ML Biology Chapter 08

3 Cells
UNIT
Color-enhanced
TEM of Euglena
236 Unit 3 Cells

CHAPTER 8
Cell Structure
and Function
CHAPTER 9
Photosynthesis
CHAPTER 10
Cellular Respiration
CHAPTER 11
Cell Growth and
Division
Crosscutting Concepts Cells are the

basic units of life. Every cell is a living
system that can grow and reproduce,
capture and transform energy, and pass
along genetic information. The unity of
life at the cellular level allows us to use
organisms like bacteria, fruit flies, and
even worms as model systems to learn
how cells interact to produce the remark-
able properties shared by all living things,
including ourselves.
BOUNCE  VIDEO
TO ACTIVATE
Author Ken Miller
explains how a
leaf uses solar
energy to
produce food.
Unit 3 Cells 237

3
UNIT
PROBLEM-BASED
LEARNING
PROBLEM LAUNCH
Conduct research on algae as
a biofuel. Report on different
POWER FROM
Pond
methods to maximize algal
growth.
Scum  VIDEO
Fuel comes in many forms.

If you have burned wood logs in a camp-
fire or a fireplace, then you have used
biofuels. A biofuel is a fuel made from
living matter. Unlike fossil fuels, such as
BOUNCE TO ACTIVATE
coal and oil, a biofuel is renewable, mean-
ing it can be replaced in a relatively short Watch a video about
nonrenewable energy—
time. Today, engineers are looking at algae where it comes from and
as a source of biofuel. Why algae? One of is there a way to use a
the reasons is that they are easy to raise. renewable source for fuel.
All they need is water, a few nutrients, and
sunlight.
PROBLEM: What
is the best way
to grow algae for
biofuel?
TO SOLVE THIS PROBLEM,
perform these activities as
they come up in the unit
and record your findings in
your  Explorer’s Journal.
238 Unit 3 Cells

 LAB INVESTIGATION
Observe algal cells and classify

cell structures. Discuss how
algae live and grow.
 AUTHENTIC READING  STEM PROJECT
Read an article describing Design an experiment to

how companies plan raise algae efficiently and
to use algae to create effectively. Then evaluate
biofuels in the future. your technique for large-
scale production.
 INTERACTIVITY
Investigate the processes

of photosynthesis and
respiration in algae.
 INTERACTIVITY
Explore cell division and

reproduction of algal cells.
PROBLEM WRAP-UP
Present your findings, and prepare a
report to a transportation company
convincing them to use a biofuel
made from algae for their vehicles.
Unit 3 Cells 239

Cell Structure
8
CHAPTER
and Function
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4
Life Is Cellular Cell Structure Cell Transport Homeostasis
and Cells
Go Online to
access your
digital course.
 VIDEO
 AUDIO
 INTERACTIVITY
 eTEXT
 ANIMATION
 VIRTUAL LAB
 ASSESSMENT
HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3,

HS-ETS1-3, HS-LS1-7, HS-LS4-6
240 Chapter 8 Cell Structure and Function

CASE STUDY
What’s happening to me?

David was in his second year of college when it took him by surprise. At first, he had a
little trouble seeing words on a page. Vision through his left eye was a little blurry, but
he wasn’t concerned. Then, a few days later, things went downhill. When he awoke in the
morning, he had lost all of the vision in his left eye. The doctor in the college infirmary
sent him to a specialist. To David’s dismay, the specialist discovered that the vision in his
right eye was failing, too. What was going on?
When he called home, David’s mother told The cause of LHON is a change in the
him that her brother had suffered vision mitochondria. Mitochondria are some of
problems as well. Her brother had died of the tiny components, or organelles, inside
heart problems at a young age. Once the cells. This change causes these organelles to
eye doctor heard this news, he drew a blood work just a little bit less efficiently than they
sample to test David’s DNA. A week later should. In David’s case, the optic nerve had
David received the bad news. He listened broken down as a result. Both males and
numbly to the doctor’s somber, quiet voice. females can inherit a tendency to develop the
“I’m very sorry,” said the doctor. “You have disease, but only females can pass it along
an inherited disease called Leber’s hereditary to their children. Sometimes it affects the
optic neuropathy (LHON). There is no cure heart muscle as well, which explained David’s
or useful treatment.“ The doctor went on to uncle’s heart problems.
explain more, and then spoke about spe- What do mitochondria do in healthy cells,
cialists, social workers, and support groups. and why had defective mitochondria caused
David was shocked and frightened. David to lose his vision? Where do mitochon-
About one hundred people are diag- dria come from, why are they inside our cells,
nosed with this disease in the United States and what can medical science do to fix them
every year. Although vision is recovered occa- when they are faulty?
sionally, most of the time the loss is perma- Throughout this chapter, look for
nent. LHON causes the death of optic nerve connections to the CASE STUDY to help you
cells, which carry visual information from the answer these questions.
eye to the brain.
Diatoms (shown in this false color image)

are a diverse group of aquatic unicellular
organisms that form the base of many
food chains (SEM 2200×).
Unit 2 Cells 241

LESSON
8.1 Life Is Cellular
KEY QUESTIONS
• What are the main
points of the cell
theory?
• How do microscopes
work?
• How do prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells
differ?
Drawings by Anton van
Leeuwenhoek
HS-LS1-2: Develop and use a
model to illustrate the hierarchical
organization of interacting systems
that provide specific functions within
multicellular organisms.
What’s the smallest part of any living thing that still counts as being
“alive”? Is a leaf alive? How about your big toe? What about a drop
VOCABULARY of blood? Can we just keep dividing living things into smaller and
cell smaller parts, or is there a point at which what’s left is no longer
cell theory alive? As you will discover, there is such a limit: The smallest living
cell membrane
unit of any organism is a cell.
nucleus
eukaryote
prokaryote The Discovery of the Cell
“Seeing is believing” goes an old saying. It would be hard to find
READING TOOL a better example of this than the discovery of the cell. Without the
instruments to make them visible, cells remained unknown for most
As you read, identify the
main ideas and supporting of human history. All of this changed with a dramatic advance in
details under each heading. technology—the invention of the microscope.
Take notes in your
Biology Foundations Early Microscopes In the late 1500s, eyeglass makers in Europe
Workbook. discovered that using several glass lenses in combination could mag-
nify even the smallest objects. Before long, they had built the first
true microscopes from these lenses, opening the door to the study
of biology as we know it today.
In 1665, Robert Hooke, an Englishman, used an early microscope
to look at a nonliving thin slice of cork, a plant material. Under the
microscope, cork seemed to be made of thousands of tiny empty
chambers, as shown in Figure 8-1. Hooke called the chambers
“cells,” because they reminded him of a monastery’s tiny rooms.
That term, cell, is used in biology to this day.
In Holland around the same time, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used
a single-lens microscope to observe pond water and other things.
To his amazement, the microscope revealed a fantastic world of tiny
living organisms that seemed to be everywhere—in the water that he
and his neighbors drank, and even in his own mouth.
Figure 8-1
Early Microscope
Images
Robert Hooke used a micro-

scope to observe dead cells in
thin sections of cork. Using a
simple microscope, Anton van
Leeuwenhoek was the first to
observe living microorganisms.
These drawings show some
of the bacteria he found in his
Hooke’s observations Leeuwenhoek’s observations own mouth.
The Cell Theory Before long, it became clear that cells are the
basic units of all living things. In 1838, German botanist Matthias
Schleiden concluded that all plants are made of cells. The next year,
German biologist Theodor Schwann stated that all animals are made
of cells. In 1855, German physician Rudolf Virchow published the
idea that new cells can be produced only from the division of exist-
ing cells. These discoveries, confirmed by many biologists, are sum-
marized in the cell theory, a fundamental concept of biology.
The cell theory states:
• All living things are made up of cells.
• Cells are the basic units of structure and function in
living things.
• New cells are produced from existing cells.
 READING CHECK Summarize How were cells discovered?
Quick Lab  Guided Inquiry
What Is a Cell? 2. Use Models Study Figure 8-5, which

1. Observe one prepared slide under shows different types of cells and
the low-power lens of the micro- some of their structures. Which of
scope and then under the high- these cells or structures do you think
power lens. Sketch the structures you observed and sketched?
you observe under both lenses. 3. Classify Review your sketches, and
2. Repeat step 1 with the other then classify the slides of cells into
prepared slides. With your partner, two or three groups. Explain your
discuss and ask questions about classification scheme.
your observations. 4. Ask Questions Pose questions
ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE based on your observations that
would help you better classify and
1. Compare and Contrast What
identify the cells you studied.
features do the cells you observed
have in common? How are they dif-
ferent from one another?
8.1 Life Is Cellular 243

Exploring the Cell
Following in the footsteps of Hooke, Virchow, and others, mod-
ern biologists still use microscopes to explore the cell. But today’s
researchers use technology that is more powerful than the pioneers
of biology could have ever imagined. Microscopes work by using
beams of light or electrons to produce magnified images.
Figure 8-2
Fluorescent Dyes Light Microscopes The type of microscope you are probably
most familiar with is the compound light microscope. A typical light
By treating cells with stains or microscope allows light to pass through a specimen and uses two
dyes, a scientist can clearly lenses to form an image. The first lens, called the objective lens, is
identify large molecules and
located just above the specimen. This lens enlarges the image of
cell parts. Fluorescent dyes are
especially useful for contrast-
the specimen. The second lens, called the ocular lens, magnifies this
ing one cell part from another image still further. Unfortunately, light itself limits the detail, or reso-
such as in these skin cells. lution, of images in a microscope. Like all forms of radiation, light
waves are diffracted, or scattered, as they pass through
matter. Because of this, light microscopes can produce
clear images of objects only to a magnification of
about 1000 times.
Since most living cells are nearly transparent,
chemical stains or dyes are used to help make cells
and their parts visible. Many of the slides you’ll exam-
ine in your biology class laboratory will be stained this
way. A powerful variation on these staining techniques
uses dyes that give off light of a particular color when
viewed under specific wavelengths of light, a property
called fluorescence. Fluorescent labels of different
colors, shown in Figure 8-2, can be attached to certain
molecules within the cell. These labels make it possible
to locate and even watch molecules move around in a
LM 500×
living cell.
Electron Microscopes Light microscopes can be used to see

cells and cell structures as small as 1 millionth of a meter—certainly
pretty small! But what if scientists want to study something smaller
than that, such as a virus or a DNA molecule? For that, they need
electron microscopes. Instead of using light, electron microscopes
use beams of electrons focused by magnetic fields. Electron micro-
scopes offer much higher resolution than light microscopes. Some
BUILD VOCABULARY types of electron microscopes can be used to study cellular struc-
Academic Words The noun tures that are 1 billionth of a meter in size.
transmission means “the Electrons are easily scattered by molecules in the air, which means
process of sending.” This samples must be placed in a vacuum to be studied with an electron
often implies that one thing is
microscope. As a result, researchers must chemically preserve their
being sent through something
else. In transmission elec-
samples. This means that electron microscopy, despite its higher
tron microscopy, a beam of resolution, can be used to examine only nonliving cells and tis-
electrons is sent through a thin sues. The two major types of electron microscopes are transmission
sample. and scanning.

Transmission Electron Microscopes These microscopes make
it possible to explore cell structures and large protein molecules.  VIDEO
Beams of electrons can only pass through thin samples, so cells and Learn about the advantages
tissues must be cut into extremely thin slices before they can be and disadvantages of a light
examined. This is the reason that such images often appear flat and microscope, a SEM, a TEM,
two dimensional. and a stimulated emission
depletion.
Scanning Electron Microscopes In these microscopes, a pencil-
like beam of electrons is scanned over the surface of a specimen.
Because the image is formed at the specimen’s surface, samples do
not have to be cut into thin slices to be seen. The scanning electron
microscope produces stunning three-dimensional images of the
specimen’s surface.
Look at Figure 8-3, which shows yeast cells as they look under a
light microscope, a transmission electron microscope, and a scanning
electron microscope. You may wonder why the cells appear to be
different colors in each micrograph. (A micrograph is a photo of an
object seen through a microscope.) The colors in light micrographs
come from the cells themselves or from the stains and dyes used to
highlight them. Electron micrographs, however, are actually black
and white. Electrons, unlike light, don’t come in colors. So scientists
often use computer techniques to add “false color” to make certain
structures stand out.
Scanning electron
micrograph (SEM)
Transmission electron
micrograph (TEM)  INTERACTIVITY
Light micrograph (LM) Figure 8-3
Micrographs
In the past decade, new microscopes have been developed that
use precise, computer controlled laser beams to scan across samples Different types of microscopes
and gather very high resolution information. These instruments and can be used to examine cells.
techniques are making it possible to study living cells at a level of Here, yeast cells are shown
in a light micrograph (LM 500×),
detail never possible before, opening up even more opportunities
a transmission electron
for research.
micrograph (TEM 4375×), and a
scanning electron micrograph
 READING CHECK Infer If scientists were studying a structure (SEM 3750×).
found on the surface of yeast, which kind of microscope would they
likely use?
READING TOOL Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Draw a Venn diagram with Cells come in an amazing variety of shapes and sizes, some of which
two overlapping circles. are shown in Figure 8-4. Typical cells range from 5 to 50 micrometers
As you read through the (µm) in diameter. The smallest Mycoplasma bacteria, which are only
lesson, enter details in the 0.2 micrometer across, are so small they are difficult to see with even
diagram that are unique to the best light microscope. In contrast, the giant amoeba Chaos chaos
prokaryotes and eukaryotes
can be 1000 micrometers (1 millimeter) in diameter, large enough to
and details that are shared
see with the unaided eye as a tiny speck in pond water. Despite their
by them.
differences, all cells, at some point in their lives, contain DNA, the
molecule that carries biological information. In addition, all cells are
surrounded by a thin flexible barrier called a cell membrane. (The cell
membrane is sometimes called the plasma membrane, because many
cells in the body are in direct contact with the fluid portion of the
blood—the plasma.) There are other similarities as well, as you will
learn in the next lesson.
Cells fall into two broad categories, depending on whether they con-
tain a nucleus. The nucleus (plural: nuclei) is a large membrane-enclosed
structure that contains genetic material in the form of DNA. DNA
controls many of the cell’s activities. Eukaryotes (yoo kar ee ohts) are
cells that enclose their DNA in nuclei. In contrast, prokaryotes (pro kar
ee ohts) are cells that do not enclose DNA in nuclei. Figure 8-5 shows a
typical prokaryotic cell and two typical eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and simpler

when compared with eukaryotic cells, although there are many
exceptions to this rule. The organisms we commonly call bacteria
Figure 8-4
are prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells do not enclose their genetic
Cell Size Is Relative material within a nucleus. Despite their simplicity, prokaryotes carry
out every activity associated with living things. They grow, repro-
The human eye can see
duce, and respond to the environment.
objects larger than about
0.5 mm. Most of what inter- Prokaryotes perform very important roles in the environment. In
ests cell biologists, however, fact, the very first photosynthetic organisms to appear on Earth, nearly
is much smaller than that. 3 billion years ago, were cyanobacteria. The oxygen these prokaryotes
Microscopes make seeing the
released into the atmosphere forever changed Earth’s environment,
cellular and subcellular world
making possible plant and animal life as we know it.
possible.
DNA
2 nm Chicken egg
Typical 5 cm
prokaryotic cell Typical
1– 5 µm 1 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 m
eukaryotic cell
Cold virus 10 – 100 µm 1 µm = 1/1,000,000 m
25 nm
Chaos chaos 1 mm= 1/1000 m
Mitochondrion 1 mm 1 cm = 1/100 m
1– 5 µm
0.2 nm 1 nm 1 µm 10 µm 100 µm 1 mm 1 cm 5 cm
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
LIGHT MICROSCOPE
UNAIDED HUMAN EYE

Figure 8-5
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
In general, eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic
cells. Eukaryotic organisms include plants, animals, fungi, and many
unicellular organisms.
Animal Cell Plant Cell
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Eukaryotes Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more com-

plex than prokaryotic cells. Most eukaryotic cells contain dozens of
structures and internal membranes, and many are highly specialized.
In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus separates the genetic material
from the rest of the cell. Eukaryotes display great variety. Some,
like the ones commonly called “protists,” live solitary lives as unicel-
lular organisms; others form large, multicellular organisms—plants,  INTERACTIVITY
animals, and fungi. Compare and contrast
In multicellular organisms, cells are specialized for specific tasks, prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
such as support, communication, movement, or the production of including their different
DNA structures.
proteins or other cell products. As a general rule, the cells of multi-
cellular organisms cannot survive individually. They work together to
complete the tasks of life.
HS-LS1-2
 LESSON 8.1 Review

KEY QUESTIONS 5. Ask Questions You observe a tiny structure
under a microscope. What question would you
1. How did Hooke’s work contribute to the cell
ask, and then investigate, to determine whether
theory?
the structure was part of a living thing?
2. What does it mean if a micrograph is
6. Integrate Information Review the micrographs
“false-colored?”
of cells shown in Figure 8-3. What information
3. What is the defining characteristic of eukaryotic about cells do these micrographs show? What
cells? What types of organisms have eukaryotic information might the micrographs suggest,
cells? which might not be accurate?
CRITICAL THINKING
4. Construct a Counter-Argument A classmate
argues that Schwann and Schleiden are respon-
sible for the cell theory. How do you respond?
Cite facts and use logical reasoning to support
your argument.

8.2
LESSON
Cell Structure
KEY QUESTIONS
• What is the role of the
cell nucleus?
• What organelles help
make and transport
proteins and other
macromolecules?
• What are the
functions of vacuoles,
lysosomes, and the
cytoskeleton?
• What are the
functions of
chloroplasts and If you’ve ever visited or worked in a factory, you know it can be a
mitochondria?
puzzling place. Machines buzz and clatter; people move quickly in
• What is the different directions. So much activity can be confusing. However, if
function of the cell
you take the time to watch carefully, what might at first seem like
membrane?
chaos begins to make sense. The same is true for the living cell.
HS-LS1-1: Construct an explanation

based on evidence for how the structure
Cell Organization
of DNA determines the structure of
proteins which carry out the essential
A eukaryotic cell is a complex and busy place. But if you look closely
functions of life through systems of at eukaryotic cells, patterns begin to emerge. For example, it’s easy
specialized cells.
HS-LS1-2: Develop and use a model to to divide each cell into two major parts: the nucleus and the cyto-
illustrate the hierarchical organization of
interacting systems that provide specific
plasm. The cytoplasm is the portion of the cell outside the nucleus.
functions within multicellular organisms. Both the nucleus and the cytoplasm work together in the business
of life. The interior of a prokaryotic cell, which lacks a nucleus, is also
VOCABULARY referred to as the cytoplasm.
cytoplasm • organelle In our discussion of cell structure, we will consider each major
ribosome
component of plant and animal eukaryotic cells—some of which are
endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus also found in prokaryotic cells—one by one. Because many of these
vacuole • lysosome structures act like specialized organs, they are known as organelles,
cytoskeleton • chloroplast literally “little organs.” Understanding what each organelle does
mitochondrion helps us understand the cell as a whole. A summary of cell structures
cell wall • lipid bilayer and functions can be found at the end of this lesson.
selectively permeable
Comparing the Cell to a Factory In some respects, the
READING TOOL eukaryotic cell is much like a living version of a modern factory, as
Use the figures in this shown in Figure 8-6. The different organelles of the cell can be com-
lesson to help you identify pared to the specialized machines and assembly lines of a factory.
and describe each part of In addition, cell parts, like people and machines in factories, follow
the cell. Fill in the graphic instructions and produce products. As you read about the organi-
organizer in your Biology
zation of the cell, you’ll find many places in which the comparison
Foundations Workbook.
works so well that it will help you understand how cells function.

The Nucleus In the same way that the main office controls a Visual Analogy
large factory, the nucleus is the control center of the cell. The
Figure 8-6
nucleus contains nearly all the cell’s DNA and, with it, the coded
instructions for making proteins and other important molecules. The Cell as a Factory
Only eukaryotic cells have a nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is
Specialized machines enable
found in the cytoplasm. a factory to function. Similarly,
The nucleus, shown in Figure 8-7, is surrounded by a nuclear specialized structures in a cell
envelope composed of two membranes. The nuclear envelope is enable a cell to carry out the
processes of life.
dotted with thousands of nuclear pores, which allow material to
move into and out of the nucleus. Like messages, instructions, and
blueprints moving in and out of a factory’s main office, a steady
stream of proteins, the nucleic acid RNA, and other molecules move
READING TOOL
through the nuclear pores to and from the rest of the cell.
Using Figure 8-6 and the
Chromosomes, which carry the cell’s genetic information, are also
cell-as-a-factory analogy,
found in the nucleus. Most of the time, the threadlike chromosomes predict the function of
are spread throughout the nucleus in the form of chromatin—a each of the organelles. If
complex of DNA bound to proteins. When a cell divides, its chromo- you cannot identify the
somes condense and can be seen under a microscope. Most nuclei organelle by name, use its
also contain a small dense region known as the nucleolus (noo klee color in your description.
oh lus), where the assembly of ribosomes begins.
 READING CHECK Use an Analogy How is a cell’s cytoplasm

like a factory floor?
Animal Cell
Figure 8-7
Nucleus
Nuclear Chromatin
Both plant and animal cells pores
have a nucleus. Like a factory’s
computing cloud or server Plant Cell Nucleolus
room, the nucleus contains the
information needed for a cell
Nuclear
to function. A cell’s information envelope
is in the form of DNA.
8.2 Cell Structure 249

Organelles That Build Proteins
Life is a dynamic process, and living things are always at work syn-
thesizing new molecules. Because proteins carry out so many of the
essential functions of living things, including the synthesis of other
macromolecules such as lipids and carbohydrates, a big part of the
cell is devoted to their production and distribution. The process of
making proteins is summarized in Figure 8-8.
Ribosomes One of the most important jobs carried out in the

cellular “factory” is making proteins. Proteins are assembled
on ribosomes. Ribosomes are small particles of RNA and protein
found throughout the cytoplasm in both eukaryotes and prokary-
otes. Ribosomes produce proteins by following coded instructions
that come from DNA. Each ribosome, in its own way, is like a small
machine in a factory, turning out proteins on orders that come from
its DNA “boss.” Cells that are especially active in protein synthesis
often contain large numbers of ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Eukaryotic cells contain an internal

membrane system known as the endoplasmic reticulum
(en doh plaz mik reh tik yoo lum), or ER. The endoplasmic reticu-
lum is where lipids, including those needed for the cell membrane,
are synthesized, along with proteins and other materials that are
Figure 8-8 exported from the cell.
Making Proteins The portion of the ER involved in the synthesis of proteins is

called rough endoplasmic reticulum, or rough ER. It is given this
Together, ribosomes, the name because of the ribosomes found on its surface. Newly made
endoplasmic reticulum, and proteins leave these ribosomes and enter the rough ER, where they
the Golgi apparatus synthe- may be chemically modified.
size, modify, package, and
ship proteins.
Nucleus
Rough 1 Proteins are assembled on ribosomes. CYTOPLASM
endoplasmic
reticulum Ribosome
2 Proteins targeted for export to the
cell membrane, or to specialized
locations within the cell, complete
Protein their assembly on ribosomes bound to
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
3 Newly assembled proteins

are carried from the rough
endoplasmic reticulum to the
Golgi apparatus in vesicles.
Smooth Vesicle
endoplasmic
reticulum
Proteins made on the rough ER include those that will be
released, or secreted, from the cell; many membrane proteins;  INTERACTIVITY
and proteins destined for other specialized locations within the Build a cell and look at
cell. Rough ER is abundant in cells that produce large amounts of specialized cells under a
protein for export. Other cellular proteins are made on “free” ribo- microscope.
somes, which are not attached to membranes.
The other portion of the ER is known as smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (smooth ER) because ribosomes are not found on its sur-
face. In many cells, the smooth ER contains collections of enzymes
that perform specialized tasks, including the synthesis of lipids and
the detoxification of drugs. Smooth ER also plays an important role
in the synthesis of carbohydrates.
Golgi Apparatus In eukaryotic cells, proteins produced in the

rough ER move next into an organelle called the Golgi apparatus,
which appears as a stack of flattened membranes. As proteins leave
the rough ER, molecular “address tags” get them to the right desti-
nations. As these tags are “read” by the cell, the proteins are bun-
dled into tiny membrane-enclosed structures called vesicles that bud
from the ER and carry the proteins to the Golgi apparatus. The
Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other
materials from the endoplasmic reticulum for storage in the cell
or release from the cell. The Golgi apparatus is somewhat like a
customization shop, where the finishing touches are put on proteins
before they are ready to leave the “factory.” From the Golgi appa-
ratus, proteins are “shipped” to their final destinations inside or
outside the cell.
 READING CHECK Identify Does the rough ER or the smooth

ER send proteins on to the Golgi apparatus?
4 The Golgi apparatus further

modifies proteins before sorting
and packaging them in Cell membrane
membrane-bound vesicles.
5 Vesicles from the
Golgi apparatus are
shipped to their final
destination in, or out
of, the cell.
Golgi
apparatus

Organelles That Store, Clean Up,
and Support
Cells have many functions to perform other than building and trans-
porting proteins. Structures such as vacuoles, vesicles, lysosomes,
and the cytoskeleton represent the cellular factory’s storage space,
cleanup crew, and support structures.
Vacuoles and Vesicles Every factory needs a place to store

things, and so does every cell. Many cells contain vacuoles, which
are large saclike, membrane-enclosed structures. Vacuoles store
materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates. In many
plant cells, there is a single large central vacuole filled with liquid.
The pressure of the central vacuole in these cells increases their
rigidity, making it possible for plants to support heavy structures,
such as leaves and flowers. Figure 8-9 shows a typical plant cell’s
central vacuole.
Vacuoles are found in many eukaryotic cells. The paramecium in
Figure 8-9 contains an organelle called a contractile vacuole, which
pumps excess water out of the cell.
In addition, nearly all eukaryotic cells contain smaller membrane-
enclosed structures called vesicles. Vesicles store and move materials
between cell organelles, as well as to and from the cell surface.
Contractile
Central vacuole vacuole
TEM 7000× LM 500×
Figure 8-9
Vacuoles
Lysosomes Even the neatest, cleanest factory needs a cleanup
Because water does not crew, and that’s where lysosomes come in. Lysosomes are small
compress, a plant cell’s fluid- organelles filled with enzymes. Lysosomes break down lipids,
filled central vacuole pro- carbohydrates, and proteins into small molecules that can be
vides strength and support. used by the rest of the cell. They are also involved in breaking
A paramecium’s star-shaped
down organelles that have outlived their usefulness. Lysosomes per-
contractile vacuoles contract
form the vital function of removing “junk” that might otherwise accu-
rhythmically to pump excess
water out of the cell.  Infer mulate and clutter up the cell. A number of rare but serious human
What could happen to a plant diseases can be traced to lysosomes that fail to function properly.
if its central vacuoles shrunk Biologists once thought only animal cells contained lysosomes, but it
due to water loss? is now clear that a few types of plant cells contain them as well.
Figure 8-10
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton supports and

gives shape to the cell and is
involved in many forms of cell
movement. These connective
tissue fibroblast cells have
been treated with fluorescent
labels that bind to certain pro-
teins. Microfilaments are pale
purple, microtubules are yel-
LM 630× low, and the nuclei are green.
The Cytoskeleton A factory building is supported by steel

or cement beams and by columns that hold up its walls and roof.
Eukaryotic cells are given their shape and internal organization by a BUILD VOCABULARY
network of protein filaments known as the cytoskeleton. Certain parts Prefixes The prefix cyto- refers
of the cytoskeleton also help transport materials between different to cells. The cytoskeleton acts
parts of the cell, much like the conveyor belts that carry materials from like a skeleton for the cell.
one part of a factory to another. Cytoskeletal components may also be
involved in moving the entire cell, as in cell flagella and cilia. The
cytoskeleton helps the cell maintain its shape and is also involved
in movement. Fluorescence imaging, as seen in Figure 8-10, clearly
shows the complexity of a cell’s cytoskeletal network. Microfilaments
(pale purple) and microtubules (yellow) are two of the principal protein
filaments that make up the cytoskeleton.
Microfilaments Microfilaments are threadlike structures made

up of a protein called actin. They form extensive networks in some
cells and produce a tough, flexible framework that supports the cell.
Microfilaments also help cells move. Microfilament assembly and dis-
assembly are responsible for the cytoplasmic movements that allow
amoebas and other cells to crawl along surfaces.
Microtubules Microtubules are hollow structures made up of

proteins known as tubulins. In many cells, they play critical roles in
maintaining cell shape. Microtubules are also important in cell division,
where they form a structure known as the mitotic spindle, which helps
to separate chromosomes. In animal cells, organelles called centrioles TEM 75,000×
are also formed from tubulins. Centrioles are located near the nucleus
Figure 8-11
and help organize cell division. Centrioles are not found in plant cells.
The “9 + 2” Pattern
Microtubules also help build projections from the cell surface— of Microtubules
known as cilia (singular: cilium) and flagella (singular: flagellum)—
that enable cells to swim rapidly through liquid. The microtubules The microtubules in eukary-
in cilia and flagella are arranged in a “9 + 2” pattern, as shown in otic cilia and flagella are
Figure 8-11. Small cross-bridges between the microtubules in these arranged in a “9 + 2” pattern.
organelles use chemical energy to pull on, or slide along, the micro- In this micrograph showing
the cross section of a group
tubules, producing controlled movements.
of cilia, you can clearly see
the 9 + 2 arrangement of the
 READING CHECK Use an Analogy How is a cell’s cytoskeleton microtubules.
like the girders and beams of a warehouse?
TEM 4500×
TEM 45003
Cellular Solar Panels Cellular Power Plants

Chloroplasts, found in plants and some other Mitochondria convert chemical energy
organisms such as algae, convert energy from the stored in food into a form that can be
sun into chemical energy that is stored in food. used easily by the cell.
CASE STUDY
Figure 8-12 Organelles That Capture
Cellular Powerhouses and Release Energy
All living things require a source of energy. That makes energy con-
Chloroplasts and mitochondria
are both involved in energy
version one of the most important processes in the cell. Factories are
conversion processes within hooked up to the local power company, but how do cells get their
the cell.  Infer Some types energy? Most cells are powered by food molecules that are built
of cells require more energy using energy that ultimately comes from sunlight.
than others to perform their
functions. What could the Chloroplasts Plants and some other organisms contain chloro-
effect be if the mitochondria plasts (klawr uh plasts). Chloroplasts are the biological equivalents
in these cells did not function of solar power plants. Chloroplasts capture the energy from
correctly?
sunlight and convert it into chemical energy stored in food during
photosynthesis. Two membranes surround chloroplasts. Inside the
organelle are large stacks of other membranes, which contain the
green pigment chlorophyll.
Mitochondria Nearly all eukaryotic cells, including plants, con-

tain mitochondria (myt oh kahn dree uh; singular: mitochondrion).
Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell. Mitochondria
convert the chemical energy stored in food molecules into
compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use. Like
chloroplasts, two membranes—an outer membrane and an inner
membrane—enclose mitochondria. The inner membrane is folded
up inside the organelle, as shown in Figure 8-12.

HS-LS1-2
Figure 8-13 Quick Lab 

Lynn Margulis
Open-Ended Inquiry
(1938–2011)
How Can You Make a
Lynn Margulis hypoth- Model of a Cell?
esized that chloroplasts
1. Work together as a class to make
and mitochondria are
a room-sized model of a plant
descended from free-living
cell. Begin by reviewing the
prokaryotes that were
structure of the plant cell shown
engulfed by ancestral in Figure 8-16. With a partner or
eukaryotes. a small group, choose a cell part
or an organelle to model.
2. Using materials of your choice,
make a three-dimensional model
of the cell part or organelle.
3. Label an index card with the
name of your cell structure or
organelle. List its main features
and functions, including how it
interacts with other organelles.
Attach the card to your model.
4. Attach your model to an appro-
priate place in the room. If possi-
ble, attach your model to another
related cell part or organelle.
ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE

One of the most interesting aspects of mitochondria is the way 1. Calculate Assume that a typi-
cal plant cell is 50 micrometers
in which they are inherited. In humans, all or nearly all of our mito-
wide (50 × 10−6 m). Calculate
chondria originate from the cytoplasm of the ovum, or egg cell. the scale of your classroom cell
This means that when your relatives are discussing which side of model. (Hint: Divide the width
the family should take credit for your best characteristics, you can of the classroom by the width
tell them that you got your mitochondria from Mom! of a cell, making sure to use the
same units.)
Another interesting point: Chloroplasts and mitochondria con-
2. Specify Design Constraints How
tain some of their own genetic information in the form of small is your model cell part or organ-
DNA molecules. This observation led biologist Lynn Margulis, elle similar to the real cell part or
shown in Figure 8-13, to suggest that both organelles are organelle? Describe any design
descended from prokaryotic cells that once lived independently. constraints that caused your
Her idea, known as the endosymbiotic theory, is that ancient model cell part or organelle to be
different from the real cell part or
bacteria and photosynthetic cyanobacteria took up residence
organelle.
inside the earliest eukaryotes. This means that both chloroplasts
3. Evaluate Models Exchange
and our own mitochondria owe their existence to the mutualistic
models with another group.
relationship established between these cells more than a billion Evaluate the strengths and limita-
years ago. It also means that genetic changes in human mito- tions of the model. Use the evalu-
chondria can affect the health of our cells and our bodies. One ation to suggest improvements
such change in mitochondrial DNA is responsible for LHON, the for your model.
disorder described in this chapter’s Case Study.
 READING CHECK Use an Analogy How are chloroplasts

like solar panels? How are mitochondria like electric power plants?

Cellular Boundaries
A working factory needs walls and a roof to protect it from the envi-
ronment outside and also to serve as a barrier that keeps its products
safe and secure until they are ready to be shipped out. Cells have
similar needs, and they meet them in a similar way. As you have
learned, all cells are surrounded by a barrier known as the cell mem-
brane. Many cells, including most prokaryotes, also produce a strong
supporting layer around the membrane known as a cell wall.
Cell Walls Many organisms have cell walls that lie just outside
 INTERACTIVITY their cell membranes. The main function of the cell wall is to support,
Compare and contrast shape, and protect the cell. Most prokaryotes and many eukaryotes,
structures in animal and including plants and fungi, have cell walls, although animal cells do
plant cells. not. Most cell walls are porous enough to allow water, oxygen, car-
bon dioxide, and certain other substances to pass through easily.
Cell walls provide much of the strength needed for plants to
stand against the force of gravity. In trees and other large plants,
nearly all of the tissue we call wood is made up of cell walls. The
cellulose fiber used for paper as well as the lumber used for build-
ing comes from these walls. So if you are reading these words from a
sheet of paper in a book resting on a wooden desk, you’ve got cell
walls all around you.
Cell Membranes All cells contain cell membranes, generally

made up of a double-layered sheet called a lipid bilayer, as shown in
Figure 8-14. The lipid bilayer gives cell membranes a flexible struc-
ture that forms a strong barrier between the cell and its surround-
ings. The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the
cell and also protects and supports the cell.
Figure 8-14
Cell Membrane
Every cell has a membrane that regulates the movement of materials. Nearly
all cell membranes are made up of a lipid bilayer in which proteins and
carbohydrates are embedded.
OUTSIDE Hydrophilic head

Cell Membrane OF CELL Lipid
Hydrophobic tail
Carbohydrate chain
Membrane
Lipid proteins
Bilayer
TEM 30003
INSIDE OF CELL
(CYTOPLASM)
TEM 1400×

The Properties of Lipids The layered structure of cell membranes
reflects the chemical properties of the lipids that make them up. You
may recall that many lipids have oily fatty acid chains attached to
chemical groups that interact strongly with water. In the language of
a chemist, the fatty acid portions of this kind of lipid are hydropho-
bic (hy druh foh bik), or “water-hating,” while the opposite end of
the molecule is hydrophilic (hy druh fil ik), or “water-loving.” When
these lipids, which are common in cell membranes, are mixed with
water, their hydrophobic fatty acid “tails” cluster together, while their
hydrophilic “heads” are attracted to water. A lipid bilayer is the result.
As you can see in Figure 8-14, the head groups of lipids are exposed
on both sides of the membrane, while the fatty acid tails form an oily
layer inside the membrane that keeps water from passing across it.
Although many substances can cross cell membranes, some are too
large or too strongly charged to cross the lipid bilayer. If a substance is
able to cross a membrane, the membrane is said to be permeable to it.
A membrane is impermeable to substances that cannot pass across it.
Most cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning that some
substances can pass across them and others cannot. Selectively per-
meable membranes are also called semipermeable membranes.
The Fluid Mosaic Model Protein molecules are embedded in

the lipid bilayer of most cell membranes. Carbohydrate molecules
are attached to many of these proteins. Because the proteins embed-
ded in the lipid bilayer can move around and “float” among the lipids,
and because so many different kinds of molecules make up the cell
membrane, scientists describe the cell membrane as a “fluid mosaic.” Figure 8-15
(A mosaic is a kind of art, such as the example shown in Figure 8-15, Mosaic
that involves putting bits and pieces of different colors or materials
Mosaics are made by assem-
together.) Some of these proteins form channels and pumps that help bling small pieces of different
to move material across the cell membrane. Many of the carbohydrate colors and types of materials.
molecules act like chemical identification cards, allowing individual cells Similarly, cell membranes are
to identify one another. Some proteins attach directly to the cytoskel- made up of different kinds of
eton, enabling cells to respond to their environment by using their molecules.
membranes to help move or change shape.
HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2

KEY QUESTIONS CRITICAL THINKING
1. What are the two major parts of a eukaryotic cell? 6. Develop a Model Using Figure 8-16 on the
next page as a guide, draw your own models
2. Describe the steps in making, packaging, and
of a prokaryotic cell, a plant cell, and an animal
exporting a protein from a cell.
cell. Then use each of the vocabulary words
3. Compare the role of vacuoles and lysosomes from this lesson to label your cells. Describe any
in a cell. differences between the models in Figure 8-16
4. Explain why plant cells require both chloroplasts and your models.
and mitochondria to meet their energy needs. 7. Cite Evidence What evidence supports the argu-
5. Explain how the structure of a cell’s membrane is ment that ancestors of mitochondria and chloro-
related to its function. plasts once lived as independent organisms?

 INTERACTIVITY
Visual Summary ANIMAL CELL

Figure 8-16 Cell
Comparing Typical Cells membrane Nucleus (contains DNA)
Eukaryotic cells have many differ- Rough endoplasmic

ent kinds of organelles. Some of reticulum
these organelles are also found in Ribosomes (attached)
prokaryotic cells. The table on the Ribosomes (free)
facing page compares prokaryotic
Smooth endoplas-
cells, animal cells, and plant cells. mic reticulum
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Lysosome
Vesicle
Golgi Mitochondrion
apparatus
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Ribosomes
DNA Vacuole
Cell
membrane
Cell
wall PLANT CELL
Nucleus (contains DNA)
Cell
membrane Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Cell
Ribosomes (attached)
wall
Ribosomes (free)
Vacuole Smooth endoplasmic

reticulum
Central vacuole
Cytoskeleton
Golgi
apparatus Chloroplast
Vesicle
Mitochondrion

Eukaryote:
Structure Function Prokaryote
Animal Plant
Cellular Nucleus Contains DNA Prokaryote DNA
Control is found in ✓ ✓
Center cytoplasm.
Ribosomes Synthesize
✓ ✓ ✓
proteins
Endoplasmic Assembles pro-
✓ ✓
reticulum teins and lipids
Organelles That Golgi Modifies, sorts,
Build Proteins apparatus and packages
proteins and lipids
✓ ✓
for storage or
transport out of
the cell
Vacuoles and Store materials
✓ ✓ ✓
vesicles
Lysosomes Break down
✓
and recycle ✓
(Rare)
Organelles That macromolecules
Store, Clean-Up, Cytoskeleton Maintains cell Prokaryotic cells
and Support shape; moves cell have protein
✓ ✓
parts; helps cells filaments similar to
move actin and tubulin
Centrioles Organize cell
✓
division
Chloroplasts Convert solar In some
energy to chemical prokaryotic cells,
energy stored in photosynthesis
food occurs in associa- ✓
tion with internal
Organelles That photosynthetic
Capture and membranes.
Release Energy Mitochondria Convert chemical Prokaryotes carry
energy in food to out these
usable compounds reactions in the
✓ ✓
cytoplasm rather
than in specialized
organelles.
Cell wall Shapes, supports,
and protects the ✓ ✓
cell
Cellular Cell Regulates
Boundaries membrane materials entering
and leaving cell; ✓ ✓ ✓
protects and
supports cell

8.3
LESSON
Cell Transport
KEY QUESTIONS
• How does passive
transport work?
• How does active
transport work?
HS-LS1-2: Develop and use a model to

functions within multicellular organisms.
HS-LS1-3: Plan and conduct an
investigation to provide evidence
that feedback mechanisms maintain In the previous lesson, we compared cell walls and cell membranes to
homeostasis.
the roof and walls of a factory. When you think about how cells move
materials in and out, it might be more helpful to think of a cell as a
VOCABULARY nation. The boundaries of a nation are its borders, and nearly every
homeostasis nation tries to regulate and control the goods that move across its
diffusion borders, like the shipping containers seen here entering and leaving
facilitated diffusion
a seaport. Each cell has its own border, which separates the cell from
aquaporin
osmosis its surroundings and also determines what comes in and what goes
isotonic out. How can a cell separate itself from its environment and still allow
hypertonic materials to enter and leave? That’s where the transport of molecules
hypotonic across its border, the cell membrane, comes in.
osmotic pressure
Passive Transport
READING TOOL Every living cell exists in a liquid environment. One of the most
As you read, compare important processes carried out by the cell membrane is to keep
and contrast passive and a cell in homeostasis. Homeostasis is a state of relatively constant
active transport. Complete internal physical and chemical conditions. It does this by regulating
the Venn Diagram in your
the movement of molecules and other substances from one side of
Biology Foundations
the membrane to the other side.
Workbook.
Diffusion The cytoplasm consists of many different substances

dissolved in water. In any solution, solute particles move constantly.
They collide with one another and tend to spread out randomly. As a
result, the particles tend to move from an area where they are more
concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated. When you
add sugar to coffee or tea, for example, the sugar molecules move
away from their original positions in the sugar crystals and disperse
throughout the hot liquid. The process by which particles move from
an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
is known as diffusion (dih fyoo zhun). Diffusion is the driving force
behind the movement of many substances across the cell membrane.
There is a higher concentration of Diffusion causes a net movement Once equilibrium is reached,
solute on one side of the mem- of solute particles from the side solute particles continue to
brane than on the other. of the membrane with the diffuse across the membrane in
higher solute concentration to both directions but at approxi-
the side with the lower solute mately equal rates, so there
concentration. is no net change in solute
concentration.
Figure 8-17 shows a substance that can cross the cell membrane. Figure 8-17
Its molecules will tend to move toward the area where it is less con- Diffusion
centrated until it is evenly distributed. Equilibrium is reached when
the concentration of the substance on both sides of the cell mem- Diffusion is the process by
brane is the same. Even at equilibrium, molecules continue to move which molecules move from an
across the membrane in both directions. However, there is no further area of higher concentration to
net change in the concentration on either side. an area of lower concentration.
The cell does not use energy
Diffusion depends on random molecular movements. Therefore, during this process.
substances diffuse across membranes without requiring the cell to
use additional energy. The movement of molecules across the
cell membrane without using cellular energy is called passive
transport.
Facilitated Diffusion Since cell membranes are built

around lipid bilayers, the molecules that pass through them
most easily are small and uncharged. These properties allow
them to dissolve in the membrane’s lipid environment. But
many charged ions, like Cl−, and large molecules, like the
sugar glucose, seem to pass through cell membranes very
quickly, as if they have a shortcut.
HS-LS1-3
How does this happen? Proteins in the cell membrane
act as carriers, or channels, making it easy for certain mol-  Exploration Lab
ecules to cross. Red blood cells, for example, have pro-
tein carriers that allow the sugar glucose to pass through
Open-ended Inquiry
them in either direction. These channels facilitate, or help, Detecting Diffusion
the diffusion of glucose across the membrane. In facilitated Problem How can you model the
diffusion, molecules that cannot directly diffuse across the diffusion of solutes across a cell
membrane pass through special protein channels. Hundreds membrane?
of different proteins allow substances to cross cell mem- In this lab, you will use dialysis tubing
branes. Although facilitated diffusion is fast and specific to to model a cell membrane. You will
certain molecules, it is still diffusion, so it does not require use the model to determine the role
of cellular transport in maintaining
any use of the cell’s energy.
homeostasis.
You can find this lab in your digital
 READING CHECK Compare What is the difference
course.
between diffusion and facilitated diffusion?
8.3 Cell Transport 261

Figure 8-18 Osmosis: An Example of Facilitated Diffusion In the
Aquaporins 1990s, researchers discovered that water should be added to the list
of molecules that enter cells by facilitated diffusion. Recall that the
Aquaporins assist the move- inside of a cell’s lipid bilayer is hydrophobic. As a result, water mol-
ment of water molecules ecules cannot easily diffuse through the cell membrane. However,
through the cell membrane. many cells contain water channel proteins, known as aquaporins
(ak wuh paw rinz), that allow water to pass right through them, as
shown in Figure 8-18. The movement of water through cell mem-
Cell branes by facilitated diffusion plays a role in an extremely important
membrane Aquaporin
biological process—the process of osmosis.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a selectively perme-
able membrane. In osmosis, as in other forms of diffusion, molecules
move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower con-
centration. The only difference is that the molecules moving in the
case of osmosis are water molecules, not solute molecules.
Water
How Osmosis Works Look at the experimental setup in
Figure 8-19A. The barrier is permeable to water but not to sugar.
This means that water can cross the barrier in both directions, but
sugar cannot. To start, there are more sugar molecules on the right
side of the barrier than on the left side. Therefore, the concentration
 INTERACTIVITY
of water is lower on the right, where more of the solution is made of
Investigate the movement of sugar. Although water molecules move in both directions across the
water during osmosis.
membrane, there is a net transport of water toward the concentrated
sugar solution. Water will tend to move across the membrane until
Figure 8-19 equilibrium is reached. At that point, the concentrations of water
Osmosis and sugar will be the same on both sides of the membrane. When
this happens, the two solutions will be isotonic, which means “same
Osmosis is a form of facilitated strength.” Note that “strength” refers to the amount of solute, not
diffusion. A. In a laboratory water. When the experiment began, the more concentrated sugar
experiment, water moves solution on the right side of the tube was hypertonic, or “above
through a selectively permeable
strength,” compared to the left side. So the dilute sugar solution was
barrier from lower to higher
hypotonic, or “below strength.” Figure 8-19B shows how osmosis
solute concentration. B. In the
cell, water passes by osmosis works across a cell membrane.
through aquaporins embedded
in the cell membrane.
Lower concentration Higher concentration Water level rises on side with the
of sugar molecules of sugar molecules more concentrated solution Sugar
Sugar
A Barrier B

Osmotic Pressure Driven by differences in solute concentration, BUILD VOCABULARY
the net movement of water out of or into a cell produces a force Academic Words The word
known as osmotic pressure. As shown in Figure 8-20, osmotic pres- pressure means “force applied
sure can cause an animal cell in a hypertonic solution to shrink and over an area.” Water pressure
one in a hypotonic solution to swell. Because cells contain salts, is caused by the force of water
sugars, proteins, and other dissolved molecules, they are almost molecules hitting the sides
always hypertonic to fresh water. As a result, water tends to move of their container. Osmotic
pressure is caused by the dif-
quickly into a cell surrounded by fresh water, causing it to swell.
ference in the forces of water
Eventually, the cell may burst like an overinflated balloon. In plant
molecules hitting either side of
cells, osmotic pressure can cause changes in the size of the central the cell membrane.
vacuole, which shrinks or swells as water moves into or out of the cell.
Fortunately, cells in large organisms are not in danger of burst-
ing, because most of them do not come in contact with fresh water.
Instead, the cells are bathed in blood or other isotonic fluids. The
concentrations of dissolved materials in these isotonic fluids are
roughly equal to those in the cells themselves.
 INTERACTIVITY
Discover how cell transport
What happens when cells do come in contact with fresh water?
occurs in plants when they
Some, like the eggs laid in fresh water by fish and frogs, lack water chan- are exposed to different
nels. As a result, water moves into them so slowly that osmotic pressure conditions.
is not a problem. Others, including bacteria and plant cells, are sur-
rounded by tough walls. The cell walls prevent the cells from expanding,
even under tremendous osmotic pressure. Notice how the plant cell in
Figure 8-20 holds its shape in both hypertonic and hypotonic solutions, Figure 8-20
but the animal red blood cell does not. However, increased osmotic
Osmotic Pressure
pressure does make plant cells extremely vulnerable to cell wall injuries.
Different solute concentrations
 READING CHECK Summarize In your own words, explain why inside and outside of the cell
osmosis is really just a special case of facilitated diffusion. can lead to a net loss or net
gain of water.
The Effects of Osmosis on Cells

Isotonic: The concentration Hypertonic: The solution has Hypotonic: The solution has
of solutes is the same inside a higher solute concentration a lower solute concentration
Solution and outside the cell. Water than the cell. A net movement than the cell. A net movement
molecules move equally in of water molecules out of the of water molecules into the
both directions. cell causes it to shrink. cell causes it to swell.
Animal
Cell
Water in and out Water out Water in

Cell membrane Central
Cell wall vacuole
Plant
Cell
Water in and out Water out Water in

Protein Pumps Endocytosis Exocytosis
Energy from ATP is used to pump small The membrane forms a pocket The membrane of a vesicle
molecules and ions across the cell around a particle. The pocket surrounds the material then fuses
membrane. Active transport proteins then breaks loose from the cell with the cell membrane. The
change shape during the process, binding membrane and forms a vesicle contents are forced out of the cell.
substances on one side of the membrane, within the cytoplasm.
and releasing them on the other.
CYTOPLASM
ATP ADP
Vesicle
Cell
membrane
Protein pump
Molecule to be carried
 ANIMATION Active Transport

Although diffusion is useful, cells sometimes must transport materials
Visual Summary against a concentration difference. The movement of materials
against a concentration difference is known as active transport,
Figure 8-21
and it requires energy. The active transport of small molecules or
Active Transport ions across a cell membrane is generally carried out by transport
proteins—protein pumps—that are found in the membrane. Larger
Energy from the cell is needed
molecules and clumps of material can also be actively transported
to move substances against
across the cell membrane by processes known as endocytosis
a concentration difference.
and exocytosis. The transport of these larger materials sometimes
 Compare and Contrast involves changes in the shape of the cell membrane. The major types
What are the similarities and
differences between facilitated of active transport are shown in Figure 8-21.
diffusion and active transport
by a protein pump? Molecular Transport Small molecules and ions are carried
across membranes by proteins in the membrane that act like pumps.
Many cells use protein pumps to move calcium, potassium, and
sodium ions across cell membranes. Cells spend a considerable por-
tion of their energy use on molecular transport. The use of energy in
these systems enables cells to concentrate substances in a particular
location, even when the forces of diffusion might tend to move these
substances in the opposite direction.
Bulk Transport Larger molecules and even solid clumps of mate-

rial can be transported by movements of the cell membrane known
as bulk transport. Bulk transport can take several forms, depending
on the size and shape of the material moved into or out of the cell.

Endocytosis Endocytosis (en doh sy toh sis) is the process of tak- Figure 8-22
ing material into the cell by means of infoldings, or pockets, of the Phagocytosis
cell membrane. Figure 8-21 shows how the pocket that results breaks
loose from the cell membrane and forms a vesicle or vacuole within An amoeba (blue) is consuming
the cytoplasm. Large molecules, clumps of food, and even whole an algal cell using phagocyto-
cells can be taken up in this way. sis. The amoeba will surround
the algal cell. Then chemicals
Phagocytosis (fag oh sy toh sis) is a type of endocytosis in inside the amoeba will break
which extensions of cytoplasm surround a particle and package it down the algal cell for nutrients
within a food vacuole. The cell then engulfs it. White blood cells and energy.
use phagocytosis to remove damaged or foreign cells and destroy
them. Amoebas use this method for taking in food, as shown in
Figure 8-22. Engulfing material in this way requires a considerable
amount of energy and is considered a form of active transport.
Many cells take up liquid from the surrounding environment in
a process similar to phagocytosis. During a type of endocytosis
called pinocytosis (py nuh sy toh sis), tiny pockets form along the
cell membrane, fill with liquid, and pinch off to form vacuoles.
Exocytosis Many cells also release large amounts of material, a

process known as exocytosis (ek soh sy toh sis). During exocytosis,
the membrane of the vesicle or vacuole surrounding the mate-
rial fuses with the cell membrane, forcing the contents out of the
cell. The removal of water by means of a contractile vacuole is one
example of this kind of active transport.
From its simple beginnings, life has spread to every corner of our
planet, penetrating deep below Earth’s surface and far beneath the
surface of the seas. The diversity of life is so great that you might TEM 3000×
have to remind yourself that all living things are composed of cells,
have the same basic chemical makeup, and even contain the same READING TOOL
kinds of organelles. This does not mean that all living things are the
same. As you’ll discover in Lesson 8.4, differences arise from the Without using the word
endocytosis, summarize
ways in which cells are specialized and the ways in which cells associ-
how a white blood cell
ate with one another to form multicellular organisms.
would engulf a damaged
cell.
HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3

KEY QUESTIONS 4. Apply Scientific Reasoning How are the trans-
port problems of a freshwater organism different
1. Describe how molecules enter and leave a cell
from those of a saltwater organism?
without the use of the cell’s energy.
5. Develop Models A student draws a fence
2. Describe the two major types of active transport.
with several gates as part of a model of cellular
CRITICAL THINKING transport. Explain what the fence and the gates
represent, relating their structures to their func-
3. Construct an Explanation Water molecules dif-
tions. Explain how the model could represent
fuse through the cell membrane through aquapo-
both active transport using protein pumps and
rins. How are these proteins helpful in osmosis?
facilitated diffusion.

8.4
LESSON
Homeostasis and Cells
KEY QUESTIONS
• How do single-celled
organisms maintain
homeostasis?
• How do the cells
of a multicellular
organism work
together to maintain
homeostasis?
HS-LS1-2: Develop and use a model to SEM 750×

functions within multicellular organisms.
HS-LS1-3: Plan and conduct an Cells are the basic living units of all organisms, but sometimes a
investigation to provide evidence
that feedback mechanisms maintain single cell actually is the organism. In fact, in terms of their numbers,
homeostasis.
unicellular organisms dominate life on Earth. This false-color micro-
graph shows a type of plankton (in blue). Plankton are unicellular
VOCABULARY marine organisms that do everything you would expect a living thing
tissue to do.
organ
organ system
receptor
The Cell as an Organism
Just like other living things, unicellular organisms must maintain
READING TOOL homeostasis, relatively constant internal physical and chemical condi-
tions. To maintain homeostasis, unicellular organisms grow,
As you read the text, fill
respond to the environment, transform energy, and reproduce.
in the graphic organizer
in your Biology Unicellular organisms include both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Foundations Workbook to Prokaryotes, especially bacteria, are remarkably adaptable. Bacteria
show the progression from live almost everywhere—in the soil, on leaves, in the ocean, in the
specialized cells to organ air, even within the human body.
systems.
Many eukaryotes, like amoebas and many algae, also live as sin-
gle cells. Yeasts, or unicellular fungi, are common worldwide. Yeasts
play an important role in breaking down complex nutrients, making
them available for other organisms. People use yeasts to make bread
and other foods.
Prokaryote or eukaryote, homeostasis is still an issue for each
unicellular organism. A tiny cell in a pond or on the surface of your
pencil still needs to find sources of energy or food, to keep concen-
trations of water and minerals within certain levels, and to respond
quickly to changes in its environment. The microscopic world around
us is filled with unicellular organisms that successfully maintain
homeostatic balance.

Multicellular Life
Unlike most unicellular organisms, the cells of humans and other
multicellular organisms do not live on their own. They are interdepen-  INTERACTIVITY
dent. Like the members of a baseball team, they work together. In Learn about cell differentia-
baseball, each player occupies a particular position: pitcher, catcher, tion and cell specialization.
infielder, outfielder. To play the game effectively, players and coaches
communicate with one another by sending and receiving signals.
Cells in a multicellular organism work the same way. The cells of
multicellular organisms become specialized for particular tasks
and communicate with one another to maintain homeostasis.
Cell Specialization Although we each began life as a single

cell, that cell grew and divided to give rise to many other cells. The
new cells became specialized, with different cell types playing differ-
ent roles. Some cells became specialized to move. Other cells react
to the environment. Still other cells produce substances needed by
the rest of the body. No matter what its role, each specialized cell
contributes to homeostasis in a multicellular organism.
 READING CHECK Compare How does homeostasis compare

between unicellular and multicellular organisms?
Specialized Animal Cells All of your cells need oxygen,

and they release carbon dioxide as waste. Carrying gases to
and from the body is the job of red blood cells, which are
shown in pink in the micrograph. These cells flow through
blood vessels of varying lengths and widths. In this micro-
graph, the cells in the wall of the blood vessel and surround-
ing tissue are stained purple. Notice that the vessel is wide
enough for many red blood cells to pass together. The path
through the narrowest vessels, called capillaries, is only as
wide as a single red blood cell.
LM 200×
Specialized Plant Cells This micrograph shows plant cells

that contain many green, oval-shaped structures. These struc-
tures are chloroplasts, the organelles where photosynthesis
occurs. Specialized cells with numerous chloroplasts typically
make up the leaves of most plants. Cells in other plant parts
have few if any chloroplasts, and are specialized for other
purposes. Root cells have tiny hairs on their outer layer, which
help take in water. In some flowers, certain cells are special-
ized for making sweet-smelling nectar, which attracts animal
pollinators.
LM 700×
8.4 Homeostasis and Cells 267

HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3
CASE STUDY Analyzing Data Mitochondria Distribution
Mitochondria in a Mouse Heart, left ventricle

Some cells have more mitochondria Heart, left atrium
Organ
than others. Scientists isolated the
mitochondria from mouse cells and Liver
then calculated the percentage of the Pituitary gland
cell that mitochondria would fill by vol-
ume. The greater the percentage, the 0 10 20 30 40 50
more mitochondria in the cell. The bar (Approximate % of cell volume)
graph shows the results.
1. Interpret Graphs Compare the
2. Draw Conclusions How is it useful for organisms to have
distribution of mitochondria in the
an uneven distribution of mitochondria among their cells?
four organs, or organ parts, shown
in the graph. 3. Infer Which of these tissues would be most vulnerable to
problems caused by defective mitochondria? Explain.
READING TOOL Levels of Organization The specialized cells of multicellular

Draw a concept map organisms are organized into tissues, then into organs, and finally
to model the levels of into organ systems, as shown in Figure 8-23. A tissue is a group
organization. Use the of similar cells that perform a particular function. Many tasks in the
model to illustrate the body are too complicated to be carried out by just one type of
interactions between cells, tissue. In these cases, many groups of tissues work together as an
tissues, organs, and an organ. For example, the brain is an individual organ. It is made of
organ system. nerve tissue, as well as fat tissue and blood vessels. Each type of
tissue performs an essential task to help the organ function. In most
cases, an organ completes a series of specialized tasks. A group of
organs that work together to perform a specific function is called
 INTERACTIVITY an organ system. For example, the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
throughout the body work together as the nervous system.
Figure 8-23
Levels of Organization
The organization of the body’s cells into tissues, organs, and
organ systems creates a division of labor among those cells that
Nerve cells, or neurons, make allows the organism to maintain homeostasis. Specialization and
up nerve tissue. Tissues com- interdependence are two of the remarkable attributes of living
bine to make up organs, such things. Appreciating these characteristics is an important step in
as the brain. The brain, spinal understanding the nature of living things.
cord, and nerves make up the
nervous system.
Neuron Nerve tissue Brain Nervous system

Figure 8-24
Cellular Junctions
Some cellular junctions hold

cells together in tight forma-
tions. This micrograph shows
junctions between epithelial
cells in the human body.
(TEM 47,500×).
Cellular Communication Cells in a large organism commu-

nicate by means of chemical signals that are passed from one cell  VIDEO
to another. These cellular signals can speed up or slow down the Explore how cystic fibrosis
activities of the cells that receive them and can even cause a cell to starts as a problem with
change what it is doing in a most dramatic way. cell transport that leads to
problems with homeostasis
Certain cells in the heart, the liver, and other organs form connec- at the organism level.
tions, or cellular junctions, to neighboring cells. Some of these junc-
tions, such as those shown in Figure 8-24, hold cells together firmly.
Others allow small molecules carrying chemical messages or signals
to pass directly from one cell to the next. To respond to one of these BUILD VOCABULARY
chemical signals, a cell must have a receptor to which the signal-
Related Words The term
ing molecule can bind. Some receptors are on the cell membrane. receptor is related to the
Receptors for other types of signals are inside the cytoplasm. verb receive, which means
In many animals, impulses carried by nerve cells, or neurons, carry “to accept or take.” A recep-
tor accepts and responds to
messages rapidly from one part of the body to another. An example
molecular signals.
is the optic nerve, which carries visual information from the eye to
the brain. A steady supply of energy, produced by mitochondria,
is necessary to keep neurons functioning. Without enough energy,
neurons may fail to function and even die. This is what happens as a
result of the defective mitochondria caused by LHON.
HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3

KEY QUESTIONS 4. Evaluate a Model Review Figure 8-23. How well
does the diagram represent the levels of organi-
1. In what ways do single-celled organisms maintain
zation of multicellular organisms? How could the
homeostasis?
model be improved?
2. What are two ways the cells of multicellular
5. Use Analogies Think of an example from your
organisms enable the organism to maintain
own life such as school, sports, or an extracurricu-
homeostasis?
lar activity. Develop an analogy to explain why
CRITICAL THINKING specialization and communication are as impor-
tant to that activity as they are to a cell.
3. Construct an Argument Give three reasons
supported by the text that “specialization and 6. CASE STUDY Explain the relationship among
interdependence” could be considered the keys homeostasis, defective mitochondria, and the
to homeostasis in a multicellular organism. symptoms caused by LHON.
8.4 Homeostasis and Cells 269

CASE STUDY WRAP-UP
What’s happening
to me?
LHON is an inherited mitochondrial disorder. How could a
mitochondrial defect be related to vision and heart problems?
HS-LS1-1, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.1, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.7
Make Your Case

Mitochondria are organelles in cells throughout the body. LHON is
caused by a defect in mitochondrial DNA that affects their function
as energy-generating organelles. How might this be linked to the
symptoms of LHON? And how might it be possible to prevent this
disorder from being passed from parent to child?
Construct an Explanation
1. Cite Evidence Although the genes that cause LHON are found in cells
throughout the body, LHON especially affects specific cells in the eyes
and heart. Why do you think that tissues with these cells are among
the first to fail as a result of defective mitochondria? Cite evidence
from the text to support your claim.
2. Construct an Explanation Draw an illustration that explains the pro-
cedure described in Technology on the Case. Then, using your illustra-
tion and evidence from the text, construct an explanation for how this
procedure prevents the transmission of LHON from one generation to
the next.

Technology on the Case
Stopping LHON Before It Starts
In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a technique many
couples have used to help them have children.
Sperm from the father are mixed with an egg
cell from the mother in the laboratory. If fertil-
ization is successful, the growing cluster of cells
is implanted into the mother’s uterus, where it
develops into a baby. Scientists have used this
This image shows how the world may technique to develop a way to prevent mito-
look to a person with LHON.
chondrial diseases from being passed from
mother to child.
Careers on the Case The method involves removing the nucleus

from an egg cell and transferring it to the
Work Toward a Solution cytoplasm of an egg cell from a third parent: a
female donor with healthy mitochondria. That
New technologies sometimes raise com-
egg cell is then fertilized with sperm from the
plex societal issues. Many careers combine
father, and implanted back into the mother who
both knowledge and understanding of cells
provided the egg nucleus as it develops.
and ethics.
If the procedure is successful, the child that
Bioethicist results will inherit nearly all of his or her genes
As medical technol- from the mother and father, but the mitochon-
ogy develops, serious drial DNA (0.2% of all DNA) will come from the
ethical and moral issues cytoplasm donor. In 2016, the first baby was
often arise. Bioethicists born who was the result of this technique.
are trained to deal with The United Kingdom has approved this tech-
issues involving biology, nique to help women at risk of passing mito-
philosophy, and moral chondrial disorders to their offspring. While this
reasoning. They advise medical institutions and practice might indeed help to eliminate such
government agencies on questions of ethics. disorders, it also raises moral and ethical issues.
The technique allows physicians to make perma-
nent, heritable changes to human beings.
 VIDEO
Learn more about careers in
bioethics and related fields.
Case Study Wrap-Up 271

CHAPTER 8
STUDY GUIDE
Lesson Review
Go to your Biology Foundations Workbook for longer versions of these lesson summaries.
8.1 Life Is Cellular 8.2 Cell Structure

The smallest living unit of any organism is the cell. All cells have specialized structures called organ-
Most cells can be seen only with the aid of a micro- elles. Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, which
scope. The cell theory states that all living things contains nearly all the cell’s DNA and is the control
are made up of cells; cells are the basic units of center of the cell. Proteins are assembled on the
structure and function in living things; and new ribosomes. Cell membrane proteins and lipids are
cells are produced from existing cells. made in association with the endoplasmic reticu-
lum. The Golgi apparatus sorts and packages
Cells were discovered in the 1600s. As micro- proteins and other materials from the endoplasmic
scopes were improved, scientists learned about reticulum for use inside or outside the cell.
the parts of the cell and how cells function. Today,
electron microscopes can show cell structures as Vacuoles store water, salts, proteins, and carbo-
small as 1 billionth of a meter wide. hydrates. Lysosomes contain enzymes to break
down these nutrients in the cell. The cytoskeleton
All cells contain DNA at some point and are sur- maintains shape in eukaryotic cells and is involved
rounded by a cell membrane. Eukaryotic cells are in movement.
usually larger and more complex than prokaryotic
cells. In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus separates In plant cells, chloroplasts use sunlight to produce
the genetic material from the rest of the cell. energy rich compounds. Mitochondria convert
Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. chemical energy into compounds the cell can use.
Cell walls surround cell membranes and support

• cell • nucleus
and protect plant, fungal, and prokaryotic cells.
• cell theory • eukaryote
Cell membranes, which regulate the substances
• cell membrane • prokaryote
that enter and leave the cell, are made up of a flex-
ible lipid bilayer and are selectively permeable.
Animal Cell Plant Cell
• cytoplasm • cytoskeleton
• organelle • chloroplast
• ribosome • mitochondrion
• endoplasmic reticulum • cell wall
• Golgi apparatus • lipid bilayer
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC • vacuole • selectively permeable
CELL CELLS • lysosome
Compare and Contrast H ow are the three types

of cells shown here alike? How are they different?
Use Visuals W rite a caption to accompany this

art piece. The caption should include the ultimate
product produced by these three structures and
their individual functions.
8.3 Cell Transport 8.4 Homeostasis and Cells
Homeostasis refers to the relatively constant inter- Like other living things, unicellular organisms
nal physical and chemical conditions of an organ- must maintain homeostasis. To do so, they grow,
ism. The cell membrane regulates substances that respond to the environment, use energy, and
move across it. The movement of molecules across reproduce. There are both prokaryotic and eukary-
the cell membrane without the use of energy is otic unicellular organisms. Unicellular eukaryotes
called passive transport. During diffusion, sub- include protists, some algae, and some fungi.
stances move from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration. During facili- In multicellular organisms, such as plants and ani-
tated diffusion, molecules move through protein mals, cells become specialized to perform specific
channels in the cell membrane. tasks. The different cells communicate and work
with each other to maintain homeostasis.
Water moves through channels called aquaporins
during osmosis. When the solutions on either side Specialized cells are organized into tissues, organs,
of a membrane are the same in concentration, and organ systems. A tissue is a group of similar
they are isotonic. A more concentrated solution is cells that perform a function. An organ is made up
hypertonic; a more dilute solution is hypotonic. of many groups of tissues that work together. An
organ system is composed of a group of organs
The movement of material against a concentra- that work together to carry out a task.
tion difference requires energy and is called active
transport. Molecular transport of small molecules • tissue • organ system
is carried out by proteins in the cell membrane. • organ • receptor
Larger molecules enter the cell by endocytosis and
exit the cell by exocytosis. Synthesize Information H ow is the pumping
action of contractile vacuoles an example of how a
• homeostasis • isotonic cell maintains homeostasis?
• diffusion • hypertonic
• facilitated diffusion • hypotonic
• aquaporin • osmotic pressure
• osmosis
Identify Patterns W
hat do all forms of active
transport have in common?
Organize Information
Complete the concept map by listing the cell structures that are involved in each function.
Control Energy
1. 2.
Cell Functions
Making Proteins Boundaries
3. 4.
Study Guide 273

PERFORMANCE-BASED ASSESSMENT
Bioremediation
Using Cells to Clean Up Pollution
Evaluate a Solution
HS-ETS1-3, HS-LS1-7, HS-LS4-6, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.4, CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.8
STEM As you read in this chapter, all cells Today, scientists and engineers are finding new
break apart food molecules to gain uses for the “clean up” abilities of bacteria, pro-
energy. Have you ever wondered which mole- tists, and fungi. One of these uses is the clean-
cules are useful as food, and which molecules are ing up of pollutants and toxic wastes! The term
not useful? For many cells, useful foods come in a bioremediation is used to describe any clean-up
wider variety than you might guess. process that involves living things. Some bacteria
can remove heavy metals, such as lead, from a
Consider cellulose and lignin, two compounds contaminated area. Fungi are useful for bioreme-
that provide the toughness in wood, leaves, and diation because of the powerful enzymes they
other plant parts. Humans and most other ani- release. The enzymes can break apart pesticides,
mals lack the enzymes to break apart cellulose dyes, and toxic byproducts from paper-making
and lignin, which is why you cannot live on a diet and other industrial processes. Some fungi can
of paper scraps and wood shavings. However, be used to absorb oil from an oil spill.
both compounds are useful foods for decompos-
ers, a group of organisms that includes bacteria, In 2007, a shipping accident spilled more than
protists, and fungi. Unlike other organisms, the 190,000 liters of oil into San Francisco Bay.
decomposers make enzymes that can break Bioremediation with fungi was used to clean up
apart the chemical bonds that hold cellulose and oil that washed ashore. Study the steps of the
lignin together. Their actions serve to clean up process, and then answer the questions.
dead wood, fallen leaves, and other discarded
1. Define the Problem What problem is this solu-
plant parts.
tion addressing?
2. Ask Questions What questions might engineers
ask to help them gather information about the
problem and any potential solution?

ENGINEERING PROJECT
How can hair and oyster mushrooms be used to clean up this beach?
BIOREMEDIATION WITH OYSTER MUSHROOMS

Hyphae are
structures
that absorb
Leaking oil tanker nutrients
from the
environment.
Protective Oyster mushroom

Oil spill straw spores SEM 403
1 Oil Collection 2 Seeding the Mats 3 Oil Removed

Workers spread mats of Mushroom spores mixed with Mushrooms develop from
hair to soak up oil. protective materials are spread the spores and consume
on the oil-soaked hair mats. the oil as they grow.
3. Conduct Research Look online for more informa- • How well do you think bioremediation
tion about the use of bioremediation, either to achieves the goal of cleaning up pollution?
clean up oil spills or for other purposes. Compare
• What are the costs and benefits of the
the benefits and drawbacks of a bioremediation
bioremediation solution that you researched?
solution with those of other types of solutions
that engineers proposed or considered. • Scientists have used genetic technology to
develop strains of bacteria that are especially
4. Communicate Write a one-page essay or
suited for cleaning up oil spills. How would
develop a computer presentation to share your
you evaluate the use of this technology for
findings. Address the following questions, as well
this purpose?
as other questions that you researched.
Performance-Based Assessment 275
CHAPTER 8
 ASSESSMENT
KEY QUESTIONS AND TERMS 10. Proteins are assembled on

a. ribosomes. c. lysosomes.
8.1 Life Is Cellular b. vacuoles. d. centrioles.
HS-LS1-2 11. Which of the following structures convert light
1. Despite differences in size and shape, at some energy into chemical energy stored in food?
point all cells have DNA and a a. c.
a. cell wall. c. mitochondrion.
b. cell membrane. d. nucleus.
2. German scientists Schleiden and Schwann deter-
mined that the basic unit of structure and function
in living things is the
a. atom. c. cell. b. d.
b. molecule. d. nucleus.
3. What basic concept of biology includes the idea
that new cells can be produced only by the divi-
sion of existing cells?
4. How does a light microscope work?
5. Why are microscopes useful tools in biology?
12. Which organelles are known as the “power plants”
6. Identify evidence that this micrograph is from a
of the cell because they transfer chemical energy
scanning electron microscope.
from food to compounds the cell can use?
a. mitochondria
b. ribosomes
c. lysosomes
d. vacuoles
13. Which two organelles are involved in the move-
ment of a cell in its environment?
a. microtubules and centrioles
b. flagella and cilia
c. centrioles and the cell wall
d. cytoskeleton and lysosomes
14. Identify the structural and functional differences
between the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the
smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
15. How are the functions of vacuoles and lyso-
somes different?
7. If you wanted to observe a living organism—an 16. What is the process by which chloroplasts capture
amoeba for example—which type of microscope the sun’s energy and convert it into food that con-
would you use? tains chemical energy?
8. In what important way are prokaryotic cells and 17. What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
eukaryotic cells different? 18. What is the function of the cytoskeleton?
19. Describe the structure of the cell membrane.
8.2 Cell Structure 20. For each of the following, indicate if the struc-
HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2
ture is found only in eukaryotes, or if it is found
9. The portion of the cell outside the nucleus is in eukaryotes and prokaryotes: cell membrane,
called the mitochondria, ribosome, Golgi apparatus, nucleus,
a. organelle. c. nucleolus. cytoplasm, and DNA.
b. cytoplasm. d. ribosome.

8.3 Cell Transport CRITICAL THINKING
HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3 HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3
21. The relatively constant internal physical and chem- 33. Evaluate Models Cells are often compared to fac-
ical conditions that all organisms must maintain to tories. How is a factory a useful model for explain-
survive is known as ing the cell?
a. osmosis. c. homeostasis. 34. Evaluate Reasoning A student is asked to classify
b. endocytosis. d. exocytosis. examples of cells based on prepared microscope
22. Solute particles move from an area of higher slides. The student classifies the cells according to
concentration to an area of lower concentration in their most prominent color. Evaluate the student’s
a process called classification scheme.
a. osmosis. c. diffusion. 35. Construct an Explanation In a multicellular
b. transport. d. equilibrium. organism, the DNA in every cell is essentially the
23. Large molecules such as glucose move across same. How does the cell theory help explain this?
cell membranes through special protein chan- 36. Apply Scientific Reasoning The beaker shown
nels during here has a membrane that separates two solu-
a. active transport. tions. Water can pass through the membrane, but
b. facilitated diffusion. starch cannot pass through it. How will the fluid
c. osmosis. levels change over time? Explain your prediction.
d. bulk transport.
24. What is the term that describes the diffusion of
water through a selectively permeable membrane? Side A Side B
25. Explain why cells are almost always hypertonic to

Selectively
fresh water.
permeable
26. What is the main difference between passive membrane
transport and active transport of materials across a
Concentrated Dilute
cell membrane?
starch solution starch
27. What are the two types of active transport, and solution
how do they differ?
8.4 Homeostasis and Cells 37. Critique In constructing a model of a plant cell,
a student surrounds the model with plastic bricks.
HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3
The bricks represent the cell wall. How could the
28. Which type of organism consists of specialized model be improved to represent the cell wall
cells? more accurately?
a. unicellular prokaryotes
38. Synthesize Information Why is intercellular com-
b. multicellular prokaryotes
munication essential for a multicellular organism to
c. unicellular eukaryotes
function properly?
d. multicellular eukaryotes
39. Infer Pacemakers are devices that help keep heart
29. All unicellular organisms muscles contracting at a steady rate. If a person
a. are prokaryotes. needs a pacemaker, what does that suggest about
b. are bacteria. his or her heart cells’ ability to send and receive
c. reproduce. messages?
d. have a nucleus.
40. Plan an Investigation You want to know how
30. In what way does specialization of cells contrib- temperature affects the rate of diffusion. Describe
ute to maintaining homeostasis in multicellu- an investigation that would provide evidence to
lar organisms? support a conclusion. Include simple materials
31. Describe the levels of organization in a multicel- such as water and food coloring.
lular organism.
32. In general, how do cells in a multicellular organ-
ism communicate?
Chapter Assessment 277
CHAPTER 8
 ASSESSMENT
CROSSCUTTING CONCEPTS Most materials entering the cell pass across the cell
membrane by diffusion. In general, the larger the
41. Connect to Nature of Science What are the molecule, the slower the molecule diffuses across the
statements of the cell theory? Based on what membrane. The graph shows the sizes of several mol-
you learned in Chapter 1, describe how the his- ecules that can diffuse across a lipid bilayer. Use the
tory of its development is typical of the process graph to answer questions 48 and 49.
of science.
42. Systems and System Models The nucleus of the
Size of Molecules
cell is often compared to the control center or
main office of a factory. How is this model accu- Carbon
rate? What are its limitations? dioxide
Molecule
43. Structure and Function Why are cell walls useful Glucose
in plant cells but not animal cells? Oxygen
44. Scale, Proportion, and Quantity Review
Water
Figure 8-23, which shows the levels of organiza-
tion in the human body. Use your own words to 0 50 100 150 200
define levels of organization in a way that applies
Size (daltons)
to all multicellular organisms.
MATH CONNECTIONS 48. Calculate By approximately what percentage is a

molecule of carbon dioxide smaller than a mol-
Analyze and Interpret Data ecule of glucose?
CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.HSN.Q.A.1
49. Predict Which of the following is a logical predic-
Use the data table to answer questions 45–47. tion based on the graph shown? Explain.
Note: 1 micrometer (μm) = 10-6 meter a. Cells contain more glucose than oxygen.
b. Glucose molecules must cross the cell mem-
brane by active transport.
Cell Sizes
c. Carbon dioxide crosses the cell membrane
Cell Approximate Diameter faster than glucose.
Escherichia coli (bacterium) 0.5–0.8 µm
Human erythrocyte LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTIONS

6–8 µm
(red blood cell)
Write About Science
Human ovum (egg cell) 100 µm CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.2
Saccharomyces cerevisiae 50. Produce Clear Writing Write a paragraph that

5–10 µm
(yeast) defines and describes the cell theory. Include a
familiar organism, such as a tree or a cat, as an
Streptococcus pneumoniae
0.5–1.3 µm example to illustrate the theory.
(bacterium)
51. Write Informative Texts Write a paragraph that
describes how cell parts work together to assem-
45. Interpret Data Classify each of the cells listed in ble proteins.
the table as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
46. Calculate The width of a human hair is about Read About Science
17 micrometers. How many human erythrocytes CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RST.9-10.7
could fit across the width of a hair? How many 52. Integrate With Visuals Choose one of the cell
E. coli bacteria could fit? diagrams from the chapter and its accompany-
47. Infer Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a single-celled ing passage. How does the diagram illustrate the
organism with an approximate diameter of 10 μm. structures and functions described in the passage?
Is the organism more likely to be a prokaryote or a How does the diagram support other information
eukaryote? Explain. in the chapter?

CHAPTER 8
END-OF-COURSE TEST PRACTICE

1. A student is developing a model that shows the 3. Which of the following processes is directly con-
steps of protein synthesis. The model should trolled by the cell nucleus?
include activities in which three structures? A. Osmosis because the nucleus has nuclear pores
A. ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi that allow water to move in and out.
apparatus B. Energy production because the nucleus con-
B. nucleus, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria tains mitochondria.
C. mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, C. Cell membrane assembly because the cell
nucleus membrane is made from the nuclear envelope.
D. Golgi apparatus, nucleus, lysosome D. Waste removal because a steady stream of
E. nucleus, cytoskeleton, cell membrane molecules moves out of the nucleus.
2. This model of a plant cell shows the structures that E. Protein synthesis because DNA in the nucleus
are likely to be observed in a typical plant cell. contains the instructions for making proteins.
Cells from actual plants may differ from the model 4. In an investigation, plant cells are placed in water
if the cells are specialized for specific functions. that has been tinted blue. The investigators
observe the color of the cells changing to blue.
What additional observation would be evidence
that the cells maintain homeostasis in response to
this change?
A. The cells burst apart.
B. The cell membranes shrinks away from the
cell walls.
C. The central vacuole in the cells increases in
size.
D. The cells pumps out water by endocytosis.
E. The cells pump in additional water until they
burst apart.
How could this model be changed to best repre-

sent a specialized leaf cell?
A. Remove the cell wall because only cells in plant
stems have cell walls.
B. Remove the mitochondria because leaf cells
don’t need much energy.
C. Add tiny hairs because leaf cells need to take
in water.
D. Add chloroplasts because leaves are where  ASSESSMENT
photosynthesis occurs.
E. Remove the cell membrane because a leaf cell For additional assessment
has a cell wall instead of a cell membrane. practice, go online to access
your digital course.
If You Have Trouble With…

Question 1 2 3 4
See Lesson 8.2 8.4 8.2 8.3, 8.4
Performance Expectation HS-LS1-2 HS-LS1-2 HS-LS1-1 HS-LS1-3
End-of-Course Test Practice 279

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What are the main components of a cell?

What are the main components of a cell?

How do cells obtain and use energy?

How do cells obtain and use energy?

3 Cells

236 Unit 3 Cells

Crosscutting Concepts Cells are the

Unit 3 Cells 237

Fuel comes in many forms.

238 Unit 3 Cells

Observe algal cells and classify

 AUTHENTIC READING  STEM PROJECT

Read an article describing Design an experiment to

Investigate the processes

Explore cell division and

Unit 3 Cells 239

HS-LS1-1, HS-LS1-2, HS-LS1-3,

240 Chapter 8 Cell Structure and Function

What’s happening to me?

Diatoms (shown in this false color image)

Unit 2 Cells 241

8.1 Life Is Cellular

Robert Hooke used a micro-

 READING CHECK Summarize How were cells discovered?

Quick Lab  Guided Inquiry

What Is a Cell? 2. Use Models Study Figure 8-5, which

8.1 Life Is Cellular 243

Electron Microscopes Light microscopes can be used to see

244 Chapter 8 Cell Structure and Function

Prokaryotes Prokaryotic cells are generally smaller and simpler

246 Chapter 8 Cell Structure and Function

Animal Cell Plant Cell

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Eukaryotes Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more com-

 LESSON 8.1 Review

8.1 Life Is Cellular 247

HS-LS1-1: Construct an explanation

248 Chapter 8 Cell Structure and Function

 READING CHECK Use an Analogy How is a cell’s cytoplasm

8.2 Cell Structure 249

Ribosomes One of the most important jobs carried out in the

Endoplasmic Reticulum Eukaryotic cells contain an internal

Making Proteins The portion of the ER involved in the synthesis of proteins is

3 Newly assembled proteins

Golgi Apparatus In eukaryotic cells, proteins produced in the

 READING CHECK Identify Does the rough ER or the smooth

4 The Golgi apparatus further

8.2 Cell Structure 251

Vacuoles and Vesicles Every factory needs a place to store

TEM 7000× LM 500×

The cytoskeleton supports and

The Cytoskeleton A factory building is supported by steel

Microfilaments Microfilaments are threadlike structures made

Microtubules Microtubules are hollow structures made up of

Cellular Solar Panels Cellular Power Plants

Mitochondria Nearly all eukaryotic cells, including plants, con-

254 Chapter 8 Cell Structure and Function

Figure 8-13 Quick Lab 

ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE

 READING CHECK Use an Analogy How are chloroplasts