PUREMATHEMATI

CS
MATHEMATI
CSFORFOUNDATI
ONLEVEL2
PURE MATHEMATICS

MATHEMATICS FOR FOUNDATION LEVEL 2

FIRST EDITION
Copyright
c [2022]

First published in 2022 by National University of Science & Technology, Oman.

All rights reserved.
This is the property of National University of Science and Technology, Oman. No part
of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods,
without the prior written permission of the University
PREFACE
Pure Mathematics: Mathematics for Foundation Level 2 is designed to help students
understand the concepts of Pure Mathematics, stimulating mathematical thinking and
problem-solving ability among students. Topics covered in the book improve the basic
understanding of mathematical principles, with an emphasis on application for higher
studies. Each chapter includes a variety of activities aimed at developing students’
conceptual understanding and cognitive skills.
Topics covered in the book include Functions, Quadratic Functions, Trigonometry, Statistics
and Exponential & Logarithmic Functions.
The book has been written as part of the School of Foundation Studies’ Operational Plan.
We thank the faculty of Mathematics-SoFS for their continuous support and direction in
developing this book. We also thank the Management of the University, Director and
HoDs of School of Foundation Studies for their support.
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

Chief Coordinators
Soji Binu Mathew - Senior Lecturer
Safa Al Mughairi -Lecturer

Material Contributors
SreeHari V M- Senior Lecturer
Anuradha Nithin - Senior Lecturer
Aziza Al Hadhrami- Lecturer
Nasra Al Hadhrami- Lecturer
Khadija Al Habsy - Lecturer
Atia Al Saqri - Assistant Lecturer

Proofreaders
Anitra Hernandez - Lecturer
Yashmin Mansuria- Lecturer

External Reviewer
Dr. Ibrahim Elmojtaba
Associate Professor, SQU

External Programmer
Dr. Fatma Al-Musalhi
Instructor, SQU
Contents

1 FUNCTIONS 1
1.1 RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 DOMAIN AND RANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 INTERCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 TRANSFORMATION OF FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.7 COMBINING FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8 ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSE . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS 33
2.1 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 MODELLING WITH QUADRATIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3 TRIGONOMETRY 42
3.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 LAW OF SINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3 LAW OF COSINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.6 HALF ANGLE FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.7 PRODUCT TO SUM FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.8 SUM TO PRODUCT FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.9 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION BY USING IDENTITIES . . 56

i
4 STATISTICS 63
4.1 PROBABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2 TREE DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.3 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4 PERMUTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.5 COMBINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.6 REPRESENTATION OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.7 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.8 MEASURES OF DISPERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5 EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 91

5.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.4 LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.5 REAL LIFE APPLICATION OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS . . . . . 99

REFERENCES 107

ANSWERS 108

ii
Chapter 1

FUNCTIONS

1
1.1 RELATIONS

Consider the temperature and time at a particular place. We can observe that in the
morning, and in the evening, we have different/same temperatures.

For example, observe the different relations between the two sets, time and temperature
as stated below:
R1 = {( morning, 35◦ ), (morning, 38◦ ), (morning, 40◦ )}
R2 = {(evening, 38◦ ), (morning, 40◦ )}
Relations are the set operations that help to trace the relationship between the elements
of two sets. The first element can be called the x−coordinate (input), while the second
is called the y−coordinate (output).
Note: The set of input elements is called the domain of the relation, and the set of output
elements is called the range of the relation.

1.2 FUNCTIONS

Consider the following relation:

What did you observe here?

We can observe that all the elements in the time set has only one relationship for each
input value (one temperature). So this relation is called a function.

2
 Definition of function
A function f from a set A to a set B is a relation that assigns to each element in a
set A exactly one element in a set B.

Note: Set A (set of inputs ) is called the domain and set B (set of outputs) is called the
range of the function.

Observe the below diagram carefully and notice the characteristics of each function.

Note: Characteristics of a Function from set X to set Y

1. Each element in X must be matched with an element in Y

2. Some elements in Y may not be matched with any element in X

3. Two or more elements in X may be matched with the same element in Y

3
 4. An element in X (the domain) cannot be matched with two different elements in Y

Functions Representation:
A function could be represented by many ways such as :

Examples:

1. Decide whether the below relations are functions.

f = {(1, 5), (3, 3), (2, 3), (4, 2)}
g = {(1, 5), (4, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (1, 6)}

2. Find whether the following are functions of x.

i. 3x − 2y = 4

ii. y 2 = x + 1

3. Let f (x) = x2 + 3x − 4. Evaluate each function value at the given point:

i. 2

ii. a

iii. a + h

f (a + h) − f (a)
4. Let f (x) = x2 + 3x − 4, find
h

4
Solutions:

1. i. f is a function as every x-values has exactly one corresponding value y.

ii. g is not a function as the input 1 has two different outputs.

2. i. To check if y is a function of x, we need to solve for y first and then check to

see if there is only one output for every input. 3x − 2y = 4, −2y = 4 − 3x
(4 − 3x)
So, y =
−2

x 1 0 -1

y −1/2 -2 −7/2

As every x-values has exactly one corresponding value y, y is a function of x.

ii. y 2 = x + 1
p
so, y = ± (x + 1)
If you plug in any value for x, we will get two values for y. So it is not a
function.

3. i. f (2) = 22 + 3 × 2 − 4 = 6

ii. f (a) = a2 + 3a − 4

iii. f (a + h) = (a + h)2 + 3(a + h) − 4 = a2 + 2ah + h2 + 3a + 3h − 4

f (a + h) − f (a) a2 + 2ah + h2 + 3a + 3h − 4(a2 + 3a − 4)

4. =
h h
a2 + 2ah + h2 + 3a + 3h − 4 − a2 − 3a + 4
=
h
2ah + h2 + 3h h(2a + h + 3)
= = = 2a + h + 3
h h

1.3 DOMAIN AND RANGE

The domain is the set of all possible inputs for a function.

For example, consider the function {(5, 2), (10, 6), (15, 7)}, then the domains is {5, 10, 15} .
To find the domain of any function given in this form is very easy, the domain is the set
of all x values. But how can we find the domain of functions of any algebraic form? The
idea is the same. So we have to find out the values of x at which the function is defined.
Here,we will discuss different types of algebraic functions and their domains.

5
1. POLYNOMIALS
Consider any polynomial. For example, g(x) = 3x2 + 5x − 4. You can see that any real
number will give us valid output. So the domain of any polynomial is the set of all real
numbers.
Domain in Set Form:{ x | x ∈ R}
Domain in Interval Form: (−∞, ∞)

2. RATIONAL FUNCTION
1
Consider any rational function. For example, f (x) = . You can see that any real
x−3
number will give us valid output except at x = 3 as it is undefined. So the domain of any
rational function is the set of all real numbers except the zeros of a denominator.

Domain = {x | x ∈ R, x 6= 3}
= (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

3. RADICALS
√
Consider any radical function with even power. For example, f (x) = x. You can see
that any real number will give us valid output except the negative values of x as it is
undefined. So the domain of any even root is the set of all real numbers except the
negative of the radicands.

Domain = {x | x ∈ R, x ≥ 0}
= [0, ∞)

√
Consider any radical function with odd power. For example,f (x) = 3
x. You can see
that all real number will give us a valid output. So the domain of any odd root is the set
of all real numbers.

6
 Below is a summary of how to find the domain of the most common functions:

Example:
Find the domain of the following functions:

i. f (x) = x2 + 3

1
ii. f (x) =
x2
√
iii. f (x) = 7 − x

1
iv. f (x) = − √
x
√
x2 − 5x
v. h(x) =
x+3

Solution:

i. The domain of any polynomial function is all real numbers. Therefore, the domain
of the above function is the set of all real numbers.
Domain in set form: {x|x ∈ R}
Domain in interval form: (−∞, ∞)

ii. The domain of any rational function is the set of all real numbers except the zeros
of the denominator. Therefore, x2 6= 0. So, x 6= 0. The domain of the function is
the set of all real numbers except zero.
Domain in set form: {x|x 6= 0}
Domain in interval form: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

7
iii. When the function is with an even root, we exclude any real numbers that result in
a negative number in the radicand.
Set the radicand greater than or equal to zero and solve for x

7 − x ≥ 0. So, x ≤ 7

Now, we will exclude any number greater than 7 from the domain. So the domain
is the set of all real numbers less than or equal to 7, or (−∞, 7]
Domain in set form: {x|x ≤ 7}
Domain in interval form: (−∞, 7]

iv. When there is an even root in the denominator of a rational function, we exclude
any real numbers that result in a negative or zero in the radicand.
Set the radicand greater than zero so x > 0
Domain in set form: {x| x > 0}
Domain in interval form: (0, ∞)

v. When there is an even root in the numerator of a rational function, we exclude any
real numbers that result in a negative in the radicand.
So x2 − 5x ≥ 0 that means x(x − 5) ≥ 0 −→ the zeroes of the radicand are x = 0
and x = 5. Then we can find the domain by taking the intervals

Also, the denominator cannot be zero. So, x 6= −3

So, the domain of the given function is domain of numerator ∩ domain of the
denominator.

8
 Domain in Set Form: {x|x < −3, −3 < x ≤ 0 and x ≥ 5}
Domain in Interval Form: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 0] ∪ [5, ∞)

Range
The range is the set of all possible outputs for the function. For example, consider the
function{(5, 2), (10, 6), (15, 7)}, then the domain is {2, 6, 7} . For any algebraic function,
the range is the set of all y values corresponding to the x values.
Example:
Find the range of the following functions:

i. f (x) = x − 2

ii. f (x) = x2 − 2

Solution:

i. The range of any linear function is all real numbers,

So Range in Set Form: {y| y ∈ R}
Range in Interval Form: (−∞, ∞)

ii. When you substitute any x value on the given function, you will see that the least
y value will be −2
So Range in Set Form: {y| − 2 ≤ y < ∞}
Range in Interval Form: (−2, ∞)

9
1.4 INTERCEPTS

We can see that in group 1, the graph intersects the y− axis, in group 2, the graph
intersects the x− axis and in group 3, the graph intersects x and y axis. When the graph
intersects the x− axis, the y coordinate is 0 and the x−coordinate of the intersection
point is called the x−intercept. When the graph intersects the y− axis, the x−coordinate
is 0 and the y−coordinate of the intersection point is called the y−intercept.
Note:

1. x− intercept is the x co-ordinates of points where the graph of the equation intersects
the x axis. To find x− intercept put y = 0 and solve for x.

2. y− intercept is the y co-ordinates of points where the graph of the equation intersects
the y axis. To find y− intercept put x = 0 and solve for y.

Example:
Find the intercepts of the following.

i. 2x + y = 6

ii. 2x2 + y 2 = 2

10
 Solution:

i. We will let y = 0 to find the x−intercept, and let x = 0 to find the y−intercept.
Let y = 0, 2x + 0 = 6
2x = 6, so x = 3
The x−intercept is 3
Let x = 0, 2(0) + y = 6
So, y = 6
The y−intercept is 6

ii. We will let y = 0 to find the x−intercept, and let x = 0 to find the y−intercept.
Let y = 0, 2x2 + (0)2 = 2 So x = ±1
The x−intercepts are 1 and −1
Let x = 0, 2(0)2 + y 2 = 2
√
So y = ± 2
√ √
The y−intercepts are − 2, 2

1.5 TRANSFORMATION OF FUNCTIONS

In this section, we are going to study the changes happen to a given graph, when it is
shifted, stretched, shrinked or reflected based on different conditions.

1. VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SHIFTING

Adding (or subtracting) a constant to (from) a function shifts its graph vertically upward
or downward respectively. This transformation is called a vertical shifting.
Note: Vertical Shifting
Let f (x) be a function and c > 0 then

1. f (x) is shifted vertically upward by c unit is given by f (x) + c

2. f (x) is shifted vertically downward by c unit is given by f (x) − c

11
 y

f (x) + c

x
f (x)

f (x) − c

Examples:

√
1. If f (x) = x, write the new function g(x) after shifting the function upward by 7
units

2. If f (x) = 3x + 1, write the new function g(x) after shifting the function downward
by 4 units

3. Use f (x) = ex to describe g(x) = ex + 2

4. Use f (x) = x3 + 5 to describe g(x) = x3 − 2

Solutions:

1. When we shift the function upward by 7 units, then the new function
√
g(x) = f (x) + 7 = x + 7

2. When we shift the function downward by 4 units, the new function

g(x) = f (x) − 4 = 3x + 1 − 4 = 3x − 3

3. g(x) = ex + 2 = f (x) + 2
g(x) is obtained by shifting f (x) vertically upward by 2 units

4. g(x) = x3 − 2 = (x3 + 5) − 7 = f (x) − 7

g(x) is obtained by shifting f (x) vertically downward by 7 units

Adding or subtracting a constant to the x value shifts its graph horizontally left or right
respectively. This transformation is called horizontal shifting.

12
Note: Horizontal Shifting
Let f (x) be a function and c > 0 then

1. f (x) is shifted horizontally to the right by c unit is given by f (x − c)

2. f (x) is shifted horizontally to the left by c unit is given by f (x + c)

f (x + c)
f (x)

f (x − c)
x

Examples:

1. If f (x) = sin x, write the new function g(x) after shifting the function 3 units to the
left

2. If f (x) = −5x + 4, write the new function g(x) after shifting the function 2 units to
the right

√ √
3. Use f (x) = x to describe g(x) = x − 5

Solutions:

1. When we shift the function 3 units to the left, then the new function
g(x) = f (x + 3) = sin(x + 3)

2. When we shift the function 2 units to the right, then the new function
g(x) = f (x − 2) = −5(x − 2) + 4 = −5x + 14

√
3. g(x) = x − 5 = f (x − 5)
g(x) is obtained by shifting f (x) horizontally to the right by 5 units

Note: COMBINATION OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL SHIFTS

To describe functions involving both horizontal and vertical shifting, always start with

13
testing horizontal shifting first and then test the vertical shifting.
Examples:

1. Use f (x) = x3 + 2 to describe g(x) = (x − 3)3 + 6

2. If f (x) = x2 + 1 write the new function g(x) after shifting the function downward 5
units and then 2 units to the right.

Solutions:

1. g(x) = (x − 3)3 + 6 = [(x − 3)3 + 2] + 4 = f (x − 3) + 4

g(x) is obtained by shifting f (x) horizontally right by 3 units and then vertically
up by 4 units

2. f (x) − 5 = x2 + 1 − 5 = x2 − 4 When shifted 2 units to the right, g(x) = (x − 2)2 − 4

2. REFLECTION
A reflection is a transformation representing a flip of a graph. Consider the function
y = f (x). When you multiply all the y− coordinates of this function by -1, then the
given graph will be reflected in the x− axis. On the other hand, if you multiply all the
x−coordinates of this function by -1, then the given graph will be reflected in the y−
axis.
Note: Reflecting Graphs:

1. The function f (x) is reflected in the x axis is given by −f (x)

2. The function f (x) is reflected in the y axis is given by f (−x)

y

f (x)

−f (x)

14
 y

f (−x) f (x)

Examples:

1. Use f (x) = x5 + 1 to describe g(x)

i. g(x) = −x5 − 1

ii. g(x) = −x5 + 1

2. f (x) = 3x + 1 Write the new function g(x) after reflecting the function in x−axis

Solutions:

1. i. g(x) = −(x5 + 1) = −f (x)

g(x) is obtained by reflecting f (x) in the x−axis

ii. g(x) = −x5 + 1 = f (−x)

g(x) is obtained by reflecting f (x) in the y−axis

2. f (x) = 3x + 1
When reflected in x− axis, g(x) = −f (x) = −(3x + 1) = −3x − 1

3. STRETCHING AND SHRINKING

We can stretch or shrink a function in two ways-vertically and horizontally.
VERTICAL STRETCHING AND SHRINKING
Consider a function y = f (x). When you multiply all the y− coordinates by a constant the
graph will be stretched or shrinked vertically if the constant is greater than 1 or between
0 and 1 respectively.
Note: Vertical Stretching and Shrinking
Let f (x) be the function

15
 1. f (x) is vertically stretched by c unit where c > 1 is given by cf (x)

2. f (x) is vertically shrinked by c unit where 0 < c < 1 is given by cf (x)

y
cf (x)

f (x)
x

c>1

f (x)

cf (x) x

0<c<1

Examples:

1. Use f (x) = x2 + 3 to describe g(x)

i. g(x) = 2x2 + 6
x2
ii. g(x) = +1
3

2. f (x) = e2x + 15. Write the new function g(x) after vertically

i. stretching by 2 units
1
ii. shrinking by units
5

16
Solutions:

1. i. g(x) = 2(x2 + 3) = 2f (x)

g(x) is obtained by stretching f (x) vertically by 2 units.
1 1
ii. g(x) = (x2 + 3) = f (x)
3 3
1
g(x) is obtained by shrinking f (x) vertically by units
3

2. i. When f (x) = e2x + 15 stretched by 2 units

g(x) = 2f (x) = 2(e2x + 15) = 2e2x + 30
1
ii. When f (x) = e2x + 15 shrinked by units
5
1 1 2x 1 2x
g(x) = f (x) = (e + 15) = e + 3
5 5 5

HORIZONTAL STRETCHING AND SHRINKING

Consider a function y = f (x). When you multiply all the x−coordinates by a constant
the graph will be shrinked or stretched horizontally if the constant is greater than 1 or
between 0 and 1 respectively.
Note: Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking
Let f (x) be the function

1
1. f (x) is horizontally stretched by unit where 0 < c < 1 is given by f (cx)
c
1
2. f (x) is horizontally shrinked by unit where c > 1 is given by f (cx)
c

f (x)

f (cx)

0<c<1

17
 f (cx)
f (x)
x

c>1

Examples:

1. Use f (x) = x2 + 3 to describe g(x)

i. g(x) = 4x2 + 3
x2
ii. g(x) = +3
4

2. f (x) = 6x − 1. Write the new function g(x) after horizontally

i. stretching by 3 units
1
ii. shrinking by units
2

Solutions:

1. i. g(x) = (2x)2 + 3 = f (2x)

1
g(x) is obtained by shrinking f (x) horizontally by units
2
 2  
1 1
ii. g(x) = x +3=f x
2 2
g(x) is obtained by stretching f (x) horizontally by 2 units

2. i. When f (x) = 6x − 1 stretched by 3 units

   
1 1
g(x) = f x =6 x − 1 = 2x − 1
3 3
1
ii. When f (x) = 6x − 1 shrinked by units
2
g(x) = f (2x) = 6(2x) − 1 = 12x − 1

COMBINATION OF ALL TRANSFORMATIONS

In the description questions follow the steps:

18
 1. Reflection

2. Horizontal Stretching and Shrinking

3. Horizontal Shifting (Left and Right)

4. Vertical Stretching and Shrinking

5. Vertical Shifting (Up and Down)

Examples:

1. Use f (x) = |2x + 1| to describe g(x) = −|2x + 3| + 2

2. If f (x) = |x|, Write the new function g(x) after shrinking vertically by half, Shift
to the right by one unit and then shift downward by three units

Solutions:

1. First we check the reflection

−f (x) = −|2x + 1|, so the graph is reflected in the x−axis
As there is no change in the coefficient x, there is no horizontal stretch/shrink
Now we will check the horizontal shifting −f (x + 1) = −|2(x + 1) + 1| = −|2x + 3|,
so the graph is shifted horizontally 1 unit to the left
As there is no change in the terms, there is no vertical stretch/shrink
Now we will check the vertical shifting −f (x + 1) + 2 = −|2x + 3| + 2 = g(x), so
the graph is shifted vertically 2 units upward.
So g(x) is obtained by reflecting f (x) in the x−axis, shifting horizontally 1 unit to
the left and shifting vertically 2 units upward

1 1
2. When f (x) = |x| shrinked vertically by half, f (x) = |x|
2 2
1 1
When shifted to the right by one unit, f (x − 1) = |x − 1|
2 2
1 1
and when shifted downward by three units, g(x) = f (x − 1) − 3 = |x − 1| − 3
2 2

1.6 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS

If a function f (x) satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for all values of x in its domain, then f (x) is
called an even function.

19
For Example: The function f (x) = x4 + 1 is even because,
f (−x) = (−x)4 + 1 = (−1)4 x4 + 1 = x4 + 1 = f (x)
If a function f (x) satisfies f (−x) = −f (x) for all values of x in its domain, then f (x) is
called an odd function.
For Example: The function f (x) = x3 + x is odd because,
f (−x) = (−x)3 + (−x) = (−1)3 x3 − x = −x3 − x = −(x3 + x) = −f (x)

1.7 COMBINING FUNCTIONS

ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS:
Just like we do the operations of real numbers, we can add, subtract, multiply, and divide
two functions f and g if both f (x) and g(x) are defined, that is, if x belongs to the domain
of f and also to the domain of g. Sum of two function f and g is denoted as f + g, the
difference by f − g, the product by f × g and the quotient by f /g.

Let f and g be functions. Then, the functions f + g, f − g, f g and f /g are defined

as follows:
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x)
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
 
f f (x)
(x) =
g g(x)

Examples:

f
1. Given f (x) = 2x and g(x) = x2 − 5x , find f + g, f g, f g, and
g

2. If f (x) = 4x3 − 1 and g(x) = (2x + 1)2 , find the following.

i. (f + g)(5) ii. (f − g)(2)
f
iii. (f × g)(−1) iv. (0)
g
Solution:

1. (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) = 2x + x2 − 5x = x2 − 3x

(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) = 2x − (x2 − 5x) = −x2 + 7x

20
 (f g)(x) = f (x) × g(x) = 2x(x2 − 5x) = 2x3 − 10x2
 
f f (x) 2x 2
(x) = = 2 =
g g(x) (x − 5x) (x − 5)

2. i. f (5) = 4(5)3 − 1 = 4(125) − 1 = 500 − 1 = 499

g(5) = (2(5) + 1)2 = (10 + 1)2 = 112 = 121
(f + g)(5) = f (5) + g(5) = 499 + 121 = 620

ii. f (2) = 4(2)3 − 1 = 4(8) − 1 = 32 − 1 = 31

g(2) = (2(2) + 1)2 = (4 + 1)2 = 52 = 25
(f − g)(2) = f (2) − g(2) = 31 − 25 = 6

iii. f (−1) = 4(−1)3 − 1 = 4(−1) − 1 = −4 − 1 = −5

g(−1) = (2(−1) + 1)2 = (−2 + 1)2 = (−1)2 = 1
(f g)(−1) = f (−1) × g(−1) = −5(1) = −5

iv. f (0) = 4(0)3 − 1 = 4(0) − 1 = 0 − 1 = −1

g(0) = (2(0) + 1)2 = (0 + 1)2 = 12 = 1
 
f f (0) (−1)
(0) = = = −1
g g(0) 1

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
We can combine two or more functions in another way also. Suppose we have two functions
f and g. Then a new function can be obtained by finding the image of g for all its x values,
and substituting theses values as the domain of the function f then the images will give
the composition function known as f ◦ g(x) = f (g(x))

COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS
The composition function of f (x) and g(x) is given by f ◦ g and is defined as

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

We can picture f ◦ g using an arrow diagram as the figure given below

21
Examples:

√
1. Let f (x) = x and g(x) = 2x − 1. Find the following.
i.(f ◦ g)(x) ii. (g ◦ f )(x)
iii.(f ◦ g)(5) iv. (g ◦ f )(16)

2. Find the composite function defined by g ◦ f , if

f = {(−2, 1), (0, 3), (4, 5)} and g = {(1, 1), (3, 3), (7, 9)}

Solutions:

√
1. i. (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (2x − 1) = 2x − 1
√ √
ii. (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g( x) = 2 x − 1
√
iii. (f ◦ g)(5) = f (g(5)) = f (2 × 5 − 1) = f (9) = 9=3
√
iv. (g ◦ f )(16) = g(f (16)) = g( 16) = g(4) = 2 × 4 − 1 = 7

2. (g ◦ f )(−2) = g(f (−2)) = g(1) = 1

(g ◦ f )(0) = g(f (0)) = g(3) = 3
(g ◦ f )(4) = g(f (4)) = g(5) = undefined
Hence g o f is given by g ◦ f = {(−2, 1), (0, 3)}

Note: We notice from above examples that (f ◦ g)(x) 6= (g ◦ f )(x)

22
1.8 ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INVERSE

In this section we are focusing on some properties of functions

ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS
Observe the difference in the picture given below

We notice that both f and g are functions but in the function f, each input has a unique
output whereas in the function g, two input values have the same output value. So we
say that f is a one-to-one function and g is not a one-to-one function.

A ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTION
A function with domain A is called a one-to-one function if each element of A has
a unique image, that is

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2

We have a geometric method for determining whether a function is one-to-one which is

known as Horizontal Line Test.
Note: Horizontal Line Test
A function is one-to-one if and only if any horizontal line intersects the graph only once.
For example, the below given graph of f (x) = x3 intersects only once with any horizontal
line. Therefore by the Horizontal Line Test, f is one-to-one.

23
 y

Note: To check whether a function f (x) is one-to-one, follow the steps.

1. Substitute f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

2. Simplify the expression

3. If you end up with x1 = x2 , then the function is one-to-one, otherwise it is not.

Example:
Decide whether the following function is one to one or not.

i. f (x) = x + 5

ii. f (x) = x2

Solution:

i. f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
x1 + 5 = x2 + 5
x1 + 5 − 5 = x2 + 5 − 5 Subtract 5 from both sides
So, x1 = x2
Therefore, f (x) is one to one function.

ii. f (x1 ) = f (x2 )

x21 = x22
p p
x21 = x22 Taking square root both sides
x1 = ±x2 Therefore, f (x) is not one to one function.

24
ONTO FUNCTIONS
In the first figure, you can see that for each element of Y, there is a pre-image or a
matching element in Set X. Therefore, it is an onto function. But if you see in the second
figure, one element in Set Y is not mapped with any element of set X, so it’s not an onto
function.

Note: A function which is one -to-one and onto is called a bijective function.

INVERSE FUNCTIONS
Inverse Function is a function that "reverses" a function. The inverse function exists only
for bijective functions.
Note: To find the inverse of a bijective function, follow the steps

1. Write y = f (x)

2. Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible)

3. Interchange x and y. The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x)

3x + 7
Example: Find the inverse function of f (x) =
x−2
Solution:
3x + 7
y=
x−2
y(x − 2) = 3x + 7
yx − 2y = 3x + 7
yx − 3x = 7 + 2y
x(y − 3) = 7 + 2y
x(y − 3) 7 + 2y
=
y−3 y−3
7 + 2y
x=
y−3
7 + 2x
Therefore, the inverse function is f −1 (x) =
x−3

25
EXERCISES

1. Determine whether the following relations represent a function.

i. {(2, 3), (4, 5), (3, 6)}

ii. {(2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7)}

iii. {(2, 4), (3, 5), (6, 7), (3, 8)}

iv. {(3, 3), (4, 3), (5, 6), (6, 7)}

2. Determine whether the following is a function of x.

i. 4y + 7x = 5

ii. 2y 2 + 8x = 6

iii. y 3 − x = 1

iv. |y| = 2x − 5

v. 5y = |x| + 2
√
vi. y = x2 + 3

−x + 5
3. Let f (x) = . Find each functional value.
x3

i. f (−1)

ii. f (z)

iii. f (0)

iv. f (a + h)
f (a + h) − f (a)
v.
h

4. Find the domain of each function.

i. f (x) = −2x (x − 1)(x − 2)

ii. f (x) = 5 − 2x2

√
iii. f (x) = 3 x − 2
√
iv. f (x) = x2 + 6

26
 √
3
v. f (x) = x+1
3x + 1
vi. f (x) =
4x + 2
1
vii. f (x) = 2
x − x− 6
5
viii. f (x) = √
5 − x
√
4 − x
ix. f (x) = √
x −6
√2
x + 9
x. f (x) = √9
1 − x
√4
x2 − 5x
xi. f (x) =
x + 3

5. Find the range of the following functions.

i. g (x) = −x2 + 4

ii. f (x) = x − 2, 2 ≤ x ≤ 7

1
iii. h (x) = x2 − 3

iv. f (x) = −2x

v. h (x) = −x2 − 8
1
vi. f (x) = x + 3, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
2
vii. x2 = 9 + y

viii. y = x4

ix. g (s) = −s
4x + 3
x. y =
5

6. Find the x-intercepts and y-intercept of the graph of the following functions.

i. y = −3x + 6

ii. 3x − 2y = 6

iii. 5y + 4 = 10x
1
iv. y = x + 2
2
2 4
v. y = − x −
3 3

27
 vi. y = x2 − 4

vii. x2 − 5x + y 2 + 3y = 0

viii. y = x2 + 4x − 12

ix. y = x3 + 64

7. y = x2 − ax − b has x-intercepts at (−2, 0) and (3, 0). What is its y-intercept?

8. Describe how the graph of g(x) is obtained from the graph of f (x)

i. (a) f (x) = x4 + 1, g (x) = x4 + 8

(b) f (x) = x4 + 1, g (x) = x4 − 4

ii. (a) f (x) = x2 + 9, g (x) = (x + 5)2 + 9

(b) f (x) = x2 + 9, g (x) = (x − 1)2 + 9

iii. (a) f (x) = x3 + 5, g (x) = −x3 − 5

(b) f (x) = x3 + 5, g (x) = −x3 + 5

iv. (a) f (x) = 2x2 + 6, g (x) = 10x2 + 30

(b) f (x) = 2x2 + 6, g (x) = x2 + 3

v. (a) f (x) = x3 + 9, g (x) = 8x3 + 9

3 x3
(b) f (x) = x + 9, g (x) = +9
27
vi. f (x) = sin 2x, g (x) = − sin (2x + 3) − 2

vii. f (x) = |2x + 1| , g (x) = − |2x + 3| + 2

viii. f (x) = (2x + 3)2 − 1, g (x) = (2x − 4)2 + 4

x2 (x + 1)2
ix. f (x) = − 4, g (x) = − + 18
9 2
x3 + 1
x. f (x) = , g (x) = 2 (x + 1)3 + 4
2
xi. f (x) = |7x + 2| , g (x) = |−7x + 23| + 4

xii. f (x) = ex + 2, g (x) = e−x+3 + 8

xiii. f (x) = sin 3x, g (x) = −2 sin (3x + 3) − 2

xiv. f (x) = (x − 1)2 − 1, g (x) = 2 − x2

√ √
xv. f (x) = 2x − 1 , g (x) = 2x + 1 + 4

28
 xvi. f (x) = (2x − 1)2 − 1, g (x) = 8(x2 − x + 1)

9. Given the original graph as f (x). The indicated transformations are applied to its
graph in the given order. Write an equation g (x) for the final transformed graph.

i. f (x) = |2x + 1|; shift 1 unit to the left, shift upwards by 2 units and reflected
across x-axis.

ii. f (x) = (2x − 1)2 − 1; reflect across x-axis, shift upwards by 3 units and shift
3 units to the left.
√
iii. f (x) = 4
x; stretch vertically by a factor of 2, shift 7 units to the left and
shift upwards by 4 units.

iv. f (x) = sin (2x) − 3; shift 3 units to the left, reflect across x-axis and shift
upwards by 2 units.

v. f (x) = 4 sin (7x) + 3; shift downwards by 4 units, shift 2 units to the right,
reflect across y-axis and stretch vertically by a factor of 2.

10. Determine whether the function f (x) is even, odd, or neither.

i. f (x) = x6

ii. f (x) = x3 + 5

iii. f (x) = 2x6 + x4

iv. f (x) = x3 − 2x
3
v. f (x) = 2x +
x
vi. f (x) = 2x3 + 5x2 + 3
√
vii. f (x) = 5 + 7
x

1
11. Evaluate the compositions of functions where, f (x) = and g (x) = x + 2
x

i. f (g (x))

ii. g (f (x))

iii. f (g (0))

iv. g (f (2))

29
 v. f (f (4))

vi. g (g (−1))

vii. (f ◦ g)(−4)

viii. (g ◦ f )(8)

12. Use the table to evaluate the expressions

x -5 -4 -3 1 4 7 9 13
f (x) 9 13 -4 7 1 4 -3 -5
g(x) 13 -4 -3 7 9 1 -5 4

i. f (g (−4))

ii. g (f (−3))

iii. f (f (1))

iv. g (g (9))

v. (f ◦ g)(13)

vi. (g ◦ f )(−5)

vii. (g ◦ g)(7)

viii. (f ◦ f )(9)

13. Find the function f ◦ g, g ◦ f , g ◦ g, f ◦ f of the following.

i. f (x) = x3 , g (x) = 5x + 6
2 √
ii. f (x) = , g (x) = 2 x
x
1
iii. f (x) = 8x − 5, g (x) = √
x+2
x 1
iv. f (x) = , g (x) =
x+2 x
4
v. f (x) = x3 + x, g (x) =
x
x
vi. f (x) = |x| , g (x) =
9

14. Find f ◦ g ◦ h

1 √
i. f (x) = , g (x) = x3 , h (x) = x − 1
x

30
 √ x
ii. f (x) = x, g (x) = , h (x) = 2x + 3
2

15. Determine whether the function is one-to-one.

i. f (x) = |x|

ii. f (x) = x4 − 3

iii. f (x) = x6 − 1
1
iv. f (x) =
x2
√
v. f (x) = x

vi. f (x) = x6 − 3, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5

vii. f (x) = x4 − 3, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

16. Determine whether the function is one-to-one.

i. g = {(−1, 2), (0, 4), (2, −4), (5, 6), (10, 0)}

ii. f = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (8, 6), (10, −1)}

iii. q = {(−1, 2), (0, 4), (9, −4), (18, 6), (23, −4)}

iv. s = {(12, 2), (15, 4), (19, −4), (25, 6), (78, 0)}

17. Find the following. Assume that f is a one-to-one function

i. If f (5) = 10, find f −1 (10)

ii. If f (2) = 8, find f −1 (8)

iii. If f −1 (3) = 27, find f (27)

iv. If f −1 (6) = 12, find f (12)

18. Find the value of the inverse using the table

x -4 -2 0 3 6 7 8
f(x) 9 4 -5 5 -4 7 -10

i. f −1 (4)

ii. f −1 (9)

31
 iii. f −1 (f (−4))

iv. f −1 (f (0))

v. f (f −1 (7))

vi. f (f −1 (−10))

19. Find the inverse function of f

i. f (x) = 5x − 8

ii. f (x) = 9 + 4x

iii. f (x) = 3x3 + 9

1
iv. f (x) =
2x + 1
x−3
v. f (x) =
x+1
x
vi. f (x) =
x+5
4x − 8
vii. f (x) =
3x + 1
√
viii. f (x) = 2x + 5
√
ix. f (x) = 5 + 3
x
1
x. f (x) =
x2

32
Chapter 2

QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

33
2.1 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

In this section, we will discuss polynomial functions of degree 2 which is known as

quadratic functions. So a quadratic function is a function of the form:

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c a 6= 0

MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUE

Note: The graph of any quadratic function is a parabola. A parabola has either a
maximum or a minimum point based on the leading coefficient a. This point is called the
vertex of the function.
b
If a > 0, the parabola opens upward and it has a minimum value at x = − and is given
  2a
b
by f −
2a
b
If a < 0, the parabola opens downward and it has a maximum value at x = − and is
  2a
b
given by f −
2a  
b b
The vertex is (x, y) when x = − and y = f −
2a 2a
Examples:

1. Find the maximum or the minimum value of the following quadratic functions.

i. f (x) = −2x2 − 12x − 3

ii. f (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 1

2. For the function f (x) = −2x2 − 24x − 64, find vertex.

Solutions:

1. i. This is a quadratic function with a = −2, b = −12. Since a < 0, the function
has maximum value

2b (−12) 12
x=− =− = − = −3
a  2(−2)
 4
2b
fmax =f − = f (−3) = −2(−3)2 − 12(−2) − 3 = 15
a

34
 ii. This is a quadratic function with a = 3, b = −6. Since a > 0, the function has
minimum value
2b (−6) 6
x=− =− = =1
a 2(3)
 6
2b
fmin =f − = f (1) = 3
a

2b (−24)
2. x = − =− = −6, y = −2x2 − 24x − 64
a 2(−2)
f (−6) = −2(−6)2 − 24(−6) − 64
= −72 + 144 − 64 = 8
The vertex is (−6, 8)

AXIS OF SYMMETRY
The two sides of a graph on either side of the axis of symmetry look like mirror images of
each other. A quadratic relationship between two variables gives a graph of a parabola.
b
The axis of symmetry of the parabola y = ax2 + bx + c is the line x = −
2a

Example:
Find the axis of symmetry of the expression −x2 − 2x + 3
Solution:
For y = −x2 − 2x + 3, a = −1 and b = −2
b (−2)
Axis of symmetry x = − = = −1
2a (−2)

35
2.2 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

A quadratic equations is an equation of the form

ax2 + bx + c = 0

where a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0

SOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
There are different ways to solve quadratic equations, such as factorizing, completing the
square and using the quadratic formula. Here we will discuss some.
1. BY COMPLETING THE SQUARE
To solve a quadratic equation by using the method of completing the squares, follow the
steps given below.

1. Make the coefficient of x2 as 1

2. Take the constant to the right side

3. Take half the coefficient of x as k

4. Add k 2 to both the sides

5. Write the left side as the perfect square of the form (x + k)2 and do the arithmetic
on the right side

6. Solve the equation by taking square root on both sides

Example:
Solve for x by completing the square 2x2 − 3x − 1 = 0
Solution:
3 1
x2 − x − = 0
2 2

3 1 3 9
x2 − x = , where k = − , k 2 =
2 2 4 16

3 9 1 9
x2 − x + = +
2 16 2 16

36
 3 17
(x − )2 =
4 16 r
3 17
Taking square root x − = ±
√ 4 16
3 ± 17
x=
4
2. BY QUADRATIC FORMULA
The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a 6= 0, are

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a

where d = b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant.

Note:

1. When d ≥ 0, then the solution or the roots x are real

2. If d > 0, there are two distinct real solutions

3. If d = 0 there is only one distinct real root

4. If d < 0, the solutions are imaginary or complex

√
5. Complex numbers are of the form a + bi where i2 = 1 or i = −1

6. Complex conjugate of the complex number a + bi is a − bi

Examples:

1. Find all solutions of the following quadratic equations

i. x2 − 6x + 1 = 0

ii. x2 + 2.20x + 1.21 = 0

13
iii. 4x2 + 5x + =0
8

2. Use the discriminant to find the nature of the solutions to the following quadratic
equations:

i. x2 + 4x + 4 = 0

ii. 8x2 + 14x − 3

iii. 3x2 − 10x + 15 = 0

37
 √ √
3. Solve the equation x−34x−4=0

Solutions:

1. i. In this quadratic equation by the quadratic formula,

p √ √
−(−6) ± (6)2 − 4(1)(1) 6 ± 36 − 4 6 ± 32
x= = =
2(1) 2 2

√ √
x = 3 + 2 2 and x = 3 − 2 2
There are two distinct real solutions

ii. Using the Quadratic Formula with a = 1, b = 2.20, c = 1.21

p √
−(2.20) ± (2.20)2 − 4(1)(1.21) −2.20 ± 4.84 − 4.84
x= =
2(1) 2
−2.20 ± 0
x= = −1.1
2
There is only one distinct real root, x = −1.1
13
iii. There is only one distinct real root, a = 4, b = 5, c =
8
√ √
q
2 13
−5 ± 5 − 4(4)( 8 ) −5 ± 25 − 26 −5 ± −1
x= = =
2(4) 8 8
The equation has no real solution. The solutions are complex
−5 ± i
x=
8

2. i. b2 − 4ac = 42 − 4(1)(4) = 0
There will be one repeated rational solution

ii. b2 − 4ac = 142 − 4(8)(3) = 100

100 is a perfect square, so there will be two rational solutions. 100 is a perfect
square, so there will be two rational solutions

iii. b2 − 4ac = (−10)2 − 4(3)(16) = −80

There will be two complex solutions

√
3. Let u = 4 x, then
√ √
x − 3 4 x − 4 = 0 ↔ u2 − 3u − 4 = 0
(u + 1)(u − 4) = 0
u + 1 = 0 or u − 4 = 0

38
 √
When u + 1 = 0 ↔ x = −1, x is undefined
4

√
When u − 4 = 0 ↔ 4 x = 4 ↔ x = 44 = 256.
So the only solution is x = 256.

2.3 MODELLING WITH QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Many of the processes studied in the physical and social science involve understanding
how one quantity varies with respect to another. Finding a function that describes the
dependence of one quantity on another is called modelling.
Examples:

1. A gardener has 140 feet of fencing to fence in a rectangular vegetable garden. Find
a function that models the area of the garden she can fence.

13
2. The sum of a number and its reciprocal is . Find all such numbers.
6

Solutions:

1. Let width = x
As perimeter is 140 feet, 2× (length + width) = 140
length + width = 70
So, length = 70− width = 70 − x
Area = length × width = x(70 − x) = 70x − x2

2. Let the number be x

1 13
x+ =
x 6
6x + 6 = 13x ↔ 6x2 − 13x + 6 = 0
2

(2x − 3)(3x − 2) = 0 ↔ 2x − 3 = 0 or 3x − 2 = 0
3 2
So, x = or
2 3
3 2
So the two such numbers are and
2 3

39
EXERCISES

1. Find the vertex of following functions.

i. f (x) = −x2 − 4x + 4
ii. f (x) = 2x2 + 12x + 10
iii. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 10
iv. f (x) = x2 − 2x + 1

2. Find the maximum or minimum value of the following quadratic functions.

i. f (x) = 3 − 4x − 4x2
ii. g(x) = 3x2 − 12x + 13
iii. h(x) = 1 − x − x2
iv. f (x) = x2 + 6x + 5

3. Find the axis of symmetry for the following.

i. y = −x2 − 4x + 1 ii. y = x2 − 3x − 2 iii. y = 12 x2 + x

4. Use the discriminant to find the nature of the solutions to the following quadratic
equations.
i. 4 = −3x2 + 5x
ii. 12x − 9 = 4x2
iii. 2x2 + x = 3
iv. 3x2 = 6x − 9
v. x2 + 10x − 600 = 0
5 1
vi. x2 − x − 4 = 0
2 3

5. Find all real solutions of the following quadratic equations.

i. x2 − 6x + 1 = 0
ii. ω 2 = 3(ω − 1)
iii. 0 = 4x2 − 4x + 1
iv. 0 = x2 − 4x + 1
v. 10y 2 − 16y = −5

6. Find all solutions of the following equations.

40
 i. x2 + 2x + 2 = 0
ii. x2 + 10 = 3x
10 12
iii. − +4=0
x x−3
iv. 2x4 + 4x2 + 1 = 0
1 1
v. x 3 + x 6 − 2 = 0
x+5 5
vi. =
x−2 2+x
√ √
vii. 3x + 1 = 2 + x + 1
viii. x4 − 5x2 + 4 = 0

7. Noora’s mother is 26 years older than her. Find the function that models the product
of their age 3 years from now.

8. Talal and Omar together have 45 marbles. Both of them lost 5 marbles each. Find
a function that models the product of marbles they have now.

9. The hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is twice the base. Find a function that
models the area in terms of the base.

10. A rectangular building lot is three times as long as it is wide. Find a function that
models its area A in terms of its width w. If the area is 1200 m2 , find the length
and width.

11. The sum of two positive numbers is 23 and their product is 132. Find the two
numbers.

12 . The product of two consecutive odd integers is 1 less than twice their sum. Find
the two integers.

13. If the area of a right triangle is 6 square inches and the hypotenuse is 5 inches, find
the lengths of the legs of the triangle.

41
Chapter 3

TRIGONOMETRY

42
3.1 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY

Let us recall the fundamentals of trigonometric ratios which we discussed in F1

We can remember the signs of each trigonometric rations in each quadrant by using the
phrase "All Students Take Calculus."

SIGNS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Quadrant Positive Functions Negative Functions

I all none
II sin, csc cos, sec, tan, cot
III tan, cot sin, csc, cos, sec
IV cos, sec sin, csc, tan, cot

Let us discuss some basic trigonometric identities which we studied in F1

43
 FUNDAMENTAL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Reciprocal Identities

1 1 1
csc A = sec A = cot A =
sin A cos A tan A

sin A cos A
tan A = cot A =
cos A sin A

Pythagorean Identities

sin2 A + cos2 A = 1 tan2 A + 1 = sec2 A cot2 A + 1 = csc2 A

Even-Odd Identities

sin(−A) = − sin A cos(−A) = cos A tan(−A) = − tan A

Cofunction Identities

π  π  π 
sin − A = cos x tan − A = cot A sec − A = csc A
2 2 2
π  π  π 
cos − A = sin A cot − A = tan A csc − A = sec A
2 2 2

3.2 LAW OF SINES

Here we are going to see the relation connecting the sides and angles for non-right triangles.
Consider triangle ABC, where the angles are labelled as A, B, C and the sides as a, b, c
which are opposite to angle A, B and C respectively.

LAW OF SINES
In triangle ABC we have
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c

The Law of Sines states that the ratio of the length of a side of a triangle to the sine
of the angle opposite that side is the same for all sides and angles in a given triangle.
Note: Law of Sines are used when:

1. An angle and its opposite side

44
 2. Any two angles and one side

3. Two sides and the non-included angle

Example:
Solve the triangles given below.
i.
C

45 m

20◦ 30◦
B A

ii.
B

22

40◦
C 12 A

Solutions:
sin 30◦ sin 20◦
i. =
45 b

45 × sin 20◦
b=
sin 30◦

b ≈ 30.78 m

< C = 180◦ − (20◦ + 30◦ ) = 130◦

sin 30◦ sin 130◦

=
45 c

45 × sin 130◦
c=
sin 30◦

45
 c ≈ 68.94 m

sin 40◦ sin B ◦

ii. =
22 12

12 × sin 40◦
sin B = ≈ 0.3506
22

< B ≈ 20.52◦

< C = 180◦ − (40◦ + 20.52◦ ) ≈ 119.48◦

sin 40◦ sin 119.48◦

=
22 c

22 × sin 119.48◦
c=
sin 40◦

c ≈ 29.79

3.3 LAW OF COSINES

Consider triangle ABC, where the angles are labelled as A, B, C and the sides as a, b, c
which are opposite to angle A, B and C respectively.

46
The Law of Cosines is as follows:

LAW OF COSINES
In any triangle ABC we have

a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C

Note: Law of Cosines are used when:

1. Two sides and the included angle

2. All three sides

Example:
Solve the triangle ABC

i. a = 26, c = 18, and ∠B = 26◦

ii. a = 15, b = 22, and c = 28

Solution:

i. Use the second equation to find side b

b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B
b2 = (26)2 + (18)2 − (2 × 26 × 18) cos 26◦
b2 = 1000 − 936 cos 26◦
b2 = 158.7288
b ≈ 12.6
Use the first and third equations to find the angles A and C
(12.6)2 + (18)2 − (26)2 4831
cos A = ∠A ≈ cos−1 (− ) ≈ 115.215◦
2 × 12.6 × 18 11340
∠C ≈ 180◦ − (26◦ + 115.215◦ ) ≈ 38.8◦

(22)2 + (28)2 − (15)2

ii. cos A =
2 × 22 × 28
149
∠A ≈ cos−1 ( ) ≈ 32.2◦
176

47
 (15)2 + (28)2 − (22)2
cos B =
2 × 15 × 28
5
∠B ≈ cos−1 ( ) ≈ 51.32◦
8
(15)2 + (22)2 − (28)2
cos C =
2 × 15 × 22
5
∠C ≈ cos (− ) ≈ 96.5◦
−1
44

Note:

1. Second angle can be found using Law of Sine also

2. Once two angles have been calculated, the third can simply be found from the fact
that the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180◦

3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULAS

Let us see how we can add or subtract angles within the trigonometric functions. This
can be done using the formulas given below.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION FORMULAS

Formulas for sine: sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
Formulas for cosine: cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
Formulas for tangent: tan(A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B

Examples:

1. Simplify into single angle.

i. cos 10◦ cos 70◦ − sin 10◦ sin 70◦

ii. sin 18◦ cos3 7 ◦ + cos 18◦ sin 37◦

tan 22◦ + tan 10◦
ii.
1 − tan 22◦ tan 10◦

48
 2. Prove the following identities.

i. cos(x − 180◦ ) = − cos x

ii. cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) = 2 cos x cos y

3. Evaluate each expression under the given conditions.

√
4 − 10
i. sin(θ − φ); tan θ = , θ in Quadrant III and sin θ , φ in Quadrant IV
3 10
−1 1
ii. tan(θ + φ); cos θ = , θ in Quadrant III and sin θ = , φ in Quadrant II
3 4

Solutions:

1. i. cos 10◦ cos 70◦ − sin 10◦ sin 70◦ = cos(10◦ + 70◦ ) = cos 80◦ .

ii. sin 18◦ cos 37◦ + cos 18◦ sin 37◦ = sin(18◦ + 37◦ ) = sin 55◦
tan 22◦ + tan 10◦
iii. = tan(22◦ + 10◦ ) = tan 32◦
1 − tan 22◦ tan 10◦

2. i. cos(x − 180) = cos x cos 180 + sin x sin 180

= −1 × cos x + sin x × 0 = − cos x

ii. cos(x + y) + cos(x − y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y + cos x cos y + sin x sin y
= cos x cos y + cos x cos y = 2 cos x cos y

3. i. sin(θ − φ) = sin θ cos

√ φ − cos θ sin φ√ √ √
−4 10 −3 − 10 −15 10 −3 10
= (3 ) − ( )( )= =
5 10 5 10 50 10
tan θ + tan φ
ii. tan(θ + φ) =
1 − tan θ tan φ
√ −1
2 2 + (√ ) √
15 2 30 − 1
= √ −1 = √15 + 2√2
1 − 2 2( √ )
15

49
3.5 DOUBLE ANGLE FORMULAS

Special cases of the sum formulas for sine, cosine and tan yield what is known as the
double-angle identities.
Example:
Find the following

i. sin 2x = sin(x + x)

ii. cos 2x = cos(y + y)

iii. tan 2z = tan(z + z)

Solution:

i. sin 2x = sin(x + x) = sin x cos x + cos x sin y = 2 sin x cos x

ii. cos 2y = cos(y + y) = cos y cos y − sin y sin y = cos2 y − cos2 y

tan z + tan z 2 tan z

iii. tan 2z = tan(z + z) = =
1 − tan z tan z 1 − tan2 z

Double Angle Formulas

From the previous example we drive to the formulas below which are immediate consequences
of the addition formulas.

Double Angle Formulas

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

cos 2A =cos2 x − sin2 x
= 1 − 2 sin2 A
= 2 cos2 A − 1
2 tan A
tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A

Examples:

1. Simplify the expression by using a double-angle formula

2 tan 7◦
i.
1 − tan2 7◦

50
 ii. 2 sin 18◦ cos 18◦
θ θ
iii. cos2 − sin2
2 2

2. Find sin 2x, cos 2x and tan 2x from the given information

−4
i. tan x = , x in Quadrant II
3
ii. csc x = 4, tan x < 0

iii. sec x = 2, x in Quadrant IV

3. Write sin 3x in term of sin x

4. Prove the given identities.

i. sin 8x = 2 sin 4x cos 4x

ii. cos4 x − sin4 x = cos 2x

2 tan x
iii. = sin 2x
1 + tan2 x

Solutions:

1. i. tan(2 × 7◦ ) = tan 14◦

ii. sin(2 × 18◦ ) = sin 36◦

θ
iii. cos(2 × ) = cos θ
2
4 −3
2. i. sin x = and cos x = (x in II quadrant)
5 5
4 −3 −24
Thus, sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x = 2 × × =
5 5 25
2 2 −3 2 4 2 9 − 16 −7
cos 2x = cos x − sin x = ( ) − ( ) = =
5 5 25 25
24
sin 2x − 24
tan 2x = = 25 =
cos 2x 7 7
−
25
√
1 15 1
ii. csc x = 4 then sin x = , cos x = − and tan x = − √
4 √ 4 √ 15
1 15 15
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x = 2 × × − =−
√ 4 4 8
! 2  
15 1 7
cos 2x = − − =
4 4 8
√
15 √
sin 2x − 15
tan 2x = = 8 =−
cos 2x 7 7
8

51
 √
1 3 √
iii. sec x = 2, then cos x = , sin x = − , tan x = − 3
√ 2 √ 2
3 1 3
sin 2x = 2 × − × =−
2 √2 2
1 2 3 2 1
cos 2x = ( ) − (− ) =−
2 2√ 2
3
−
tan 2x =
sin 2x
= 2 = √3
cos 2x 1
−
2
3. sin 3x = sin(2x + x) = sin 2x cos x + cos 2x sin x
= (2 sin x cos x) cos x + (1 − 2 sin2 x) sin x
= 2 sin x cos2 x + sin x − 2 sin3 x
= 2 sin x(1 − sin2 ) + sin x − 2 sin3 x
= 2 sin x − 2 sin3 x + sin x − 2 sin3 x
= 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x

4. i. L.H.S = sin 8x
= 2 sin 4x cos 4x = R.H.S

ii. L.H.S = cos4 x − sin4 x

= (cos2 x + sin2 ) (cos2 x − sin2 )
= cos2 x − sin2 x
= cos 2x = R.H.S
2 tan x
iii. L.H.S =
1 + tan2 x
2 tan x sin x
= 2
= 2× × cos2 x
sec x cos x
= 2 × sin x × cos x
= 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x = R.H.S

3.6 HALF ANGLE FORMULAS

Using the double angle for cosine we get the following formulas which help us to write
trigonometric expressions without the square exponents.
Note:

1 − cos 2A 1 + cos 2A
sin2 A = cos2 A =
2 2

52
 1 − cos 2A
tan2 A =
1 + cos 2A

Using the above formulas, we get half angle identities as follows.

HALF-ANGLE FORMULAS
r r
A 1 − cos A A 1 + cos A
sin = ± cos = ±
2 2 2 2
A 1 − cos A sin A
tan = =
2 sin A 1 + cos A

The choice of the + or − sign depends on the quadrant in which A/2 lies.

Examples:

1. Simplify the expression by using a Half-Angle Formula

r
1 − cos 30◦
i.
2
r
1 + cos 8θ
ii. −
2
sin 6α
iii.
1 + cos 6α

2. Simplify the expression by using a Half-Angle Formula

3 ◦ x x x
i. sin x = , 0 < x < 90◦ , find sin , cos , tan
5 2 2 2
5 θ
ii. tan θ = − , θ in Quadrant IV, find sin
12 2

3. Prove the given identities

x x
i. tan( ) + cos x tan( ) = sin x
2 2
x 2 − cos x
ii. tan + csc x =
2 sin x

Solutions:

r
1 − cos 30◦
1. i. = sin 15◦
2
r
1 + cos 8θ
ii. − = cos 4θ.
2
Here the negative sign shows the quadrant in which the half angle belongs.
sin 6α
iii. = tan 3α
1 + cos 6α

53
 4 x
2. i. Since x is in quadrant I , cos x = and is also in quadrant I
r r 5 2
x 1 1 4 1
sin = (1 − cos x) = (1 − ) = √
2 r2 r2 5 10
x 1 1 4 3
cos = (1 + cos x) = (1 + ) = √
2 2 2 5 10
x 1
sin √
x 2 10 1
tan = x = =
2 cos 3 3
√
2 10
ii. Using the Pythagorean Theorem and half-angle formula for sine with the
θ
condition that is in quadrant II, we have
2 v
u 1 − 12 √
u
r
θ 1 − cos θ t
13 26
sin = = =
2 2 2 26

x x
3. i. L.H.S = tan( ) + cos x tan
2 2
1 − cos x 1 − cos x
= + cos x( )
sin x sin x
2
1 − cos x + cos x − cos x
=
sin x
1 − cos2 x sin2 x
= = = sin x = R.H.S
sin x sin x
x 1 − cos x 1
ii. L.H.S = tan + csc x = +
2 sin x sin x
1 − cos x + 1 2 − cos x
= = = R.H.S
sin x sin x

3.7 PRODUCT TO SUM FORMULAS

Here we are going to study how to convert product of trigonometric functions as their sum.

PRODUCT TO SUM FORMULAS

1
sin A cos B = [sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)]
2
1
cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)]
2
1
cos A cos B = [cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)]
2
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A + B) − cos(A − B)]
2

54
Example:

1. Express as a sum of trigonometric functions.

i. sin 4x sin 2x

ii. 4 cos 2x cos 7x

Solution:

1
i. sin 4x sin 2x = [cos(4x − 2x) − cos(4x + 2x)]
2
1
= [cos(2x) − cos(6x)]
2
1 1
= cos 2x − cos 6x
2 2
1
ii. 4 cos 2x cos 7x = 4 × [cos(2x + 7x) + cos(2x − 7x)]
2
= 2[cos 9x + cos(−5x)]
= 2 cos 9x + 2 cos 5x

3.8 SUM TO PRODUCT FORMULAS

Now we are going to express sine or cosine sums as products using sum-to-product
formulae.

SUM TO PRODUCT FORMULAS

   
A+B A−B
sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin
2 2

Examples:

1. Express as a product of trigonometric functions.

i. sin 5x + sin 3x

55
 ii. cos 2y − cos 8y
sin x + sin 5x
2. Prove the identity = tan 3x.
cos x + cos 5x

Solutions:

5x + 3x 5x − 3x
1. i. sin 5x + sin 3x = 2 sin × cos
2 2
8x 2x
= 2 sin × cos
2 2
= 2 sin 4x cos x
2y + 8y 2y − 8y
ii. cos 2y − cos 8y = −2 sin × sin
2 2
10y −6y
= −2 sin sin
2 2
= −2 sin 5y sin −3y
= 2 sin 5y sin 3y
sin x + sin 5x
2. LHS =
cos x + cos 5x
x + 5x x − 5x
2 sin cos
= 2 2
x + 5x x − 5x
2 cos cos
2 2
2 sin 3x cos 2x sin 3x
= = = tan 3x = RHS
2 cos 3x cos 2x cos 3x

3.9 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATION BY

USING IDENTITIES

We can solve trigonometric equations just like solving any other equation. Here we are
going to use trigonometric identities to solve trigonometric equations.
Example:
Solve trigonometric equation by using identities
i. 2 sin 2x = 3 cos x

ii. 2 sin2 x + 3 cos x − 3 = 0

Solution:

i. 2 sin 2x − 3 cos x = 0
2(2 sin x cos x) − 3 cos x = 0
4 sin x cos x − 3 cos x = 0

56
 cos x(4 sin x − 3) = 0
cos x = 0 or4 sin x − 3 = 0
3
x = cos−1 0 or x = sin−1 ( )
4
◦ ◦
x = 90 or 48.6

ii. 2(1 − cos2 x) + 3 cos x − 3 = 0

2 − 2 cos2 x + 3 cos x − 3 = 0
−2 cos2 x + 3 cos x − 1 = 0
2 cos2 x − 3 cos x + 1 = 0
(2 cos x − 1) (cos x − 1) = 0
(2 cos x − 1) = 0 or (cos x − 1) = 0
1
cos x = or cos x = 1
2 
1
x = cos−1 or x = cos−1 (1)
2
◦
x = 60 or x = 0◦

57
EXERCISES

1. Solve the triangle ABC in the following condition.

i. ∠A = 63.5◦ , ∠B = 51.2◦ and c = 6.3
ii. ∠A = 78◦ , a = 8.4cm and b = 5.9
iii. ∠B = 35◦ , b = 3.1 and c = 4
iv. ∠B = 50◦ , ∠C = 30◦ , and a = 14
v. ∠A = 35◦ , ∠B = 95◦ , and a = 10
vi. ∠A = 74◦ , ∠B = 11◦ , and a = 16

2. Solve for x in the following.

i.
C
26
x
B 26◦
18 b

ii.
A

15

45◦ 70◦
C x B

iii.
B

54◦ 42◦
A x C

58
 iv.
B
27

C
95◦
A

3. Solve the triangle ABC in the following condition.

i. ∠B = 28◦ , a = 18, and c = 15
ii. a = 24, b = 33, and c = 49
iii. a = 30, b = 25, and c = 20
iv. ∠B = 81◦ , a = 8, and c = 10
v. a = 5, b = 7, and c = 9
vi. ∠B = 26◦ , a = 26, and c = 18
vii. ∠A = 6◦ , b = 34, and c = 29
viii. a = 10, b = 12, and c = 16
ix. ∠A = 38◦ , b = 110, and c = 138

4. Use an addition or a subtraction formula to find the exact value of the expression.

3π 2π 3π 2π
i. cos cos + sin sin
7 21 7 21

tan 73◦ − tan 13◦

ii.
1 + tan 73◦ tan 13◦

13π −π 13π −π
iii. cos cos − sin sin
15 5 15 5

5. Prove the following identities.

π  π 
i. sin − x = sin +x
2 2

59
 √
 π 3 + tan x
ii tan x + = √
 3π  1 −  3 tanπx
iii. cos x + + sin x − =0
3 6
iv. cos (x + y) cos (x − y) = cos 2 x − sin2 y

6. Evaluate each expression under the given conditions.

3 √
i. cos (θ − ϕ); cos θ = , θ in Quadrant IV, tan ϕ = − 3 , ϕ in Quadrant II
5 √
5 2 5
ii. sin (θ + ϕ) ; sin θ = , θ in Quadrant I, cos ϕ = − , ϕ in Quadrant II
13 5

7. Simplify the expression by using a Double-Angle Formula.

i. 2 sin 3θ cos 3θ
2 tan 7θ
ii.
1 − tan2 7θ
θ θ
iii. 2 sin cos
2 2
iv. cos 5θ − sin2 5θ
2

8. Find sin 2x, cos 2x and tan 2x from the given information.
5
i. sin x = , x in Quadrant I
13
4
ii. cos x = , csc x < 0
5
1
iii. tan x = − , cos x > 0
3
2
iv. cot x = , sin x > 0
3

9. Prove the following identities.

i. cos2 5x − sin 2 5x = cos 10x
ii. (sin x + cos x)2 = 1 + sin 2x
1 − cos 2x
iii. = tan x
sin 2x
sin 2x
iv. tan x =
1 + cos 2x

10. Simplify the expression by using a half-angle formula.

sin 90◦
i.
1r+ cos 90◦
1 + cos u
ii.
r 2
1 − cos β
iii.
2
x x x
11. Find sin , cos and tan from the given information.
2 2 2
4
i. cos x = − , 180◦ < x < 270◦
5

60
 ii. csc x = 3, 90◦ < x < 180◦
3
iii. sec x = , 270◦ < x < 360◦
2

12. Prove the given identities.

 x  csc x − cot x
i. sin2 =
2x  sin2xcsc+
x
tan x
ii. cos2 =
2x  2 tan x
tan x
iii. tan =
2 sec x + 1

13. Write the product as a sum of trigonometric functions.

i. sin 5x cos 6x
ii. sin 7u sin 4u
iii. 4 cos 3r cos 2r
y y
iv. 11 sin cos
2 4
v. 2 cos B sin 3B

14. Write the sum as a product of trigonometric functions.

i. sin 5x + sin 6x
ii. cos 3y − cos 2y
x 5x
iii. cos + cos
4 12
iv. cos a + cos 4a
v. sin 6u − sin 9u

15. Prove the following identities.

sin 3A + cos 3A
i. = 1 + 4 sin A cos A
cos A − sin A
sin 10B cos 5B
ii. =
sin 9B + sin B cos 4B
sin A + sin B A+B
iii. = tan
cos A + cos B 2

16. Solve the following trigonometric equations by using identities.

i. 2 cos2 x + sin x = 1
ii. csc2 θ = cot θ + 3
iii. 2 tan β + sec2 β = 4
iv. cos 2γ = 3 sin γ − 1
v. 2 sin 2α − 3 sin α = 0
vi. tan β − 3 cot β = 0

61
vii. sin2 α = 4 − 2 cos 2 α
viii. sin γ − 1 = cos γ
ix. tan2 φ − 2 sec φ = 2
1
x. cos 2β = cos2 β −
2

62
Chapter 4

STATISTICS

63
4.1 PROBABILITY

The study of probability helps us figure out the likelihood of something to happen. For
example, the possibility of rain in a day-it may rain or may not.
Note: The fundamentals of probability theory are

1. Sample spaces

2. Events

3. Axioms of Probability

SAMPLE SPACE
The sample space ( S ) is the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment. For example,
the experiment of tossing a coin is {head, tail}

EVENTS
In probability theory subsets of the sample space are called events ( E ). For instance,
when you roll a die, the chance of getting number 5 is an event .
The null event is the empty subset of the sample space. For example, getting the number
7 when you throw a die is a null event.
An atomic event or elementary event is a subset consisting of a single element of the
sample space. For example, getting two heads when you throw two dies is an elementary
event.
A compound event is a subset consisting of more than one element of the sample space.
For example, getting a number greater than 3 when you throw a die which is given by
(4,5, 6) is a compound event.
The sample space itself is also an event.

AXIOMS OF PROBABILITY
The probability of the occurrence of an event can be expressed as a fraction or a decimal
from 0 to 1. Events that are unlikely to happen will have probabilities near 0, and events
that are likely to happen have probabilities near 1. Probability of an event A happening
is given by P(A)

64
Note:
Number of outcomes favourable to A
1. P(A) =
Number of all possible outcomes

2. 0 ≤ P (A) ≤ 1

The probability of an event which is impossible to occur is 0. Such an event is called

an impossible event. The probability of an event which is certain to occur is 1. Such an
event is called as a sure event.

ELEMENTARY EVENTS
An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event.
Note: The sum of probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1
When you throw a coin,
1
P( getting head ) = which is an elementary event
2
1
Probability of the other elementary event is P( getting tail) =
2
The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of this experiment is 1

COMPLEMENTARY EVENTS
If E is an event, we denote the event ’not E’ by E (read as complement of event E). We
also say E and E are complementary events.
Note: P (E) + P (E) = 1
Examples:

1. Two players Talal and Nasser, play a tennis match. It is known that the probability
of Nasser winning the match is 0.62. What is the probability of Talal winning the
match?

2. A box contains a 3 blue, 2 white, and 4 red marbles. One marble is drawn randomly
from the box, what is the probability that it will be

i. white

ii. blue

65
 iii. not red

Solutions:

1. P (Talal winning the match) = P(Nasser not winning the match)

= 1 -P (Nasser winning the match)
= 1- 0.62 = 0.38

2. Number of possible outcomes = 3 + 2 + 4 = 9

2
i. P(getting a white marble) =
9
3 1
ii. P(getting a blue marble) = =
9 3
4 5
iii. P(getting not red marble) = 1 - P(getting a red marble) = 1 − =
9 9

4.2 TREE DIAGRAM

Tree diagram is representation of events using diagram. The tree diagram is often used
in connection with the fundamental principle of counting.
Examples:

1. If a man has 2 shirts and 4 ties then he has 2 × 4 = 8 ways of choosing a shirt and
then tie. Represent it by a tree diagram.

2. Using a tree diagram represents all the possible outcomes if you flip a coin three
times.

Solutions:
1. Letting the shirts be represented by S1 , S2 and the ties by T1 , T2 , T3 , T4 the
various ways of choosing a shirt and then a tie are indicated in the tree diagram given
below.

66
2.

4.3 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING

If an event can happen in exactly m ways, and if following it, a second event can happen
in exactly n ways, then the two events in succession can happen in exactly m × n ways
i.e mn ways.
Examples:

1. In the class there are 27 boys and 14 girls. The teacher wants to select 1 boy and
1 girl to represent the class in a function. In how many ways can the teacher make
this selection?

67
 2. A flag of a newly forum will be in the form of three blocks, each colored differently.
If there are six different colours on the whole to choose from, how many such designs
are possible?

Solutions:

1. 1 boy can be selected = 27 ways

1 girl can be selected = 14 ways
1 girl and 1 boy can be selected = 27 × 14 = 378

2. First block can be colored in 6 ways

Second block can be colored in 5 ways
Third block can be colored in 4 ways
The number of flag designs as required is 6 × 5 × 4 = 120

FACTORIAL
Consider the products
1
1×2
1×2×3
1×2×3×4
We denote them respectively by 1!, 2!, 3!, 4! etc.
In general, n! denotes the product of the first n natural numbers.
n!= 1 × 2 × 3× ...n
Note: 0! is equal to 1

4.4 PERMUTATION

Permutation is an arrangement in definite order of a number of objects taken some or all

at a time. In general the number of permutations is denoted by P (n, r) or sometimes Pnr
where n is the number of elements available for selection, and r is the number of elements
to be selected (0 ≤ r ≤ n)
n!
That means, P(n, r) =
(n − r)!

68
Different words like arrange, order, permute and form represent permutation.
Note:

1. When r = n , P(n, r) = n!

2. Permutation without repetition is given by P(n, r)

3. Permutation with repetition allowed is given by nr

4. Distinguishable permutation- The number of different permutations of n objects

n!
with n1 repeated items, n2 repeated items, ... nk repeated items, is
n1 ! n2 ! · · · nk !
Examples:

1. Write down the number of permutations of the set of three letters A, B, C

2. Find the number of ways of forming 3-letters code from a 6-letters word.

3. How many 4-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9

i. if repetition of digits is not allowed?

ii. if repetition of digits is allowed?

4. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word ’ALLAHABAD’

Solutions:

1. Number of letters are n = 3

Number of elements to be selected r = 3
Here r = n ⇒ P(n, r) = n!
P (n, r) = 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6

6! 6! 6×5×4×3×2×1
2. P63 = = = = 120
(6 − 3)! 3! 3×2×1
9! 9! 9 × 8 × 76 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
3. i. P94 = = = = 3024
(9 − 4)! 5! 5×4×3×2×1
ii. The number of permutation = 94 = 6561

4. There are 9 letters of which there are 4 A’s, 2 L’s and rest are all different. Therefore,
the required number of arrangements

9! 5×6×7×8×9
= = = 7560
4! 2! 2

69
4.5 COMBINATION

In the selection of objects if the order of selection does not matter, it is a combination.
For example the different permutations of the letters A, B, C is given by ABC, ACB,
BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA but the combination of this selection is the only set ABC.
The number of ways of selecting r objects from a set of n objects is denoted by C(n, r) or
n!
Cnr . Where C(n, r) =
(n − r)!r!
The key words representing combination are select, choose or group. Examples:

1. The management team of a particular company is interested in selecting three

members from their team of 10 managers for a special project. Find the number of
possible groups.

2. How many ways a group consisting 3 men and 2 women can be chosen from 7 men
and 5 women

Solutions:

1. The total number of combinations of the 10 person team is given by

10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7! 10 × 9 × 8
C10
3 = = = = 120
3!(10 − 3)! 3! 7! 3!

2. Number of ways of selecting 3 men from 7 and 2 women from 5 is given by

C73 ×C52 = 35 × 10 = 350

4.6 REPRESENTATION OF DATA

Statistics being the body of methods meant for the study of numerical data, the first step
in any statistical enquiry must be the collection of relevant numerical data. Once the
collected data are scrutinized and the errors in them are removed, they have to be put in
to a neat, systematic form.

1. TABULAR REPRESENTATION OF DATA

In this, the presentation of data is by means of tables to include the whole mass of data

70
in a concise form. The table should have a title, caption, body and footnote. To make
presentation of data more meaningful we condense them into convenient number of classes
or groups. The classes should be non-overlapping and the class size should be the same.
The difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a class gives the class size. We
take each item of the data one by one and put a tally mark (I) against the class to which it
belongs. We record the tally mark in bunches of five, the fifth one crossing the other four
diagonally ( ). The total of all frequency is equal to the total number of observations in
;

the data.

Example:
The electricity bills of 25 houses are given. Construct a frequency distribution table with
a class size of 75.
170, 212, 252, 310, 712, 412, 425, 322, 325, 192, 198, 230, 320, 412, 530, 602, 724, 370,
402, 317, 403, 405, 372, 413
Solution:
The difference of largest and smallest data (724 - 170) is 554
554
As the class size is 75, the number of classes is =8
75
The classes are 150 - 225 , 225 - 300, 300 - 375 · · · 675 - 750
So the frequency table is as follows:

Bill Tally mark Frequency

150-225 :::: 4

225-300 ::: 3

300-375 ;:: 7

375-450 ;:: 7

450-525 0

525-600 : 1

600-675 : 1

675-750 :: 2

Total 25

The total of frequency of a particular class and frequencies of all classes preceding that
class is called the cumulative frequency of that class. The table showing the cumulative

71
frequency is called the cumulative frequency table.
The cumulative frequency table for the above example is given below.

Bill Frequency Cumulative Frequency

150-225 4 4

225-300 3 7

300-375 7 14

375-450 7 21

450-525 0 21

525-600 1 22

600-675 1 23

675-750 2 25

Note:

1. Class size = difference between class marks of two adjacent classes

2. Class limits:
1
lower limit = class mark - (class size)
2
1
upper limit = class mark + (class size)
2

Examples:

1. The class mark of a distribution are 105, 115, 125, 135, 145, 155, 165, 175. Determine
the class size and the class limit.

2. Following is a distribution of ages of 30 teachers in a primary school.

Ages Number of teachers

25-31 8

31-37 13

37-43 5

43-49 3

49-55 1

i. Determine the class mark of each class.

ii. What is the upper class limit of third class.

72
 iii. Determine the class size.

iv. Construct the cumulative frequency table.

Solutions:

1. Class size = 115 - 105 = 10

10
Lower limit = 105 - = 100
2
10
Upper limit = 105 + = 110
2
So classes are 100 - 110 , 110 - 120, · · · 170 - 180

25 + 31
2. i. Class marks are ( ) = 28, 34, 40, 46, 52
2
ii. Upper class limit of third class is 43

iii. Class size = 34 - 28 = 6

iv. Cumulative frequency table is given below

Ages Cumulative Frequency

25-31 8

31-37 21

37-43 26

43-49 29

49-55 30

2. DIAGRAMMATIC REPRESENTATION OF DATA

The most popular mode of presenting numerical data involves the use of diagrams - graphs
and charts. diagrams are helpful in conveying the significance of data quickly. Numerical
data can be diagrammatically represented by bar charts, histogram and pie chart

BAR CHARTS
In a bar chart, bars of uniform width usually shown as rectangles, are drawn with the
equal spaces in between on the x-axis and heights of rectangles, proportional to the value
of the variable on the y-axis. The width of the rectangle has no significance except to

73
make the presentation attractive.

Example:
The expenditure of a company under different heads is given below.

Head Expenditure

Salary of Employees 400

Traveling Allowance 100

Appliances 250

Rent 100

Others 200

Draw a bar chart to represent the above data.

Solution:
Take Heads of Expenditure on the x-axis and Expenditure on the y-axis. Draw rectangles
of equal width to represent the data. The resulting bar chart is shown below.

HISTOGRAM
A histogram is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution. In a histogram, we
do the following.

i. We represent the class boundaries along the x-axis.

ii. Along the y-axis, we represent class frequencies.

iii. We construct rectangles with bases along the x-axis and heights along the y-axis.

74
Example
In a city, the following weekly observations were made in a study on cost of living index.
Draw a histogram for the data.

Cost of living index Number of weeks

140-150 5

150-160 10

160-170 20

170-180 9

180-190 6

190-200 2

Solution:

PIE CHART
Pie chart is a circular diagram. It is used when comparison of a component part is required
with other components and the total. The relative values of components are represented
by sectors of a circle. Since the sectors resemble the slices of a pie , therefore it is called
pie diagram (pie chart).
To construct a pie chart, we use the fact that total of all given values corresponds to the
total angle of a circle, i.e 360◦ . So we construct a circle and divide it into number of
sectors to represent the relative sizes of the components of the data.

75
Examples:

1. The number of hours, spent by a school boy on different activities in a working day,
is given below. Present them in the form of a pie chart.

Activity Number of hours

Sleep 8

School 7

Homework 4

Play 2

Others 3

Total 24

2. The given pie chart shows the marks scored by a student in different exams. If the
total marks obtained by the student were 540, answer the following.

i. In which subject the student scored 105 marks?

ii. How many more marks were obtained by the student in Maths than in Arabic?

iii. Examine whether the sum of marks obtained in Social and Maths is more than
Science and Arabic.

Solutions:

1. Number of hours spent on different activities in a day of 24 hours are converted

into component parts of 360◦ . The degree measures of angles subtended by sectors
representing activities are calculated as given below.

76
 8 7
Sleep = × 360 = 120◦ School = × 360 = 105◦
24 24
4 2
Homework = × 360 = 60◦ Play = × 360 = 30◦
24 24
3
Others = × 360 = 45◦
24
Now we draw a circle of convenient radius. The pie chart is shown below.

2. i. For the total mark 540, central angle 360◦

105
For 105 marks, central angle = × 360 = 70◦
540
Hence the student scored 105 marks in Arabic.

ii. The difference of central angles of the sectors representing

Maths and Arabic = 90 - 70 = 20
20
Corresponding difference of marks = × 540 = 30
360
So the student scored 30 marks more in Maths than Arabic.

iii. The sum of central angles of the sectors representing

Maths and Social = 65 + 90 = 155
Similarly the sum of central angles representing
Science and Arabic = 80 + 70 = 150◦
Since 155◦ > 150◦ , so the sum of marks obtained in Maths and Sum of Math
and Social is more than that in Science and Arabic.

4.7 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

We can make decision about the data by analyzing and interpreting it. Measures of central
tendency gives us a rough idea where data points are centred.
The three measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode.

77
1. ARITHMETIC MEAN
The mean or the average of the values x1 , x2 , x3 , .....xn , of a variable x is denoted by x
and is given by
n
x1 + x2 + x3 + ..... + xn 1 X
x= = xi
n n i=1

Example:
The daily pocket allowance ( in Omani Rials ) of ten college students are 26, 27, 20, 29,
21, 23, 25, 30, 28 , 21. Find the mean daily pocket allowance.
Solution:
n
1 X
Mean = xi
n i=1
1
= [26 + 27 + 20 + 29 + 21 + 23 + 25 + 30 + 28 + 21]
10
1
= × 250 = 25
10
Thus the mean daily pocket allowance is 25 OMR

MEAN OF GROUPED DATA

If x1 , x2 , x3 , .....xn , are observations with respective frequencies (the number of times
n
1 X
each observation repeats) f1 , f2 , f3 , .....fn , then the mean x = fi xi where
N i=1
k
X
N= fi
i=1

Examples:

1. The following data give the number of boys of a particular age in a class of 40
students. Calculate the mean age of the student.

Age( in years) 15 16 17 18 19 20

Number of students 3 8 10 10 5 4

2. Calculate the arithmetic mean of the marks scored by students of a class in a class
test from the following data.

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 Total

Number of students 12 18 27 20 17 6 100

78
Solutions:
1.

Age(xi ) Number of students (fi ) f i xi

15 3 45
16 8 128
17 10 170
18 10 180
19 5 95
20 4 80

Total 40 698

6
1 X
Mean x = f i xi
N i=1
1
= × 698 = 17.45 years
40

2.

Marks Number of students (fi ) Mid -point(xi ) fi x i

0-10 12 5 60
10-20 18 15 270
20-30 27 25 675
30-40 20 35 700
40-50 17 45 675
50-60 6 55 330

100 2800
n
X
Here, N = 100, fi xi = 2800
i=1
n
1 X
Mean of the grouped data x = f i xi
N i=1
1
x= × 2800 = 28 marks
100

79
2. MEDIAN
If the values xi in the raw data are arranged in order of increasing or decreasing value ,
then the middle most value in this arrangement is called the median.

Note:
 th
n+1
1. If the number of observations (n) is odd , then median is the value of the
2
observation.
 n th
2. When the number of observations (n) is even , the median is the mean of the
n th 2
and the +1 observations.
2

Examples:

1. The heights (in cm) of 9 students of a class are 155, 160, 145, 149, 150, 147, 152,
144, 148. Find the median of this data.

2. Find the median of the following marks (out of 30) obtained by 16 students.
17, 2, 7, 27, 15, 5, 14, 8, 10, 24, 28, 10, 8, 7, 18, 28

Solutions:

1. First of all we arrange the data in ascending order, as follows.

144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 155 , 160
Since the number of students is 9, an odd number, we find out the median by finding
 th  th
n+1 9+1
the height of the = = 5th student, which is 149 cm.
2 2
So the median is 149 cm.

2. Arranging the points scored by the team in ascending order, we get

2, 5, 7, 7, 8, 8,10, 10, 14,15, 17, 18, 24, 27, 28 , 28
 th  th
16 16
There are two middle terms and +1
2 2
i.e, mean of 8th and 9th terms
10 + 14
median = = 12
2

80
 Note: To find the median of a grouped data:

1. Arrange the data in ascending order.

2. Find the cumulative frequency table.

 th
n+1
3. If the number of observations (n) is odd, then median is the value of the
2
observation.
 n th
4. When the number of observations (n) is even, the median is the mean of the
n th 2
and the +1 observations.
2

Example:
Find the median of the following data.

Marks obtained 20 29 28 33 42 38 43 25

Number of students 6 28 24 15 2 4 1 20

Solution:

Marks obtained Number of students Cumulative frequency

20 6 6
25 20 26
28 24 50
29 28 78
33 15 93
42 2 99
43 1 100
 n th n th
Here n = 100. So median will be the average of the and the +1 observations.
2 2
i. e, 50th or 51st observations.
50th observation = 28 and 51st observation = 29
28 + 29
Median = = 28.5
2
3. MODE
A mode is that value among the observation, which occurs most often. That is , the value
of the observation having the maximum frequency.

81
Example:
Find the mode of the data 110 , 120 , 130 , 120 , 110, 140, 130, 120 , 140 ,120
Solution:

Values 110 120 130 140

Frequency 2 4 2 2

Since the value 120 occurs maximum number of times 4

So mode = 120

4.8 MEASURES OF DISPERSION

The dispersion or scatter in a data is measured on the basis of the observations and the
types of the measure of central tendency used there. The measures of dispersion are range,
mean deviation and standard deviation.

1. RANGE
The difference of maximum and minimum values of the given data is called the range.
Range = maximum value - minimum value
Example:
Consider the runs scored by two batsmen in their last ten matches are as follows:
Batsman A : 30 , 91, 0, 64, 42, 80, 30, 5, 117, 71
Batsman B : 58 , 46, 48, 50, 53, 53, 58, 60, 57, 52. Find the range of both.
Solution:
In case of Batsman A , Range = 117 - 0 = 117
And for Batsman B , Range = 60 - 46 = 14

2. MEAN DEVIATION
Mean deviation about a central value ’a’ is the mean of the absolute values of the
deviations of the observations from ’a’ and is denoted as M.D.(a).
Let x1 , x2 , x3 , .....xn be the n observations. Then mean deviation from ’a’ is

Pn
i=1 | xi − a |
M.D.(a) =
n

82
Note:
Mean deviation may be obtained from any measure of central tendency. However mean
deviation from mean and median are commonly used in statistical studies.

Pn
i=1 | xi − x |
1. M.D.(x) = , where x = Mean
n
Pn
i=1 | xi − M |
2. M.D.(M) = , where M = Median
n

Examples:

1. Find the mean deviation about the mean for the following data.
6 , 7, 10, 12, 13, 4, 8, 12

2. Find the mean deviation about the median for the following data.
5, 3 , 10 , 12, 18 , 4 , 7 , 19 , 21

Solutions:
6 + 7 + 10 + 12 + 13 + 4 + 8 + 12
1. Mean x =
8
72
x= =9
8

xi xi − x |xi − x|

6 6-9 3
7 7-9 2
10 10-9 1
12 12-9 3
13 13-9 4
4 4-9 5
8 8-9 1
12 12-9 3
P8
| xi − x |= 22
i=1 Pn
| xi − x | 22
M.D.(x) = i=1 = = 2.75
n 8

83
 2. Arranging the data into ascending order, we have
3 , 4 , 5, 7, 10 ,12, 18 , 19 , 21
 th
9+1
Median = or observation = 10
2

xi xi − M |xi − M |

3 3-10 7
4 4-10 6
5 5-10 5
7 7-10 3
10 10-10 0
12 12-10 2
18 18-10 8
19 19-10 9
21 21-10 11
P9
| xi − M |= 51
i=1 Pn
| xi − M | 51
M.D.(M) = i=1 = = 5.66
n 9
3. VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
While calculating mean deviation about mean or median, the absolute values of the
deviations were taken. The absolute values were taken to give meaning to the mean
deviation, otherwise the deviations may cancel among themselves.
VARIANCE
To overcome this difficulty which arose due to the sign of deviations, is to take squares of
all the deviations. The mean of the squares of the deviations from the mean is called the
variance and is denoted by σ 2

n
2 1 X
σ = (xi − x)2
N i=1

STANDARD DEVIATION
The positive square root of the variance called standard deviation and is denoted by σ
Note:
1 Pn
1. Variance (σ 2 ) = (xi − x)2
n i=1

84
 r Pn
i=1 (xi − x)2
2. Standard deviation (σ) =
n

Example:
Find the variance and standard deviation of the following data.
6, 8, 10, 12 , 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24
Solution:

xi (xi − x) |(xi − x)2 |

6 -9 81
8 -7 49
10 -5 25
12 -3 9
14 -10 1
16 1 1
18 3 9
20 5 25
22 7 49
24 9 81
330
P10
i=1 xi 150
x= = = 15
n 10
P10
(xi − x)2
Variance (σ 2 ) = i=1
n
1
= × 330 = 33
10 √
Standard deviation (σ) = 33 = 5.74

85
EXERCISES

1. If P(E) = 0.05, what is the probability of ’not E’ ?

2. A die is thrown once. Find the probability of getting

i. a prime number
ii. a number lying between 3 and 6
iii. an odd number

3. A class of 50 students has 24 girls. What is the probability of choosing a boy from
this class.

4. A lot of 20 bulbs contain 4 defective ones. One bulb is drawn at random from the
lot. What is the probability that this bulb is defective?

5. A boy has three pairs of shoes and four pairs of socks, how many ways does he have
of choosing a pair of shoe and then a pair of socks. Draw a tree diagram.

6. With the help of a tree diagram represent the possible outcomes, if you flip a coin
and then toss a die.

7. Evaluate the following

12!
i. 7! ii. 8! − 5! iii.
10!2!

8. A lady wants to select one cotton dress and one polyester dress from a textile shop.
If there are 10 cotton varieties and 12 polyester varieties, in how many ways can she
choose the two dresses?

9. How many three digit number can be formed without using the digits 0, 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6?

10. How many four letter code can be formed using the first 10 letters of the English
alphabet, if no letter can be repeated?

11. How many 5-digit numbers can be formed by using the digits 1 to 9
i. if repetition of digits is not allowed?
ii. if repetition of digits is allowed?

86
12. How many words with or without meaning, can be formed using all the letters of
the word MONDAY, assuming that no letter is repeated, if
i. 4 letters are used at a time
ii. all letters are used at a time

13. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word ’MATHEMATICS’

14. A committee of 3 persons is to be constituted from a group of 2 men and 3 women.

In how many ways can this be done?

15. What is the number of ways of choosing 4 cards from the pack of 52 playing cards?

16. If C9n = C8n , find C17

n

17. If C8n = C7n , find C2n

18. The marks of 30 students of a class are given below. Form a frequency table and a
cumulative frequency table, with equal class intervals, one being 0 -10
42, 21, 50, 37, 42, 37, 38, 42, 49, 52, 38, 53, 57, 47, 29,
59, 61, 33, 17, 17, 39, 44, 42, 39, 14, 7, 27, 19, 54, 51

19. Following is a distribution of ages of primary school teachers in a district.

Age 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50

No. of teachers 10 30 50 50 30 6 4

Determine the class limit of the fourth class interval.

ii. Find the class mark of the class 45 - 50
iii. Determine the class size.
iv. Construct a cumulative frequency table.

20. The class mark of a distribution are 47, 52, 57, 62, 72, 77, 82
Determine i. class size ii. class limits

21. Following table gives the birth rate per thousand of different countries over a certain
period. Represent the data by a suitable bar diagram:

87
 Country Birth rate Country Birth rate

India 33 China 40

Germany 16 New Zealand 30

U.K. 20 Sweden 15

22. The following table presents the number of literate females in a town. Draw a
histogram to represent the data:

Age Group 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

No. of Female 300 980 800 580 290 50

23. Draw a histogram for the following data:

Score No. of Students

400-420 2

420-440 4

440-460 3

460-480 5

480-500 1

24. The number of students admitted in different faculties of a college are given below.
Draw a pie chart to represent the above information.

Faculty Science Arts Commerce Law Education Total

No. of students 1000 1200 650 450 300 3600

25. In one day the sales (in OMR) of different items of a baker’s shop are given below.
Ordinary bread - 50
Biscuits - 34
Fruit bread - 21
Cake - 150
Others - 20
Draw a pie chart representing the above sales.

26. The given pie chart represents the number of valid votes obtained by four students
who contested for school leadership. The total number of valid votes polled was 720

88
 i. Who has won the election?
ii. What is the minimum number of votes obtained by any candidate?
iii. By how many votes did the winner defeat the nearest contestant?

27. Find the mean for the following list of values: 13, 18, 19, 21, 25, 26, 34, 36, 42

28. The mean of 10, 12, 16, 20, p and 26 is 17. Find the value of p

29. The mean of 15 numbers is 35. If one number is included, the new mean is 40. Find
the included number

30. The mean of 8 numbers is 15. Later, it was discovered that the number 23 was
misread as 32. Find the correct mean.

31. The arithmetic mean of set of 40 values is 65. If each of 40 values is increased by 5.
Find the mean of the set of new values.

32. The mean test scores of a class of p students is 70 and the mean of the test scores
of n students is 92. When the scores of both classes are combined the mean is 86.
p
What is the values of ?
n

33. Find the mean of the marks obtained by the students from the following.

Marks obtained (xi ) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

No. of students (fi ) 1 5 3 4 3 2 6 4 2

34. Find the mean of the following frequency distribution.

Class interval 0-40 40-80 80-120 120-160 160-200

frequency 22 35 44 25 24

89
35. Find the median of the following data.
i. 136, 240, 141, 250, 152
ii. 18, 19, 25, 29, 49, 50, 42, 65

36. The distribution below gives the weights of 30 students of a class . Find the median
weight of the students

Weight (in kg) 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Number of students 2 3 8 6 6 3 2

37. For the following set of data: 23, 24, 26, 26, 29, 30, 30, 30, 35 which number occurs
most often?

38. The average of the data’s given below in the table is 6.5. Find the Mode

Marks 1 3 9 11 20

Number of students 8 m 2 5 2

39. The Median of the data 29, 32, 48, 50, x, x+ 2, 72, 78, 84, 95 arranged in ascending
order is 63. Find the Value of x

40. Find the range of 43, 85, 94 , 32, 55, 47, 69, 76

41. Find the mean deviation about mean for the following data:
38 , 70, 48, 40, 42, 55, 63, 46, 54, 44

42. Find the mean deviation about median for the following data:
16 , 14 , 11 , 13 , 10 , 16 ,11 , 18 , 12 , 17

43. Find the variance and standard deviation of the data:

46, 42, 40, 36, 75, 86, 84, 72, 60

90
Chapter 5

EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

91
5.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The exponential function is a type of mathematical functions which are helpful in finding
the growth or decay of populations, money, etc. Exponential function has a constant as
its base and a variable as its exponent.
The exponential function with base a is defined for all real numbers x by

f (x) = ax

where a > 0 and a 6= 1

Note: The number e
 n
1
The number e is defined as the value that 1 + approaches as n becomes large.
n
 n
1
n 1+
n
1 2.00000
5 2.48832
10 2.59374
100 2.70481
1000 2.71692
10,000 2.71815
100,000 2.71827
1,000,000 2.71828

5.2 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

1
We know that the value of x when 2x = 8 is 3 and x = −2 when 5x = .
25
x 1
Can you find the value of x if 0.53 = ?
8
For that we need to know about a new function called logarithmic function which is the
inverse function of exponential.

92
 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION
Let a be a positive number with a 6= 1. The logarithmic function with base a,
denoted by loga , is defined by

loga y = x ⇔ y = ax

So loga y is the exponent to which the base a must be raised to give y.

Example:
Complete the table.

Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

83 = 512
5 1
4− 2 =
32
log3 81 = 4

logx 25 = y

Solution:

Exponential Form Logarithmic Form

83 = 512 log8 512 = 3

5 1 1 5
4− 2 = log4 =−
32 32 2
4
3 = 81 log3 81 = 4

xy = 25 logx 25 = y

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

1. loga 1 = 0 as a0 = 1

Example:
Evaluate the following.
i. log5 1 ii. log 1 1
3

Solution:
i. log5 1 = 0 ii. log 1 1 = 0
3

93
 2. loga a = 1 as a1 = a

Example:
Evaluate the following.
1
i. log4 4 ii. log 1
5 5
Solution:
1
i. log4 4 = 1 ii. log 1 =1
5 5

3. loga ax = x

Example:
Evaluate the following.
  21
3 1
i. log6 6 ii. log 1
5 5
Solution:
  12
3 1 1
i. log6 6 = 3 ii. log 1 =
5 5 2

4. aloga x = x loga x

Example:
Evaluate the following.
 log 1 5
log5 3 1 3
i. 5 ii.
3
Solution:
 log 1 5
log5 3 1 3
i. 5 =3 ii. =5
3

COMMON LOGARITHMS
The logarithm with base 10 is called the common logarithm and is denoted by

log x = log10 x

Example:
Evaluate the following.
1
i.log 10 ii. log 100 iii. log
100

94
 Solution:
1 1
i.log 10 = 1 ii. log 100 = 2 iii. log =
100 2

NATURAL LOGARITHMS
The logarithm with base e is called the natural logarithm and is denoted by

ln x = loge x

If we replace a with e in the properties of logarithms mentioned earlier, we will get the
following properties of natural logarithms.
LAWS OF LOGARITHMS
Here we are looking into the laws which help us to simplify logarithmic expressions and
solve logarithmic equations later.
Note:
Let a > 0 with a 6= 1 and let A, B, C ∈ R with A, B > 0 then

1. loga (AB) = loga A + loga B

 
A
2. loga = loga A − loga B
B


3. loga AC = C loga A

loga (AB) = loga A + loga B

Examples:

1. Expand log3 (5x)

2. Simplify into single logarithm: ln 7 + ln x2

Solutions:

1. log3 (5x) = log3 5 + log3 x.

2. ln 7 + ln x2 = ln(7x2 ).
 
A
loga = loga A − loga B
B

95
Examples:
x
1. Expand log2
3

2. Simplify into single logarithm: log(24x5 ) − log(6x2 )

Solutions:
x
1. log2 = log2 x − log2 3
3
24x5
 
5 2
2. log(24x ) − log(6x ) = log = log 4x3
6x2


loga AC = C loga A

Examples:

1. Expand log3 3x2

2. Simplify into single logarithm:

1
i. ln a + 2 ln b − ln c
5
 3 2  3
xy 2 x
ii. 2 log3 2
+ 3 log3 (y z) − log3
z y4

Solution

1. log3 3x2 = log3 3 + log3 x2 = 1 + 2 log3 x

ab2
 
1 1
2. i. ln a + 2 ln b − ln c = ln(ab2 ) − ln c 5 = ln √
5 5
c
 3 2 2  3
xy 2 3 x
ii. log3 2
+ log3 (y z) − log3
z 6 4  y4 
x3

xy 6 3
= log3 4
+ log 3 (y z ) − log 3
 z6 4  y4
xy 6 3
 z4 × y z 
= log3  
 x3 
4
 6 4 y6 3 4   3 14 
xy y z y xy
= log3 3 4
= log3 .
xz z

Example:
State whether the following statements are true or false

i. loga (x + y) = loga x + loga y

96
  
log x x
ii. = log
log y y
loga y
iii. logx y =
loga x

Solution:

i. False

ii. False

iii. True

From example iii. we conclude a new formula which tells that we can change from one
base of logarithm to any other base. This is called change of base formula

CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA

logx A
loga A =
logx a

Example:
Simplify into single logarithm: logx2 (5a) × log5a a2
Solution:
logx2 a2 log a2
logx2 (5a) × log5a a2 = logx2 (5a) × = logx2 a2 = = logx a
logx2 5a log x2

5.3 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

An exponential equation is one in which the variable occurs in the exponent.

SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
Note: ax = ay ↔ x = y
Example:
Solve for x
1
i. 5x = 125 ii. 102x−3 =
10
Solution

i. 5x = 125 = 53 ↔ x = 3

1
ii. 102x−3 = ↔ 2x − 3 = −1, so x = 1
10

97
Note: Steps to solve exponential equations

1. Bring the exponential term to one side of the equation.

2. Take the logarithm on both sides and simplify the expressions using laws of logarithms.

3. Solve for the variable.

Example:
Solve for x
i. 8 + e1−4x = 20 ii. 23x+1 = 3x−1
Solution:

i. e1−4x = 20 − 8 = 12
Taking log on both sides, ln e1−4x = ln 12
1 − 4x = ln 12
ln(12) − 1
x= ≈ −0.371
−4

ii. 23x+1 = 3x−1

Taking log on both sides, (3x + 1) log 2 = (x − 1) log 3
3x log 2 − x log 3 = − log 3 − log 2
− log 3 − log 2
x= ≈ −1.826
3 log 2 − log 3

5.4 LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

Logarithmic equation is an equation that involves the logarithm of an expression containing

a variable.
SOLVING LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
Note: loga x = loga y ⇔ x = y
Example:
√
Solve for x: 2 log9 x − log9 (6x − 1) = 0
Solution:
√
log9 ( x)2 = log9 (6x − 1)
log9 x = log9 (6x − 1)
x = 6x − 1

98
 1
5x = 1, ∴x=
5
Note: Steps to solve logarithmic equations

1. Combine the logarithmic terms using laws of logarithms

2. Bring the logarithmic term to one side of the equation

3. Write the equation in exponential form

4. Solve for the variable

Example:
Solve the following logarithmic equations

i. ln(2 + x) = 1

ii. log x + log(x − 1) − log(3x + 12) = 0

Solution:

i. ln(2 + x) = 1
2 + x = e1
x = e − 2 ≈ 0.7183

ii. log x + log(x − 1) − log(3x + 12) = 0

log x + log(x − 1) = log(3x + 12)
x(x − 1) = 3x + 2
x2 − x − 3x − 12 = 0
x2 − 4x − 12 = 0
(x − 6)(x + 2) = 0
x = 6, x = −2

When we plug this into the given equation, we find that x = 6 is only a solution.

5.5 REAL LIFE APPLICATION OF EXPONENTIAL

FUNCTIONS

Many real life situation like population growth, radioactive decay, can be expressed
mathematically by using exponential functions. In this section we will study two models-exponential

99
growth and decay.
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
Exponential growth happens when an initial population increases by the same percentage
or factor over equal time increments or generations. This is known as relative growth and
is usually expressed as percentage.
A population that experiences exponential growth increases according to the model

A(t) = A0 ert

where
A(t) = population at time t
A0 = initial size of the population
r = relative rate of growth (0 < r < 1)
t = time

Examples:

1. A city is growing at a rate of 1.6% per year. The initial population in 2010 was
125000. Calculate the city’s population after 4 years.

2. The fox population in a certain region has a relative growth rate of 8% per year. It
was estimated that the population in 2013 was 18000.

i. Find a function that models the population t years after 2013

ii. Use the function from part (i) to estimate the fox population in the year 2021.

iii. After how many years will the fox population reach 25,000?

3. How many years are required for an investment to double in value if it is appreciating
at the rate of 11% compounded continuously?

Solutions:

1. We use the exponential growth model with A0 = 125000, r = 1.6% to get

A(t) = 125000e0.16t , where t is measured in years
A(4) = 125000e0.16(4) ≈ 133262

100
 2. i. We use the exponential growth model with A0 = 18000, r = 8% to get
A(t) = 18000e0.08t

ii. A(8) = 18000e0.08(8) ≈ 34137

iii. Solve A(t) = 25000, we get 25, 000 = 18, 000e0.08t

18e0.08t = 25
25
e0.08t =
18  
25
ln e0.08t = ln
 18 
25
0.08t = ln ,
 18  
1 25
t= ln , t ≈ 4.1 years
0.08 18

3. From the given condition we get 2A0 = A0 e0.11t

So, 2 = e0.11t
Taking log on both sides, ln 2 = 0.11t
ln (2)
Finally, t = ≈ 6.3 years
0.11
EXPONENTIAL DECAY
Radioactive substances decay by spontaneously emitting radiation. This is similar to
population growth, except that the mass of radioactive material decreases. A situation
like this, where the quantity decreases exponentially over time is often referred to as
exponential decay.
If A0 is the initial mass of a radioactive substance with half-life h, then the mass remaining
at time t is modeled by the function

A(t) = A0 e−rt

ln 2
where r = is the relative decay rate.
h
Example:
The mass (in grams) of a radioactive material in a sample is given by A(t) = 100e−0.0017t ,
where t is measured in years. Find the half-life of the radioactive substance.
Solution:
Given A0 = 100, r = 0.0017

101
Therefore, the half-life is the amount of time necessary for the sample to decay to 50
grams.
100e−0.0017t = 50
e−0.0017t = 0.5
ln e−0.0017t = ln 0.5
−0.0017t = ln 0.5
t = 408 years

102
EXERCISES

1. Express the equations in exponential form.

i. a) log4 23 b) log5 3x
1 1
ii. a)log3 = −3 b) log16 =x
27 32
iii. a) ln 7 = 4x b) ln (y − 3) = 2

2. Express the equations in logarithmic form.

1 1
i. a) 10−4 = b) 2−3 =
10000 8
ii. a) 52y = 15 b)4x−1 = 21

iii. a)ex+1 = 0.7 b) e0.3x = m

3. Use the definition of the logarithmic function to find x.

i. a) log3 (x + 1) = 2 b) log2 (x − 1) = −3
1
ii. a) log4 = 2x − 8 b) logx 100000 = 5
16
2
iii. a) logx 27 = 3 b) logx 8 =
3

4. Use the laws of logarithm to expand the expression.

 6
m
i. log3
4n5
 1/4 
x
ii. loga
yz 3
r !
2
3 x + 1
iii. log
27x
s !
y2 − 1
iv. logm
(y 2 + 1)(y − 1)2

m n √
q 
p
v. log p−1
√
vi. log5 (x2 3 y)

5. Simplify into single log using laws of logarithms.

103
 ab2
i. a) 2 log( ) − 3 log(a2 bc3 )
c
b) log4 3 + log4 20
1
c) log 64 − 2
2  
3 4 ln 27
d) ln(2x ) − ln 2
+
x 3
16x4
   4 4
1 xy
ii. log4 4x + log4 4
− 2 log4
2 y 2
1
iii. logm (mn4 ) − 2 logm (m4 n4 ) − logm (m9 n9 ) − 2
3
2
   
xy 1 27 1 9
iv. 3 logx + logx − logx
2 3 x9 y 9 2 64y 4
 4 
ln(27c6 )

1 4b
v. ln (2a3 ) − ln +
2 a2 3

6. Solve for x

i. 43x+5 = 84x−3

ii. e8−3x = 268

iii. 56x+7 = 761

 3x+1
2x+3 1
iv. 9 =
27
v. 32x−5 = 87

vi. 4e3x−5 = 195

vii. 9x(x+1) = 81
 3x
1
viii. · 8 = 26
64
3
ix. =1
1 + e−x
x. 107x−1 − 2 = 1

7. Solve for x

i. 5 log7 x = 10

ii. −8 log9 x = 16

iii. 4 + log2 (9x) = 2

iv. 2 log (8x + 4) + 4 = 10

v. ln (2x + 1) − ln x = 2

104
 vi. 2 log3 x = 2 + log3 (2x − 9)

vii. ln (3) − ln (3 − 3x) = ln (4)

viii. ln (x + 3) + ln (1 + x) = ln (8)

ix. log4 (7x) = log4 (5x + 14)

x. log8 (x + 6) − log8 (x) = log8 (58)

xi. log4 (x + 2) + log4 3 = log4 (2x − 3) + log4 5

xii. ln (x − 1/2) + ln 2 = 2 ln x

8. The population of a certain species of fish has a relative growth rate of 1.2% per
year. It is estimated that the population in 2011 was 12 million.

i. Find an exponential model n(t) = n0 ert for the population t years after 2011.

ii. Estimate the fish population in the year 2016 After how many years will the
fish population reach 14 million?

9. The bat population in a certain Midwestern country was 350,000 in 2009, and the
observed doubling time for the population is 25 years.

i. Find an exponential model n(t) = n0 ert for the population t years after 2009.

ii. Estimate how long it take the population to reach 2 million

10. How many years are required for an investment to double in value if it is appreciating
at the rate of 6%?

11. How long will it take for an investment to triple in value if it earns 10.5% compounded
continuously?

12. The count in a culture of bacteria was 400 after 3 hours and 25,600 after 7 hours.

i. What is the relative rate of growth of the bacteria population? Express your
answer as a percentage.

ii. What was the initial size of the culture?

iii. Find a function that model the number of bacteria n(t) after t hours.

iv. Find the number of bacteria after 4.5 hours.

105
 v. After how many hours will the number of bacteria reach 50,000?

13. The mass ( in grams ) of a radioactive material in a sample is given by

m(t) = 300e0.00495t , where t is measured in years. Find the half life of the radioactive
substance.

14. The value of a car can be modeled by the equation V = 8500ext , where t is the age
of the car in years and x is a constant.

i. State the value of the car when it is new.

ii. After two years the value of the car will be 6580 OMR. Use this information
to find the value of x.

iii. Estimate the value of the car after three years.

iv. How long will it take for the value of the car to be half its original value?

106
REFERENCES

1. J. Stewart, L. Redlin, S.Watson. Precalculus: Mathematics for Calculus, Seventh

Edition, International Metric version, 2018.
2. J. Miller, D. Gerken. College Algebra & Trigonometry, First Edition, 2017.
3. NCERT Mathematics Textbook for class XI, 2005.
4. NCERT Mathematics Textbook for class XII, 2005.
5. Swokowski, Cole. Algebra and Trigonometry with Analytic Geometry, Classic Eleventh
Edition, 2005.
6. B. L. Agarwal. Basic Statistics, Revised Fourth Edition, 2006.
7. A. Waheedullah, A. Mohiudden. Probability and Statistics.

107
ANSWERS

108
Chapter 1

1. i. Function

ii. Not a function

iii. Not a function

iv. Function

2. i. Function

ii. Not a function

iii. Function

iv. Not a function

v. Function

vi. Function

3. i. f (−1) = −6
(−z + 5)
ii. f (z) =
z3
iii. f (0) is undefined
(−a − h + 5)
iv. f (a + h) =
(a + h)(a2 − ah + h2 )
(f (a + h) − f (a)) (−a3 − 5h2 + ah2 )
v. =
h (a + h)(a2 − ah + h2 )a3

4. i. R

ii. R

iii. [2, ∞)

iv. R

v. R

vi. (−∞, −1/2) ∪ (−1/2, ∞)

vii. (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

viii. (−∞, 5)

ix. no solution

109
 x. [−9, 1) ∪ (1, ∞)

xi. (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 0] ∪ [5, ∞)

5. i. (−∞, 4]

ii. [0, 5]

iii. [−1/3, ∞)

iv. R

v. (−∞, −8]

vi. [3, 5]

vii. [−9, ∞)

viii. [0, ∞)

ix. R

x. R

6. i. x- intercept= 2, y- intercept =6

ii. x- intercept= 2, y- intercept =-3

iii. x- intercept= 2/5, y- intercept=−4/5

iv. x- intercept= -4, y- intercept=2

v. x- intercept= -2, y- intercept= -4 /3

vi. x- intercept =±2, y- intercept =-4

vii. x- intercept = 0 ,5, y- intercept=0 ,-3

viii. x- intercept = 6 ,-2, y- intercept=-12

ix. x- intercept = -4, y- intercept=64

7. y-intercept = -6

8. i. (a) f(x) is shifted vertically up by 7 units

(b) f(x) is shifted vertically down by 5 units

ii. (a) f(x) is shifted horizontally to the left by 5 units

(b) f(x) is shifted horizontally to the right by 1 units

110
 iii. (a) f(x) is reflected on the x- axis
(b) f(x) is reflected on the y- axis

iv. (a) f(x) is stretched vertically by 5 units

(b) f(x) is shrinked vertically by 1/2 units

v. (a) f(x) is shrinked horizontally by 2 units

(b) f(x) is stretched horizontally by 1/3 units

vi. (f(x) is reflected on the x-axis, shifted horizontally to the left by 3/2 units and
vertically down by 2 units.

vii. f(x) is reflected on the x-axis, shifted horizontally to the left by 1 units and
vertically up by 2 units.

viii. f(x) is shifted horizontally to the right by 7/2 units and vertically up by 5 units.

ix. f(x) is reflected on the x-axis, shifted horizontally to the left by1 units, stretched
vertically by 9/2 and shifted vertically up by 2 units.

x. f(x) is shifted horizontally to the left by 1 units, stretched vertically by 4 and

shifted vertically up by 3 units.

xi. f(x) is reflected on the y-axis, shifted horizontally to the right by 3 units, and
shifted vertically up by 4 units.

xii. f(x) is reflected on the y-axis, shifted horizontally to the right by 3 units, and
shifted vertically up by 6 units.

xiii. f(x) is reflected on the x-axis, shifted horizontally to the left by 1 units,
vertically stretched by 2 and shifted vertically down by 2 units.

xiv. f(x) is reflected on the x-axis, shifted horizontally to the left by 1 unit and
shifted vertically up by 1 unit.

xv. f(x) is shifted horizontally to the left by 1 unit and shifted vertically up by 4
units.

xvi. f(x) is vertically stretched by 2 and shifted vertically up by 8 units.

9. i. g(x) = −|2x + 3| − 2

ii. g(x) = −(2x + 5)2 + 4

111
 √
iii. g(x) = 2 4 x + 7 + 4

iv. g(x) = − sin (2x + 6) + 5

v. g(x) = 8 sin (−7x − 14) − 2

10. i. Even

ii. Neither

iii. Even

iv. Odd

v. Odd

vi. Neither

vii. Neither

1
11. i.
x+2
1 + 2x
ii.
x
iii. 1/2

iv. 5/2

v. 4

vi. 3

vii. -1/2

viii. 17/8

12. i. 13

ii. -4

iii. 4

iv. 13

v. 1

vi. -5

vii. 7

vii. -4

112
13. i. (5x + 6)3 , 5x3 + 6, 25x + 36, x9
r
2 2 √
ii. √ , , 4 x, x
x x
√ √4
8−5 x+2 1 x+2
iii. √ , √ , p √ , 64x − 45
x+2 8x − 3 1+2 x+2
x 4(16 + x2 ) 4
iv. , , x,
(3x + 4) x3 x(x2 + 1)
64 + x4 4
v. 3
, 3 , x, x9
  x x
 x  |x| x
vi.  , , , |x|
9 9 81
√
14. i. x − 1
r
2x + 3
ii.
2

15. i. Not a one-to-one function.

ii. Not a one-to-one function.

iii. Not a one-to-one function.

iv. One-to-one function.

v. One-to-one function.

vi. One-to-one function.

vii. One-to-one function.

16. i. One-to-one function.

ii. Not a one-to-one function.

iii. Not a one-to-one function.

iv. One-to-one function

17. i. 5

ii. 2

iii. 3

iv. 6

18. i. -2

113
 ii. -4

iii. -4

iv. 0

v. 7

vi. -10

x+8
19. i.
5
x−9
ii.
4
r
3 x − 9
iii.
3
1−x
iv.
2x
x+3
v.
1−y
5x
vi.
1−x
x+8
vii.
4 − 3x
x2 − 5
viii.
2
ix. (x − 5)3
r
1
x.
x

114
Chapter 2

1. i. Vertex: (−2, −8)

ii. Vertex: (−3, −8)

 
1 31
iii. Vertex: − , −
3 3
iv. Vertex: (1, 0)

2. i. maximum of f (x) = 4

ii. minimum of g(x) = 1

5
iii. maximum of f (x) =
4
iv. minimum of f (x) = −4

3. i. x = −2
3
ii. x =
2
iii. x = −1

4. i. No real solution

ii. one real solution

iii. two real solutions

iv. No real solution

v. two real solutions

vi. two real solutions

√
5. i. 3 ± 2 2
√
3 ± 3i
ii. (not real solution)
2
1
iii.
2
√
iv. 2 ± 3
√
8 ± 14
v.
10

6. i. x = −1 ± 2i

115
 √
ii. x = −1 ± 2i
3
iii. x1 = 5, x2 = −
2
r √
−2 + 2
iv. x = ± (not real solution)
2
1
v. x1 = 1, x 6 = −1 not a solution
√
vi. x = −1 ± 19i

vii. x1 = 0 (not a solution ), x2 = 8

viii. x = ±2, x = ±1

7. f (x) = x2 + 32x + 87

8. g(x) = −x2 + 45x − 200

√
3 2
9. .A(x) = x
2

10. l = 3w = 3(20) = 60m

11. .x = 11orx = 12

12. numbers are 3 and 5

13. 4 inches and 3 inches.

116
Chapter 3

1. i. ∠C = 65.3◦ , b = 5.4, a = 6.2

ii. ∠C = 58.6◦ , ∠B = 43.4◦ , c = 7.3

iii. ∠C = 47.7◦ , ∠A = 97.3◦ , c = 5.4

iv. ∠A = 100◦ , b = 10.9, c = 7.1

v. ∠C = 50◦ , b = 17.4, c = 13.4

vi. ∠C = 95◦ , b = 3.2 c = 16.6

2. i. x = 38.8◦

ii. x = 14.5

iii. x = 13.4

iv. The given information is not enough to solve for x.

3. i. ∠A = 96◦ , ∠C = 56◦ , b = 8.5

ii. ∠A = 25.7◦ , ∠B = 36.6◦ , ∠C = 117.7◦

iii. ∠A = 82.8◦ , ∠B = 55.8◦ , ∠C = 41.4◦

iv. ∠A = 42.1◦ , ∠C = 56.9◦ , b = 11.8

v. ∠A = 33.6◦ , ∠B = 50.7◦ , ∠C = 95.7◦

vi. ∠A = 115.2◦ , ∠C = 38.8◦ , b = 12.6

vii. ∠B = 65.2◦ , ∠C = 50.8◦ , a = 33.7

viii. ∠A = 38.6◦ , ∠B = 48.5◦ , ∠C = 92.9◦

ix. ∠A = 85◦ , ∠B = 52.9◦ , ∠C = 89.1◦

1
4. i.
2
√
ii. 3
1
iii. −
2
√
−3 − 4 3
6. i.
10

117
 √
2 5
ii.
65

7. i. sin 6θ

ii. sin 14θ

iii. sin θ

iv. cos 10θ

120 119 120

8. i. sin 2x = , cos 2x = , tan 2x =
169 169 119
24 7 24
ii. sin 2x = − , cos 2x = , tan 2x = −
25 25 7
3 4 3
iii. sin 2x = − , cos 2x = , tan 2x = −
5 5 4
12 5 12
iv. sin 2x = , cos 2x = − , tan 2x = −
13 13 5

10. i. tan 45◦ = 1

u
ii. cos
2
β
iii. sin
2
√
x 3 10
11. i. sin =
2 10
√
x 10
cos = −
2 10
x
tan = −3
2
x
ii. sin = 0.99
2
x
cos = 0.17
2
x
tan = 5.83
2
√
x 6
iii. sin =
2 6√
x 30
cos = −
2 √ 6
x 5
tan =
2 5
1 1
13. i. sin (11x) − sin x
2 2
1 1
ii. cos (3u) − cos (11u)
2 2
iii. 2 cos r + 2 cos (5r)
11 3y 11 y
iv. sin ( ) + sin ( )
2 4 2 4

118
 v. sin (4B) + sin (2B)

11x x
14. i. 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
5y y
ii. −2 sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2
x x
iii. 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
3 12
5a 3a
iv. 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2
15u 3u
v. −2 cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2
7π
16. i. x = + 2πn
6
11π
x= + 2πn
6
3π
ii. φ = + πn
4
φ = 0.46 + πn
π
iii. β = − + πn
4
β = −1.25 + πn
π
iv. γ = + 2πn
6
5π
γ= + 2πn
6
v. α = 0.72 + 2πn
α = 5.56 + 2πn
π
vi. β = + πn
3
2π
β= + πn
3
vii. α= No Real Solution
π
viii. γ = + 2πn
2
γ = π + 2πn

ix. φ = 5.05 + 2πn

φ = π + 2πn
π nπ
x. β = +
4 2
3π
β= + nπ
4

119
Chapter 4

1. 1. 0.95

2. i. 0.5 ii. 1/3 iii. 0.5

3. 0.52

4. 0.2

5.

6.

7. i. 5040 ii. 40200 iii. 66

8. 120

120
 9. 24

10. 5040

11. i. 15120 ii. 59049

12. i. 360 ii. 720

13. 4989600

14. 10

15. 270725

16. 1

17. 45

Class interval Frequency Cumulative Frequency

0-10 1 1

11-20 4 5

21-30 3 8
18.
31-40 7 15

41-50 7 22

51-60 7 29

61-70 1 30

19. i. The Lower Limit = 30, The Upper Limit = 35 ii. 47.5 iii. 5

Age 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50

iv. 30Teachers 10 30 50 50 30 6 4

Cumulative Frequency 10 40 90 140 170 176 180

20. i.5 ii. Lower Limit =44.5, Upper Limit = 49.5

121
21.

22.

23.

24.

122
25.

26. i. Hytham ii. 120 iii. 40

27. 26

28. 18

29. 115

30. 13.875

31. 70

32. 3/8

33. 51.67

34. 98.4

35. i. 152 ii. 35.5

36. 55

37. 30

38. 1

39. 62

40. 62

41. 8.4

42. 2.4

43. 18.61

123
Chapter 5

1. i. a)4a = 23 b)5m+1 = 23x

1 1
ii. a)3−3 = b) 16x =
27 32
iii. a) e4x = 7 b) e2 = y − 3

1 1
2. i. a) log10 ( ) = −4 b)log2 ( ) = −3
10000 8
ii. a) log5 15 = 2y b)log4 21 = x − 1

iii. a)ln 0.7 = x + 1 b) ln m = 0.3x

3. i. a) 8 b) 9/8 ii. a) 3 b) 10 iii. a) 3 b) 22.63

4. i. 6 log3 m − log3 4 − 5 log3 n

i. 1/4 loga x − loga y − 3 loga z

iii. 1/3 log (x2 + 1) − 1/3 log (27x)

iv. 1/2 logm (y 2 − 1) − 1/2 logm (y 2 + 1) − logm (y − 1)

v. 1/2 log m + 1/4 log n + 1/8 log (p − 1)

vi. 2 log5 x + 1/3 log 5 y

b 3x5
5. i. a)log ( b) log4 60 c) log (2/25) d) ln ( )
(a c11 )
4 2
64
ii. log4 ( 5 10 )
xy
1
iii. logm ( 12 7 )
m n
iv. logx (x3 y 2 )
3a4 c2
v. ln ( )
b2

6. i. 19/6 ii.0.8 iii. -0.48 iv. -9/13 v. 4.54 vi. 2.96

vii. -2 or 1 viii. -1/6 ix. -0.693 x. 0.211

7. i. 49 ii. 1/81 iii. 1/36 iv. 124.5 v. 0.19 vi. 9

vii. 3/4 viii. 1 ix. 7 x. 6/57 xi. 3 xii. 1

8. i. n(t) = 12e0.012t

124
 ii. 12.74M

iii. 13.1 years

9. i. n(t) = 350000e0.028t ii. 36.8 years

10. 11.55 years

11. 10.46 years

12. i. 104%

ii. 50

iii. n(t) = 50e1.04t

iv. 5389

v. 6.64 hours

13. 140 years

14. i. 8500

ii. 0.128

iii. 5789.6

iv. 5.4 years

125
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