buildings

Review
FRP Poles: A State-of-the-Art-Review of Manufacturing,
Testing, and Modeling
Ahmed M. EL-Fiky 1 , Youssef Ahmed Awad 1,2 , Hosam Mostafa Elhegazy 2, * , Mahmoud Galal Hasan 1 ,
Ibrahim Abdel-Latif 1 , Ahmed M. Ebid 2 and Mohamed A. Khalaf 1

1 Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11517, Egypt;
ahmed.abdelsamed@fue.edu.eg (A.M.E.-F.); youssef.ahmed@fue.edu.eg (Y.A.A.);
mahmoud.galal@eng.asu.edu.eg (M.G.H.); ibrahim.yousif@eng.asu.edu.eg (I.A.-L.);
mohamed_khalaf@eng.asu.edu.eg (M.A.K.)
2 Department of Structural Engineering and Construction Management, Future University in Egypt,
New Cairo 11835, Egypt; ahmed.abdelkhaleq@fue.edu.eg
* Correspondence: hossam.mostaffa@fue.edu.eg

Abstract: Fiber-reinforced polymers poles were on the increase because they were lightweight, have
high strength-to-weight ratios, provide corrosion resistance, can be customized to meet strength
and deflection requirements, and have a low life-cycle cost of construction and maintenance. This
research presents a comprehensive review of all significant research and existing case studies to
review the present knowledge concerning fiber-reinforced polymers poles. The main summary
covers 70 works focusing on fiber poles to summarize recent activities on selected relevant topics
and highlight possible future implementations. In this context, this study discusses fiber-reinforced
polymers poles in six aspects: (i) introduction; (ii) methodology; (iii) Materials properties of FRP
poles; (iv) manufacturing techniques of FRP poles; (v) testing of FRP poles (static and dynamic
flexure test as cantilever beam); (vi) modeling of FRP poles. Therefore, this critical review will
Citation: EL-Fiky, A.M.; Awad, Y.A.; demonstrate an overview of FRP Poles manufacturing techniques (Pultrusion, filament winding,
Elhegazy, H.M.; Hasan, M.G.; centrifugal process, and hand lay-up) and which Pultrusion technique is the best suited for FRP Poles.
Abdel-Latif, I.; Ebid, A.M.; Khalaf, Static modeling was the most used of other techniques.
M.A. FRP Poles: A State-of-the-
Art-Review of Manufacturing, Keywords: FRP poles; manufacturing; testing; modeling; lightening poles; transmission poles; power
Testing, and Modeling. Buildings line poles
2022, 12, 1085. https://doi.org/
10.3390/buildings12081085

Academic Editor: Jian-Guo Dai

1. Introduction
Received: 9 June 2022
1.1. FRP Industry
Accepted: 21 July 2022
Published: 25 July 2022 Fiber-reinforced polymer was a composite material composed of a polymer matrix
and fibers, engineered or natural composite materials comprising two or more component
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
elements with vastly diverse physical or chemical properties that remained distinct and
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
separate within the finished construction. The goal was to make a robust and rigid compo-
published maps and institutional affil-
nent with a low density. The rising use of composites in recent years has been fueled by
iations.
the development of new advanced forms of FRP materials. Composite poles are rapidly
gaining acceptance throughout the utility industry, mainly due to the main advantages of
glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP) poles, such as exceptional strength-to-weight ratios,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. resistance to corrosion chemical attack, non-conductivity, and long lifespans. Because
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. of its beneficial properties in concrete, bridge decks, modular structures, formwork, and
This article is an open access article external reinforcement for strengthening and seismic upgrades, FRP composites have been
distributed under the terms and employed as reinforcement in new construction and strengthening of buildings. How-
conditions of the Creative Commons ever, such a conclusion must be weighed against the potential benefits of adopting FRP
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// composites in terms of factors such as cost and durability (higher strength, lighter weight,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ higher performance, longer-lasting, strengthening existing structures and extending their
4.0/).

Buildings 2022, 12, 1085. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081085 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 2 of 22

strength, lighter weight, higher performance, longer-lasting, strengthening existing struc-

life,
turesseismic upgrades, their
and extending defense systems,
life, seismicspace systems,
upgrades, and ocean
defense environments)
systems, [1]. There-
space systems, and
fore,
oceanfiber-reinforced
environments)polymers (FRP)fiber-reinforced
[1]. Therefore, were generally polymers
categorized as advanced
(FRP) composite
were generally cate-
materials.
gorized asCompared
advanced to conventional
composite materials,
materials. where to
Compared available products
conventional are limited
materials, to
where
what industry can provide, the entire FRP manufacturing process can
available products are limited to what industry can provide, the entire FRP manufacturing be closely engi-
neered
processtocanfabricate a custom
be closely product
engineered to for different
fabricate operations.
a custom Furthermore,
product engineers
for different can
operations.
select various types of fibers, matrix materials, and geometrical properties
Furthermore, engineers can select various types of fibers, matrix materials, and geomet- in designing
FRP
ricalstructures
propertiesto inoptimize
designingthe FRP final producttostructurally
structures optimize the and economically,
final as shownand
product structurally in
Figure 1 [2]. Previous
economically, as shown studies found
in Figure thatPrevious
1 [2]. a few papers study
studies foundthethat
effect of cyclic
a few papersload on
study
athe
pole. It should
effect of cyclicbeload
considered,
on a pole.and it was recommended
It should be considered, to andcompare the different FE
it was recommended to
software on the accuracy of results. The effect of the FRP Pole fixation
compare the different FE software on the accuracy of results. The effect of the FRP method mustPole
be
considered in future
fixation method mustresearch works. in future research works.
be considered

Figure1.
Figure 1. The
The manufacturing
manufacturing process
processof
ofaaglass
glassfiber
fibersheet.
sheet.

1.2. Poles
1.2. Poles
Engineerswere
Engineers wereincreasingly
increasinglybeingbeing charged
charged withwith evaluating,
evaluating, developing,
developing, andand runningrun-
ning systems
systems that leverage
that leverage the concept
the concept of resiliency
of resiliency across many across many
critical critical infrastructure
infrastructure sectors in
sectors
the in recurrent
face of the face of recurrent
natural natural anddisasters.
and man-made man-made Onedisasters.
example One example
of critical of critical
infrastructure
was electric poles
infrastructure was and transmission
electric poles and networks. According
transmission to a recent
networks. study to
According onathe economic
recent study
benefits of improving
on the economic electric
benefits grid resilience
of improving to weather
electric outages,tothe
grid resilience US economy
weather outages, losttheUSD
US
18 billion to
economy USD
lost USD 3318billion
billionannually
to USD 33 from 2003annually
billion to 2012. Several
from 2003 strategies
to 2012.were
Severalfound to
strate-
improve
gies were the country’s
found electricthe
to improve gridcountry’s
resiliencyelectric
[3]. In the
gridUnited States,
resiliency [3].most current
In the United electrical
States,
poles
most supplying electricpoles
current electrical distribution
supplyingsystems aredistribution
electric made of wood. It was
systems areprojected
made ofthat wood. overIt
three million existing electric wood poles would need to be replaced
was projected that over three million existing electric wood poles would need to be re- yearly. Upgrading
supporting
placed yearly. structures
Upgradingand wooden
supportingelectric poles with
structures andstronger
woodenmaterials that can
electric poles withwithstand
stronger
hurricane-force
materials that can winds was a hurricane-force
withstand primary mitigation windsstrategy [4]. The primary
was a primary mitigation disadvantage
strategy [4].
of
Thefiber-reinforced
primary disadvantagepolymersof(FRP) poles was their
fiber-reinforced high manufacturing
polymers (FRP) poles was cost. However,
their high man- as
utility companies gained a better understanding of the advantages
ufacturing cost. However, as utility companies gained a better understanding of the ad- of FRP, it was projected
that their usage
vantages of FRP, would
it was increase
projectedandthat
their costusage
their wouldwoulddecrease [5]. The
increase andlighting polewould
their cost used
in the street lighting system has various cross-sectional shapes such
decrease [5]. The lighting pole used in the street lighting system has various cross-sec- as circular, tubular,
and
tionaloctagonal.
shapes such Materials usedtubular,
as circular, for manufacturing
and octagonal. conventional
Materials used lighting poles are cast
for manufacturing
iron, structural steel, and stainless steel. Recently, aluminum alloy
conventional lighting poles are cast iron, structural steel, and stainless steel. Recently,lighting poles and FRP alu-
poles were also developed [6]. These poles were used in different
minum alloy lighting poles and FRP poles were also developed [6]. These poles were used applications such as
street lighting, solar lighting, power transmission, traffic sign, and flag
in different applications such as street lighting, solar lighting, power transmission, traffic poles, as shown in
Figure 2.
sign, and flag poles, as shown in Figure 2.
Buildings Buildings
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Figure
Figure Different applications
2.2.Different applicationsof poles.
of poles.
1.3. Research Objective
1.3. Research Objective
The objective of this study is to collect, sort, analyze and criticize the early published
The objective
research regarding of FRP this study
poles is to collect,the
for determining sort, analyze
current and
trends, criticize
figuring out the
the early
gap publ
studies, and recommending future research. This study discusses fiber-reinforced
research regarding FRP poles for determining the current trends, figuring out the polymers
poles in six aspects: (i) introduction; (ii) Methodology; (iii) Materials properties of FRP poles;
studies, and recommending future research. This study discusses fiber-reinforced
(iv) Manufacturing techniques of FRP poles; (v) Testing of FRP poles; and (vi) Modeling of
mers
FRPpoles
poles. in six aspects: (i) introduction; (ii) Methodology; (iii) Materials propert
FRP poles; (iv) Manufacturing techniques of FRP poles; (v) Testing of FRP poles; an
2. Methodology
Modeling of FRP poles.
2.1. Research Program
According to [7,8], the international journals were searched for relevant research
2. Methodology
papers. This review was based on articles from reputable academic journals published
2.1.upResearch
through Program
the end of April 2022 in fiber-reinforced plastics. The journals were chosen
substantially impact fiber-reinforced polymers poles and were part of the Science Citation
According to [7,8], the international journals were searched for relevant researc
Index Expanded or Engineering Index databases. The paper search engines used were
pers. This Google
SCOPUS, reviewScholar,
was based
and Webonofarticles
Science, andfrom
tworeputable academic
rounds of searches were journals publishe
undertaken.
through the end
In the initial roundofofApril 2022key
searching, interms
fiber-reinforced plastics.polymers,
such as fiber-reinforced The journals were chosen
pole strength,
electric poles,
stantially impacttransmission poles, civil polymers
fiber-reinforced engineering,poles
and construction
and werematerials
part ofwere
the used
Science Cit
to find publications. Then, a second search round was performed
Index Expanded or Engineering Index databases. The paper search engines based on the outcomes of used
the first search round, manually filtering publications linked to fiber-reinforced polymers
SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, and two rounds of searches were u
poles in structural and construction engineering to exclude unnecessary papers. In addition,
taken. In theshould
the authors initialstudy
round theof searching,
abstract of eachkey terms
research to such
check as
thatfiber-reinforced polymers
the application of the
strength, electric poles, transmission poles, civil engineering, and construction mat
article was within the structural and construction materials. As a result, many journal
papers
were were
used tochosen and grouped into
find publications. six categories
Then, a second after two rounds
search roundofwas screening. Namely,based o
performed
(i) introduction; (ii) methodology; (iii) materials properties of FRP poles; (iv) manufacturing
outcomes of the first search round, manually filtering publications linked to fiber
techniques of FRP poles; (v) testing of FRP poles; (vi) modeling of FRP poles. Figure 3
forced
showspolymers
the numberpoles in structural
of chosen papers per and
year. construction engineering to exclude unnece
papers. In addition, the authors should study the abstract of each research to check
the application of the article was within the structural and construction materials.
result, many journal papers were chosen and grouped into six categories after two ro
of screening. Namely, (i) introduction; (ii) methodology; (iii) materials properties o
poles; (iv) manufacturing techniques of FRP poles; (v) testing of FRP poles; (vi) mod
of FRP poles. Figure 3 shows the number of chosen papers per year.
Buildings 2022,12,
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no. of papers/year
2022 2
3
2020 9
5
2018 2
4
2016 5
4
2014 1
5
2012 4
2
2010 5
4
2008 8
8
2006 2
2
2004 1
1
2001 1
3
1999 3
1
1987 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure3.3.No.
Figure No. of
of published
publishedworks
worksper
peryear.
year.

2.2. Research
2.2. ResearchOrganization
Organization
Fiber-reinforcedpolymers:
Fiber-reinforced polymers:ThisThissection
sectionintroduces
introduces research
research work
work discussing
discussing thethe fi-
fiber-
ber-reinforced
reinforced polymer
polymer industry,
industry, fiber-reinforced
fiber-reinforced polymer
polymer poles,poles,
and theand the research
research objec-
objective.
tive.Materials properties of FRP poles: This section presents the different properties of
Materials properties
fiber-reinforced polymer poles,of FRPsuchpoles: This section
as physical, presents
mechanical, andthe different
chemical. properties
Further discuss of
fiber-reinforced
the effect of these polymer poles,
properties onsuch
polesas and
physical, mechanical,
the different typesand
of chemical.
fibers (glass, Further dis-
carbon,
cussaramid).
and the effect of these properties on poles and the different types of fibers (glass, carbon,
and Manufacturing
aramid). techniques of FRP poles: Present a historical background on the manu-
facturing methods of fiber-reinforced
Manufacturing techniques of FRP polymer
poles:poles.
PresentThis section reviews
a historical backgroundfilament on winding,
the man-
Pultrusion,
ufacturing centrifugal
methods ofcasting, and hand lay-up
fiber-reinforced polymertechniques.
poles. This section reviews filament
Testing
winding, of FRP poles:
Pultrusion, FRP composite
centrifugal casting, poles werelay-up
and hand economically and industrially viable.
techniques.
However, thisof
Testing promising
FRP poles:alternative technique
FRP composite became
poles weremore generallyand
economically accepted in practice
industrially via-
and
ble. grew to become
However, the future ofalternative
this promising pole construction.
techniqueThis sectionmore
became discusses the design
generally acceptedcodes in
and allowable
practice limits,
and grew to and background
become the futureonofthe standard
pole test procedures.
construction. This section It also includes
discusses the
an experimental
design codes and program
allowablefrom previous
limits, and research,
backgroundas shown
on theinstandard
Figure 4.test procedures. It
Modeling of FRP poles: This chapter introduces
also includes an experimental program from previous research, as a finite element
shownmodel in Figure of fiber-
4.
reinforced polymer poles with different applications presented by researchers.
Modeling of FRP poles: This chapter introduces a finite element model of fiber-rein- It includes
simple
forced linear
polymer static models,
poles advancedapplications
with different static models, dynamicby
presented models, and fatigue/fracture
researchers. It includes sim-
mechanics/cyclic
ple linear static models, advanced static models, dynamic models, and direction,
models. FE simulations used parameters such as fiber layer
fatigue/fracture
number, and layer thickness.
mechanics/cyclic models. FEInsimulations
addition, theused
deflection and bending
parameters such asstrength characteristics
fiber direction, layer
of GFRP Poles were studied.
number, and layer thickness. In addition, the deflection and bending strength character-
istics of GFRP Poles were studied.
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Figure4.
Figure 4. FRP
FRP pole.
pole.

3. Material
3. Material Properties
Properties
3.1.
3.1. FRP
FRP Materials
Materials
The
The structural properties
properties of ofFRPs,
FRPs,usually
usuallyglass,
glass, carbon,
carbon, aramid,
aramid, or basalt,
or basalt, werewere
pre-
predominantly determined
dominantly determined byby the
the fibersused
fibers usedininthe
theproduct,
product,asasshown
shown in in Table
Table 1. Figure
Figure 55
addresses
addressesthe
thecomparison
comparisonbetween
betweencarbon
carbonfibers,
fibers,aramid
aramidfibers,
fibers,and
and glass
glass fibers
fibers related
relatedto
to
the various characteristics (tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) [2,7].
the various characteristics (tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) [2,7].

Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of different FRPs, adapted from refs. [7,8].

Tensile Strength Density Modulus of Elasticity Shear Modulus Poisson’s

FRP Type
(GPa) (t/m3 ) (GPa) (GPa) Ratio
Electrical-resistant E-glass 3.4 2.5 40 30 1800 0.22
FigureTensile
4. FRP pole.
Strength, Mpa 800
High-strength S-glass 4.5 2.5 300 56 35 0.22
Carbon 3. Material
2.5–4 Properties 1.7 150 20 0.20
3.1. FRP Materials
Carbon (high-modulus) 4.8 1.9 200 23 0.20
The structural properties of FRPs, usually glass, carbon, aramid, or basalt, were pre-
Carbon (high-strength) 2.7 1.7 300 27 0.20
dominantly determined by the fibers used in the product, as shown in Table 1. Figure 5
Aramid 3.4
addresses comparison1.4 530
62 aramid fibers, and glass
21 fibers related0.35
Modulus theof elasticity, between carbon fibers,
Gpa 110
to
the various characteristics (tensile50strength and modulus of elasticity) [2,7].

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

CFRP AFRP GFRP

1800
Figure 5. Comparison
Tensile of design tensile strength and
Strength, Mpa 800 elasticity modulus of different types of fibers.
300
Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of different FRPs, adapted from Refs. [7,8].

Tensile Modulus of
Density Shear Modulus Poisson’s
FRP Type Strength Elasticity
(t/m3) 530 (GPa) Ratio
Modulus(GPa)
of elasticity, Gpa 110 (GPa)
Electrical-resistant E-glass 3.4 2.5 50 40 30 0.22
High-strength S-glass 4.5 2.5
0 200 400 600 56 800 1000 1200 1400 35
1600 1800 2000 0.22
Carbon 2.5–4 1.7 150 20 0.20
CFRP AFRP GFRP
Carbon (high-modulus) 4.8 1.9 200 23 0.20
Carbon (high-strength) 2.7 1.7 300 27 0.20
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Comparison
Comparisonofofdesign
designtensile strength
tensile andand
strength elasticity modulus
elasticity of different
modulus types of
of different fibers.
types of fibers.
Aramid 3.4 1.4 62 21 0.35
Table 1. Physical and mechanical properties of different FRPs, adapted from Refs. [7,8].

Tensile Modulus of
Density Shear Modulus Poisson’s
FRP Type Strength Elasticity
(t/m3) (GPa) Ratio
(GPa) (GPa)
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3.2.
3.2. Physical, Mechanical,and
Physical, Mechanical, andChemical
ChemicalProperties
Properties
The
The low cost of
low cost of glass-fiber-reinforced
glass-fiber-reinforcedpolymerspolymers (GFRP)
(GFRP) compared
compared to other
to other kindskinds
of of
FRPs
FRPs makes glass fibers
makes glass fibersthe
themost
mostused
usedininthe the construction
construction industry.
industry. However,
However, low low
long-long-
term
term strength,
strength, aa relatively
relatively lowlow deformation
deformationmodulus,
modulus,alkaline
alkalineresistance,
resistance,and and low
low humidity
humid-
are
ity the main
are the disadvantages
main disadvantages of GFRP.
of GFRP.OnOn thethe
other hand,
other carbon-fiber-reinforced
hand, carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers
pol-
(CFRP) do not do
ymers (CFRP) absorb water and
not absorb have
water anda have
high adeformation
high deformationmodulus and fatigue
modulus strength.
and fatigue
One of theOne
strength. significant drawbacksdrawbacks
of the significant was the relatively high energy
was the relatively need
high for producing
energy need for pro- carbon
fibers, which led to high costs. Anisotropy (lower radial strength)
ducing carbon fibers, which led to high costs. Anisotropy (lower radial strength) and po- and potential galvanic
corrosion in direct
tential galvanic contactinwith
corrosion steel
direct are further
contact with steeldisadvantages of these materials.
are further disadvantages of theseFiber-
materials. polymers
reinforced Fiber-reinforced polymers
using aramid using High
(AFRP). aramid (AFRP).
static High strengths
and impact static andcharacterize
impact
strengths
these characterize
fibers. However,these theirfibers. However,
diminished their diminished
long-term long-term
strength (stress strength
rupture) and(stress
suscepti-
rupture)
bility to UVandexposure
susceptibility
limittotheir
UV exposure
utilization. limit their utilization.
Aramid fibers alsoAramid
have the fibers also have of
disadvantage
the disadvantage
being challengingoftobeing challenging
cut and processto[7].cutAccording
and processto[7].theAccording
findings to of the
thefindings of
experimental
the experimental
investigation, investigation,
which are displayedwhichinare displayed
Table in Table
1, physical 1, physical
properties such properties
as glass such
percent-
as glass
age and percentage
thickness and andmechanical
thickness and mechanicalsuch
parameters parameters such as longitudinal
as longitudinal modulus and mod-
tensile
ulus and tensile strength were among the factors that most affected
strength were among the factors that most affected the tensile behavior of the poles in the tensile behavior
of theof
terms poles in terms
stiffness and of stiffnessAccording
strength. and strength.to theAccording
study, thetoproduction
the study, process
the production
resulted in
a product with little tolerance regarding the testing values for the poles’values
process resulted in a product with little tolerance regarding the testing for the
sizes and tensile
poles’ sizes and tensile properties. An effective stiffness was established
properties. An effective stiffness was established to accurately describe the experimental to accurately de-
scribe the
tensile experimental
response tensile response
and provide a design andtoolprovide a design tool characteristics
for the mechanical for the mechanical char-
of the poles.
acteristics of the poles. This measurement appears to be a valuable
This measurement appears to be a valuable tool for forecasting the structural reaction tool for forecasting the
structural reaction of the material since it directly contains the dependence on glass con-
of the material since it directly contains the dependence on glass content and thickness
tent and thickness values [7,8].
values [7,8].

4.4. Manufacturing
Manufacturing Techniques
Techniquesof
ofFRP
FRPPoles
Poles
4.1. Filament
4.1. Filament Winding
Winding
The most
The most common
commonmethod
methodfor forcreating hollow
creating hollow tubular forms
tubular waswas
forms filament winding.
filament winding.
In this
In this process,
process, continuous
continuousfibers
fibersimpregnated
impregnated with
withresin areare
resin wound
woundaround
around a revolving
a revolving
mandrel. The
mandrel. The fibers’
fibers’ ability
ability to
to be
be orientated
orientated totocreate
createthe
therequired
requiredmechanical
mechanicalcharacteris-
characteristics
specified by a designer, as seen in Figure 6, was a significant benefit of
tics specified by a designer, as seen in Figure 6, was a significant benefit of filament-wind-
filament-winding.
ing.fiber
The The fiber feeder’s
feeder’s linear
linear velocity
velocity and and the mandrel’s
the mandrel’s relative
relative rotating
rotating speed
speed be used
be used to
to adjust
adjust this [9].
this [9].

Figure 6. Filament Winding, and Centrifugal Process for Fabricating FRP Sections, adapted from
Figure 6. Filament Winding, and Centrifugal Process for Fabricating FRP Sections, adapted from
refs.
Refs.[9–11].
[9–11].

4.2. Pultrusion
Pultrusion was a continuous molding process in which predefined reinforcements
were fed in predetermined quantities, and repeated creels were layered through a resin
bath. The resin-impregnated reinforcement was drawn through a die that determined the
product’s sectional geometry while controlling the reinforcement and resin content. In the
heated portion of the dice, the resin cure began. A puller mechanism drew the product
through the die, then cut it to the desired length, as shown in Figure 6. Pultrusion could
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 7 of 22

be used for any extruded shape, but it was limited to prismatic members. Pultrusion was
suitable for members of a uniform cross-section, such as tubes, rods, beams, and channels.
Pultrusion involves pulling resin-impregnated fibers through a heated die formed to the
desired cross-sectional geometry [9].

4.3. Centrifugal Casting

The centrifugal casting method was best for cylindrical shapes such as pipes, poles,
and tubing. Glass fabric was placed in a hollow steel mold in a predetermined amount
and configuration in this process. The resin was injected and distributed evenly around
the reinforcement while the mold was rotated (spun) at high speeds. Centrifugal forces
distributed and compacted the resin and reinforcement against the revolving mold’s wall.
The product’s curing was accelerated using an external heat source, as shown in Figure 6 [5].

4.4. Hand Lay-Up

Hand lay-up requires mixing fiber reinforcement and a resin into two FRP semi-
cylinders, curing them, and then combining the semi-cylinders with a resin adhesive to
form a traditional FRP lighting pole. While the hand lay-up method may reduce the cost of
producing standard FRP lighting poles by using a less expensive production machine, the
structural strength of the conventional FRP lighting pole was insufficient. In addition, it
can rend at the semi-cylinder, so combining interface. Table 2 shows the manufacturing
steps of each technique [9–11].

Table 2. Different Techniques of Manufacturing FRP Poles.

Technique Manufacturing Process

Fiber roving
Rolling Sheets
Centrifugal Process
Rotating Die
Resin injection
Fibers rolls
Resin
Pultrusion Process Heated Die
Puling Device
Cut-off
Creel
Continuous roving
Filament Winding Process
Resin bath
Rotating Mandrel
Contact Mold
Laminate
Hand Lay-up Process
Resin
Reinforcement

5. Testing of FRP Poles

5.1. Design Codes and Allowable Limits
The pole manufacturer shall determine the shaft length based on specific embedment
depth (where applicable) as shown in Figure 7 and luminaire mounting height. The total
pole length shall be maintained within a tolerance of 61%. The pole manufacturer shall
determine the pole weight that will meet the strength requirements of the user’s installation.
Once the weight is established, the weight shall be at least 95% of the specified weight.
The pole shall withstand at least one and one-half times the maximum bending moment
induced by the wind when tested. The pole-top deflection induced by the wind acting on
the pole and all accouterments attached shall not exceed 15% of the above-ground height,
as shown in Table 3 [12,13].
 ASTM Not exceed 15% pole height 0.30
height
Not exceed 1% pole
CSA Not exceed 20% pole height 0.25
height
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 Not exceed 1% pole 8 of 22
AASHTO Not exceed 15% pole height 0.30
height

Figure 7.7.Standard
Figure Standardpolepole
depth, adapted
depth, from ref.
adapted [13]. Ref. [13].
from
Table 3. Different standards of testing poles.
5.2. Standard Test Procedures
Deflection under Max Deflection under
Code After marking the designed ground-line location onPoint
Load the from
pole,Topplace
(m) the pole
Wind Conditions Static Conditions
dles with the ground-line properly located. Rotate the pole so that the hand hol
ASTM Not exceed 15% pole height Not exceed 1% pole height 0.30
cover in place, is on the maximum compression surface, or, in the case of poles eq
CSA Not exceed 20% pole height Not exceed 1% pole height 0.25
with two opposed arms, oriented with maximum compression surface as it woul
AASHTO Not exceed 15% pole height Not exceed 1% pole height 0.30
an actual secure load line. Adjust the hoist position, so the load line is vertical (65
the deflection measuring device or take an initial reading that will be subtracte
5.2. Standard Test Procedures
subsequent measurements. Tare a load-indicating device or take an initial readi
After marking the designed ground-line location on the pole, place the pole in saddles
will be subtracted from subsequent data. Apply the load at a uniform rate (N inc
with the ground-line properly located. Rotate the pole so that the hand hole, with cover in
minute) between
place, is on increments
the maximum untilsurface,
compression the pole fails
or, in or until
the case a predetermined
of poles equipped with two load is r
Take
opposeddeflection readings
arms, oriented at load increments
with maximum compression shown
surface ason the test
it would be data sheet se-
in an actual and at fa
cure load line. Adjust the hoist position, so the load line is vertical (65◦ ). Zero the deflection
measuring device or take an initial reading that will be subtracted from subsequent mea-
surements. Tare a load-indicating device or take an initial reading that will be subtracted
from subsequent data. Apply the load at a uniform rate (N inches per minute) between
increments until the pole fails or until a predetermined load is reached. Take deflection
readings at load increments shown on the test data sheet and at failure or a predetermined
load, as shown in Table 4 [12]. A concrete base with a diameter of 230 mm and 430 mm
in height. The bottom of the specimen was filled from the inside with concrete. After the
concrete hardened, the specimen was placed vertically into a concrete block. The load is
applied horizontally, 140 mm from the top end, through a loading sleeve. The loading
sleeve was attached to a tension bar with an electronic load cell mounted at mid-length to
measure the applied load. The other end of the tension member was connected to a lever
arm, and loading was applied to this lever arm at the bottom through a hydraulic jack.
An electronic liner measurement transducer measured the lateral deflection at the load
point [14]. The bridge crane was moved at a displacement rate of 12 mm/s, and a 225 KN
load-capacity cell was employed. As illustrated in Figure 8, a draw wire transducer (DWT)
was used to measure the deflection of the FRP poles at three different locations: hc/4, hc/2,
 sleeve. The loading sleeve was attached to a tension bar with an electronic load cell
mounted at mid-length to measure the applied load. The other end of the tension member
was connected to a lever arm, and loading was applied to this lever arm at the bottom
through a hydraulic jack. An electronic liner measurement transducer measured the lat-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 eral deflection at the load point [14]. The bridge crane was moved at a displacement9 rate of 22
of 12 mm/s, and a 225 KN load-capacity cell was employed. As illustrated in Figure 8, a
draw wire transducer (DWT) was used to measure the deflection of the FRP poles at three
different
and under locations:
the load hc/4, hc/2, and
application under
point. the load
Electrical application
strain gauges were point. Electrical
installed strain
around the
gauges were installed around the hole, at hc/4, hc/2, and 3/4hc on the two
hole, at hc/4, hc/2, and 3/4hc on the two faces close to the ground line support. The faces close to
the ground line support. The deformations in the longitudinal, ◦ circumferential,
deformations in the longitudinal, circumferential, and at 45 from the longitudinal axis and at 45°
from
of thethe longitudinal
pole axis of the
were all observed pole
using weregauges.
strain all observed using strain
Two LVDTs (lineargauges.
variableTwo LVDTs
differential
(linear variable
transducers) differential
were transducers)
placed against the test were
fixtureplaced
or theagainst the to
lower wall testmonitor
fixture displacement
or the lower
wall
at thetopole
monitor
base displacement
[15,16]. at the pole base [15,16].

Table
Table 4.
4. Deflection
Deflection comparison—GRC
comparison—GRC vs FRP poles.
vs FRP poles.

Working Load Applied (kg) 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200

Working Load Applied (kg) 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
GRC pole
GRC pole 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.1
Sample average–Deflection
0.4 0.7 % 1.1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.1
Sample average–Deflection %
FRP pole
FRP pole 2.1 3.6 5.2 6.8 8.4 10 11.4 13.1
Sample average–Deflection
Sample average–Deflection %
2.1 3.6 % 5.2 6.8 8.4 10 11.4 13.1

Figure 8. Test setup, adapted from ref. [16].

Figure 8. Test setup, adapted from Ref. [16].

5.3. Previous Experimental Research Program

5.3. Previous Experimental Research Program
As cantilever beams, two poles made of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer were loaded to
As cantilever beams, two poles made of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer were loaded
failure (NTUA). The experimental poles were created using the filament winding process.
to failure (NTUA). The experimental poles were created using the filament winding pro-
The experimental results comprised load-deflection data at the loading point and strain
cess. The experimental results comprised load-deflection data at the loading point and
distribution at the fixed support. It was found that the fiber orientation has a significant
strain distribution at the fixed support. It was found that the fiber orientation has a signif-
effect on the critical load on FRP poles. An increase in the fiber angle results in a reduction
icant effect on the critical load on FRP poles. An increase in the fiber angle results in a
of the critical ovalization load [17]. Sherif published results from cantilever bending
reduction
experimentsof on
thefull-scale
critical ovalization
tapered GFRP load [17].with
poles Sherif published
a hollow results
circular from cantilever
cross-section in 2000.
bending experiments on full-scale tapered GFRP poles with a hollow
The poles were made utilizing a filament winding method with polyester resin circular cross-section
reinforced
in
with2000. The poles
E-glass fibers.were
Twelvemade utilizing
full-scale a filament
poles were bent winding method
to failure with polyester
in cantilever bendingresin
tests.
reinforced
The number of layers and fiber orientation were among the test parameters in
with E-glass fibers. Twelve full-scale poles were bent to failure cantilever
[18]. In 2000,
bending
Ibrahim tests.
madeThe number
twelve 2.5 mof and
layers and fiber
twelve 6.1 morientation
GFRP poles were among
tested the test
under parameters
lateral loading.
[18]. In 2000, Ibrahim made twelve 2.5 m and twelve 6.1 m GFRP poles
The examples were created with various wall thicknesses, fiber orientations, and tested under lateral
fiber
loading.
arrangements in mind. The most common failure mode of the specimens studied and
The examples were created with various wall thicknesses, fiber orientations, was
fiber
local arrangements
buckling due to in flexural
mind. The most[19].
failure common
Jiwonfailure
(2006) mode
examined of the
thespecimens studied
load-deformation
behavior of tapered steel and fiber-reinforced plastic bridge camera poles subjected to
cantilever bending stresses experimentally and analytically. Three full-scale experiments
were performed on tapered octagonal metal cross-sections and two FRP circular cross-
section poles to establish their load-deformation properties [20]. FRP tubes offer a lot of
promise for utility and light poles, according to fam in 2007. The ultimate strength of hollow
thin-walled FRP tubular poles subjected to bending was determined by the local buckling
failure of the tubes on the compression side before reaching the maximum strength of
FRP, according to research. Several poles of varying lengths of concrete fill were tested
to determine the ideal length of the concrete fill. The ideal length was determined by
achieving flexural material failure of the FRP tube at the base while also experiencing local
buckling failure above the concrete fill. The ideal length of partial concrete fill of the tube
 of hollow thin-walled FRP tubular poles subjected to bending was determined by the local
buckling failure of the tubes on the compression side before reaching the maximum
strength of FRP, according to research. Several poles of varying lengths of concrete fill
were tested to determine the ideal length of the concrete fill. The ideal length was deter-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 10 of 22
mined by achieving flexural material failure of the FRP tube at the base while also experi-
encing local buckling failure above the concrete fill. The ideal length of partial concrete
fill of the tube used in this study was 38 percent of the complete length, proven experi-
used in this study was 38 percent of the complete length, proven experimentally. Figure 9
mentally. Figure 9 shows the anchorage options for FRP light pole base [21,22].
shows the anchorage options for FRP light pole base [21,22].

Figure
Figure 9. Anchorage
9. Anchorage optionsfor
options forFRP
FRP pole,
pole, adapted
adaptedfrom
fromref. [22].
Ref. [22].
Masmoudi (2007) developed and evaluated the flexural behavior of lightweight fiber-
Masmoudi (2007) developed and evaluated the flexural behavior of lightweight fiber-
reinforced polymer poles at the University of Sherbrooke. Static flexural testing was
reinforced
conducted polymer poles at prototypes
on 23 full-scale the Universityof FRP ofpoles
Sherbrooke. Staticvarying
with lengths flexural testing
from 5 to 12wasm. con-
ducted on 23 full-scale
Experimental prototypes
results show of FRP
that using lowpoles
linearwith lengths
density glass varying
fibers could from 5 to 12the
increase m. Ex-
perimental results showcapacity
ultimate load-carrying that using
up tolow
38% linear density
for some glass fibers
FRP poles. could
The epoxy increase
resin the ulti-
reinforced
matewith E-glass fibers FRP
load-carrying poles up
capacity weretomade
38% using the filament
for some winding
FRP poles. Thetechnique
epoxy resin [23]. Torran,
reinforced
in 2009, completed the findings of an investigation into the
with E-glass fibers FRP poles were made using the filament winding technique bending strength and stiffness
[23]. Tor-
of full-size Eucalyptus Grandis poles from Argentina. With
ran, in 2009, completed the findings of an investigation into the bending strength the growing demand for and
utility poles of this species and modern procedures aimed at achieving a reliable and cost-
stiffness of full-size Eucalyptus Grandis poles from Argentina. With the growing demand
effective structural design, knowing the mechanical properties of this material has become
for increasingly
utility polesimportant.
of this species and modern procedures aimed at achieving a reliable and
For this purpose, the methodologies for cantilever bending tests
cost-effective structural design,
specified by the American Standard knowing
ASTMthe mechanical
D 1036 properties of
and the Argentinean this material
Standard IRAM has
become increasingly
9529 were used to testimportant.
two samplesFor this purpose,
containing new,the methodologies
green, untreated poles for cantilever
[24]. In 2010bend-
ingJeffrey
tests specified
conducted byFlexure
the American
experimentsStandard
on six ASTM D 1036 and the
glass-fiber-reinforced Argentinean
polymer Standard
cantilevered
IRAM 9529 were used to test two samples containing new, green, untreated polesmm
tubular poles. The prismatic tubes had a length of 3660 mm, a clamped length of 700 [24]. In
2010at Jeffrey
the fixed end, an outer
conducted diameter
Flexure of 220 mm,
experiments onand
sixaglass-fiber-reinforced
4.15 mm wall thickness.polymer Test results
cantile-
showed
vered thatpoles.
tubular flexuralThestrength increases
prismatic tubesas hadthealength
lengthofofconcrete
3660 mm, fill increases
a clamped until it of
length
reaches a plateau. Corresponding to about double the strength of the hollow tube when the
700 mm at the fixed end, an outer diameter of 220 mm, and a 4.15 mm wall thickness. Test
concrete fill is about one-third of the clear length. Figure 10 shows the pole placed on the
results showed that flexural strength increases as the length of concrete fill increases until
test setup [25,26].
it reaches a plateau.
Zhang (2011) Corresponding
investigated the to about double
durability the strength of the hollow(GFRP)
of glass-fiber-reinforced-polymer tube when
thepoles
concreteand fill is about
towers one-third
for power of the clear
transmission in UV length. Figuretemperatures.
and extreme 10 shows the The poleresults
placed on
the reveal
test setup [25,26].
that UV and extreme temperatures impact GFRP material performance, with reduced
strength and elastic modulus increasing, while Poisson’s ratio changes little [27]. Vazquez
(2015) found that their use in structural engineering was growing every day because of
the advantages of composite materials over traditional materials. In countries such as the
United States, India, and China, structures for electric energy transmission made entirely
of polymeric materials have been built. However, no experience with replacing metallic
parts with composite elements has been documented on lattice power transmission towers.
Therefore, lattice power transmission towers introduced a system for testing the feasibility
of substituting metallic elements with composite members. Figure 11 shows the pole
deflection [28,29].
Buildings 2022,
Buildings 2022,12,
12,x1085
FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 22 11 of 2

Figure 10. Pole test.

Zhang (2011) investigated the durability of glass-fiber-reinforced-polymer (GFRP)

poles and towers for power transmission in UV and extreme temperatures. The results
reveal that UV and extreme temperatures impact GFRP material performance, with re-
duced strength and elastic modulus increasing, while Poisson’s ratio changes little [27].
Vazquez (2015) found that their use in structural engineering was growing every day be-
cause of the advantages of composite materials over traditional materials. In countries
such as the United States, India, and China, structures for electric energy transmission
made entirely of polymeric materials have been built. However, no experience with re-
placing metallic parts with composite elements has been documented on lattice power
transmission towers. Therefore, lattice power transmission towers introduced a system
for testing the feasibility of substituting metallic elements with composite members. Fig-
ure 11 shows
Figure
Figure the
10.Pole
10. Pole pole
test. deflection [28,29].
test.

Zhang (2011) investigated the durability of glass-fiber-reinforced-polymer (GFRP

poles and towers for power transmission in UV and extreme temperatures. The result
reveal that UV and extreme temperatures impact GFRP material performance, with re
duced strength and elastic modulus increasing, while Poisson’s ratio changes little [27]
Vazquez (2015) found that their use in structural engineering was growing every day be
cause of the advantages of composite materials over traditional materials. In countrie
such as the United States, India, and China, structures for electric energy transmission
made entirely of polymeric materials have been built. However, no experience with re
placing metallic parts with composite elements has been documented on lattice powe
transmission towers. Therefore, lattice power transmission towers introduced a system
for testing the feasibility of substituting metallic elements with composite members. Fig
ure 11 shows the pole deflection [28,29].

Figure11.
Figure Pole
11.Pole deflection,adapted
deflection, adaptedfrom
fromRef.
ref.[29].
[29].

InIn2015,
2015, Jaafar
Jaafar explained
explained thatthat transmission
transmission systems
systems suchsuch as transmission
as transmission towerstowers
and
and were
poles polesdesigned
were designed to withstand
to withstand variousvarious acting On
acting forces. forces. On the
the other other
hand, hand,
these these
current
current and
concrete concrete
metaland metal structures
structures were heavyweight
were heavyweight materialsmaterials
that werethat were to
difficult difficult
handleto
handle during assembly, repair, and reinstallation. Then there was the issue
during assembly, repair, and reinstallation. Then there was the issue of vandalism on the of vandalism
on the transmission
transmission towers’bracing
towers’ metallic metallic[30].
bracing
XIAO[30].
2016XIAO
used a2016 used amodel
three-pole three-pole model
to analyze
to force
the analyze the force
situation situation
of the pole inofdetail,
the pole
and inthedetail, andmodel
five-pole the five-pole model
was built basedwason built
the
based model.
former on the former model.external
Furthermore, Furthermore,
factorsexternal
such asfactors
height such as height
difference, difference,
span, span,
wind angle,
wind angle, and line angle on the pole were investigated. The pole’s force situation
hung the pole arrangement styles [31]. Mohamadi (2016), in his research, found that
engineers were increasingly being asked to develop and operate systems that incorporate
the resiliency philosophy across several critical infrastructure sectors. Essential sectors of
infrastructure included electric distribution and transmission systems. Results indicate that
pole boundaries may considerably impact the estimates of failure probabilities, especially
when the extent of difference in the properties of adjacent spans is not negligible [32].
Vivek (2017) found that self-supported single poles were commonly used for electricity
Figure 11. Pole deflection, adapted from Ref. [29].
transmission in India’s rural areas. Several self-supported poles were severely tilted during
recent windstorms in the Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh, India. The government and the
company In 2015, Jaafar
in charge of explained that transmission
the poles’ construction systems were
and installation such concerned
as transmission towers and
about the
poles were
incident’s designed
safety. Table 5to withstand
shows various acting
the specifications forces. On
of composite the
poles other hand, these curren
[33,34].
concrete and metal structures were heavyweight materials that were difficult to handl
during assembly, repair, and reinstallation. Then there was the issue of vandalism on th
transmission towers’ metallic bracing [30]. XIAO 2016 used a three-pole model to analyz
the force situation of the pole in detail, and the five-pole model was built based on th
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 12 of 22

Table 5. FRP pole specification.

Length 10,000 mm
Support 1524 mm
Bottom 270 mm
Diameter
Top 114 mm
Weight 580 N
Strength 4638 N
Density 1800 kg/m3
Breaking load 2930 N

Ahmed, 2020, explained that due to slow hardwood replenishment, high clearing
rates in the 19th century, and occasional bushfires, it becomes difficult and expensive
as a source of utility poles. Therefore, there was a serious need to find alternative wood
species for timber poles [35]. Dionysius, in 2020, figured out why several major earthquakes
have caused damage to light poles and utility poles mounted on elevated highways or
railway bridges. They were mainly caused by excessive pole deformation, yielding-induced
bending failure, pole buckling, and masts falling. Damages hampered functionality and
slowed traffic, complicating post-earthquake recovery in the affected region. While the
seismic resistance of elevated highway bridges has been assessed and updated in seismic
codes, most light and utility poles were built for wind loads rather than earthquakes [36].
Sami was in charge of the analysis, design, and manufacture of a communication guyed
tower in 2021, consisting of individual cells made of fiberglass matting joined together
to form an equilateral triangle. First, the mechanical properties of the GFRP materials
were determined by a series of experiments utilizing ASTM Standards. Then, a 9 m tower
was built and put through its paces under static and dynamic stresses. Based on limit
states design criteria, as defined in the current CSA-S37 Standard, various nonlinear finite
element models were created and utilized to predict the size of the tower and the thickness
of the cell walls. According to the finite element analysis, the tower was more flexible
than the test specimen, which yielded results for deflections and stressed higher than the
test results [37]. According to Jianhui 2022, The failure mode of a GFRP solid pole with
a circular section under axial compression was the loss of stability of the extreme point,
as shown in Figure 12, and the material in the middle of the specimen suffers axial and
transverse tearing failures; when overall lateral buckling of the specimen occurs, a bearing
capacity platform phenomenon appears; and when the ultimate deformation was reached,
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22
the specimen undergoes brittle failure [38].

Figure12.
Figure 12.Pole
Polefailure.
failure.

6. Modeling of FRP Poles

6.1. Simple Linear Static Models
Masmoudi, 2008, used the FE model to determine the performance of GFRP poles
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 13 of 22

6. Modeling of FRP Poles

6.1. Simple Linear Static Models
Masmoudi, 2008, used the FE model to determine the performance of GFRP poles
with service apertures (holes). FE simulations were performed with fiber direction, layer
number, and layer thickness parameters. The deflection and bending strength of GFRP
Poles (20, 33, 35, and 40 feet in height) were tested. For three zones and the height of the
GFRP poles, ideal new designs were presented under equivalent wind loads. The ultimate
load-carrying capacity and flexural stiffness were enhanced while a significant amount
of weight was conserved with this design. Table 6 shows the FRP poles’ results different
cross-sectionals [39,40].

Table 6. Stress and deformation of FRP poles.

Material Stress (MPa) Deformation (mm)

Circular FRP pole 16 98
Hexagonal FRP pole 19 124

Amir developed a finite element model and validated it in a companion study in 2008,
which was used to analyze partial concrete filling of cantilever-type FRP tubular poles. The
goal was to increase flexural strength while lowering the pole’s dead weight. By altering
the length of the concrete fill, flexure was studied in tubes with various D/t ratios and
laminate designs. The effects of lateral loading type and taper have also been considered.
A simpler method has been created to determine the ideal concrete fill length [41]. Saboori
(2011) performed a linear static analysis of tapered fiber-reinforced plastics transmission
poles with circular thin-walled cross-sections using a second-order shell element and
shear deformation theory of the first order (FSDT). The cross-section was processed as
though it were an orthotropic laminate. A computer program was developed to examine
typical poles using the MATHEMATICA software (Mathematica 6, Wolfram Research,
Champaign, IL, USA). The numerical modeling results were confirmed by comparing the
numerical modeling findings to analytical results or those produced from the commercial
finite element program ANSYS 11.0 (ANSYS, “ANSYS Inc., ANSYS User’s Manual for
Rev. 11.0”, ANSYS, USA, 2007). The influence of numerous parameters on the behavior of
tapered FRP transmission poles was investigated, including fiber orientation and type, fiber
volume fraction, number of layers, and form [42]. Mohamadi (2016) provided ABAQUS
finite element calculations of tapered fiber poles and associated parametric investigations
with determining the impact of various factors on the poles’ overall static and dynamic
response. These properties are geometric parameters, fiber orientation, taper ratio, layer
number, lamina thickness, and transverse load location. The suitability of three different
general-purpose finite elements based on thick shell theory for modeling FRP poles was
investigated. By using parametric analyses, trends in FRP poles’ static and dynamic study
were identified. Shock spectrum research was provided for idealized impulsive loadings
owing to wind gusts or loss of cable tension supported by FRP poles [43]. Mohamadi
(2016) employed a finite element model to investigate the geometric characteristics, fiber
orientation, layer number, and lamina thickness of FRP composite poles. Figure 13 shows
the finite element meshing [32,44].
Plinio used the finite difference method to calculate the stiffness and maximum de-
flection in 2017. Buckling and failure were also analyzed at the global and local levels.
Abaqus commercial finite element software was used to obtain the results [45]. In 2019,
Omar used LS-DYNA software (LS-DYNA, LSTC (Ansys, Inc.), R10.1, USA) to conduct
a finite element (FE) parametric research to explore the effects of the pole’s diameter, length,
and wall thickness. In the FE parametric analysis, pole diameters ranged from 254 mm
to 457.2 mm, and wall thicknesses from 3.175 mm to 12.70 mm [46]. Thomas (2020) used
the Finite Element Method to analyze the static behavior of tapered poles made of glass-
fiber-reinforced-polymer. The theoretical model built using the FEM was validated using
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22

different general-purpose finite elements based on thick shell theory for modeling FRP
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 poles was investigated. By using parametric analyses, trends in FRP poles’ static and
14 ofdy-
22
namic study were identified. Shock spectrum research was provided for idealized impul-
sive loadings owing to wind gusts or loss of cable tension supported by FRP poles [43].
Mohamadi (2016) employed a finite element model to investigate the geometric charac-
an experimental method. The FEM results for specimen deflection and ultimate load were
teristics, fiber orientation, layer number, and lamina thickness of FRP composite poles.
close to the experimental data [47].
Figure 13 shows the finite element meshing [32,44].

Figure13.
Figure 13. FE
FEmesh
meshof
ofthe
thepole.
pole.

Plinio used
6.2. Advanced StatictheModels
finite difference method to calculate the stiffness and maximum de-
flection
Son in 2017.
built Buckling
a Finite and failure
Element were also
(FE) model analyzed
in 2008 at thethe
to predict global and behavior
flexural local levels.
of
Abaqus commercial finite element software was used to obtain
hollow and concrete-filled FRP tubes (CFFTs). Geometric and material nonlinearities were the results [45]. In 2019,
Omar used
accounted forLS-DYNA
in the model. software (LS-DYNA,
The plasticity andLSTC
cracking(Ansys,
of theInc.), R10.1,
concrete wereUSA)alsotoconsidered.
conduct a
The model can represent the in-walled hollow tubes’ ovalization and local buckling length,
finite element (FE) parametric research to explore the effects of the pole’s diameter, failure
and wall thickness.
mechanisms. Using the In the FE parametric
Tsai–Wu analysis,
failure criteria pole diameters
for thick-walled ranged
hollow from
tubes 254 mmthe
or CFFTs, to
457.2 mm,
model and wallidentify
can reliably thicknesses from 3.175
the material mmoftothe
failure 12.70
FRPmm [46].
tube. TheThomas
model(2020) used the
was validated
Finiteexperimental
using Element Method to analyze
findings the static
from various behavior
hollow GFRPoftubes
taperedandpoles
CFFTs, made of glass-fiber-
including a wide
reinforced-polymer.
range The theoretical
of laminate structures, diameters, modelwallbuilt using theconcrete
thicknesses, FEM was validated
strengths, andusing an
failure
experimental method. The FEM results for specimen deflection
modes. The load-deflection responses and ultimate strengths were found to be very well and ultimate load were
close to the
aligned. experimental
Different data [47]. were also predicted with a high degree of accuracy.
failure mechanisms
The load-deflection responses and ultimate strengths showed excellent agreement. Other
6.2. Advanced
failure Static Models
mechanisms were also indicated with a high degree of accuracy. The model was
used Son
in a built
parametric
a Finitestudy
Elementto examine
(FE) model the inimpacts
2008 toofpredict
cross-ply and angle-ply
the flexural behavior laminate
of hol-
structures and the diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratio for hollow
low and concrete-filled FRP tubes (CFFTs). Geometric and material nonlinearities GFRP tubes [48]. In 2008,
were
Amir investigated
accounted for in thefiber-reinforced
model. The plasticitypolymerand tubular poles
cracking of filled with concrete
the concrete were also in flexure
consid-
using a nonlinear
ered. The model can finite elementthe
represent model. The hollow
in-walled partial tubes’
filling ovalization
was a low-cost and alternative
local buckling to
employing thicker-walled
failure mechanisms. tubes
Using theto increasefailure
Tsai–Wu flexuralcriteria
strengthforand stability. Tubes
thick-walled hollowwithtubes
variedor
diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios and laminate designs in cantilever-type
CFFTs, the model can reliably identify the material failure of the FRP tube. The model was monopoles were
designed
validatedwith usingtheexperimental
partial concrete fill length
findings frominvarious
mind. Figure
hollow14GFRPshowstubes
the FE andmodel
CFFTs,of the
in-
pole [49,50].
cluding a wide range of laminate structures, diameters, wall thicknesses, concrete
According
strengths, to Mohamed
and failure modes. (2009), tapered GFRP poles
The load-deflection were first
responses and used in overhead
ultimate strengths power
were
lines
found to be very well aligned. Different failure mechanisms were also predicted wood,
and aerial distribution networks to substitute traditional materials such as with a
steel,
high and concrete.
degree A full-scale
of accuracy. The tapered GFRP pole
load-deflection structure
responses wasultimate
and used to strengths
undertakeshowed
a finite
element (FE) analysis of the nonlinear behavior of laterally loaded pole structures. The
performance of GFRP poles with service holes was calculated using the FE model. Fiber
direction, layer number, and layer thickness were used in various parameter combinations
in FE simulations [43]. In 2009, Masmoudi released a finite element analysis of the nonlinear
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 15 of 22

behavior of laterally loaded full-scale tapered GFRP pole structures. The FE model was
Buildings 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
used to determine the performance of GFRP poles with service holes. FE simulations15were of 22

performed using parameters such as fiber direction, layer number, and layer thickness.
Deflection and bending strength characteristics of GFRP Poles [20 and 33 ft] height were
studied.
excellentFor three zones
agreement. and the
Other height
failure of the GFRP
mechanisms poles,
were ideal
also new designs
indicated with awere
highpresented
degree of
under equivalent wind loads. The ultimate load-carrying capacity and
accuracy. The model was used in a parametric study to examine the impacts of cross-plyflexural stiffness
increase with a substantial
and angle-ply weight decrease.
laminate structures and the The new designs meet (D/t)
diameter-to-thickness the ASTM, AASHTO
ratio for hollow
LT S, and
GFRP ANSI
tubes specifications
[48]. In 2008, Amirforinvestigated
maximum permissible deflection
fiber-reinforced and minimum
polymer tubular polesultimate
filled
moment capacity
with concrete [51]. Jaafar
in flexure usingused composite
a nonlinear starelement
finite softwaremodel.
to modelThea partial
laminate design
filling wasofa
glass fiberalternative
low-cost samples to toassess mechanical
employing strength and
thicker-walled reserve
tubes factor inflexural
to increase 2015. The composite
strength and
panels were designed to withstand a distributed load of 5 kN in longitudinal and
stability. Tubes with varied diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios and laminate designs in can- transverse
axis directions
tilever-type on samples
monopoles with
were thicknesses
designed withranging from
the partial 4 to 4.2fill
concrete mm by varying
length in mind. theFigure
fiber
direction [30].
14 shows the FE model of the pole [49,50].

Figure14.
Figure 14.FE
FEmodel
modelshows
showsthe
thewind
windflow
flowdirection
directionon
onpole.
pole.

According
6.3. Dynamic to Mohamed (2009), tapered GFRP poles were first used in overhead
Modes
power lines and aerial distribution networks to substitute traditional materials such as
Dimos, 2007, proposed a straightforward finite element approach for the dynamic
wood, steel, and concrete. A full-scale tapered GFRP pole structure was used to undertake
analysis of tapered composite poles with hollow circular cross-sections. The tapered
a finite element (FE) analysis of the nonlinear behavior of laterally loaded pole structures.
beam element was applied to cross-sections with any taper ratio, and cross-sections were
The performance of GFRP poles with service holes was calculated using the FE model.
constructed of standard materials. The finite element model was presented as a flexible joint
Fiber direction,
model, which was layer
thennumber,
included. andThelayer thickness
qualities were
of the usedresin,
applied in various parameter
its thickness, andcom-
the
binations in FE simulations [43]. In 2009, Masmoudi released a finite element
pole diameter at the joint position and the joint length all influence joint stiffness. As a result,analysis of
the nonlinear behavior of laterally loaded full-scale tapered GFRP pole
a sufficiently robust and rigid joint may be developed and manufactured [52]. In 2010, structures. The FE
model investigated
Khalili was used to determine
the transient the dynamic
performance of GFRP
analysis poles with
of tapered service holes.polymer
fiber-reinforced FE sim-
ulations were performed using parameters such as fiber direction, layer
(FRP) composite transmission poles with circular thin-walled cross-sections subjected number, and layer
to
thickness. Deflection and bending strength characteristics of GFRP
dynamic cable tension and vehicle impacts using a tapered beam finite element and precisePoles [20 and 33 ft]
height were studied. For three zones and the height of the GFRP poles,
time integration method. The wall’s cross-section laminate was symmetric or antisymmetric ideal new designs
were presented
angle-ply, and theunder equivalent
material behavior wind
was loads.
linearlyThe ultimate
elastic. load-carrying
A dynamic study ofcapacity
FRP polesand
flexural stiffness increase with a substantial weight decrease. The new designs
under the step, triangle, and sine pulses was used to investigate the effects of fiber type and meet the
ASTM, AASHTO LT S, and ANSI specifications for maximum permissible
orientation, pole geometry, and concentrated mass at the pole tip. The current method’s deflection and
minimum
results wereultimate moment
consistent capacity
with those [51]. Jaafar
obtained used composite
from poles modeled with star ANSYS
softwarecommercial
to model a
laminate
finite design
element of glassand
software fiberexisting
samplesliterature.
to assess mechanical
In addition,strength and reserve
the current technologyfactor
has in
a2015. The composite
significantly shorterpanels
run-time.were designedto
According tothe
withstand
findings,a the
distributed
pole tip load of 5 kN
deflection in lon-
does not
gitudinal and transverse axis directions on samples with thicknesses ranging from 4 to 4.2
mm by varying the fiber direction [30].
 precise time integration method. The wall’s cross-section laminate was symmetric or an-
tisymmetric angle-ply, and the material behavior was linearly elastic. A dynamic study of
FRP poles under the step, triangle, and sine pulses was used to investigate the effects of
fiber type and orientation, pole geometry, and concentrated mass at the pole tip. The cur-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 rent method’s results were consistent with those obtained from poles modeled with 16 AN-
of 22
SYS commercial finite element software and existing literature. In addition, the current
technology has a significantly shorter run-time. According to the findings, the pole tip
deflection
change does not
beyond changeofbeyond
10 layers 10 with
laminate layersconstant
of laminate
wallwith constant
thickness. wall thickness.
Figure 15 shows Fig-
the
ure 15 shows the cross-sectional shape of the guyed
cross-sectional shape of the guyed tower [52,53]. tower [52,53].

Figure 15. GFRP guyed tower, adapted from ref. [53].

Figure 15. GFRP guyed tower, adapted from Ref. [53].
Wind gusts and cable unilateral failure induced dynamic cantilever bending in elec-
tricityWind
transmission poles,
gusts and cableaccording
unilateraltofailure
Khaliliinduced
(2010), which might
dynamic be vulnerable
cantilever bendingto vehicle
in elec-
accidents. A combination
tricity transmission of taperedtobeam
poles, according finite
Khalili element
(2010), whichand precise
might time integration
be vulnerable to vehi-
techniques was
cle accidents. Aused to investigate
combination the transient
of tapered dynamic
beam finite behavior
element of tapered
and precise time (FRP) com-
integration
posite transmission
techniques poles
was used with circular
to investigate thethin-walled cross-sections
transient dynamic exposed
behavior to dynamic
of tapered (FRP) cable
com-
tension and vehicle impacts. The wall’s cross-section laminate was symmetric or anti-
symmetric angle-ply, and the material behavior was supposed to be linearly elastic. Fiber
type, orientation, pole shape, and concentrated mass at the pole tip were examined using
dynamic analysis of fiber poles under phase, triangle, and sine pulses [54]. Amir used a 3D
finite element study in 2010 to estimate the lateral load-deflection responses under various
axial loads and the axial load–bending moment interaction curves at ultimate. The model
considered geometric nonlinearities and the composite laminate structure. According to
the Tsai–Wu failure criterion or stability failure, material failure was utilized to characterize
failure modes. The model was put to the test using the results of the experiments. On
poles, the properties of various angle ply and cross-ply laminates, as well as the various
diameter to thickness (D/t) and length to diameter (L/D) ratios, were investigated [55].
Jungate (2017) compared theoretical values and ratios for different cross-sections to the
static buckling stress calculated by numerical simulations. According to the comparison,
the results of the FE investigation were more conservative than the theoretical values in
some circumstances. The model’s boundary conditions were particularly sensitive in the
simulation of dynamic buckling loads. Local buckling occurs near the column’s base,
according to the results of the horizontal loading simulation [54].
 the various diameter to thickness (D/t) and length to diameter (L/D) ratios, were investi-
gated [55]. Jungate (2017) compared theoretical values and ratios for different cross-sec-
tions to the static buckling stress calculated by numerical simulations. According to the
comparison, the results of the FE investigation were more conservative than the theoreti-
cal values in some circumstances. The model’s boundary conditions were particularly sen-
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 sitive in the simulation of dynamic buckling loads. Local buckling occurs near the 17 of 22
col-
umn’s base, according to the results of the horizontal loading simulation [54].

6.4. Fatigue/Fracture
6.4. Fatigue/Fracture Mechanics/Cyclic
Mechanics/Cyclic Models
Models
Pre-stressed concrete poles reinforced
Pre-stressed concrete poles reinforced with
withcarbon
carbon fiber
fiber polymer
polymer were
were a lightweight
a lightweight
and durable alternative to steel-reinforced or pre-stressed concrete
and durable alternative to steel-reinforced or pre-stressed concrete poles, stated poles, stated Roberts
Roberts
(2012).
(2012).InIn
addition,
addition, CFRP
CFRP tendons’
tendons’ corrosion
corrosion resistance
resistancecancan decrease
decreasemaintenance
maintenance costs
costs
and
and reduce
reduce the
theamount
amount ofofconcrete
concrete cover
coverrequired.
required.Wind
Wind loading
loading waswas aasignificant
significant load
load
situation
situationforfor
lighting
lighting poles
poles utilized in in
utilized pedestrian
pedestrian or or
low-traffic
low-traffic regions.
regions.TheThewind waswas
wind a
passing gustgust
a passing of airofthat
air may
that blow in anyindirection.
may blow The output
any direction. of CFRPofpre-stressed
The output light-
CFRP pre-stressed
ing poles was
lighting polesthuswasstudied
thus under
studied multiple cycle loads
under multiple and/or
cycle loads load reversals
and/or load[56]. In Yanbu
reversals [56].
In YanbuCity,
Industrial Industrial City, Saudi
Saudi Arabia, Arabia, Aanalysis
A simulation simulation
wasanalysis
conducted wasbyconducted
Omar (2019) by on Omar
a
(2019) on a fiber-reinforced
fiber-reinforced polymer lightpolymerpole that light
waspole that The
in use. was light
in use. Thein
poles light
thispoles
area in thisex-
were area
wereto
posed exposed to cyclic
cyclic wind loadswindfromloads
the from the Red
Red Sea. UnderSea. Under
lateral lateral
load, load, a full-scale
a full-scale GFRP distri-GFRP
distribution
bution pole was pole was until
tested testedituntil it failed.
failed. The pole Thestood
pole 10.5
stood m10.5 m had
high, high,a had a diameter
diameter of 254of
254and
mm, mm,a and
wallathickness
wall thickness
of 6.35ofmm.
6.35Figure
mm. Figure 16 shows
16 shows the mode the mode of vibration
of vibration [46,57].
[46,57].

Figure
Figure 16.16. Sway
Sway mode
mode of of vibration,
vibration, adapted
adapted from
from ref.[46].
Ref. [46].

7. Discussion
7.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of FRP Types
GFRP glass fibers are the most used FRP in the building sector due to their relatively
inexpensive cost compared to other FRPs. However, the primary drawbacks of GFRP are
a relatively low deformation modulus, low humidity, alkaline resistance, and low long-term
strength because of stress rupture. In addition to not absorbing water, CFRP offers a high
deformation modulus and fatigue strength. However, one of the main drawbacks is that
producing carbon fibers requires a disproportionately large amount of energy, which drives
up expenses. In addition, AFRP fibers possess high static and impact strengths. However,
their diminished long-term strength (stress rupture) and susceptibility to UV exposure
limit their utilization. Aramid fibers also have the disadvantage of being challenging to cut
and process.

7.2. Advantages and Dis-Advantages of FRP Manufacturing Techniques

Manufacturing techniques of FRP poles have many advantages and disadvantages, as
shown in Table 7.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 18 of 22

Table 7. Comparison between fiber-reinforced polymer poles manufacture methods.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

• Economical. • Specific cross-sections.
• Cross-section with large dimensions. • The outer surface of the product was not smooth.
Filament Winding
• The fiber direction can be determined easily. • A low viscosity resin should be used.
• Experience. • Voids.
• Fast produce. • Expensive.
• Many shapes (L, T, U, and C) sections. • Fixed dimension for one length.
Pultrusion
• Long lengths. • Voids due to Heat curing.
• Mechanical produce. • Low experience.
• Economical.
• The product does not need to be cured.
• Reduces fiber volume ratio. • Specific cross-sections.
Centrifugal Casting
• Reduces any voids. • Change mold after a specific number of rotations.
• The outer surface has an attractive appearance.
• Larger length.
• Small length.
• Economical. • Not Mechanical produce.
Hand Lay-up
• High experience. • Specific shapes.
• The outer surface of the product was not smooth.

7.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of FRP Modeling

FRP poles’ modeling has many advantages and disadvantages, as shown in Table 8.

Table 8. Advantages and disadvantages of each modeling technique.

Model Advantages Disadvantages

The solving process is relatively short compared to
Applicable only to structural problems where
a nonlinear analysis on the same model. The maximum
Linear Static stresses remain in the linear elastic range of the
discrepancy of the maximum stress for the typical FRP pole
used material.
concerning the ANSYS model was almost 10%.
The program accounts for the nonlinear behavior of the Nonlinear effects can originate from geometrical
Advanced
poles and gives a good prediction for the ultimate nonlinearity (large deformations), material
Static
load at failure. nonlinearity (elastoplastic material), and contact.
used to select more efficient cross sections for the
Numerical analysis is required to design the FRP
Dynamic compressive elements of the structure. It can be more
columns with thin-walled parts.
critical than static loading for sheet pile members.
The downwards and upwards reversal of load direction in The deflections increase with the number of
Fatigue each cycle did not significantly change the overall behavior cycles, but most of this increase occurred within
when compared with a solely downwards loading. the first 50,000 cycles.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations

This study aims to collect, sort, analyze and criticize the early published research
regarding FRP poles for determining the current trends, illustrate previous studies of testing
poles, figure out the gap studies, and recommend future research. In addition, This study
discusses fiber-reinforced polymers poles in six aspects: (i) introduction; (ii) methodology;
(iii) materials properties of FRP poles; (iv) manufacturing techniques of FRP poles; (v) testing
of FRP poles; (vi) modeling of FRP poles. Fiber-reinforced polymers poles were an important
alternative to traditional materials (steel, concrete, and wood). Based on the performed
extensive analysis of literature sources, it can be concluded that:
• According to the comparison between the fiber-reinforced polymers poles manufactur-
ing methods, the Pultrusion process was more accurate than others but more expensive.
Therefore, the most suitable method was the centrifugal process due to its low cost.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 19 of 22

• The analysis indicates major differences in stiffness and strength when comparing
fiber-reinforced polymers poles to standard metallic poles.
• According to the different types of fibers, glass fiber was the best choice for Poles due
to its low cost, UV resistance, electric insulation, and energy absorption.
• For the chosen sites, the pole load capabilities were determined to be between 0.95 and
1.48 times the design wind load. By increasing the footing dimension, the pole’s
capacity increases.
• According to FE studies, the maximum moment of the GFRP pole increased signifi-
cantly as the diameter or wall thickness of the pole was increased. Local buckling was
the most common mode of failure for GFRP poles, but it may change to rupture in
tension when the wall thickness is high.
• The FEM results for deflection and ultimate load of the specimens were very similar
to the experimental results.
• Based on the results, the study concluded that the FEM could be used with trust in the
research and design of GFRP structures such as utility poles and towers without the
high cost of experimentation.
Gap Studies:
Previous studies found that a few papers study the effect of cyclic load on the pole, it
should be considered, and it was recommended to compare the different FE software on
the accuracy of results. Table 9 presents the gap studies for some published papers.

Table 9. Summary of gaps study of fiber-reinforced polymers poles.

Authors and Year Description and Contribution of the Research Gaps

On full-scale poles, twelve bending tests were performed up
to failure. The number of layers and fiber orientation were
Study the stacking sequence of the fibers
[20] among the test parameters. The current findings show that
among the test parameters.
the established theoretical model can accurately predict the
ultimate capacity and behavior of GFRP poles.
Composite materials’ permissible stress design theory under
various stress states was employed to improve the available
design techniques for fiber-reinforced polymer poles. The
influence of these holes on the rapid reduction in the
cross-sectional region of the poles was ignored by most Study the effect of the surface texture of the
[17] design recommendations, which instead account for the opening hole on the strength of FRP poles
effect of these holes on the abrupt decrease in the due to the stress concentration of this region.
cross-sectional part of the poles. The accuracy of the
established design techniques and current design
approaches was confirmed compared to published test
findings from the authors’ early experimental program.
Under lateral load, a full-scale GFRP distribution pole was
tested until it failed. The pole in issue stood 10.5 m high,
had a diameter of 254 mm, and a wall thickness of 6.35 mm.
Study the effect of the pole fixation method
[48] With increasing the diameter or wall thickness of the GFRP
on the maximum moment.
pole, the maximum moment increased significantly. Local
buckling was the most common mode of failure
for GFRP poles
As cantilever beams, two poles made of
glass-fiber-reinforced polymer were loaded to failure
Compare the results of
(NTUA). The experimental poles were created using the
[49] load-deflection among different pole
filament winding process. The experimental results
manufacturing techniques.
comprised load-deflection data at the loading point and
strain distribution at the fixed support.
Buildings 2022, 12, 1085 20 of 22

Recommendations for Future Work:

Fiber-reinforced polymers in poles had a significant impact. Still, we suggest that
future studies investigate the effects of additional mass near the pole’s tip, such as cross
arms used to carry electric wires or transformer equipment. It can be treated as lumped
mass to evaluate the effect of the additional mass on the poles’ fundamental frequency.
Frontal crash simulations of a vehicle against FRP poles can be studied with the Finite
Element model’s full version to understand the contact-impact nonlinear dynamic response
better. Future research may look at failure criteria to estimate the FRP poles’ ultimate ability
using detailed ply stress calculations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.A.K. and A.M.E.; Writing Original draft, A.M.E.-F. and
Y.A.A.; Writing-Review & Editing: H.M.E. and A.M.E.; Investigation: I.A.-L., M.G.H. and H.M.E.;
Visualization: M.G.H. and I.A.-L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This study is sponsored by Future University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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