CH 10 Solutions Manual

CHAPTER 10 THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES
FOLLOW–UP PROBLEMS
10.1A Plan: Count the valence electrons and follow the steps outlined in the sample problem to draw the Lewis
structures.
Solution:
a) The sulfur is the central atom, as the hydrogen is never central. Each of the hydrogen atoms is placed around
the sulfur. The actual positions of the hydrogen atoms are not important. The total number of valence electrons
available is [2 x H(1e–)] + [1 x S(6e–)] = 8e–. Connect each hydrogen atom to the sulfur with a single bond. These
bonds use 4 of the electrons leaving 4 electrons. The last 4e– go to the sulfur because the hydrogen atoms can take
no more electrons.
H S
H
Solution:
b) The aluminum has the lower group number so it is the central atom. Each of the chlorine atoms will be attached
to the central aluminum. The total number of valence electrons available is [4 x F(7e–)] + [1 x Al(3e–)] + 1e– (for
the negative charge) = 32e–. Connecting the four chlorine atoms to the aluminum with single bonds uses 4 x 2 =
8e–, leaving 32 – 8 = 24e–. The more electronegative chlorine atoms each need 6 electrons to complete their octets.
This requires 4 x 6 = 24e–. There are no more remaining electrons at this step; however, the aluminum has 8
electrons around it.
_
Cl
Cl Al Cl
Cl
Check: Count the electrons. Each of the five atoms has an octet.
Solution:
c) Both S and O have a lower group number than Cl, thus, one of these two elements must be central. Between S
and O, S has the higher period number so it is the central atom. The total number of valence electrons available is
[2 x Cl(7e–)] + [1 x S(6e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] = 26e–. Begin by distributing the two chlorine atoms and the oxygen
atom around the central sulfur atom. Connect each of the three outlying atoms to the central sulfur with single
bonds. This uses 3 x 2 = 6e–, leaving 26 – 6 = 20e–. Each of the outlying atoms still needs 6 electrons to complete
their octets. Completing these octets uses 3 x 6 = 18 electrons. The remaining 2 electrons are all the sulfur needs
to complete its octet.
Cl
Cl O
Check: Count the electrons. Each of the four atoms has an octet.
10.1B Plan: Count the valence electrons and follow the steps outlined in the sample problem to draw the Lewis
structures.
10-1
Solution:
a) The oxygen has the lower group number so it is the central atom. Each of the fluorine atoms will be attached to
the central oxygen. The total number of valence electrons available is [2 x F(7e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] = 20e–.
Connecting the two fluorine atoms to the oxygen with single bonds uses 2 x 2 = 4e–, leaving 20 – 4 = 16e–. The
more electronegative fluorine atoms each need 6 electrons to complete their octets. This requires 2 x 6 = 12e–. The
4 remaining electrons go to the oxygen.
F O
Check: Count the electrons. Each of the three atoms has an octet.
Solution:
b) The carbon has the lower group number so it is the central atom (technically, hydrogen is in group 1A, but it
can only form one bond and, thus, cannot be the central atom). Each of the hydrogen and bromine atoms will be
attached to the central carbon. The total number of valence electrons available is [1 x C(4e–)] + [2 x H(1e–)] +
[2 x Br(7e–)] = 20e–. Connecting the two hydrogen atoms and the two bromine atoms to the carbon with single
bonds uses 4 x 2 = 8e–, leaving 20 – 8 = 12e–. The “octets” of the two hydrogen atoms (2 electrons) are filled
through their bonds to the carbon. The more electronegative bromine atoms each need 6 electrons to complete
their octets. This requires 2 x 6 = 12e–.
H
Br C H
Br
Check: Count the electrons. Each of the five atoms has an octet.
Solution:
c) Both I and Br have the same group number. Between the two atoms, I has the higher period number so it is the
central atom. The total number of valence electrons available is [1 x I(7e–)] + [2 x Br(7e–)] – 1e– (for the positive
charge) = 20e–. Connecting the two bromine atoms to the iodine with single bonds uses 2 x 2 = 4e–, leaving
20 – 4 = 16e–.Each of the outlying atoms still needs 6 electrons to complete their octets. Completing these octets
uses 2 x 6 = 12 electrons. The remaining 4 electrons are all the iodine needs to complete its octet.
+
Br I
Br
Check: Count the electrons. Each of the three atoms has an octet.
structures.
Solution:
a) As in CH 4 O, the N and O both serve as “central” atoms. The N is placed next to the O and the H atoms are
distributed around them. The N needs more electrons so it gets two of the three hydrogen atoms. You can try
placing the N in the center with all the other atoms around it, but you will quickly see that you will have trouble
with the oxygen. The number of valence electrons is [3 x H(1e–)] + [1 x N(5e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] = 14e–. Four single
bonds are needed (4 x 2 = 8e–). This leaves 6 electrons. The oxygen needs 4 electrons, and the nitrogen needs 2.
These last 6 electrons serve as three lone pairs.
10-2
H
H N O H
H N O
H
H
correct incorrect
Solution:
b) The hydrogen atoms cannot be the central atoms. The problem states that there are no O–H bonds, so the
oxygen must be connected to the carbon atoms. Place the O atom between the two C atoms, and then distribute
the H atoms equally around each of the C atoms. The total number of valence electrons is [6 x H(1e–)] +
[2 x C(4e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] = 20e– Draw single bonds between each of the atoms. This creates six C–H bonds, and
two C–O bonds, and uses 8 x 2 = 16 electrons. The four remaining electrons will become two lone pairs on the O
atom to complete its octet.
H H
H C O C H
H H
Check: Count the electrons. Both the C’s and the O have octets. Each H has its pair.
structures.
Solution:
a) The hydrogen atoms cannot be the central atoms, so the two N atoms both serve as “central” atoms, bonded to
each other, and the H atoms are distributed around them (2 hydrogens per N atom). The number of valence
electrons is [4 x H(1e–)] + [2 x N(5e–)] = 14e–. Connect the two nitrogens to each other via single bonds. Connect
two hydrogens to each of the two nitrogens via single bonds. These five single bonds require 5 x 2 = 10e–. This
leaves 4 electrons. Each of the nitrogen atoms needs 2 electrons to complete its octet. These last 4 electrons serve
as two lone pairs.
H N N H
H H
Solution:
b) The hydrogen atoms cannot be the central atoms. The C and the N atoms both serve as “central” atoms, bonded
to each other. According to the formula, three hydrogen atoms are bonded to the C and two hydrogen atoms are
bonded to the N. The number of valence electrons is [5 x H(1e–)] + [1 x N(5e–)] + [1 x C(4e–)] = 14e–. Connect
the C and N atoms via a single bond. Connect the appropriate number of hydrogen atoms to the C and N. These
six bonds require 6 x 2 = 12e–. This leaves 2 electrons. The nitrogen atom needs 2 electrons to complete its octet.
These last 2 electrons serve as a lone pair on the nitrogen.
H
H C N H
H H
Check: Count the electrons. Both the C and the N have octets. Each H has its pair.
structures.
10-3
Solution:
a) In CO there are a total of [1 x C(4e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] = 10e–. The hint states that carbon has three bonds. Since
oxygen is the only other atom present, these bonds must be between the C and the O. This uses 6 of the 10
electrons. The remaining 4 electrons become two lone pairs, one pair for each of the atoms.
C O
Check: Count the electrons. Both the C and the O have octets.
Solution:
b) In HCN there are a total of [1 x H(1e–)] + [1 x C(4e–)] + [1 x N(5e–)] = 10 electrons. Carbon has a lower group
number, so it is the central atom. Place the C between the other two atoms and connect each of the atoms to the
central C with a single bond. This uses 4 of the 10 electrons, leaving 6 electrons. Distribute these 6 to nitrogen to
complete its octet. However, the carbon atom is 4 electrons short of an octet. Change two lone pairs on the
nitrogen atom to bonding pairs to form two more bonds between carbon and nitrogen for a total of three bonds.
H C N
Check: Count the electrons. Both the C and the N have octets. The H has its pair.
Solution:
c) In CO 2 there are a total of [1 x C(4e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] = 16 electrons. Carbon has a lower group number, so it is
the central atom. Placing the C between the two O atoms and adding single bonds uses 4 electrons, leaving
16 – 4 = 12e–. Distributing these 12 electrons to the oxygen atoms completes those octets, but the carbon atom
does not have an octet. Change one lone pair on each oxygen atom to a bonding pair to form two double bonds to
the carbon atom, completing its octet.
O C O
Check: Count the electrons. Both the C and the O atoms have octets.
structures.
Solution:
a) In NO+ there are a total of [1 x N(5e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] – 1 e– (for the positive charge on the ion) = 10e–.
Connecting the N and O atoms via a single bond uses 1 x 2 = 2e–, leaving 10 – 2 = 8e–. The more electronegative
O atom needs 6 more electrons to complete its octet. The remaining 2 electrons become a lone pair on the N atom.
However, this only gives the N atom 4 electrons. Change two lone pairs on the oxygen atom to bonding pairs to
form a triple bond between the N and O atoms. In this way, the atoms’ octets are complete.
+
N O
Check: Count the electrons. Both the N and the O have octets.
Solution:
b) In H 2 CO there are a total of [1 x C(4e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] + [2 x H(1e–)] = 12 electrons. Carbon has a lower group
number, so it is the central atom (H has a lower group number, but it cannot be a central atom). Place the C
between the other three atoms and connect each of the atoms to the central C with a single bond. This uses 6 of
the 12 electrons, leaving 6 electrons. Distribute these 6 to oxygen to complete its octet. However, the carbon
atom is 2 electrons short of an octet. Change one lone pair on the oxygen atom to a bonding pair between the
oxygen and carbon.
H
C O
H
Check: Count the electrons. Both the C and the O have octets. The H atoms have 2 electrons each.
Solution:
c) In N 2 H 2 there are a total of [2 x N(5e–)] + [2 x H(1e–)]= 12 electrons. Hydrogen cannot be a central atom, so
the nitrogen atoms are the central atoms (there is more than one central atom). Connecting the nitrogen atoms via
a single bond and attaching one hydrogen to each nitrogen atom uses 6 electrons, leaving six electrons. Each
nitrogen needs four more electrons to complete its octet; however, there are not enough electrons to complete both
octets. Four electrons can be added to one of the nitrogen atoms, but this only leaves two electrons to add to the
other nitrogen atom. The octet of the first nitrogen atom is complete, but the octet of the second nitrogen atom is
not complete. Change one lone pair on the first nitrogen to a bonding pair to complete both atoms’ octets.
10-4
H N N H
Check: Count the electrons. Both N atoms have octets, and each H atom has 2 electrons.
10.4A Plan: Count the valence electrons and follow the steps to draw the Lewis structures. Each new resonance structure
is obtained by shifting the position of a multiple bond and the electron pairs.
Solution:
H 3 CNO 2 has a total of [1 x C(4e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] + [3 x H(1e–)] + [1 x N(5e–)] = 24 electrons. According to the
problem, the H atoms are bonded to C, and the C atom is bonded to N, which is bonded to both O atoms. Connect
all of these atoms via single bonds. This uses 6 x 2 = 12e–. There are 12 electrons remaining. Each of the oxygen
atoms needs 6 more electrons to complete its octet. Placing 6 electrons on each of the oxygen atoms leaves the
nitrogen two electrons short of an octet. Change one of the lone pairs on one of the oxygen atoms to a bonding
pair to complete the octets. The other resonance structure is obtained by taking a lone pair from the other oxygen
to create the double bond.
H H
O O
H C N H C N
O O
H H
10.4B Plan: Count the valence electrons and follow the steps to draw the Lewis structures. Each new resonance structure
is obtained by shifting the position of a multiple bond and the electron pairs.
Solution:
SCN– has a total of [1 x C(4e–)] + [1 x S(6e–)] + [1 x N(5e–)] + 1 e– (for the negative charge) = 16 electrons.
According to the problem, the C is the central atom. Connect it via single bonds to both the S and the N atoms.
This uses 2 x 2 = 4e–. There are 12 electrons remaining. The outlying sulfur and nitrogen each require 6 electrons
to complete their octets. Placing 6 electrons each on the N and on the S leaves the C atom 4 electrons short of an
octet. Convert two lone pairs on the outer atoms to bonding pairs to complete the octet. The lone pairs can come
from the N, from the S, or from both the S and the N. Each of the generated structures is a resonance structure.
- - -
S C N S C N S C N
10.5A Plan: The presence of available d orbitals makes checking formal charges more important. Use the equation for
formal charge: FC = # of valence e– – [# unshared valence e– + ½(# shared valence e–)]
Solution:
a) In POCl 3 , the P is the most likely central atom because all the other elements have higher group numbers. The
molecule contains: [1 x P(5e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] + [3 x Cl(7e–)] = 32 electrons. Placing the P in the center with
single bonds to all the surrounding atoms uses 8 electrons and gives P an octet. The remaining 24 can be split into
12 pairs with each of the surrounding atoms receiving three pairs. At this point, in structure I below, all the atoms
have an octet. The central atom is P (smallest group number, highest period number) and can have more than an
octet. To see how reasonable this structure is, calculate the formal (FC) for each atom. The +1 and –1 formal
charges are not too unreasonable, but 0 charges are better. If one of the lone pairs is moved from the O (the atom
with the negative FC) to form a double bond to the P (the atom with the positive FC), structure II results. The
calculated formal changes in structure II are all 0 so this is a better structure even though P has 10 electrons.
O O
Cl P Cl Cl P Cl
Cl Cl
10-5
I II
FC P = 5 – [0 + 1/2(8)] = +1 FC P = 5 – [0 + 1/2(10)] = 0
FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0
FC Cl = 7 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = 0 FC Cl = 7 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = 0
Solution:
b) In ClO 2 , the Cl is probably the central atom because the O atoms have a lower period. The molecule contains
[1 x Cl(7e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] = 19 electrons. The presence of an odd number of electrons means that there will be
an exception to the octet rule. Placing the O atoms around the Cl and using 4 electrons to form single bonds leaves
15 electrons, 14 of which may be separated into 7 pairs. If 3 of these pairs are given to each O, and the remaining
pair plus the lone electron are given to the Cl, we have the following structure:
O Cl O
Calculating formal charges: FC Cl = 7 – [3 + 1/2(4)] = +2 FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1

The +2 charge on the Cl is a little high, so other structures should be tried. Moving a lone pair from one of the O
atoms (negative FC) to form a double bond between the Cl and one of the oxygen atoms gives either structure I or
II below. If both O atoms donate a pair of electrons to form a double bond, then structure III results. The next
step is to calculate the formal charges.
Cl Cl Cl
O O O O O O
I II III
FC Cl = 7 – [3 + 1/2(6)] = +1 FC Cl = 7 – [3 + 1/2(6)] = +1 FC Cl = 7 – [3 + 1/2(8)] = 0
The oxygen atom on the left:
FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(4)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(8)] = 0
The oxygen atom on the right:
FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(2)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(8)] = 0
Pick the structure with the best distribution of formal charges (structure III).
Solution:
c) In SClF 5 , S is most likely to be the central atom because it has a lower group number than the other atoms. If
single bonds are drawn between the S atom and each of the other atoms in the compound, S will have a total of 12
electrons (an octet rule exception). It is possible for S to have more electrons than an octet because it has d
orbitals available to it (the 3d orbitals). Thus, it can have an expanded valence shell. The molecule contains [1 x
S(6e–)] + [5 x F(7e–)] + [1 x Cl(7e–)] = 48 electrons. Drawing a single bond between S and each of the other atoms
uses 6 x 2 = 12e–, leaving 36 electrons. Placing 6 electrons around each of outer atoms to complete their octets
uses these remaining atoms. This gives the structure:
F
F
Cl
S
F F
F
Determine the formal charges for each atom:
FC S = 6 – [0 + 1/2(12)] = 0 FC F = 7 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = 0 FC Cl = 7 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = 0
10.5B Plan: The presence of available d orbitals makes checking formal charges more important. Use the equation for
formal charge: FC = # of valence e– – [# unshared valence e– + ½(# shared valence e–)]
Solution:
a) In BeH 2 , the Be is the central atom (H cannot be a central atom). The molecule contains: [1 x Be(2 e–)] + [2 x
H(1 e–)]= 4 electrons. Placing the Be in the center with single bonds to all the surrounding atoms uses all 4
electrons, leaving Be 4 atoms short of an octet. There are not any more electrons to add to Be. Nor are there any
lone pairs to change to bonding pairs. Thus, BeH 2 is an exception to the octet rule in that Be does not have a
complete octet.
10-6
H Be H
FC Be = 2 – [0 + 1/2(4)] = 0 FC H = 1 – [0 + 1/2(2)] = 0
Solution:
b) In I 3 –, one of the I atoms is central, and the other two I atoms are bonded to it. The molecule contains
[3 x I(7e–)] + 1e– (for the negative charge) = 22 electrons. Placing one I atom in the center and connecting each of
the other two I atoms to it by single bonds uses 2 x 2 = 4e–. This leaves 18 electrons. Placing 6 electrons on each
of the outer I atoms leaves 18 – 12 = 6e–. These remaining 6 electrons are placed, as three lone pairs on the central
I atom.
-
I I I
Calculating formal charges: FC I (central) = 7 – [6 + 1/2(4)] = –1 FC I (outer) = 7 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = 0

These are low, reasonable formal charges, and we do not need to adjust the structure.
Solution:
c) XeO 3 is a noble gas compound, thus, there will be an exception to the octet rule. The molecule contains
[1 x Xe(8e–)] + [3 x O(6e–)] = 26 electrons. The Xe is in a higher period than O so Xe is the central atom. If it is
placed in the center with a single bond to each of the three oxygen atoms, 6 electrons are used, and 20 electrons
remain. The remaining electrons can be divided into 10 pairs with 3 pairs given to each O and the
last pair being given to the Xe. This gives the structure:
O
O Xe O
FC Xe = 8 – [2 + 1/2(6)] = +3 FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1
The +3 charge on the Xe is a little high, so other structures should be tried. Moving a lone pair from one of the O
atoms (negative FC) to form a double bond between the Xe and one of the oxygen atoms gives structure I (or one
of its resonance structures). Moving two lone pair from two of the O atoms (negative FC) gives structure II below
(or one of its resonance structures). If all three O atoms donate a pair of electrons to form a double bond, then
structure III results. The next step is to calculate the formal charges.
O O O
O Xe O O Xe O O Xe O
I II III
FC Xe = 8 – [2 + 1/2(8)] = +2 FC Xe = 8 – [2 + 1/2(10)] = +1 FC Xe = 8 – [2 + 1/2(12)] = 0
The oxygen atom on the left:
FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0
The oxygen atom on the right:
FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0
The oxygen atom on the top:
FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [4 + 1/2(4)] = 0
Pick the structure with the best distribution of formal charges (structure III).
10.6A Plan: Draw a Lewis structure. Determine the electron arrangement by counting the electron pairs around the
central atom.
Solution:
a) The Lewis structure for CS 2 is shown below. The central atom, C, has two pairs (double bonds only count
once). The two pair arrangement is linear with the designation, AX 2 . The absence of lone pairs on the C means
there is no deviation in the bond angle (180°).
S C S
10-7
Solution:
b) Even though this is a combination of a metal with a nonmetal, it may be treated as a molecular species. The
Lewis structure for PbCl 2 is shown below. The molecule is of the AX 2 E type; the central atom has three pairs of
electrons (1 lone pair and two bonding pairs). This means the electron-group arrangement is trigonal planar
(120°), with a lone pair giving a bent or V-shaped molecule. The lone pair causes the ideal bond angle to
decrease to < 120°.
Cl Pb Pb
Cl Cl
Cl
Solution:
c) The Lewis structure for the CBr 4 molecule is shown below. It has the AX 4 type formula which is a perfect
tetrahedron (with 109.5° bond angles) because all bonds are identical, and there are no lone pairs.
Br Br
Br C Br C
Br
Br
Br Br
Solution:
d) The SF 2 molecule has the Lewis structure shown below. This is a AX 2 E 2 molecule; the central atom is
surrounded by four electron pairs, two of which are lone pairs and two of which are bonding pairs. The electron
group arrangement is tetrahedral. The two lone pairs give a V-shaped or bent arrangement. The ideal tetrahedral
bond angle is decreased from the ideal 109.5° value.
F S S
F F
F
10.6B Plan: Draw a Lewis structure. Determine the electron arrangement by counting the electron pairs around the
central atom.
Solution:
a) The Lewis structure for BrO 2 – is shown below. The molecule is of the AX 2 E 2 type; the central atom has four
pairs of electrons (2 lone pairs and two bonding pairs; each double bond counts as one electron domain). This
means the electron-group arrangement is tetrahedral (109.5°), with two lone pairs giving a bent or V-shaped
molecule. The lone pairs cause the bond angle to decrease to <109.5o.
-
O Br O
The molecular shape of BrO 2 –:
10-8
-
Br
O O
Solution:
b) The Lewis structure for AsH 3 is shown below. The molecule is of the AX 3 E type; the central atom has four
pairs of electrons (1 lone pair and three bonding pairs). This means the electron-group arrangement is tetrahedral
(109.5°), with a lone pair giving a trigonal pyramidal molecule. The lone pair causes the bond angle to decrease
to < 109.5°.
H As H As
H
H
H H
Solution:
c) The Lewis structure for N 3 – is shown below. The two pair electron arrangement is linear with the designation,
AX 2 . The molecular shape is also linear. The absence of lone pairs on the central N means there is no deviation in
the bond angle (180°).
-
N N N
Solution:
d) The SeO 3 molecule has the Lewis structure shown below. This is an AX 3 molecule; the central atom is
surrounded by three electron pairs (each double bond counts as one electron domain). The electron group
arrangement and molecular shape is trigonal planar. The absence of lone pairs on the central atom means there
is no deviation in the bond angle (120°).
O
Se
O O
10.7A Plan: Draw a Lewis structure. Determine the electron arrangement by counting the electron pairs around the
central atom.
Solution:
a) The Lewis structure for the ICl 2 – is shown below. This is an AX 2 E 3 type structure. The five pairs give a
trigonal bipyramidal arrangement of electron groups. The presence of 3 lone pairs leads to a linear shape (180°).
The usual distortions caused by lone pairs cancel in this case. In the trigonal bipyramidal geometry, lone pairs
always occupy equatorial positions.
Cl
Cl I Cl I
Cl
Solution:
b) The Lewis structure for the ClF 3 molecule is given below. Like ICl 2 – there are 5 pairs around the central atom;
however, there are only 2 lone pairs. This gives a molecule that is T-shaped. The presence of the lone pairs
decreases the ideal bond angles to less than 90°.
10-9
F
F Cl F
Cl F
F
F
Solution:
c) The SOF 4 molecule has several possible Lewis structures, two of which are shown below. In both cases, the
central atom has 5 atoms attached with no lone pairs. The formal charges work out the same in both structures.
The structure on the right has an equatorial double bond. Double bonds require more room than single bonds, and
equatorial positions have this extra room.
F O F
F F F
S O + F S O S
F F F
F F F
The molecule is trigonal bipyramidal, and the double bond causes deviation from ideal bond angles. All of the
F atoms move away from the O. Thus, all angles involving the O are increased, and all other angles are decreased.
10.7B Plan: Draw a Lewis structure. Determine the electron arrangement by counting the electron pairs around the
central atom.
Solution:
a) The Lewis structure for the BrF 4 – ion is shown below. This is an AX 4 E 2 type structure. The six pairs give an
octahedral arrangement of electron groups. The presence of 2 lone pairs on the central atom leads to a square
planar shape (90°). The usual distortions caused by lone pairs cancel in this case. In the square planar, lone pairs
always occupy axial positions.
_
F F
Br
F F
Solution:
b) The Lewis structure for the ClF 4 + ion is given below. This is an AX 4 E type structure. There are 5 pairs around
the central atom; however, there is 1 lone pair. This gives a molecule that has a seesaw shape. The presence of the
lone pair decreases the ideal bond angles to less than 90° (F ax –Cl–F eq ) and less than 120° (F eq –Cl–F eq ).
+ +
F F
F
F Cl F
Cl F
F
F
Solution:
c) The Lewis structure for the PCl 6 – is shown below. This is an AX 6 type structure. The six pairs give an
octahedral arrangement of electron groups and an octahedral shape, with 90° bond angles. The absence of lone
pair electrons on the central atom means there is no deviation from the ideal bond angles.
10-10
_
Cl
Cl Cl
P
Cl Cl
Cl
10.8A Plan: Draw the Lewis structure for each of the substances, and determine the molecular geometry of each.
Solution:
a) The Lewis structure for H 2 SO 4 is shown below. The double bonds ease the problem of a high formal charge on
the sulfur. Sulfur is allowed to exceed an octet. The S has 4 groups around it, making it tetrahedral. The ideal
angles around the S are 109.5°. The double bonds move away from each other, and force the single bonds away.
This opens the angle between the double bonded oxygen atoms, and results in an angle between the single bonded
oxygen atoms that is less than ideal. Each single bonded oxygen atom has 4 groups around it; since two of the 4
groups are lone pairs, the shape around each of these oxygen atoms is bent. The lone pairs compress the
H–O–S bond angle to < 109.5°.
O O
H
O S O S O
O
H
O H O
H
Solution:
b) The hydrogen atoms cannot be central so the carbons must be attached to each other. The problem states that
there is a carbon-carbon triple bond. This leaves only a single bond to connect the third carbon to a triple-bonded
carbon, and give that carbon an octet. The other triple-bonded carbon needs one hydrogen to complete its octet.
The remaining three hydrogen atoms are attached to the single-bonded carbon, which allows it to complete its
octet. This structure is shown below. The single-bonded carbon has four groups tetrahedrally around it leading to
bond angles ~109.5° (little or no deviation). The triple-bonded carbons each have two groups (the triple bond
counts as one electron group) so they should be linear (180°).
H H
H
H C C C H C C C H
H
H
Solution:
c) Fluorine, like hydrogen, is never a central atom. Thus, the sulfur atoms must be bonded to each other. Each F
has 3 lone pairs, and the sulfur atoms have 2 lone pairs. All 4 atoms now have an octet. This structure is shown
below. Each sulfur has four groups around it, so the electron arrangement is tetrahedral. The presence of the lone
pairs on the sulfur atoms results in a geometry that is V-shaped or bent and in a bond angle that is < 109.5°.
F
F
S S S S
F
F
10-11
10.8B Plan: Draw the Lewis structure for each of the substances, and determine the molecular geometry of each.
Solution:
a) The Lewis structure for CH 3 NH 2 is shown below. The C has 4 groups around it (AX 4 ), making it tetrahedral.
The ideal angles around the C are 109.5°. The nitrogen also has 4 groups around it, but one of those groups is a
lone pair. The lone pair makes the N an AX 3 E central atom with trigonal pyramidal geometry. The presence of
the lone pair compresses the H–N–H angle to <109.5°.
H H
H
C N
H
H
Solution:
b) The Lewis structure for C 2 Cl 4 is shown below. The carbons are central and connected to each other. There are
a total of 36 valence electrons. In order for all of the atoms to have a full octet, there must be a double bond
between the two carbon atoms. Each of the carbon atoms has three electron groups around it, yielding a trigonal
planar geometry. The presence of the double bond compresses each Cl–C–Cl angle to <120°.
Cl Cl
C C
Cl Cl
Solution:
c) The Lewis structure for Cl 2 O 7 is shown below. The problem states that three oxygen atoms are bonded to the
first Cl atom, which is then bonded to a fourth oxygen atom. That fourth oxygen atom is bonded, in turn, to a
second Cl atom, which is bonded to 3 additional oxygen atoms. Each Cl has 4 electron groups (3 of which are
double bonds to oxygen and one of which is a single bond to oxygen). This gives the Cl a tetrahedral geometry
with bond angles very close to 109.5°. The central oxygen atom, on the other hand, also has four electron pairs
around it. In this case, two of the electron pairs are bonding pairs and two of the pairs are lone pairs. The presence
of the lone pairs give the central oxygen a bent or V-shaped geometry and compresses the Cl–O–Cl bond angle
to <109.5°.
O O
O O
Cl Cl
O
O O
10.9A Plan: Draw the Lewis structures, predict the shapes, and then examine the positions of the bond dipoles.
Solution:
a) Dichloromethane, CH 2 Cl 2 , has the Lewis structure shown below. It is tetrahedral, and if the outlying atoms
were identical, it would be nonpolar. However, the chlorine atoms are more electronegative than hydrogen so
there is a general shift in their direction resulting in the arrows shown.
H Cl
H C Cl C
H
Cl Cl
H
Solution:
b) Iodine oxide pentafluoride, IOF 5 , has the Lewis structure shown below. The overall geometry is octahedral. All
six bonds are polar, with the more electronegative O and F atoms shifting electron density away from the I. The 4
10-12
equatorial fluorines counterbalance each other. The axial F is not equivalent to the axial O. The more
electronegative F results in an overall polarity in the direction of the axial F.
O O
F
F F F
I I
F F F
F
F
F
The lone electron pairs are left out for simplicity.
Solution:
c) Iodine pentafluoride, IF 5 , has the square pyramidal Lewis structure shown below. The fluorine is more
electronegative than the I, so the shift in electron density is towards the F, resulting in the dipole indicated below.
F
F F
I
F F
10.9B Plan: Draw the Lewis structures, predict the shapes, and then examine the positions of the bond dipoles.
Solution:
a) Xenon tetrafluoride, XeF 4 , has the Lewis structure shown below. It is square planar, and, because the outlying
atoms are identical, it is nonpolar. However, the fluorine atoms are more electronegative than xenon, so the
individual bonds are polar. Because of the square planar geometry, those polar bonds cancel each other out.
F F
Xe
F F
Solution:
b) Chlorine trifluoride, ClF 3 , has the Lewis structure shown below. The overall geometry is T-shaped. All three
bonds are polar, with the more electronegative F atoms shifting electron density away from the Cl. The more
electronegative F results in an overall dipole indicated below.
F
Cl F
F Cl F
F
F
Solution:
c) Sulfur monoxide tetrafluoride, SOF 4 , has the trigonal bipyramidal Lewis structure shown below. Both the F
atoms and the O atom are more electronegative than the S, and F is more electronegative than O, so the shift in
electron density is towards the F atoms, resulting in the dipole indicated below.
F
F
O S
F
F
10-13
CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS BOXED READING PROBLEMS
B10.1 Plan: Examine the Lewis structure, noting the number of regions of electron density around the
carbon and nitrogen atoms in the two resonance structures. The molecular shape is determined by
the number of electron regions. An electron region is any type of bond (single, double, or triple)
and an unshared pair of electrons.
Solution:
Resonance structure on the left:
Carbon has three electron regions (two single bonds and one double bond); three electron regions are
arranged in a trigonal planar arrangement. The molecular shape around the C atom is trigonal
planar. Nitrogen has four electron regions (three single bonds and an unshared pair of electrons); the
four electron regions are arranged tetrahedrally; since one corner of the tetrahedron is occupied
by an unshared electron pair, the shape around N is trigonal pyramidal.
Resonance structure on the right:
This C atom also has three electrons regions (two single bond and one double bond) so the molecular shape
is again trigonal planar. The N atom also has three electron regions (two single bonds and one double
bond); the molecular shape is trigonal planar.
B10.2 The top portion of both molecules is similar so the top portions will interact with biomolecules in a similar
manner. The mescaline molecule may fit into the same nerve receptors as dopamine due to the similar molecular
shape.
END–OF–CHAPTER PROBLEMS
10.1 Plan: To be the central atom in a compound, an atom must be able to simultaneously bond to at least two other
atoms.
Solution:
He, F, and H cannot serve as central atoms in a Lewis structure. Helium (1s2) is a noble gas, and as such, it does
not need to bond to any other atoms. Hydrogen (1s1) and fluorine (1s22s22p5) only need one electron to complete
their valence shells. Thus, they can only bond to one other atom, and they do not have d orbitals available to
expand their valence shells.
10.2 Resonance must be present any time that a single Lewis structure is inadequate in explaining one or more aspects
of a molecule or ion. The two N–O bonds in NO 2 are equivalent in bond length and bond energy; no single Lewis
structure can account for this. The following Lewis structures may be drawn for NO 2 :
O N O O N O O N O O N O
The average of all of these structures gives equivalent N–O bonds with a bond length that is between N–O and
N=O.
10.3 Plan: For an element to obey the octet rule it must be surrounded by eight electrons. To determine the number of
electrons present, (1) count the individual electrons actually shown adjacent to a particular atom (lone pairs), and
(2) add two times the number of bonds to that atom: number of electrons = individual electrons + 2(number of
bonds).
Solution:
(a) 0 + 2(4) = 8; (b) 2 + 2(3) = 8; (c) 0 + 2(5) = 10; (d) 2 + 2(3) = 8; (e) 0 + 2(4) = 8; (f) 2 + 2(3) = 8;
(g) 0 + 2(3) = 6; (h) 8 + 2(0) = 8. All the structures obey the octet rule except: c and g.
10.4 For an atom to expand its valence shell, it must have readily available d orbitals. The d orbitals do not become
readily available until the third period or below on the periodic table. For the elements in the problem F, S, H, Al,
Se, and Cl, the period numbers are 2, 3, 1, 3, 4, and 3, respectively. All of these elements, except those in the first
two periods (H and F), can expand their valence shells.
10.5 Plan: Count the valence electrons and draw Lewis structures.
10-14
Solution:
Total valence electrons: SiF 4 : [1 x Si(4e–] + [4 x F(7e–)] = 32; SeCl 2 : [1 x Se(6e–)] + [2 x Cl(7e–)] = 20;
COF 2 : [1 x C(4e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] + [2 x F(7e–)] = 24. The Si, Se, and the C are the central atoms, because these
are the elements in their respective compounds with the lower group number (in addition, we are told C is
central). Place the other atoms around the central atoms and connect each to the central atom with a single bond.
SiF 4 : At this point, eight electrons (2e– in four Si–F bonds) have been used with 32 – 8 = 24 remaining; the
remaining electrons are placed around the fluorine atoms (three pairs each). All atoms have an octet.
SeCl 2 : The two bonds use 4e– (2e– in two Se–Cl bonds) leaving 20 – 4 = 16e–. These 16e– are used to complete
the octets on Se and the Cl atoms.
COF 2 : The three bonds to the C use 6e– (2e– in three bonds) leaving 24 – 6 = 18 e–. These 18e– are distributed to
the surrounding atoms first to complete their octets. After the 18e– are used, the central C is two electrons short of
an octet. Forming a double bond to the O (change a lone pair on O to a bonding pair on C) completes the C octet.
(a) SiF 4 (b) SeCl 2
F
F Si F
F Cl Se Cl
(c) COF 2
F C F F C F
O
O
10.6 Total valence electrons: PH 4 + has 8; C 2 F 4 has 36; and SbH 3 has 8. Ignoring H, the atom in the lower group
number is central: P, C, and Sb. Added proof: H and F are never central. The two central C atoms must be
adjacent. Place all the other atoms around the central atom. Split the F atoms so that each C gets two. Connect all
the atoms with single bonds. This uses all the electrons in PH 4 +, and gives P an octet. The H atoms need no
additional electrons. The C atoms have six electrons each, but can achieve an octet by forming a double bond.
Splitting the twenty-four remaining electrons in C 2 F 4 into twelve pairs and giving three pairs to each F leaves
each F with an octet. The last two electrons in SbH 3 end as a lone pair on the Sb, and complete its octet.
(a) (b) (c)
H F F
H Sb H
H P H C C
F F H
H
10.7 Plan: Count the valence electrons and draw Lewis structures.
Solution:
a) PF 3 : [1 x P(5 e–)] + [3 x F(7e–)] = 26 valence electrons. P is the central atom. Draw single bonds from P to the
three F atoms, using 2e– x 3 bonds = 6 e–. Remaining e–: 26 – 6 = 20 e–. Distribute the 20 e– around the P and F
atoms to complete their octets.
b) H 2 CO 3 : [2 x H(1e–)] + [1 x C(4e–)] + 3 x O(6e–)] = 24 valence electrons. C is the central atom with the H
atoms attached to the O atoms. Place appropriate single bonds between all atoms using 2e– x 5 bonds = 10e– so
that 24 – 10 = 14e– remain. Use these 14e– to complete the octets of the O atoms (the H atoms already have their
two electrons). After the 14e– are used, the central C is two electrons short of an octet. Forming a double bond to
the O that does not have an H bonded to it (change a lone pair on O to a bonding pair on C) completes the C octet.
10-15
c) CS 2 : [1 x C(4e–)] + [2 x S(6e–)] = 16 valence electrons. C is the central atom. Draw single bonds from C to
the two S atoms, using 2e– x 2 bonds = 4e–. Remaining e–: 16 – 4 = 12e–. Use these 12e– to complete the octets of
the surrounding S atoms; this leaves C four electrons short of an octet. Form a double bond from each S to the C
by changing a lone pair on each S to a bonding pair on C.
a) PF 3 (26 valence e–) b) H 2 CO 3 (24 valence e–)
F P F O C O O C O
H H H H
F O O
c) CS 2 (16 valence e–)

S C S
10.8 The C and S atoms are central. The S in part a) is attached to an H and the C. All atoms are attached with single
bonds and the remaining electrons are divided into lone pairs. All the atoms, except H, have octets.
a) CH 4 S b) S 2 Cl 2 c) CHCl 3
H
H
H C S Cl S S Cl
Cl C Cl
H H
Cl
10.9 Plan: The problem asks for resonance structures, so there must be more than one answer for each part.
Solution:
a) NO 2 + has [1 x N(5e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] – 1e– (+ charge) = 16 valence electrons. Draw a single bond from N
to each O, using 2e– x 2 bonds = 4e–; 16 – 4 = 12e– remain. Distribute these 12e– to the O atoms to complete their
octets. This leaves N 4e– short of an octet. Form a double bond from each O to the N by changing a lone pair on
each O to a bonding pair on N. No resonance is required as all atoms can achieve an octet with double bonds.
O N O O N O
b) NO 2 F has [1 x N(5e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] + [1 x F(7e–)] = 24 valence electrons. Draw a single bond from N
to each surrounding atom, using 2e– x 3 bonds = 6e–; 24 – 6 = 18e– remain. Distribute these 18e– to the O and F
atoms to complete their octets. This leaves N 2e– short of an octet. Form a double bond from either O to the N by
changing a lone pair on O to a bonding pair on N. There are two resonance structures since a lone pair from either
of the two O atoms can be moved to a bonding pair with N:
F F F
N N N
O O O O O O
10-16
10.10 a)
O H O H
N N
O O O O
b)
2−
2−
O O
O As O O As O
H O H O
2− 2−
O O
O As O O As O
H O H O
10.11 Plan: Count the valence electrons and draw Lewis structures. Additional structures are needed to show resonance.
Solution:
a) N 3 – has [3 x N(5e–)] + [1 e–(from charge)] = 16 valence electrons. Place a single bond between the nitrogen
atoms. This uses 2e– x 2 bonds = 4 electrons, leaving 16 – 4 = 12 electrons (6 pairs). Giving three pairs on each
end nitrogen gives them an octet, but leaves the central N with only four electrons as shown below:
N N N
The central N needs four electrons. There are three options to do this: (1) each of the end N atoms could form a
double bond to the central N by sharing one of its pairs; (2) one of the end N atoms could form a triple bond by
sharing two of its lone pairs; (3) the other end N atom could form the triple bond instead.
N N N N N N N N N
b) NO 2 – has [1 x N(5e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] + [1 e– (from charge)] = 18 valence electrons. The nitrogen should be the
central atom with each of the oxygen atoms attached to it by a single bond (2e– x 2 bonds = 4 electrons). This
leaves 18 – 4 = 14 electrons (seven pairs). If three pairs are given to each O and one pair is given to the N, then
both O atoms have an octet, but the N atom only has six. To complete an octet the N atom needs to gain a pair of
electrons from one O atom or the other (form a double bond). The resonance structures are:
O N O O N O O N O
10-17
10.12 a) HCO 2 – has 18 valence electrons.
− −
H C O H C O
O O
b) HBrO 4 has 32 valence electrons.

O O
O Br O O Br O
H O H O
O
O
O Br O
O Br O
H O
H O
10.13 Plan: Initially, the method used in the preceding problems may be used to establish a Lewis structure.
The total of the formal charges must equal the charge on an ion or be equal to 0 for a compound. The formal
charge only needs to be calculated once for a set of identical atoms. Formal charge (FC) = no. of valence
electrons – [no. of unshared valence electrons + ½ no. of shared valence electrons].
Solution:
a) IF 5 has [1 x I(7e–)] + [5 x F(7e–)] = 42 valence electrons. The presence of five F atoms around the central I
means that the I atom will have a minimum of ten electrons; thus, this is an exception to the octet rule. The five I–
F bonds use 2e– x 5 bonds = 10 electrons leaving 42 – 10 = 32 electrons (16 pairs). Each F needs three pairs to
complete an octet. The five F atoms use fifteen of the sixteen pairs, so there is one pair left for the central I. This
gives:
F
F F
I
F
F
Calculating formal charges:
FC = no. of valence electrons – [no. of unshared valence electrons + ½ no. of shared valence electrons].
For iodine: FC I = 7 – [2 + ½(10)] = 0 For each fluorine: FC F = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
Total formal charge = 0 = charge on the compound.
b) AlH 4 – has [1 x Al(3e–)] + [4 x H(1e–)] + [1e– (from charge)] = 8 valence electrons.
The four Al–H bonds use all the electrons and Al has an octet.
H
H Al H
For aluminum: FC Al = 3 – [0 + ½(8)] = –1
For each hydrogen: FC H = 1 – [0 + ½(2)] = 0
10-18
10.14 a) OCS has sixteen valence electrons.
S C O
FC S = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
FC C = 4 – [0 + ½(8)] = 0
FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
b) NO (has eleven valence electrons); the odd number means there will be an exception to the octet rule.
O N O N
FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [3 + ½(4)] = +1
FC N = 5 – [3 + ½(4)] = 0 FC N = 5 – [4 + ½(4)] = –1
The first resonance structure has a better distribution of formal charges.
10.15 Plan: Initially, the method used in the preceding problems may be used to establish a Lewis structure.
The total of the formal charges must equal the charge on an ion or be equal to 0 for a compound. The formal
charge only needs to be calculated once for a set of identical atoms. Formal charge (FC) = no. of valence
electrons – [no. of unshared valence electrons + ½ no. of shared valence electrons].
Solution:
a) CN–: [1 x C(4e–)] + [1 x N(5e–)] + [1 e– from charge] = 10 valence electrons. Place a single bond between the
carbon and nitrogen atoms. This uses 2e– x 1 bond = 2 electrons, leaving 10 – 2 = 8 electrons (four pairs). Giving
three pairs of electrons to the nitrogen atom completes its octet but that leaves only one pair of electrons for the
carbon atom which will not have an octet. The nitrogen could form a triple bond by sharing two of its lone pairs
with the carbon atom. A triple bond between the two atoms plus a lone pair on each atom satisfies the octet rule
and uses all ten electrons.
C N
FC C = 4 – [2 + ½(6)] = –1; FC N = 5 – [2 + ½(6)] = 0
Check: The total formal charge equals the charge on the ion (–1).
b) ClO–: [1 x Cl(7e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] + [1e– from charge] = 14 valence electrons. Place a single bond between the
chlorine and oxygen atoms. This uses 2e– x 1 bond = 2 electrons, leaving 14 – 2 = 12 electrons (six pairs). Giving
three pairs of electrons each to the carbon and oxygen atoms completes their octets.
Cl O
FC Cl = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1
10.16 a) BF 4 – has thirty-two valence electrons.
F B F
FC F = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
FC B = 3 – [0 + ½(8)] = –1
10-19
b) ClNO has eighteen valence electrons.
Cl N O
FC Cl = 7 – [6 + ½(2] = 0; FC N = 5 – [2 + ½(6)] = 0; FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
10.17 Plan: The general procedure is similar to the preceding problems, plus the oxidation number determination.
Solution:
a) BrO 3 – has [1 x Br(7e–)] + 3 x O(6e–)] + [1e– (from charge)] = 26 valence electrons.
Placing the O atoms around the central Br and forming three Br–O bonds uses 2e– x 3 bonds = 6 electrons and
leaves 26 – 6 = 20 electrons (ten pairs). Placing three pairs on each O (3 x 3 = 9 total pairs) leaves one pair for the
Br and yields structure I below. In structure I, all the atoms have a complete octet. Calculating formal charges:
FC Br = 7 – [2 + ½(6)] = +2 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1
The FC O is acceptable, but FC Br is larger than is usually acceptable. Forming a double bond between any one of
the O atoms gives structure II. Calculating formal charges:
FC Br = 7 – [2 + ½(8)] = +1 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
(Double bonded O)
The FC Br can be improved further by forming a second double bond to one of the other O atoms (structure III).
FC Br = 7 – [2 + ½(10)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
(Double bonded O atoms)
Structure III has the most reasonable distribution of formal charges.
O Br O O Br O O Br O
O O O
I II III
–6
The oxidation numbers (O.N.) are: O.N. Br = +5 and O.N. O = –2. +5 –2
Check: The total formal charge equals the charge on the ion (–1). BrO 3 –
2– – – –
b) SO 3 has [1 x S(6e )] + [3 x O(6e )] + [2e (from charge)] = 26 valence electrons.
Placing the O atoms around the central S and forming three S–O bonds uses 2e– x 3 bonds = 6 electrons and
leaves 26 – 6 = 20 electrons (ten pairs). Placing three pairs on each O (3 x 3 = 9 total pairs) leaves one pair for the
S and yields structure I below. In structure I all the atoms have a complete octet. Calculating formal charges:
FC S = 6 – [2 + ½(6)] = +1; FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1
The FC O is acceptable, but FC S is larger than is usually acceptable. Forming a double bond between any one of
the O atoms (structure II) gives:
FC S = 6 – [2 + ½(8)] = 0 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1 FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
(Double bonded O)
2− 2−
O S O O S O
O O
I II –6
Structure II has the more reasonable distribution of formal charges. +4 –2
The oxidation numbers (O.N.) are: O.N. S = +4 and O.N. O = –2. SO 3 2–
10-20
10.18 a) AsO 4 3– has 32 valence electrons. See structure I.
FC As = 5 – [0 + ½(8)] = +1 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1
Net formal charge (+1 – 4) = –3 The octet rule is followed by all atoms.
3−
O
O As O
I
For more reasonable formal charges, move a lone pair from an O to a bonded pair on As (structure II):
3−
O
O As O
II
FC As = 5 – [0 + ½(10)] = 0 FC O(single bond) = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1 FC O(double bond) = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
Net formal charge: (0 + 3(–1)) + 0 = –3 Improved formal charge distribution
O.N.: O –2 each x 4 = –8 total; As +5
b) ClO 2 – has 20 valence electrons. For structure I in which all atoms have an octet:
FC Cl = 7 – [4 + ½(4)] = +1 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1
For more reasonable formal charges, see structure II:
O Cl O O Cl O O Cl O
I II
Formal charges in structure II:
FC Cl = 7 – [4 + ½(6)] = 0
FC O(double bond) = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0 FC O (single bond) = 6 – [6 – ½(2)] = –1
O.N.: O –2 each x 2 = –4 total; Cl +3
10.19 Plan: The octet rule states that when atoms bond, they share electrons to attain a filled outer shell of eight
electrons. If an atom has fewer than eight electrons, it is electron deficient; if an atom has more than eight
electrons around it, the atom has an expanded octet.
Solution:
a) BH 3 has [1 x B(3e–)] + [3 x H(1e–)] = 6 valence electrons. These are used in three B–H bonds. The B has six
electrons instead of an octet; this molecule is electron deficient.
b) AsF 4 – has [1 x As(5e–)] +[4 x F(7e–)] + [1e– (from charge)] = 34 valence electrons. Four As–F bonds use eight
electrons leaving 34 – 8 = 26 electrons (13 pairs). Each F needs three pairs to complete its octet and the remaining
pair goes to the As. The As has an expanded octet with ten electrons. The F cannot expand its octet.
c) SeCl 4 has [1 x Se(6e–)] + 4 x Cl(7e–)] = 34 valence electrons. The SeCl 4 is isoelectronic (has the same electron
structure) as AsF 4 –, and so its Lewis structure looks the same. Se has an expanded octet of ten electrons.
10-21
Cl
H F
Cl Se Cl
B F As F
H H Cl
F
(a) (b) (c)
10.20 a) PF 6 – has 48 valence electrons. P has an expanded octet of 12 e–.
F
F
F
P
F F
F
b) ClO 3 has twenty-five valence electrons. The odd number means that there will be an exception. This is a
radical: the chlorine or one of the oxygen atoms will lack an e– to complete its octet.
O Cl O O Cl O
O O
There are two additional resonance structures where the other O atoms are the ones lacking the octet.
The FC predicts that Cl will end with the odd electron.
c) H 3 PO 3 has twenty-six valence electrons. To balance the formal charges; the O lacking an H will form a double
bond to the P. This compound is an exception in that one of the H atoms is attached to the central P.
P has an expanded octet of 10 e–.
H
O P O
H H
O
10.21 Plan: The octet rule states that when atoms bond, they share electrons to attain a filled outer shell of eight
electrons. If an atom has fewer than eight electrons, it is electron deficient; if an atom has more than eight
electrons around it, the atom has an expanded octet.
Solution:
a) BrF 3 has [1 x Br(7e–)] + [3 x F(7e–)] = 28 valence electrons. Placing a single bond between Br and each F
uses 2e– x 3 bonds = 6e–, leaving 28 – 6 = 22 electrons (eleven pairs). After the F atoms complete their octets with
three pairs each, the Br gets the last two lone pairs. The Br has an expanded octet of ten electrons.
b) ICl 2 – has [1 x I(7e–)] + [2 x Cl(7e–)] + [1e– (from charge)] = 22 valence electrons. Placing a single bond
between I and each Cl uses 2e– x 2 bond = 4e–, leaving 22 – 4 = 18 electrons (nine pairs). After the Cl atoms
complete their octets with three pairs each, the iodine finishes with the last three lone pairs. The iodine has an
expanded octet of ten electrons.
c) BeF 2 has [1 x Be(2e–)] + [2 x F(7e–)] = 16 valence electrons. Placing a single bond between Be and each of
the F atoms uses 2e– x 2 bonds = 4e–, leaving 16 – 4 = 12 electrons (six pairs).The F atoms complete their octets
with three pairs each, and there are no electrons left for the Be. Formal charges work against the formation of
double bonds. Be, with only four electrons, is electron deficient.
10-22
Cl I Cl F Be F
F Br F
F
a) b) c)
10.22 a) O 3 – has nineteen valence electrons (note the odd number).

There are several resonance structures possible; only one is necessary for the answer.
One of the O atoms has the odd electron (seven total).
O O O O O O O O O
b) XeF 2 has twenty-two valence electrons. Xe has an expanded octet of 10e–.

F Xe F
c) SbF 4 – has thirty-four valence electrons. Sb has an expanded octet of 10e–.
F Sb F
F F
10.23 Plan: Draw Lewis structures for the reactants and products.
Solution:
Beryllium chloride has the formula BeCl 2 . BeCl 2 has [1 x Be(2e–)] + [2 x Cl(7e–)] = 16 valence electrons. Four
of these electrons are used to place a single bond between Be and each of the Cl atoms, leaving 16 – 4 = 12
electrons (six pairs). These six pairs are used to complete the octets of the Cl atoms, but Be does not have an octet
– it is electron deficient.
Chloride ion has the formula Cl– with an octet of electrons.
BeCl 4 2– has [1 x Be(2e–)] + [4 x Cl(7e–)] + [ 2e– (from charge)] = 32 valence electrons. Eight of these electrons
are used to place a single bond between Be and each Cl atom, leaving 32 – 8 = 24 electrons (twelve pairs). These
twelve pairs complete the octet of the Cl atoms (Be already has an octet).
2−
Cl
Cl
+ Cl Be Cl
Cl Be Cl
Cl
Cl
10.24 Draw a Lewis structure. If the formal charges are not ideal, a second structure may be needed.
BrO 4 – has thirty-two valence electrons.
O O
O Br O O Br O
O O
10-23
In the structure on the left, all atoms have octets. The formal charges are:
FC Br = 7 – [0 + ½(8)] = +3 FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1
The structure on the right expands the valence shell of the Br to give more favorable formal charges.
FC Br = 7 – [0 + ½(14)] = 0 FC O(single bonded) = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1 FC O (double bonded) = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0
10.25 Count the total valence electrons and draw a Lewis structure. AlF 6 3– has forty-eight valence electrons.
3−
F
F
F
Al
F F
F
10.26 Plan: Use the structures in the text to determine the formal charges.
Formal charge (FC) = no. of valence electrons – [no. of unshared valence electrons + ½ no. of shared valence
electrons].
Solution:
Structure A: FC C = 4 – [0 + ½(8)] = 0; FC O = 6 – [4 + ½(4)] = 0; FC Cl = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
Total FC = 0
Structure B: FC C = 4 – [0 + ½(8)] = 0; FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1;
FC Cl(double bonded) = 7 – [4 + ½(4)] = +1; FC Cl(single bonded) = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
Total FC = 0
Structure C: FC C = 4 – [0 + ½(8)] = 0; FC O = 6 – [6 + ½(2)] = –1;
FC Cl(double bonded) = 7 – [4 + ½(4)] = +1; FC Cl(single bonded) = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
Total FC = 0
Structure A has the most reasonable set of formal charges.
10.27 Determine the total number of valence electrons present. Next, draw a Lewis structure. Finally, use VSEPR
or valence bond theory to predict the shape.
10.28 The molecular shape and the electron-group arrangement are the same when there are no lone pairs on the
central atom.
10.29 A bent (V-shaped) molecule will have the stoichiometry AX 2 , so only AX 2 E n geometries result in a bent
molecule. The presence of one or two lone pairs in the three and four electron-group arrangements
can produce a bent (V-shaped) molecule as either AX 2 E or AX 2 E 2 . Examples are: NO 2 – and H 2 O.
O N O H O H
120° 109.5°
AX 2 E AX 2 E 2
10.30 Plan: Examine a list of all possible structures, and choose the ones with four electron groups since the tetrahedral
electron-group arrangement has four electron groups.
Solution:
Tetrahedral AX 4
Trigonal pyramidal AX 3 E
Bent or V shaped AX 2 E 2
10.31 a) A, which has a square planar molecular geometry, has the most electron pairs. There are four shared pairs and
two unshared pairs for a total of six pairs of electrons. The six electron pairs are arranged in an octahedral
arrangement with the four bonds in a square planar geometry. B and C have five electron pairs and D has four
electron pairs.
10-24
b) A has the most unshared pairs around the central atom with two unshared pairs. B has only one unshared pair
on the central atom and C and D have no unshared pairs on the central atom.
c) C and D have only shared pairs around the central atom.
10.32 Plan: Begin with the basic structures and redraw them.
Solution:
a) A molecule that is V shaped has two bonds and generally has either one (AX 2 E) or two (AX 2 E 2 ) lone electron
pairs.
b) A trigonal planar molecule follows the formula AX 3 with three bonds and no lone electron pairs.
c) A trigonal bipyramidal molecule contains five bonding pairs (single bonds) and no lone pairs (AX 5 ).
d) A T-shaped molecule has three bonding groups and two lone pairs (AX 3 E 2 ).
e) A trigonal pyramidal molecule follows the formula AX 3 E with three bonding pairs and one lone pair.
f) A square pyramidal molecule shape follows the formula AX 5 E with five bonding pairs and one lone pair.
X
X X
X A
A A
A X
X X X X X X X
(a) (b) (c)
X X
X X
X A A
X A
X X X X
X
(d) (e) (f)
10.33 Determine the geometry from the lone pairs and the number of groups attached to the central atom.
a) AX 3 E tetrahedral 109.5° smaller
b) AX 2 linear 180° none
c) AX 3 trigonal planar 120° none
d) AX 2 E 2 tetrahedral 109.5° smaller
e) AX 2 linear 180° none
f) AX 4 E trigonal bipyramidal 180°, 120°, 90° smaller
10.34 Plan: First, draw a Lewis structure, and then apply VSEPR.
Solution:
a) O 3 : The molecule has [3 x O(6e–)] = 18 valence electrons. Four electrons are used to place single bonds
between the oxygen atoms, leaving 18 – 4 = 14e– (seven pairs). Six pairs are required to give the end oxygen
atoms an octet; the last pair is distributed to the central oxygen, leaving this atom two electrons short of an octet.
Form a double bond from one of the end O atoms to the central O by changing a lone pair on the end O to a
bonding pair on the central O. This gives the following Lewis structure:
O
O O O or
O
O
There are three electron groups around the central O, one of which is a lone pair. This gives a trigonal planar
electron-group arrangement (AX 2 E), a bent molecular shape, and an ideal bond angle of 120°.
b) H 3 O+: This ion has [3 x H(1e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] – [1e– (due to + charge] = eight valence electrons. Six electrons
are used to place a single bond between O and each H, leaving 8 – 6 = 2e– (one pair). Distribute this pair to the O
atom, giving it an octet (the H atoms only get two electrons). This gives the following Lewis structure:
10-25
H O H
O
H
H
H H
There are four electron groups around the O, one of which is a lone pair. This gives a tetrahedral electron-group
arrangement (AX 3 E), a trigonal pyramidal molecular shape, and an ideal bond angle of 109.5°.
c) NF 3 : The molecule has [1 x N(5e–)] + [3 x F(7e–)] = 26 valence electrons. Six electrons are used to place a
single bond between N and each F, leaving 26 – 6 = 20 e– (ten pairs). These ten pairs are distributed to all of the F
atoms and the N atoms to give each atom an octet. This gives the following Lewis structure:
F N F
N
F
F
F F
There are four electron groups around the N, one of which is a lone pair. This gives a tetrahedral electron-group
arrangement (AX 3 E), a trigonal pyramidal molecular shape, and an ideal bond angle of 109.5°.
10.35 Lewis structure Electron-group Molecular shape Ideal bond

arrangement angle
(a) Tetrahedral Tetrahedral 109.5°
2− 2−
O O
O S O S
O
O
O
O
In addition, there are other resonance forms.

(b) Trigonal planar Bent 120°
O N O N
O O
In addition, there are other resonance forms.

(c) Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramidal 109.5°
H P H
P
H
H H
H
10.36 Plan: First, draw a Lewis structure, and then apply VSEPR.
Solution:
(a) CO 3 2–: This ion has [1 x C(4e–)] + [3 x O(6e–)] + [2e– (from charge)] = 24 valence electrons. Six electrons
are used to place single bonds between C and each O atom, leaving 24 – 6 = 18 e– (nine pairs). These nine pairs
are used to complete the octets of the three O atoms, leaving C two electrons short of an octet. Form a double
bond from one of the O atoms to C by changing a lone pair on an O to a bonding pair on C. This gives the
following Lewis structure:
10-26
2− 2−
O O
O C O
C
O
O
There are two additional resonance forms. There are three groups of electrons around the C, none of which are
lone pairs. This gives a trigonal planar electron-group arrangement (AX 3 ), a trigonal planar molecular shape,
and an ideal bond angle of 120°.
(b) SO 2 : This molecule has [1 x S(6e–)] + [2 x S(6e–)] = 18 valence electrons. Four electrons are used to place a
single bond between S and each O atom, leaving 18 – 4 = 14e– (seven pairs). Six pairs are needed to complete the
octets of the O atoms, leaving a pair of electrons for S. S needs one more pair to complete its octet. Form a
double bond from one of the end O atoms to the S by changing a lone pair on the O to a bonding pair on the S.
This gives the following Lewis structure:
O S O S
O O
There are three groups of electrons around the C, one of which is a lone pair.
This gives a trigonal planar electron-group arrangement (AX 2 E), a bent (V-shaped) molecular shape, and an
ideal bond angle of 120°.
(c) CF 4 : This molecule has [1 x C(4e–)] + [4 x F(7e–)] = 32 valence electrons. Eight electrons are used to place a
single bond between C and each F, leaving 32 – 8 = 24 e– (twelve pairs). Use these twelve pairs to complete the
octets of the F atoms (C already has an octet). This gives the following Lewis structure:
F F
F C F C
F
F F
F
There are four groups of electrons around the C, none of which is a lone pair.
This gives a tetrahedral electron-group arrangement (AX 4 ), a tetrahedral molecular shape, and an ideal bond
angle of 109.5°.
10.37 Lewis structure Electron-group Molecular shape Ideal bond

arrangement angle
Trigonal planar Trigonal planar 120°
O
O S O
S
O O O
Linear Linear 180°
N N O N N O
Tetrahedral Tetrahedral 109.5°

H Cl
Cl C Cl C
H
Cl
H H
10-27
10.38 Plan: Examine the structure shown, and then apply VSEPR.
Solution:
a) This structure shows three electron groups with three bonds around the central atom.
There appears to be no distortion of the bond angles so the shape is trigonal planar, the classification is AX 3 ,
with an ideal bond angle of 120°.
b) This structure shows three electron groups with three bonds around the central atom.
The bonds are distorted down indicating the presence of a lone pair. The shape of the molecule is trigonal
pyramidal and the classification is AX 3 E, with an ideal bond angle of 109.5°.
c) This structure shows five electron groups with five bonds around the central atom.
There appears to be no distortion of the bond angles so the shape is trigonal bipyramidal and the classification is
AX 5 , with ideal bond angles of 90° and 120°.
10.39 a) This structure shows five electron groups with five bonds around the central atom.
There appears to be no distortion of the bond angles so the shape is square pyramidal (in reality square
pyramidal structures have a slight distortion of the bond angles because there is a lone pair across from the atom
at the apex of the pyramid). The classification is AX 5 E, with an ideal bond angle of 90°.
b) This structure shows three electron groups with three bonds around the central atom.
There appears to be no distortion of the bond angles so the shape is T shaped (in reality T shaped structures have
a slight distortion of the bond angles to the apical bonds because there are two equatorial lone pairs). The
classification is AX 3 E 2 , with an ideal bond angle of 90°.
c) This structure shows four electron groups with four bonds around the central atom.
There appears to be no distortion of the bond angles so the shape is tetrahedral and the classification is AX 4 ,
with an ideal bond angle of 109.5°.
10.40 Plan: The Lewis structures must be drawn, and VSEPR applied to the structures. Lone pairs on the central atom
generally result in a deviation of the ideal bond angle.
Solution:
a) The ClO 2 – ion has [1 x Cl(7e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] + [1e– (from charge)] = 20 valence electrons. Four electrons are
used to place a single bond between the Cl and each O, leaving 20 – 4 = 16 electrons (eight pairs). All eight pairs
are used to complete the octets of the Cl and O atoms. There are two bonds (to the O atoms) and two lone pairs on
the Cl for a total of four electron groups (AX 2 E 2 ). The structure is based on a tetrahedral electron-group
arrangement with an ideal bond angle of 109.5°. The shape is bent (or V shaped). The presence of the lone pairs
will cause the remaining angles to be less than 109.5°.
b) The PF 5 molecule has [1 x P(5 e–)] + [5 x F(7 e–)] = 40 valence electrons. Ten electrons are used to place
single bonds between P and each F atom, leaving 40 – 10 = 30 e– (fifteen pairs). The fifteen pairs are used to
complete the octets of the F atoms. There are five bonds to the P and no lone pairs (AX 5 ). The electron-group
arrangement and the shape is trigonal bipyramidal. The ideal bond angles are 90° and 120°. The absence of lone
pairs means the angles are ideal.
c) The SeF 4 molecule has [1 x Se(6e–)] + [4 x F(7e–)] = 34 valence electrons. Eight electrons are used to place
single bonds between Se and each F atom, leaving 34 – 8 = 26e– (thirteen pairs). Twelve pairs are used to
complete the octets of the F atoms which leaves one pair of electrons. This pair is placed on the central Se atom.
There are four bonds to the Se which also has a lone pair (AX 4 E). The structure is based on a trigonal bipyramidal
structure with ideal angles of 90° and 120°. The shape is seesaw. The presence of the lone pairs means the angles
are less than ideal.
d) The KrF 2 molecule has [1 x Kr(8e–)] + [2 x F(7e–)] = 22 valence electrons. Four electrons are used to place a
single bond between the Kr atom and each F atom, leaving 22 – 4 = 18 e– (nine pairs). Six pairs are used to
complete the octets of the F atoms. The remaining three pairs of electrons are placed on the Kr atom. The Kr is
the central atom. There are two bonds to the Kr and three lone pairs (AX 2 E 3 ). The structure is based on a trigonal
bipyramidal structure with ideal angles of 90° and 120°. The shape is linear. The placement of the F atoms makes
their ideal bond angle to be 2 x 90° = 180°. The placement of the lone pairs is such that they cancel each other’s
repulsion, thus the actual bond angle is ideal.
10-28
F F F
O Cl O F Kr F
F P F
F Se F
F
F
O F F F
F F
Cl F P Se Kr
F F
O F F
F
a) b) c) d)
10.41 a) The ClO 3 – ion has twenty-six valence electrons. The Cl is the central atom. There are three bonds (to the O
atoms) and one lone pair on the Cl (AX 3 E). The shape is trigonal pyramidal. The structure is based on a
tetrahedral electron-group arrangement with an ideal bond angle of 109.5°. The presence of the lone pair will
cause the remaining angles to be less than 109.5°.
b) The IF 4 – ion has thirty-six valence electrons. The I is the central atom. There are four bonds to the I and two
lone pairs (AX 4 E 2 ). The shape is square planar. The structure is based on an octahedral electron-group
arrangement with ideal bond angles of 90°. The repulsion from the two lone pairs cancels so the angles are ideal.
c) The SeOF 2 molecule has twenty-six valence electrons. The Se is the central atom. There are three bonds to the
Se which also has a lone pair (AX 3 E). The shape is trigonal pyramidal. The structure is based on a tetrahedral
structure with ideal angles of 109.5°. The presence of the lone pair means the angles are less than ideal.
d) The TeF 5 – ion has forty-two valence electrons. The Te is the central atom. There are five bonds to the Te which
also has one lone pair (AX 5 E). The shape is square pyramidal. The structure is based on an octahedral with ideal
angles of 90°. The presence of the lone pair means the angles are less than ideal.
F
F F
O Cl O F
I F Se O Te F
F F
O F
F F
a) b) c) d)
F
F
Cl F F F
O I
Se Te
O F F F
O F F
O F
10.42 Plan: The Lewis structures must be drawn, and VSEPR applied to the structures.
Solution:
a) CH 3 OH: This molecule has [1 x C(4e–)] + [4 x H(1e–)] + [1 x O(6e–)] = fourteen valence electrons. In the
CH 3 OH molecule, both carbon and oxygen serve as central atoms. (H can never be central.) Use eight electrons to
place a single bond between the C and the O atom and three of the H atoms and another two electrons to place a
10-29
single bond between the O and the last H atom. This leaves 14 – 10 = 4 e– (two pairs). Use these two pairs to
complete the octet of the O atom. C already has an octet and each H only gets two electrons. The carbon has four
bonds and no lone pairs (AX 4 ), so it is tetrahedral with no deviation (no lone pairs) from the ideal angle of
109.5°. The oxygen has two bonds and two lone pairs (AX 2 E 2 ), so it is V shaped or bent with the angles less
than the ideal angle of 109.5°.
H H
H C O C O
H
H H
H
H
b) N 2 O 4 : This molecule has [2 x N(5e–)] + [4 x O(6e–)] = 34 valence electrons. Use ten electrons to place a
single bond between the two N atoms and between each N and two of the O atoms. This leaves 34 – 10 = 24e–
(twelve pairs). Use the twelve pairs to complete the octets of the oxygen atoms. Neither N atom has an octet,
however. Form a double bond from one O atom to one N atom by changing a lone pair on the O to a bonding pair
on the N. Do this for the other N atom as well. In the N 2 O 4 molecule, both nitrogen atoms serve as central atoms.
This is the arrangement given in the problem. Both nitrogen atoms are equivalent with three groups and no lone
pairs (AX 3 ), so the arrangement is trigonal planar with no deviation (no lone pairs) from the ideal angle of 120°.
The same results arise from the other resonance structures.
O O
O N N O N N
O O
O O
10.43 a) In the H 3 PO 4 molecule the P and each of the O atoms with an H attached serve as central atoms. The P has four
groups and no lone pairs (AX 4 ), so it is tetrahedral with no deviation from the ideal angle of 109.5°. The H
bearing O atoms have two bonds and two lone pairs (AX 2 E 2 ), so the arrangement is V shaped or bent with
angles less than the ideal value of 109.5°.
O O
H
O P O P
O
H O O H
H O H
H
b) In the CH 3 OCH 2 CH 3 molecule, all atoms except the hydrogen atoms serve as central atoms. All the carbons
have four bonds and no lone pairs (AX 4 ), so they are tetrahedral with no deviation from the ideal bond angle of
109.5°. The oxygen has two bonds and two lone pairs (AX 2 E 2 ), so the arrangement is V shaped or bent with
angles less than the ideal value of 109.5°.
H H H H H
O
H
H C O C C H C C
H
H
H C
H H H H
10.44 Plan: The Lewis structures must be drawn, and VSEPR applied to the structures.
10-30
Solution:
a) CH 3 COOH has [2 x C(4e–)] + [4 x H(1e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] = twenty-four valence electrons. Use fourteen
electrons to place a single bond between all of the atoms. This leaves 24 – 14 = 10 e– (five pairs). Use these five
pairs to complete the octets of the O atoms; the C atom bonded to the H atoms has an octet but the other C atom
does not have a complete octet. Form a double bond from the O atom (not bonded to H) to the C by changing a
lone pair on the O to a bonding pair on the C. In the CH 3 COOH molecule, the carbons and the O with H attached
serve as central atoms. The carbon bonded to the H atoms has four groups and no lone pairs (AX 4 ), so it is
tetrahedral with no deviation from the ideal angle of 109.5°. The carbon bonded to the O atoms has three groups
and no lone pairs (AX 3 ), so it is trigonal planar with no deviation from the ideal angle of 120°. The H bearing O
has two bonds and two lone pairs (AX 2 E 2 ), so the arrangement is V shaped or bent with an angle less than the
ideal value of 109.5°.
H O O
H
H C C O C H
C O
H H H
H
b) H 2 O 2 has [2 x H(1e–)] + [2 x O(6e–)] = fourteen valence electrons. Use six electrons to place single bonds
between the O atoms and between each O atom and an H atom. This leaves 14 – 6 = 8 e– (four pairs). Use these
four pairs to complete the octets of the O atoms. In the H 2 O 2 molecule, both oxygen atoms serve as central
atoms. Both O atoms have tw bonds and two2 lone pairs (AX 2 E 2 ), so they are V shaped or bent with angles less
than the ideal value of 109.5°.
O O O O
H H H H
10.45 a) In the H 2 SO 3 molecule, the S and the O atoms with an H attached serve as central atoms. The S has three
groups and one lone pair (AX 3 E), so it is trigonal pyramidal with angles less than the ideal angle of 109.5°. The
H bearing O atoms each have two bonds and two lone pairs (AX 2 E 2 ), so the arrangement is V shaped or bent
with an angle less than the ideal value of 109.5°.
O
H
O S O S O
O H
O
H H
b) The N 2 O 3 molecule has the structure indicated in the problem with the N atoms serving as central atoms. The
nitrogen labeled N 1 has two groups and a lone pair (AX 2 E), so it is V shaped or bent with angles less than the
ideal value of 120°. The nitrogen labeled N 2 has three bonds and no lone pairs (AX 3 ), so it is trigonal planar
with no deviation from the ideal angle of 120°.
O
N N O N N
1 2
O O O O
10.46 Plan: First, draw a Lewis structure, and then apply VSEPR. The presence of lone pairs on the central atom
generally results in a smaller than ideal bond angle.
10-31
Solution:
F
F B F F Be F F C F F N F F O
F F F F
120o 180o 109.5o < 109.5o << 109.5o

Bond angles: OF 2 < NF 3 < CF 4 < BF 3 < BeF 2
BeF 2 is an AX 2 type molecule, so the angle is the ideal 180°. BF 3 is an AX 3 molecule, so the angle is the ideal
120°. CF 4 , NF 3 , and OF 2 all have tetrahedral electron-group arrangements of the following types: AX 4 , AX 3 E,
and AX 2 E 2 , respectively. The ideal tetrahedral bond angle is 109.5°, which is present in CF 4 . The one lone pair in
NF 3 decreases the angle a little. The two lone pairs in OF 2 decrease the angle even more.
10.47
2−
Cl Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl S Cl O Cl P Cl Cl Si Cl Si
Cl
Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
<<109.5o <<<109.5o <109.5o 109.5o 90o

2–
Bond angles: SiCl 4 > PCl 3 > SCl 2 > OCl 2 > SiCl 6
All the species except SiCl 6 2– are based on a tetrahedral electron-group arrangement. SiCl 6 2– has an octahedral
electron arrangement with an ideal angle of 90°. The tetrahedral arrangement has an ideal bond angle of 109.5°,
which is present in AX 4 species like SiCl 4 . The ideal tetrahedral bond angle is reduced slightly by the lone pair in
AX 3 E species such as PCl 3 . A greater reduction in the ideal tetrahedral bond angle is present in AX 2 E 2 species
such as SCl 2 and OCl 2 with two lone pairs. The angle is reduced less around the larger S atom.
10.48 Plan: The ideal bond angles depend on the electron-group arrangement. Deviations depend on lone pairs.
Solution:
a) The C and N have three groups, so they are ideally 120°, and the O has four groups, so ideally the angle is
109.5°. The N and O have lone pairs, so the angles are less than ideal.
b) All central atoms have four pairs, so ideally all the angles are 109.5°. The lone pairs on the O reduce this
value.
c) The B has three groups (no lone pairs) leading to an ideal bond angle of 120°. All the O atoms have four pairs
(ideally 109.5°), two of which are lone, and reduce the angle.
10.49 a) The N has three groups, no lone pairs, so the angle is ideal, and equal to 120°. The O, attached to the H, has
four groups (ideally 109.5°); the lone pairs reduce the bond angle from ideal.
b) The C, attached to the O, has three groups and no lone pairs so the angle will be the ideal 120°. The remaining
C has four groups, and with no lone pairs the angle will be ideal and equal to 109.5°.
c) The C with three groups will have angles that are ideal (120°). The O, with the H attached, has four groups.
The presence of four groups gives an ideal angle of 109.5°, which is reduced by the lone pairs.
10-32
10.50 a) Type: AX 2 E Shape: bent
Ideal angle: 120° Actual angle: <120° (because of the lone pair)
H H
Sn H
H
H C Sn C H C
C H
H
H
H H H
b) Type: AX 3 E Shape: trigonal pyramidal
Ideal angle: 109.5° Actual angle: <109.5° (because of the lone pair)
Cl Sn Cl
Sn
Cl
Cl Cl Cl
c) Type: AX 4 Shape: tetrahedral

Ideal angle: 109.5° Actual angle: 109.5° (there are no lone pairs)
CH3
CH3
Sn
H3C Sn CH3 CH3
H3C CH3
CH3
d) Type: AX 5 Shape: trigonal pyramidal
Ideal angles: 120° and 90° Actual angle: 120° and 90° (there are no lone pairs)
F F F
F
F Sn F F Sn
F
F F
e) Type: AX 6 Shape: octahedral

Ideal angles: 90° Actual angle: 90° (there are no lone pairs)
2−
F F 2−
F F F F
Sn Sn
F F F F
F F
10-33
10.51 Plan: The Lewis structures are needed to predict the ideal bond angles.
Solution:
The P atoms have no lone pairs in any case so the angles are ideal.
PCl 5 : PCl 4 +: PCl 6 –:
Cl +
Cl Cl
Cl
Cl Cl
Cl P
Cl Cl P Cl P
Cl Cl
Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl + Cl
Cl Cl
Cl
Cl P P Cl P
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl
The original PCl 5 is AX 5 , so the shape is trigonal bipyramidal, and the angles are 120° and 90°.
The PCl 4 + is AX 4 , so the shape is tetrahedral, and the angles are 109.5°.
The PCl 6 – is AX 6 , so the shape is octahedral, and the angles are 90°.
Half the PCl 5 (trigonal bipyramidal, 120° and 90°) become tetrahedral PCl 4 + (tetrahedral, 109.5°), and the other
half become octahedral PCl 6 – (octahedral, 90°).
10.52 Molecules are polar if they have polar bonds that are not arranged to cancel each other. A polar bond is present
any time there is a bond between elements with differing electronegativities.
10.53 Molecules are polar if they have polar bonds that are not arranged to cancel each other. If the polar covalent bonds
are arranged in such a way as to cancel each other, the molecule will be nonpolar. An example of a molecule with
polar covalent bonds that is not polar is SO 3 . The trigonal planar shape causes the three polar S–O bonds to
cancel.
O
S
O O
10.54 Molecules must come together to react. This becomes difficult for large molecules. Biomolecules are generally
large molecules and have difficulty reacting if the shapes of the molecules are not compatible.
10.55 Plan: To determine if a bond is polar, determine the electronegativity difference of the atoms participating in
the bond. The greater the electronegativity difference, the more polar the bond. To determine if a molecule is
polar (has a dipole moment), it must have polar bonds, and a certain shape determined by VSEPR.
Solution:
a)Molecule Bond Electronegativities Electronegativity difference
SCl 2 S–Cl S = 2.5 Cl = 3.0 3.0 – 2.5 = 0.5
F2 F–F F = 4.0 F = 4.0 4.0 – 4.0 = 0.0
CS 2 C–S C = 2.5 S = 2.5 2.5 – 2.5 = 0.0
CF 4 C–F C = 2.5 F = 4.0 4.0 – 2.5 = 1.5
BrCl Br–Cl Br = 2.8 Cl = 3.0 3.0 – 2.8 = 0.2
The polarities of the bonds increase in the order: F–F = C–S < Br–Cl < S–Cl < C–F. Thus, CF 4 has the most polar
bonds.
10-34
b) The F 2 and CS 2 cannot be polar since they do not have polar bonds. CF 4 is an AX 4 molecule, so it is
tetrahedral with the four polar C–F bonds arranged to cancel each other giving an overall nonpolar molecule.
BrCl has a dipole moment since there are no other bonds to cancel the polar Br–Cl bond. SCl 2 has a dipole
moment (is polar) because it is a bent molecule, AX 2 E 2 , and the electron density in both S–Cl bonds is pulled
towards the more electronegative chlorine atoms.
F
S
C
F
F Cl Cl
F
nonpolar polar
10.56 a) The greater the difference in electronegativity the more polar the bond:
Molecule Bond Electronegativities Electronegativity difference
BF 3 B–F B = 2.0 F = 4.0 4.0 – 2.0 = 2.0
PF 3 P–F P = 2.1 F = 4.0 4.0 – 2.1 = 1.9
BrF 3 Br–F Br = 2.8 F = 4.0 4.0 – 2.8 = 1.2
SF 4 S–F S = 2.5 F = 4.0 4.0 – 2.5 = 1.5
SF 6 S–F S = 2.5 Cl = 4.0 4.0 – 2.5 = 1.5
The polarities of the bonds are increasing in the order: Br–F < S–F < P–F < B–F. Thus, BF 3 has the most polar
bonds.
b) All the molecules meet the requirement of having polar bonds. The arrangement of the bonds must be
considered in each case. BF 3 is trigonal planar, AX 3 , so it is nonpolar because the polarities of the bonds cancel.
PF 3 has a dipole moment (is polar) because it has a trigonal pyramidal geometry, AX 3 E. BrF 3 has a dipole
moment because it has a T-shaped geometry, AX 3 E 2 . SF 4 has a dipole moment because it has a see-saw
geometry, AX 4 E. SF 6 is nonpolar because it is octahedral, AX 6 , and the bonds are arranged so they cancel.
F F
B P F Br
F F F F
F F
F F
F F F
S S
F
F F
F F
10.57 Plan: If only two atoms are involved, only an electronegativity difference is needed. The greater the difference in
electronegativity, the more polar the bond. If there are more than two atoms, the molecular geometry must be
determined.
10-35
Solution:
a) All the bonds are polar covalent. The SO 3 molecule is trigonal planar, AX 3 , so the bond dipoles cancel leading
to a nonpolar molecule (no dipole moment). The SO 2 molecule is bent, AX 2 E, so the polar bonds result in
electron density being pulled towards one side of the molecule. SO 2 has a greater dipole moment because it is
the only one of the pair that is polar.
O
S
S
O O
O O
b) ICl and IF are polar, as are all diatomic molecules composed of atoms with differing electronegativities. The
electronegativity difference for ICl (3.0 – 2.5 = 0.5) is less than that for IF (4.0 – 2.5 = 1.5). The greater difference
means that IF has a greater dipole moment.
c) All the bonds are polar covalent. The SiF 4 molecule is nonpolar (has no dipole moment) because the bonds are
arranged tetrahedrally, AX 4 . SF 4 is AX 4 E, so it has a see-saw shape, where the bond dipoles do not cancel. SF 4
has the greater dipole moment.
F F
F
F F
F Si F F S F
Si F S F
F
F
F F F
d) H 2 O and H 2 S have the same basic structure. They are both bent molecules, AX 2 E 2 , and as such, they are polar.
The electronegativity difference in H 2 O (3.5 – 2.1 = 1.4) is greater than the electronegativity difference in
H 2 S (2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4) so H 2 O has a greater dipole moment.
10.58 a) All the bonds are polar covalent. Both the molecules are bent (SO 2 and ClO 2 are AX 2 E 2 ). The
difference in electronegativity is greater in SO 2 than in ClO 2 so SO 2 has a greater dipole moment.
b) HBr and HCl are polar, as are all diatomic molecules composed of atoms with differing electronegativities. The
electronegativity difference for HBr is less than that for HCl. The greater difference means that HCl has a
greater dipole moment.
c) All the bonds are polar covalent. The BeCl 2 molecule is nonpolar (has no dipole moment) because the bonds
are arranged linearly, AX 2 . SCl 2 is AX 2 E 2 , so it has a bent shape, where the bond dipoles do not cancel. SCl 2 has
the greater dipole moment.
d) All the bonds are polar covalent. AsF 5 is AX 5 , so it is trigonal bipyramidal and nonpolar. AsF 3 is AX 3 E,
so it is trigonal pyramidal and polar. AsF 3 has a greater dipole moment.
10.59 Plan: Draw Lewis structures, and then apply VSEPR. A molecule has a dipole moment if polar bonds do not
cancel.
Solution:
C 2 H 2 Cl 2 has [2 x C(4e–)] + [2 x H(1e–)] + [2 x Cl(7e–)] = 24 valence electrons. The two carbon atoms are bonded
to each other. The H atoms and Cl atoms are bonded to the C atoms. Use ten electrons to place a single bond
between all of the atoms. This leaves 24 – 10 = 14e– (seven pairs). Use these seven pairs to complete the octets
of the Cl atoms and one of the C atoms; the other C atom does not have a complete octet. Form a double bond
between the carbon atoms by changing the lone pair on one C atom to a bonding pair. There are three possible
structures for the compound C 2 H 2 Cl 2 :
H Cl Cl Cl H Cl
C C C C C C
Cl H H H H Cl
I II III
10-36
The presence of the double bond prevents rotation about the C=C bond, so the structures are “fixed.” The C–Cl
bonds are more polar than the C–H bonds, so the key to predicting the polarity is the positioning of the C–Cl
bonds. Structure I has the C–Cl bonds arranged so that they cancel leaving I as a nonpolar molecule. Both II and
III have C–Cl bonds on the same side so the bonds work together making both molecules polar. Both I and II will
react with H 2 to give a compound with a Cl attached to each C (same product). Structure III will react with H 2 to
give a compound with two Cl atoms on one C and none on the other (different product). Structure I must be X as
it is the only one that is nonpolar (has no dipole moment). Structure II must be Z because it is polar and gives
the same product as compound X. This means that Structure III must be the remaining compound, Y.
Compound Y (III) has a dipole moment.
10.60 The possible structures for the compounds differ only in the positions of the N-F bonds. These structures are
“fixed” because the N=N bond does not allow rotation. The N-F bonds are polar.
a)
F
N N N N
F F F
(trans) (cis)
b) In the trans-form the N-F bonds pull equally in opposite directions, thus, they cancel and the molecule is
nonpolar. The N-F bonds in the cis-form pull in the same general direction resulting in a polar molecule.
10.61 Plan: The Lewis structures are needed to do this problem. A single bond (bond order = 1) is weaker and
longer than a double bond (bond order = 2) which is weaker and longer than a triple bond (bond order = 3).
To find the heat of reaction, add the energy required to break all the bonds in the reactants to the energy released
to form all bonds in the product. Remember to use a negative sign for the energy of the bonds formed since bond
formation is exothermic. The bond energy values are found in Table 9.2.
Solution:
a) The H atoms cannot be central, and they are evenly distributed on the N atoms.
N 2 H 4 has [2 x N(5e–)] + [4 x H(1e–)] = fourteen valence electrons, ten of which are used in the bonds between the
atoms. The remaining two pairs are used to complete the octets of the N atoms.
N 2 H 2 has [2 x N(5e–)] + (2 x H(1e–)] = twelve valence electrons, six of which are used in the bonds between the
atoms. The remaining three pairs of electrons are not enough to complete the octets of both N atoms, so one lone
pair is moved to a bonding pair between the N atoms.
N 2 has [2 x N(5 e–)] = ten valence electrons, two of which are used to place a single bond between the two N
atoms. Since only four pairs of electrons remain and six pairs are required to complete the octets, two lone pairs
become bonding pairs to form a triple bond.
H N N H H N N H N N
H H
Hydrazine Diazene Nitrogen
The single (bond order = 1) N–N bond is weaker and longer than any of the others are. The triple bond (bond
order = 3) is stronger and shorter than any of the others. The double bond (bond order = 2) has an
intermediate strength and length.
b) N 4 H 4 has [4 x N(5e–)] + [4 x H(1e–)] = twenty-four valence electrons, fourteen of which are used for single
bonds between the atoms. When the remaining five pairs are distributed to complete the octets, one N atom lacks
two electrons. A lone pair is moved to a bonding pair for a double bond.
H N N N N H H N N H
+ N N
H H H H
Reactant bonds broken: Product bonds formed:
10-37
4 N–H = 4 mol (391 kJ/mol) = 1564 kJ 4 N–H = 4 mol (–391 kJ/mol) = –1564 kJ
2 N–N = 2 mol (160 kJ/mol) = 320 kJ 1 N–N = 1 mol (–160 kJ/mol) = –160 kJ
1 N=N = 1 mol (418 kJ/mol) = 418 kJ 1 N≡N = 1 mol (–945 kJ/mol) = –945 kJ
 
Σ∆H bonds broken = 2302 kJ Σ∆H bonds formed = –2669 kJ
  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 2302 kJ + (–2669 kJ) = –367 kJ
10.62
Cl
F F
F P F Cl C Cl H O H
F Cl H
(a) (b) (c)
Cl I Cl H Be H P H
Cl
H
(d) (e) (f)
Br
Br Ge Br H C H Cl B Cl
Br H Cl
(g) (i)
(h)
F F
F Br F O Xe O F Te F
F O F
(j) (k) (l)
10.63 a) AX 5 = trigonal bipyramidal b) AX 4 = tetrahedral

F
F Cl
F P
F C Cl
Cl
F Cl
10-38
c) AX 3 E = trigonal pyramidal d) AX 3 E 2 = T shaped
Cl I Cl
O H
H
H Cl
e) AX 2 = linear f) AX 2 E 2 = bent
H Be H
P
H
H
g) AX 4 = tetrahedral h) AX 3 E = trigonal pyramidal

Br
Ge Br C H
Br H
Br H
i) AX 3 = trigonal planar j) AX 4 E = seesaw
F
Cl
F
Br
B F
Cl Cl F
k) AX 3 E = trigonal pyramidal l) AX 4 E = seesaw
F
F
Te
Xe O
F
O
O F
10.64 a) SiF 4 with its thirty-two valence electrons is an AX 4 molecule and has a tetrahedral molecular shape. SiF 5 –
with its forty valence electrons is an AX 5 ion and has a trigonal bipyramidal molecular shape. B best represents
the change in molecular shape from tetrahedral to trigonal bipyramidal.
b) SiF 4 : tetrahedral, AX 4 ; SiF 5 –: trigonal bipyramidal, AX 5 .
10.65 Plan: Use the Lewis structures shown in the text. The equation for formal charge (FC) is
Solution:
a) Formal charges for Al 2 Cl 6 :
FC Al = 3 – [0 + ½(8)] = –1
FC Cl, ends = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
FC Cl, bridging = 7 – [4 + ½(4)] = +1
(Check: Formal charges add to zero, the charge on the compound.)
Formal charges for I 2 Cl 6 :
FC I = 7 – [4 + ½(8)] = –1
FC Cl, ends = 7 – [6 + ½(2)] = 0
FC Cl, bridging = 7 – [4 + ½(4)] = +1
(Check: Formal charges add to zero, the charge on the compound.)
10-39
b) The aluminum atoms have no lone pairs and are AX 4 , so they are tetrahedral. The two tetrahedral Al atoms
cannot give a planar structure. The iodine atoms in I 2 Cl 6 have two lone pairs each and are AX 4 E 2 so they are
square planar. Placing the square planar I atoms adjacent can give a planar molecule.
10.66 The Lewis structure for each is required.

Compound Lewis structure Molecular geometry
XeF 2 Linear (AX 2 E 3 )
F Xe F
XeF 4 Square planar (AX 4 E 2 )

F
F Xe F
XeF 6 Distorted octahedral (AX 6 E)

F
F F
Xe
F F
F
10.67 a) SO 3 is an AX 3 molecule and has a trigonal planar shape. SO 3 2– is an AX 3 E species and has a trigonal
pyramidal molecular shape. C best illustrates the change in molecular shape from trigonal planar to trigonal
pyramidal.
b) Yes, there is a change in polarity during the reaction as the nonpolar SO 3 molecule becomes the polar SO 3 2–
ion.
10.68 From the Lewis structures, both are AX 2 E which has an ideal bond angle of 120o. But the “lone pair” on N in
NO 2 is only half a pair, so it only exerts “half” the repulsion. This allows the bond angle to open to a larger than
normal bond angle. The “complete” lone pair in NO 2 –, like other lone pairs, forces the bonding pairs together to
give a smaller than normal bond angle.
O N O O N O
O N O O N O
10.69 Xe(g) + 3F 2 (g) → XeF 6 (g)

  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed
The three F–F bonds must be broken, and six Xe–F bonds are formed.

∆H rxn = 3 BE F–F + 6 BE Xe–F
–402 kJ/mol = (3 mol)(159 kJ/mol) + (6 mol)(–BE Xe–F )
–879 kJ/mol = 6 (–BE Xe–F )
146.5 = 146 kJ/mol = BE Xe–F
10.70 Plan: Draw the Lewis structures, and then use VSEPR to describe propylene oxide.
10-40
Solution:
a)
H H
C CH2 + H2O2 H3C C CH2 + H2O

H3C
O
H H H
H H
C C C
H O
In propylene oxide, the C atoms are all AX 4 . The C atoms do not have any unshared (lone) pairs. All of the ideal
bond angles for the C atoms in propylene oxide are 109.5° and the molecular shape around each carbon atom is
tetrahedral.
b) In propylene oxide, the C that is not part of the three-membered ring should have an ideal angle. The atoms in
the ring form an equilateral triangle. The angles in an equilateral triangle are 60°. The angles around the two
carbons in the rings are reduced from the ideal 109.5° to 60°.
10.71
Cl O Cl O H
O H Cl C C H
Cl C C H +
H Cl O H
Cl
H
Cl O O
H Cl
O H
Cl + Cl
C C C C
O H
Cl H Cl H
The C with the chlorine atoms attached does not change shape. That C is tetrahedral in both compounds. The
other C changes from trigonal planar (AX 3 ) to tetrahedral (AX 4 ).
10.72 a) Bond order (avg.)

C O 3.0
b)
2−
O C O O C O O C O
O O O
Each C–O bond is a single bond two-thirds of the time and a double bond the rest of the time.
The average is [(1 + 1 + 2)/3] = 4/3 = 1.33
c)
H C H
O
2.0
10-41
d)
H
H C O H
H 1.0
e)
O C O O C O
O H O H
The resonating double bond means the average bond length is [(1 + 2)/2] = 1.5
The C–O bond for the O attached to the H does not resonate and remains1.0
Bond length a < c < e < b < d ignoring O attached to H in part e)
Bond strength d<b<e<c<a
10.73 The reaction is balanced as usual:

ClCH 2 CH 2 SCH 2 CH 2 Cl + 2H 2 O → HOCH 2 CH 2 SCH 2 CH 2 OH + 2HCl
Most of the molecule remains the same.
Reactant bonds broken:
2 x C–C = (2 mol)(347 kJ/mol) = 694 kJ
8 x C–H = (8 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 3304 kJ
2 x C–Cl = (2 mol)(339 kJ/mol) = 678 kJ
2 x C–S = (2 mol)(259 kJ/mol) = 518 kJ
4 x O–H = (4 mol)(467 kJ/mol) = 1868 kJ

Σ∆H bonds broken = 7062 kJ
Product bonds formed:

2 x C–C = (2 mol)(–347 kJ/mol) = –694 kJ
8 x C–H = (8 mol)(–413 kJ/mol) = –3304 kJ
2 x H–Cl = (2 mol)(–427 kJ/mol) = –854 kJ
2 x C–S = (2 mol)(–259 kJ/mol) = –518 kJ
2 x C–O = (2 mol)(–358 kJ/mol) = –716 kJ
2 x O–H = (2 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –934 kJ

Σ∆H bonds formed = –7020 kJ
  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 7062 kJ + (–7020 kJ) = 42 kJ
10.74 CBr 4 < CH 2 Br 2 < CH 2 Cl 2 < CF 2 Cl 2 < CF 2 Br 2 < CH 2 F 2
10.75 Plan: Ethanol burns (combusts) with O 2 to produce CO 2 and H 2 O. To find the heat of reaction in part a), add the
energy required to break all the bonds in the reactants to the energy released to form all bonds in the product.
Remember to use a negative sign for the energy of the bonds formed since bond formation is exothermic. The
bond energy values are found in Table 9.2. The heat of vaporization of ethanol must be included for part b). The
10-42
enthalpy change in part c) is the sum of the heats of formation of the products minus the sum of the heats of
formation of the reactants. The calculation for part d) is the same as in part a).
Solution:
a) CH 3 CH 2 OH(g) + 3O 2 (g) → 2CO 2 (g) + 3H 2 O(g)
H H
H C C O + 3 O O 2 O C O + 3 O H
H H H H
1 x C–C = (1 mol)(347 kJ/mol) = 347 kJ
5 x C–H = (5 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 2065 kJ
1 x C–O = (1 mol)(358 kJ/mol) = 358 kJ
1 x O–H = (1 mol)(467 kJ/mol) = 467 kJ
3 x O=O = (3 mol)(498 kJ/mol) = 1494 kJ


4 x C=O = (4 mol)(–799 kJ/mol) = –3196 kJ
6 x O–H = (6 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –2802 kJ

  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 4731 kJ + (–5998 kJ) = –1267 kJ for each mole of ethanol burned
b) If it takes 40.5 kJ/mol to vaporize the ethanol, part of the heat of combustion must be used to convert liquid
ethanol to gaseous ethanol. The new value becomes:
 40.5 kJ 
(liquid) = –1267 kJ + (1 mol )

Σ∆H combustion  = –1226.5 = –1226 kJ per mole of liquid ethanol burned
 1 mol 

c) ∆H rxn = ∑m ∆H f(products) – ∑n ∆H f(reactants)

∆H rxn = {2 ∆H f [CO 2 (g)] + 3 ∆H f [H 2 O(g)]} – {1 ∆H f [C 2 H 5 OH(l)] + 3 ∆H f [O 2 (g)]}
= [(2 mol)(–393.5 kJ/mol) + (3 mol)(–241.826 kJ/mol)] – [(1 mol)(–277.63 kJ/mol) + 3 mol(0 kJ/mol)]
= –1234.848 = –1234.8 kJ
The two answers differ by less than 10 kJ. This is a very good agreement since average bond energies were used
to calculate the answers in a) and b).
d) C 2 H 4 (g) + H 2 O(g) → CH 3 CH 2 OH(g)
The Lewis structures for the reaction are:
H H H
H
O
C C + H C C O
H
H
H H H
H H
1 x C=C = (1 mol)(614 kJ/mol) = 614 kJ
4 x C–H = (4 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 1652 kJ
2 x O–H = (2 mol)(467 kJ/mol) = 934 kJ

1 x C–C = (1 mol)(–347 kJ/mol) = –347 kJ
5 x C–H = (5 mol)(–413 kJ/mol) = –2065 kJ
1 x C–O = (1 mol)(–358 kJ/mol) = –358 kJ
10-43
1 x O–H = (1 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –467 kJ

  
10.76 a) C 3 H 4 : 16 valence electrons.

H H
C
Bond Order 1
C C
H H
Bond Order 2
b) C 3 H 6 : 18 valence electrons.
H H
C
Bond Order 1
H C C H (all)
H H
c) C 4 H 6 : 22 valence electrons.
H H
H C C H
Bond Order 1
C C
H H
Bond Order 2
d) C 4 H 4 : 20 valence electrons. Resonance exists.
H H H H
C C C C
Bond Order 1.5 (all)
C C C C
H H H H
10-44
e) C 6 H 6 : 30 valence electrons. Resonance exists.
H H
H C H C
H H
C C C C
Bond Order 1.5 (all)
C C C C
H H H H
C C
H H
10.77 Plan: Determine the empirical formula from the percent composition (assuming 100 g of compound). Use the
titration data to determine the mole ratio of acid to the NaOH. This ratio gives the number of acidic H atoms in the
formula of the acid. Finally, combine this information to construct the Lewis structure.
Solution:
 1 mol 
Moles of H = (2.24 g H )  = 2.222 mol H
 1.008 g H 
 1 mol 
Moles of C = (26.7 g C )  = 2.223 mol C
 12.01 g C 
 1 mol 
Moles of O = (71.1 g O )  = 4.444 mol O
 16.00 g O 
The preliminary formula is H 2.222 C 2.223 O 4.444 .
Dividing all subscripts by the smallest subscript to obtain integer subscripts:
H 2.222 C 2.223 O 4.444 = HCO 2
2.222 2.222 2.222
The empirical formula is HCO 2 .
Calculate the amount of NaOH required for the titration:
 1 L  0.040 mol NaOH  1 mmol 
Mmoles of NaOH = (50.0 mL )    = 2.0 mmol NaOH
 1000 mL  L  0.001 mol 
Thus, the ratio is 2.0 mmole base/1.0 mmole acid, or each acid molecule has two hydrogen atoms to react
(diprotic). The empirical formula indicates a monoprotic acid, so the formula must be doubled to: H 2 C 2 O 4 .
H 2 C 2 O 4 has [2 x H(1e–)] + [2 x C(4e–)] + [4 x O(6e–)] = 34 valence electrons to be used in the Lewis structure.
Fourteen of these electrons are used to bond the atoms with single bonds, leaving 34 – 14 = 20 electrons or ten
pairs of electrons. When these ten pairs of electrons are distributed to the atoms to complete octets, neither C
atom has an octet; a lone pair from the oxygen without hydrogen is changed to a bonding pair on C.
H O O H
C C
O O
10.78 Determine the empirical formula from the percent composition (assuming 100 g of compound). The molar mass
may be determined from the density of the gas. The empirical formula and the molar mass may then be used to
determine the molecular formula. Count the valence electrons in the empirical formula and then construct the
Lewis structure.
10-45
 1 mol 
Moles of C = (24.8 g C )  = 2.065 mol C
 12.01 g C 
 1 mol 
Moles of H = (2.08 g H )  = 2.063 mol H
 1.008 g H 
 1 mol 
Moles of Cl = (73.1 g Cl )  = 2.062 mol Cl
 35.45 g Cl 
The preliminary formula is C 2.065 H 2.063 Cl 2.062 .
Dividing all subscripts by the smallest subscript to obtain integer subscripts:
C 2.065 H 2.063 Cl 2.062 = CHCl
2.062 2.062 2.062
Thus, the empirical formula is CHCl, and its molar mass is 48.47 g/mol.
The density is 4.3 g/L at STP:
PM
d=
RT
Rearranging to solve for molar mass:
( 4.3 g/L )  0.0821

L•atm 
( 273 K )
dRT  mol•K 
M = = = 96.37719 = 96 g/mol
P (1.00 atm )
The molar mass (96 g/mol) is double the empirical formula mass (48.47 g/mol), so the empirical formula must be
doubled to get the molecular formula: C 2 H 2 Cl 2 . The formula contains twenty-four valence electrons. A variety of
structures may be drawn:
H Cl H H Cl H
C C or C C or C C
Cl H Cl Cl Cl H
10.79 There are thirty-two valence electrons present. Begin four Lewis structures by placing a Cl in the center and four
O atoms around it. Connect all the O atoms to the central Cl with single bonds. In the second structure, convert
one of the single bonds to a double bond. In the third structure, two of the bonds are double, and in the last, three
of the bonds are double. (It does not matter which bonds are chosen to become double bonds.)
O O O O
O Cl O O Cl O O Cl O O Cl O
O O O O
FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(8)] FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(10)] FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(12)] FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(14)]

FC Cl = +3 FC Cl = +2 FC Cl = +1 FC Cl = 0
(most important)
(3 x 2) + (1 x 1)
Average bond order of the last structure: = 1.75
4
10.80 Plan: Write the balanced chemical equations for the reactions and draw the Lewis structures. To find the heat of
reaction, add the energy required to break all the bonds in the reactants to the energy released to form all bonds in
the product. Remember to use a negative sign for the energy of the bonds formed since bond formation is
exothermic. The bond energy values are found in Table 9.2. Divide the heat of reaction by the number of moles
of oxygen gas appearing in each reaction to get the heat of reaction per mole of oxygen.
10-46
Solution:
CH 4 (g) + 2O 2 (g) → CO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(g)
H
H C H + 2 O O O C O + 2 O H
H H
4 x C–H = (4 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 1652 kJ
2 x O=O = (2 mol)(498 kJ/mol) = 996 kJ


2 x C=O = (2 mol)(–799 kJ/mol) = –1598 kJ
4 x O–H = (4 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –1868 kJ

  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 2648 kJ + (–3466 kJ) = –818 kJ for 2 mol O 2
Per mole of O 2 = –818/2 = –409 kJ/mol O 2
2H 2 S(g) + 3O 2 (g) → 2SO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(g)

2 S H + 3 O O 2 S + 2 O H
O
O H
H

4 x S–H = (4 mol)(347 kJ/mol) = 1388 kJ
3 x O=O = (3 mol)(498 kJ/mol) = 1494 kJ


4 x S=O = (4 mol)(–552 kJ/mol) = –2208 kJ
4 x O–H = (4 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –1868 kJ

  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 2882 kJ + (–4076 kJ) = –1194 kJ for 3 mol O 2
Per mole of O 2 = –1194/3 = –398 kJ/mol O 2
10-47
10.81
F
F S F S F F S F
F F F
(a) (b) (c)
F F
F F
F S F S
F F
F F F
(d) (e)
Stable: a, c, and e
Unstable radicals: b and d
10.82 Plan: Draw the Lewis structure of the OH species. The standard enthalpy of formation is the sum of the energy
required to break all the bonds in the reactants and the energy released to form all bonds in the product.
Remember to use a negative sign for the energy of the bonds formed since bond formation is exothermic. The
bond energy values are found in Table 9.2.
Solution:
a) The OH molecule has [1 x O(6e–)] + [1 x H(1e–)] = 7 valence electrons to be used in the Lewis structure. Two
of these electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond, leaving 7 – 2 = 5 electrons. Those five electrons
are given to oxygen. But no atom can have an octet, and one electron is left unpaired. The Lewis structure is:
O H
b) The formation reaction is: 1/2O 2 (g) + 1/2H 2 (g) → OH(g). The heat of reaction is:
  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 39.0 kJ
[½ (BE O=O ) + ½ (BE H–H )] + [BE O–H ] = 39.0 kJ
[(½ mol)(498 kJ/mol) + (½ mol)(432 kJ/mol)] + [BE O–H ] = 39.0 kJ
465 kJ + [BE O–H ] = 39.0 kJ
BE O–H = –426 kJ or 426 kJ
c) The average bond energy (from the bond energy table) is 467 kJ/mol. There are two O–H bonds in water for a
total of 2 x 467 kJ/mol = 934 kJ. The answer to part b) accounts for 426 kJ of this, leaving:
934 kJ – 426 kJ = 508 kJ
10.83 Both N 3 – and HN 3 have sixteen valence electrons.

Azide ion:
N N N N N N N N N
There are three resonance structures for the N 3 – ion. The formal charges in the first structure are, from left to
right, –1, +1, and –1. In the other two Lewis structures the single bonded N has a formal charge of –2, making
both of these less stable than the first structure. The central N is +1 and the triple bonded N is 0. The first
resonance structure is more important; the structure should have two equal bonds with a bond order of 2.
10-48
Hydrazoic acid:
H N N N H N N N H N N N
HN 3 also has three resonance structures. The formal charge for the H is 0 in all the structures. In the structure with
two double bonds, the formal charges for the N atoms are, left to right: 0, +1, and –1. The structure where the H is
attached to the single bonded N, has N atoms with the following formal charges: –1, +1, and 0. In the final Lewis
structure, the formal charges on the N atoms are: +1, +1, and –2. The third structure is clearly not as good as the
other two. The first two structures should be averaged to give, starting at the H–end, a bond order of 1.5 then a
bond order of 2.5. Thus, the two bonds are unequal.
10.84 Plan: The basic Lewis structure will be the same for all species. The Cl atoms are larger than the F atoms. All of
the molecules are of the type AX 5 and have trigonal bipyramidal molecular shape. The equatorial positions are in
the plane of the triangle and the axial positions above and below the plane of the triangle. In this molecular shape,
there is more room in the equatorial positions.
Solution:
a) The F atoms will occupy the smaller axial positions first so that the larger Cl atoms can occupy the equatorial
positions which are less crowded.
b) The molecule containing only F atoms is nonpolar (has no dipole moment), as all the polar bonds would cancel.
The molecules with one F or one Cl would be polar since the P–F and P–Cl bonds are not equal in polarity and
thus do not cancel each other. The presence of two axial F atoms means that their polarities will cancel (as would
the three Cl atoms) giving a nonpolar molecule. The molecule with three F atoms is also polar.
F F F F F
Cl Cl Cl F F
Cl P Cl P F P F P F P
Cl Cl Cl Cl F
Cl F F F F
Polar Nonpolar Polar Polar Nonpolar
No dipole moment No dipole moment
10.85 N 2 O has sixteen1 valence electrons; there are three resonance structures.
N N O N N O N N O
FC –1 +1 0 –2 +1 +1 0 +1 –1
The third structure has a more reasonable distribution of formal charges. The third form has a strong triple bond
between the N atoms and a weak N–O bond. It is easy to break the N–O bond which is why this compound easily
decomposes to support combustion.
10.86 Plan: Count the valence electrons and draw Lewis structures for the resonance forms.
Solution:
The H 2 C 2 O 4 molecule has [2 x H(1e–)] + [2 x C(4e–)] + [4 x O(6e–)] = 34 valence electrons to be used in the
Lewis structure. Fourteen of these electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond, leaving
34 –14 = 20 electrons. If these twenty electrons are given to the oxygen atoms to complete their octet, the carbon
atoms do not have octets. A lone pair from each of the oxygen atoms without hydrogen is changed to a bonding
pair on C.
The HC 2 O 4 – ion has [1 x H(1e–)] + [2 x C(4e–)] + [4 x O(6e–)] + [1e– (from the charge)] = 34 valence electrons
to be used in the Lewis structure. Twelve of these electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond,
leaving 34 –12 = 22 electrons. If these twenty-two electrons are given to the oxygen atoms to complete their octet,
the carbon atoms do not have octets. A lone pair from two of the oxygen atoms without hydrogen is changed to a
bonding pair on C. There are two resonance structures.
The C 2 O 4 2– ion has [2 x C(4e–)] + [4 x O(6e–)] + [2e– (from the charge)] = 34 valence electrons to be used in the
Lewis structure. Ten of these electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond, leaving
10-49
34 –10 = 24 electrons. If these twenty-four electrons are given to the oxygen atoms to complete their octets, the
carbon atoms do not have octets. A lone pair from two oxygen atoms is changed to a bonding pair on C. There
are four resonance structures.
H2C2O4: HC 2 O 4 –:
− −
H O O H H O O H O O
C C C C C C
O O O O O O
C 2 O 4 2–:
2− 2−
O O O O
C C C C
O O O O
2− 2−
O O O O
C C C C
O O O O
In H 2 C 2 O 4 , there are two shorter C=O bonds and two longer, weaker C—O bonds.
In HC 2 O 4 –, the C—O bonds on the side retaining the H remain as one long C—O bond and one shorter, stronger
C=O bond. The C—O bonds on the other side of the molecule have resonance forms with an average bond order
of 1.5, so they are intermediate in length and strength.
In C 2 O 4 2–, all the carbon to oxygen bonds are resonating and have an average bond order of 1.5.
10.87 The molecule has forty-two valence electrons. Thirty electrons are already accounted for in the skeleton
structure in the bonds. 42 – 30 = 12 valence electrons remain. If these twelve electrons are given to the two
oxygen atoms to complete their octets, the carbon atom that is bonded to the two oxygen atoms does not have an
octet. A lone pair from one of the oxygen atoms is changed to a bonding pair on the C. All the atoms have 0
formal charge except the N (FC = +1), and the single bonded O (FC = –1)
H H
H N C C O
H C O
H H
C
H H
H
10-50
10.88 N 2 H 4 (g) + O 2 (g) → N 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(g)
H H
+ O O N N +2 O H
N N
H
H H

4 x N–H = (4 mol)(391 kJ/mol) = 1564 kJ
1 x N–N = (1 mol)(160 kJ/mol) = 160 kJ
1 x O=O = (1 mol)(498 kJ/mol) = 498 kJ


1 x N≡N = (1 mol)(–945 kJ/mol) = –945 kJ
4 x O–H = (4 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –1868 kJ

  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 2222 kJ + (–2813 kJ) = –591 kJ per mole of N 2 H 4 reacted
10.89 a) Yes, the black sphere can represent selenium. SeF 4 has thirty-four valence electrons. Eight of these
electrons are used in the four Se-F single bonds and twenty-four electrons are used to complete the octets of the
F atoms. The remaining electron pair goes to selenium and the molecule is AX 4 E. The molecular geometry is the
seesaw molecular shape shown.
b) Yes, the black sphere can represent nitrogen if the species is an anion with a –1 charge. The NF 4 – ion has
thirty-four valence electrons and would have the seesaw molecular shape as an AX 4 E species.
c) For BrF 4 to have the thirty-four valence electrons needed for this seesaw molecular geometry, the charge of the
species must be +1. BrF 4 + would have [1 x Br(7e–)] + [4 x F(7e–)] – [1e– from + charge] = 34 valence electrons.
10.90 Plan: Draw the Lewis structures. Calculate the heat of reaction using the bond energies in Table 9.2.
Solution:
SO 3 (g) + H 2 SO 4 (l) → H 2 S 2 O 7 (l)
O
O O
O S O +
O S O
O S O S O
O H
H O H H
O O
5 x S=O = (5 mol)(552 kJ/mol) = 2760 kJ
2 x S–O = (2 mol)(265 kJ/mol) = 530 kJ
2 x O–H = (2 mol)(467 kJ/mol) = 934 kJ


4 x S=O = (4 mol)(–552 kJ/mol) = –2208 kJ
4 x S–O = (4 mol)(–265 kJ/mol) = –1060 kJ
2 x O–H = (2 mol)(–467 kJ/mol) = –934 kJ

  
∆H rxn = Σ∆H bonds broken + Σ∆H bonds formed = 4224 kJ + (–4202 kJ) = 22 kJ
10-51
10.91 Plan: Pick the VSEPR structures for AY 3 substances. Then determine which are polar.
Solution:
The molecular shapes that have a central atom bonded to three other atoms are trigonal planar, trigonal pyramidal,
and T shaped:
Y Y
A A Y A
Y
Y Y Y
Y
Y
a) b) c)
three groups four groups five groups
(AX 3 ) (AX 3 E) (AX 3 E 2 )
trigonal planar trigonal pyramidal T shaped
Trigonal planar molecules, such as a), are nonpolar, so it cannot be AY 3 . Trigonal pyramidal molecules b) and T-
shaped molecules c) are polar, so either could represent AY 3 .
10.92 a) Shape A is T shaped (AX 3 E 2 ); Shape B is trigonal planar (AX 3 ); Shape C is trigonal pyramid (AX 3 E).
XeF 3 +, with twenty-eight valence electrons, has two unshared pairs on Xe and is AX 3 E 2 and is the T-shaped
molecular shape in A. SbBr 3 , with twenty-six valence electrons, has one unshared pair on Sb; thus it is AX 3 E
and is the trigonal pyramidal molecular shape in C. GaCl 3 , with twenty-four valence electrons, has no unshared
pairs on Ga; thus it is AX 3 and is the trigonal planar shape in B.
b) Shapes A and C are polar.
c) Shape A, which is T-shaped, has the most valence electrons (ten) around the central atom.
10.93 The simplified Lewis structures for the reaction are:

H
H C N + 2H H H C N H
H H
1 x C–H = (1 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 413 kJ
1 x C≡N = (1 mol)(891 kJ/mol) = 891 kJ
2 x H–H = (2 mol)(432 kJ/mol) = 864 kJ


3 x C–H = (3 mol)(–413 kJ/mol) = –1239 kJ
1 x C–N = (1 mol)(–305 kJ/mol) = –305 kJ
2 x N–H = (2 mol)(–391 kJ/mol) = –782 kJ

  
10-52
10.94 a)
H H F F
C C C C
H H F F
All the carbons are trigonal planar so the ideal angles should all be 120°.
b) The observed angles are slightly less than ideal because the C=C bond repels better than the single bonds. The
larger F atoms cannot get as close together as the smaller H atoms, so the angles in tetrafluoroethylene are not
reduced as much.
10.95 Plan: Draw the Lewis structure of each compound. Atoms 180° apart are separated by the sum of the bond’s
length. Atoms not at 180° apart must have their distances determined by geometrical relationships.
Solution:
(a) H C C H (b) F (c) F

F F F
S F P
F F F
F F
– –
a) C 2 H 2 has [2 x C(4e )] + [2 x H(1e )] = 10 valence electrons to be used in the Lewis structure. Six of these
electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond, leaving 10 – 6 = 4 electrons. Giving one carbon atom the
four electrons to complete its octet results in the other carbon atom not having an octet. The two lone pairs from
the carbon with an octet are changed to two bonding pairs for a triple bond between the two carbon atoms. The
molecular shape is linear. The H atoms are separated by two carbon-hydrogen bonds (109 pm) and a carbon-
carbon triple bond (121 pm).
Total separation = 2(109 pm) + 121 pm = 339 pm
b) SF 6 has [1 x S(6e–)] + [6 x F(7e–)] = 48 valence electrons to be used in the Lewis structure. Twelve of these
electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond, leaving 48 – 12= 36 electrons. These thirty-six electrons
are given to the fluorine atoms to complete their octets. The molecular shape is octahedral. The fluorine atoms on
opposite sides of the S are separated by twice the sulfur-fluorine bond length (158 pm).
Total separation = 2(158 pm) = 316 pm
Adjacent fluorines are at two corners of a right triangle, with the sulfur at the 90° angle. Two sides of the triangle
are equal to the sulfur-fluorine bond length (158 pm). The separation of the fluorine atoms is at a distance equal to
the hypotenuse of this triangle. This length of the hypotenuse may be found using the Pythagorean Theorem
(a2 + b2 = c2). In this case a = b = 158 pm. Thus, c2 = (158 pm)2 + (158 pm)2, and so c = 223.4457 = 223 pm.
c) PF 5 has [1 x P(5e–)] + [5 x F(7e–)] = 40 valence electrons to be used in the Lewis structure. Ten of these
electrons are used to bond the atoms with a single bond, leaving 40 – 10= 30 electrons. These thirty electrons are
given to the fluorine atoms to complete their octets. The molecular shape is trigonal bipyramidal. Adjacent
equatorial fluorine atoms are at two corners of a triangle with an F-P-F bond angle of 120o. The length of the P-F
bond is 156 pm. If the 120o bond angle is A, then the F-F bond distance is a and the P-F bond distances are b and
c. The F-F bond distance can be found using the Law of Cosines: a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc (cos A).
a2 = (156)2 + (156)2 – 2(156)(156)cos 120o. a = 270.1999 = 270 pm.
10-53
10.96 PCl 5 (l) + SO 2 (g) → POCl 3 (l) + SOCl 2 (l)
Cl O
Cl O
S
Cl P + P +
O Cl S
Cl O Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl
PCl 5 : AX 5 trigonal bipyramidal

SO 2 : AX 2 E bent
POCl 3 : AX 4 tetrahedral
SOCl 2 : AX 3 E trigonal pyramidal
10-54

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CHAPTER 10 THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES

Calculating formal charges: FC Cl = 7 – [3 + 1/2(4)] = +2 FC O = 6 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = –1

Calculating formal charges: FC I (central) = 7 – [6 + 1/2(4)] = –1 FC I (outer) = 7 – [6 + 1/2(2)] = 0

The molecular shape of BrO 2 –:

c) CS 2 (16 valence e–)

b) HBrO 4 has 32 valence electrons.

10.16 a) BF 4 – has thirty-two valence electrons.

10.20 a) PF 6 – has 48 valence electrons. P has an expanded octet of 12 e–.

10.22 a) O 3 – has nineteen valence electrons (note the odd number).

b) XeF 2 has twenty-two valence electrons. Xe has an expanded octet of 10e–.

c) SbF 4 – has thirty-four valence electrons. Sb has an expanded octet of 10e–.

10.35 Lewis structure Electron-group Molecular shape Ideal bond

In addition, there are other resonance forms.

In addition, there are other resonance forms.

10.37 Lewis structure Electron-group Molecular shape Ideal bond

Tetrahedral Tetrahedral 109.5°

120o 180o 109.5o < 109.5o << 109.5o

<<109.5o <<<109.5o <109.5o 109.5o 90o

c) Type: AX 4 Shape: tetrahedral

e) Type: AX 6 Shape: octahedral

(d) (e) (f)

(j) (k) (l)

10.63 a) AX 5 = trigonal bipyramidal b) AX 4 = tetrahedral

g) AX 4 = tetrahedral h) AX 3 E = trigonal pyramidal

10.66 The Lewis structure for each is required.

XeF 4 Square planar (AX 4 E 2 )

XeF 6 Distorted octahedral (AX 6 E)

10.69 Xe(g) + 3F 2 (g) → XeF 6 (g)

C CH2 + H2O2 H3C C CH2 + H2O

10.72 a) Bond order (avg.)

10.73 The reaction is balanced as usual:

Product bonds formed:

10.74 CBr 4 < CH 2 Br 2 < CH 2 Cl 2 < CF 2 Cl 2 < CF 2 Br 2 < CH 2 F 2

Product bonds formed:

10.76 a) C 3 H 4 : 16 valence electrons.

( 4.3 g/L )  0.0821

FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(8)] FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(10)] FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(12)] FC Cl = 7 – [0 + ½(14)]

Product bonds formed:

2H 2 S(g) + 3O 2 (g) → 2SO 2 (g) + 2H 2 O(g)

Reactant bonds broken:

Product bonds formed:

(a) (b) (c)

10.83 Both N 3 – and HN 3 have sixteen valence electrons.

Reactant bonds broken:

Product bonds formed:

Product bonds formed:

10.93 The simplified Lewis structures for the reaction are:

Product bonds formed:

(a) H C C H (b) F (c) F

PCl 5 : AX 5 trigonal bipyramidal

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