the form dragcoefficient.

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Laminar boundary layer

Fig.7
Let us consider the situation for which transition from alaminar to a turbulent
boundary layer takes place before theseparation occur.
Turbulent boundary layer

Fig.8
 distinct changes of streamline pattern
 transition takes place for

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laminar-turbulent transition takes place for the same value of

Reynolds number like for flat plate

separation point (SP) is moved further downstream

created vortices are smaller in size and the width of thewake is reduced
significantly
 modification of pressure distribution on the surface ofcylinder in its rear part
 considerable reduction of form drag

Explanation

turbulent boundary layer (following the transition) has avelocity distribution with
much higher speeds close to thesurface than the laminar one
higher velocity

greater momentum

turbulent boundary layer is less susceptible (more resistant) to separation

Conclusion

the properties of boundary layer have a greatinfluence not only on the frictional
drag but also onthe wake and so the form drag.
effect of the reattachment of BL on wake size and structure

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Fig.9

i) laminar BL
ii) laminar-turbulent BL – relatively low Re
iii) turbulent BL – high Re (L-T transition moved upstream)

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Q.1

Solution:

Objective questions
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Q.1 A boundary layer

1. may exist near a solid boundary only
2. may exist near any boundary; wall, centre-line or any other
3. may not form for some fluids
4. may or may not grow along the direction of flow
Q.2 A boundary layer grows rapidly in thickness
1.for laminar flow with favourable pressure gradient
2.for turbulent flow with favourable pressure gradient
3.for any type of flow with favourable pressure gradient
4.for any flow with adverse pressure gradient

Q.3 separation is caused by

1.Reduction of pressure in the direction of flow
2.reduction of the boundary layer thickness
3.presence of adverse pressure gradient
4.presence of favourable pressure gradient

Q.4 The wake is define as a flow where

1. the flow is about to separate from the boundary
2. the pressure becomes very low
3. the velocity gradient is very high
4. the flow has separated from the boundary

Q.5 The law of the wall refers to

1. the law for the laminar sublayer near a wall
2. the law for the buffer zone
3. the logarithmic velocity profile
4. the entire region including the laminar sublayer, buffer zone
turbulence

Q.6 The displacement thickness for a boundary layer

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1. may be greater than boundary layer thickness

2. must be less than the momentum thickness
3. represent the momentum deficit in a flow
4. represent the mass deficit in a flow
Q.7 Turbulence in a flow implies
1. unsteadiness of flow
2. non-uniformity of flow
3. unsteadiness and non-uniformity of flow
4. random component of velocity superimposed on the mean flow.

Q.8 The direction of lift force on an immersed body is

1. in the vertically upward direction
2. normal to the direction of motion of the body
3. normal to the zero-lift axis
4. normal to the longitudinal axis of the body
Q.9 A streamlined body is such that
1. it produces no drag for flow around it
2. the surface of the body coincides with the stream surface
3. the flow is laminar around it
4. it is symmetrical about the axis along the free stream.

Q.10 The critical Reynolds number for flow over a circular cylinder implies
that, beyond that number
1. the drag increases at a fast rate
2. the coefficient of drag increases at a fast rate
3. the coefficient of drag decreases at a fast rate
4. the flow changes from laminar to turbulent over the entire cylinder
Q.11 A tip wire is mounted near the leading edge of a body
1.to increase the lift
2.to decrease the lift
3.to advance the point of separation

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4.to delay the point of separation

References:
1. NPTEL lectures
2. Text book by Modi & Seth , R K Bansal , R K Rajput.

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