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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: PAD 831
COURSE TITLE: ADVANCED COMPARATIVE LOCAL

GOVERNMENT
1
PAD 831 ADVANCED COMPARATIVE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1…………………………………………………… 1
Unit 1 The Idea of Local Government……………… 1

Unit 2 Conceptual Analysis of Local Government… 7
Unit 3 Theories of Local Government……………… 11
Unit 4 Decentralisation and Related Concepts…….. 17
Unit 5 Justification of Local Governments………… 24
Module 2…………………………………………………… 29
Unit 1 Structure of Local Governments……………. 29

Unit 2 The Structure of Local Government in
Nigeria……………………………………….. 36
Britain………………………………………… 42
France………………………………………… 49
America………………………………………. 56
India…………………………………………… 65
Tanzania………………………………………. 73
Unit 8 The Structure and Functions of Local
Government in Nigeria……………………….. 81
Module 3…………………………………………………….. 88
Unit 1 Efficiency Theory of Local Government…….. 88

Unit 2 Democracy Theory of Local Government…… 92
Unit 3 Accountability Theory of Local Government.. 95
Module 4…………………………………………………….. 98
Unit 1 Imperatives and History of Comparative

Local and Public Administration……………… 98
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Unit 2 Nature, Utility and Problems of
Comparative Local Government………….. 105
Unit 3 Differences and Similarities in Strategies
of Comparative Local Government
Administration…………………………….. 111
Unit 4 Experimental, Statistical and
Case-Study Strategies of Comparative
Local Government…………………………. 115
Module 5………………………………………………….. 120
Unit 1 Local Government as an Instrument of

Development……………………………….. 120
Unit 2 Problems of Development at the Local
Government Level………………………….. 127
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MODULE 1
Unit 1 The Idea of Local Government

Unit 2 Conceptual Analysis of Local Government
Unit 3 Theories of Local Government
Unit 4 Decentralisation and Related Concepts
Unit 5 Justification of Local Government
UNIT 1 THE IDEA OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Place of Local Government in a Nation
3.2 The Need for Local Government
3.3 The Meaning of Local Government
3.4 The Role of Local Government
3.4.1 Political Role
3.4.2 Socio-Economic Role
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, attempt is made to present the basic idea about the local
government. This includes the philosophy, need for the institution,
definition, and role of local government. You will need to understand
these to be able to appreciate the specific issues you will follow in
subsequent units. These issues here are actually background issues. The
other way of stating all these, is what are local governments? Why do
we need them? What role do they play in the life of individual and
communities? What type of development do they facilitate?
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• advance five reasons why local governments are necessary

• define local government from the perspectives of two authors
• state five characteristics of local government
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• outline the key issues on the political and socio-economic role of
local government
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Place of Local Government in a Nation
Local government is the closest tier of government to the people. In a

unitary system, power is shared between the central government and the
local government. In a Federal system, power is shared among federal,
state and local governments. Generally, we talk of a central-local
relationship. In a Federal system however, the relationship is largely
between the state or regional government and local government because,
constitutionally, local government are within the constitutional
mandates of the state or regional governments. Basically, in any system,
local governments are created to decongest the functions and burden of
central governments and to provide services that are local in character.
The rest of this unit looks at the meaning of local governments, the
specific purposes of local government and role of these institutions.
3.2 The Need for Local Government
The need for local government may be stated specifically as follows:
a. it is more democratic. This is referring to the fact that it increases

the scope for citizenship participation in the government of their
locality
b. it provides valuable political education. This type of education
exposes citizens to power and authority. Its acquisition, its use
and its risk
c. it trains people for higher public offices. Local government
becomes a platform or a springboard for acquiring experiences
for higher career in government
d. local knowledge is brought to bear on decisions by local
government
e. it is more sensitive to local opinion. Councilors and
representatives are closer to the people and respond much easily
to their demands or be voted out
f. local initiative can easily be identified and taken on board
especially in mobilising the community to gain local support for
projects
g. power is more widely dispersed which is a safeguard against
tyranny. The local government system protects citizens against
this
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h. local variations and needs in service provision can better be

handled by local government since it understands the needs of its
own locality.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Now that you have seen the need for local government, identify three
contributions local government can make to your community and two
negative things it can do to you and your community.
3.3 The Meaning of Local Government
Local government is grassroots government recognised by law. It is

defined severally by authors and bodies. Let us look at the definition of
local government from the perspective of one author and two bodies or
documents.
Maddick (1963) defines local government as ‘a sub-unit of government

controlled by a local council which is authorised by the central
government to pass ordinances having a local application, levy taxes or
exact labour on the limits specified by the central government’.
The United Nations Article of Declaration (1948) defines local

government as ‘a political sub-division of a nation (or in a federal
system, or state) which is constituted by law and has substantial control
of local affairs, including the power to impose taxes or to exert labour
for prescribed purposes. The governing body of such an entity is elected
or otherwise locally selected’.
The Nigeria Local Government Reform document (1976) defines local

government as ‘government at a local level exercised by representative
council, established by law to exercise specific power within defined
areas’.
From the three definitions above, certain characteristic of local

government stands out:
a. the local government is a subordinate system of government

b. it has both legal and constitutional power to perform certain
legislative, administrative and quasi judicial function
c. has the power to make policies, prepare budgets and a measure of
control over its own staff
d. its council could be elected or selected
e. it has legal personality (can sue and be sued)
f. it exercises authority over a given territory or population.
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These definitions point to local government as having government
character with limited powers. This can be further broken down more
specifically as follows:
a. legal entity which can sue and be sued for wrong doings
b. power to make its own laws, policies, plans and budgets on what
to do, how, why, where and when, for who and at what cost
c. legislative body called a council composed of elected councilors
and a chairman to make laws and policies
d. executive body called the committee composed of appointed or
elected officials and the chairman to formulate policies and laws
e. administrative body called the local government services,
composed of career civil servant to assist in formulating and in
implementing laws and policies
f. power to tap human, financial and material resources for public
use within the geographical area
g. answerable to a higher level of government (national or state or
regional) on certain powers and functions it carries out
(especially concurrent function). This is to say that a local
government is not absolutely autonomous but semi-autonomous.
From the characteristics of local governments, state five powers local

governments enjoy.
3.4 Roles of Local Government
The roles of local government are in some ways similar to those of the
central government. The central government exists to provide for
development services to the people and provide security for the citizenry
and ensures participation of the citizens in government.
To some extent, local government performs such roles even though with
some varying degree of intensity. For easier understanding, such roles
could be classified into two viz: political and socio-economic roles.
3.4.1 The Roles of Local Government
Local governments are veritable and appropriate institutions for

promoting democracy at the local level. They are well-placed to
mobilise the people politically through political education, political
enlightenment and political actions. Local government has become very
useful tool for the conduct of election at all levels of government. With
such, the process of political recruitment is institutionalised and the
institution can then help to train people for higher responsibilities.
7
Another political role is that of maintenance of law and order. Local

governments have the instrumentality of the police at their disposal and
therefore work with its leadership at the local level to enforce law and
order and maintain security. Moreover, certain committees such as the
security committees and the police committees, facilitate such exercises.
Furthermore, to enhance responsive governance, local governments
serve as a two-way channel of communication between the government
and the governed. Just as it transmits the decision of governments to the
local people, it also conveys or channel their demands and feedbacks on
policies to government (local or central).
3.4.2 Socio-Economic Role
The exercise of democracy and human rights can only be meaningful if

demands and policies can be translated into physical development,
including the provision of basic socio-economic services. Services of
local government are primary or basic in nature as reflected in their
functions. Some of these are basic health, basic education, agriculture
and revenue raising and regulatory functions. People expect such
services to be delivered to make any meaning of democracy and
bureaucracy at the local government. Whether it is a municipal council
or a rural council, the complexity may depend on the level of
urbanisation or the availability of funds.
In providing socio-economic services, local governments have to work

with community groups and the citizenry to harness community energies
and input into development. A greater part of the developmental
initiatives and effectiveness in local government is a function of
community development or self help groups.
These two roles of local governments will be revisited in another form

when in a later unit; we take a look at the theories of local government
and the argument for each of these roles, highlighting the importance of
each.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Local governments, from the brief discussion on need, definition and

roles above can be seen as the government at the grassroots level
designed to decongest the activities of higher tiers, transmit policies and
demands and promote democracy. Very importantly, it is supposed to
bring about the development of communities, be they urban or rural.
It should be noted that in doing this, they enjoy some powers and at the
same time some constraints. They are not autonomous or independent
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entities but subordinate governments, subject to various forms of
dictates and controls. Local government becomes indispensable because
of what they do to affect the lives of rural communities and how their
activities can also contribute to national development.
All these issues of need, roles and meaning will receive expansion in the
subsequent units as we discuss powers, structure, function, personnel
and finance etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
Let us recall the major things we have talked about in this unit. Local
governments are the closest government administration to communities.
They enjoy political, legal, constitutional, administrative, financial and
territorial powers. Local governments help to enforce democracy at the
local level while bringing about socio-economic development in rural
areas.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Discuss the political, social and economic reasons why you feel your
local government is important?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Akpan, P.C. (1984). ‘Modern Local Government Administration in

Nigeria.’ (Unpublished: 1984, ch.1).
Barber, H. (1974). Local Government. (3rd ed.). London: Macdonald &

Evans Ltd.
Maddick, H.A. (1963). Democracy, Decentralisation & Development.

Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
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UNIT 2 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF LOCAL

GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Conceptual Analysis
3.1.1 Definition of Decentralisation
3.1.2 Local Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit familiarises you with two key concepts that are important to
our discussions in the course. The definitions/interpretation of the two
words is analysed in such a way that your understanding of the
discussion will be facilitated and enhanced. Consequently, the
conceptual analysis will focus mainly on the clarifications of
decentralisation and local government.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the concept of decentralisation which is an essential term

in the study and understanding of local government
• describe the concept of local government as a different level of
government
• appreciate local government as a grassroots level of governance
that is closest to the rural people
• recall the definitions of decentralisation and local governments.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Conceptual Analysis
3.1.1 Definition of Decentralisation
You will recall that each national capital, for instance, national capital of
Nigeria, Britain, Ghana, France and Russia are respectively Abuja,
10
London, Accra, Paris and Moscow. Other levels of capital (tiers) may
exist in a state depending on the political arrangement adopted by the
country.
In a federal state, in addition to national capital, we also have regional or

state capitals. For instance, in Nigeria, in addition to Abuja, thirty-six
(36) other state capitals exist. National diversities usually inform the
need for adopting a federal arrangement.
The largeness of a country in terms of geographical spread may further

call for a lower form of government so as to make the work of
government easier and make service delivery faster. Modern
governments therefore decentralise authority and power to lower levels
in order to facilitate efficiency and administrative conveniences.
Decentralisation, according to Osaghae (1990: 84) means a system of

dispersal of power from a central government to other units or agencies
of government. This implies that government power and authority are
not concentrated but rather shared between the existing levels of
government. Decentralisation of power lessens the burden of
responsibilities on the higher levels of government. It is not everything
that happens that respective higher levels of government may bother
themselves with.
3.1.2 Local Government
As you have just learnt, decentralisation is about dispersal of power to

other levels of authority. Local government is a form of decentralisation
of power to the lowest level of government.
Local government is therefore defined by the United Nations document

on public administration as a “political sub-division of a nation or state
which is constituted by law and has substantial control of local affairs,
including the power to impose taxes or to enact prescribed bye-laws”
(Ajayi, 2000:1).
The 1976 Local Government Reforms Guidelines also defined local

government as “government at local level exercised through
representative council established by law to exercise specific powers
within defined areas”.
Very clear from these interpretations is the acknowledgement that local

government is a government at the local level, established by law to
perform specific functions within defined areas or jurisdiction. The
definitions also reveal that local government is a lower-tier of
government depending on the political arrangements in place.
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Therefore, in a federal system, local government is the third-tier level of

government while in a unitary, and non-federal states, local government
takes the place of second-tier level of government.
Local government is also regarded as grassroots government for, it is the

closest to the rural people, and in most cases, it is the most known level
of government to the rural areas where most citizens live, particularly in
the developing world where rural dwellers account for about 70% of the
national population.
i. What is meant by the concept of decentralisation?

ii. What is local government?
iii. Why is local government described as grassroots government?
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this foundation unit, the conceptual interpretations of decentralisation

have been examined. Decentralisation is seen as a way of making
government easier by dispersing power and authority to lower level
centers, agencies or government. Local government is seen as a form of
decentralisation. It is a grassroots government, established by law to
perform specific functions. The essence of decentralisation and
establishment of local government is to bring government to the door-
step of citizens and more importantly to promote and enhance service
delivery efficiency of government.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that decentralisation is about decongesting

the central or upper level of government of some burdens by dispersing
power and authority to lower level governments, agencies and other
units. You also learnt that local government is a form of
decentralisation, a grassroots government established by law to perform
certain functions. It is referred to as grassroots government because it is
the closest to the rural people and the most known level of government
in most countries of the world. The essence of decentralisation and local
government is to provide administrative convenience for upper levels of
government.
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i. Clarify the concepts of decentralisation and local government.

ii. In what ways is local government regarded as grassroots
government?
Ajayi, K. (Ed). (2000). Theory and Practice of Local Government. Ado-

Ekiti: Ado Ekiti University Press.
Gboyega, A. (1987). Political Values and Local Government in Nigeria.

Lagos: Malthouse Press.
13
UNIT 3 THEORIES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Utility and Focus Theories
3.2 Democratic Participatory School
3.3 Efficiency Services School
3.4 Comment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we are interested in knowing the main purpose of local

government. There has been a debate between two schools of thought
(or theories). This unit addresses this debate and comes out with the
different views. Knowledge of those theories will broaden your basic
understanding of local government.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the two schools of thought on local government

• highlight three major points advanced by the schools
• explain the proposition put forward on these schools of thought
• apply both theories to the Nigerian situation based on findings
from research.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Utility and Focus Theories
Theories deal with explanations. In this case, it is about how to

understand local government or what local governments are meant for. It
is important to understand this so that we become clear in our minds
what the institution really stands for and what its priority should be.
People also form their attitude to the institution based on their
knowledge of the institution and what it should be doing. Furthermore, it
will enable us appreciate the problems of the local government
institution.
14
Some scholars argue that local government exists essentially as a
democratic institutions and their job is to foster representative and
participatory democracy at the local level. Other scholars feel local
governments should focus more on services delivery for those tangible
things communities require. The various arguments are presented below.
3.2 Democratic Participatory School
The influence on this school has largely been the work of John Stuart
Mills, especially his work on utilitarianism, liberty and representative
government. In it, he claims that the good form of government was
representative government because it promoted liberty, equity, and
fraternity, made men look beyond their immediate interest. Further, it
recognised the just demands of other men; promote political education,
participation and communication. Furthermore, he asserts that local
government is a prime element of democracy and demonstrates the
intrinsic values of democracy, irrespective of the services it provides in
it. Government is truly representative when all types of people can take
part. The local government level offers the closest things to widespread
consultation and participation.
British and America governments are based on the tenets of democracy

and representative government and the local government level is a haven
for such activities. Local governments in such entities and indeed other
advanced western countries, function to bring about democracy and to
provide opportunities for political participation to the citizenry as well
as to educate and socialise them politically. Politics, indeed
development, is about making choices through informed opinion,
conflicts and conflict resolution and these should be the priorities of
local government. According to Panther (1953), participation is vital to
democracy since it is in the community that people appreciate and
tolerate each other’s view and learn the art of practical politics. Local
governments have become the training ground for political elites and
higher level officers of government. Studies have been carried out to
buttress this position. For example, Keith Lucas in an English study
concluded that the number of British members of parliament, who had
served on local government councils, demonstrated the importance of
local government as a recruiting ground for the British Parliament.
Specifically, David Butter found out in the 1964 general elections that
53% of the Labour members of parliament and 45% of the defeated
members had been local government councilors. The figure is 29% and
40% respectively for the conservative party.
This point on parliamentarians benefiting from political apprenticeship

at local government level is replete in these advanced democracies as
confirmed by Mackenzie (1954) in his work entitled Local Government
15
in Parliament. A very important part of this democratic role is the

opportunity it creates for political activity and social interaction. Such a
forum helps to inculcate the ideals of democracy like election or
selection of local government committee and boards, public debates,
pressure and interest group activities, and community mobilisation.
Local governments must continue to buttress democracy through these
ideas.
3.3 Efficiency Services School
The advocates of efficiency services believe that the idea of democracy

advocated by Mills and Bricks do not apply to different political system
in the same manner, especially in the face of modern realities.
The crux of this theory is that the main purpose of local government is
to provide services to the local people. Foremost among the advocates is
the French scholar Langood (1953) who opined that democracy was the
affairs of the nation state as a whole and that issues of majority rule,
equity and uniformity are the norm. Local self-government by contrast
was parochial and concerned with local differences and separation. The
two are opposed and it was only a historical accident that they had
developed together in the 19th century. He went on to say that it was
equally false to see local government as a setting for political education
and democracy. To him, the local government has only succeeded in
breeding few national leaders. Local politics is more likely to reinforce
narrow sectional interest than an appreciation of democracy. The citizen
is more likely to learn about democracy from national politics and
national issues.
Arguing in the same vein, Moulin points out that local government is so
restricted while national goals are wider in scale. Local experience and
knowledge is hardly appreciated to national affairs. Sharpe (1970)
provided a very strong case for local governments on the grounds that it
was the most efficient agent for providing those services that are
essentially local. He suggested that the efficient performance of these
services is so compelling that if local government does not exist,
something else will have to be created in its place, meaning the
institution is indispensable. Even a decentralised form of national
government cannot be undertaken by such an alternative. The main
functional responsibility of local governments therefore is to efficiently
carry out local duties allocated to it, at the highest efficiency rate.
List three key issues raised by the democratic school in its argument.
16
3.4 COMMENT
These two schools of thought on local governments appear to be

extremes of the role local governments should play. Most of the
advocates of the democratic theory are from the societies with the strong
tradition of democracy i.e. Britain and America. A lot of the efficiency
school is championed by French scholars with background of strong
unitary (centralising) influences. (The role of the prefects in France
before the 1982 reforms can attest to this).
These arguments look attractive. The point however is that one

argument needs the other. Even some Third World or developing
countries have looked at democracy in local government as a luxury and
an expensive venture. They say developing countries need money to
carry out services, not paying allowances and entitlements of councilors
in local government. At the same time, representative government,
which is a hallmark of democracy is not a luxury because various
interests within the community have to be represented in government
and their views articulated. Policies and programmes will have to be
well debated before they are approved and implemented. Popular
participation has to be mobilised.
These two theories therefore need each other. In developing societies,

people are in a hurry to develop but, priorities must be set right and
people’s interest must be carried along. The question as Maddick puts it
is “the clash between efficiency and popular control”. How much of
democracy is needed to provide efficient services at the local level. This
is about “optimum administration”, Maddick sums up the cross-
fertilisation between democracy and service delivery.
The argument is that there is need in society for civic consciousness and
political maturity if programs for both the locality and the state are
going to be carried through adequately, with enthusiasm and in fact in
some cases without the outbreak of violence. The spread of political
maturity should bring with it thorough political participation and
responsive governments which translate needs into politics, which can
harness local energies, because it is a popular government, and which is
acceptable by periodically having to show results for its activities.
This author adopts what looks like a middle of the road approach. What
is the main argument?
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4.0 CONCLUSION
We would like to conclude by giving an example of what has happened

on the Nigerian scene as regards the contending schools of thought since
1976. In Nigeria, the military paid attention to local governments during
their tenure. There was an attempt at one stage or the other to make the
institution autonomous and therefore viable. It got to a stage where
people started questioning the efficacy of party politics in turning local
government around. In a study carried out in 1989/90, people started
having more faith in the performance of local governments under
military administration than those under civilians (70%). To make
matters worse for the advocates of local government as a tool for
democracy, (62%) of the people claimed that party politics was
undesirable in local governments because of its divisive nature. To
them, it creates problems for communities which had lived peacefully
before and breaks the peace of the communities. With the results from
the military and the opinion of people, scholars and also workers in
local governments started questioning the unity of democratic
leadership in local government with all its cost of maintenance and the
patronage system which endangers the lean resources of local
government. To them, the sole administrator or the management
committee systems were more effective for service delivery in local
government and they saw no reasons why the democratic leadership has
been brought back. Since 1999, the same complaints about its inverse
relationship with service delivery and institutional development plus all
the patronage politics have resurfaced. It therefore appears that
democratic leadership in local government is a norm, a strong index
of devolution and must not therefore be avoided despite public
opinion. The panacea is to educate citizens to learn the virtue of this
leadership which on its own should have no alternative because of its
inherent virtues. Democracy must be the vehicle through which the
resources should be fairly allocated, policies formulated and
implemented in local governments and indeed higher government.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have been taken through the two contending schools of thought on
what the purpose of local governments should be. The democratic-
participatory school says local government is created to promote
democracy and in doing so create the right political culture at the local
level, which in turn reinforces what is done at the national level. The
efficiency services school feels, emphasising democracy at the local
level is unnecessary, duplicative and a luxury. Local resources cannot be
channelled to such. It should be committed to efficient delivery of
services which is of primary importance to people at the grassroots
level. Efficiency services may be primary but the way they are decided,
18
allocated and implemented will require representation and participation
for equity and fairness.
Maddick came up with a statement that captures the essence of the

argument of both schools thus ‘the center of the problem however is the
clash between efficiency and popular control’.
i. To what extent can we consider the two schools of thought a

clash?
ii. To what extent can we blend these schools for a better
conception and organisation of local governments?
7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Hill, D.M. (1974). Democracy, Theories and Local government. Allen

& Unwin.
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UNIT 4 DECENTRALISATION AND RELATED

CONCEPTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nature of Decentralisation
3.2 The Meaning of Decentralisation
3.3 Why Decentralisation
3.4 Objectives of Decentralisation
3.5 Factors Affecting Decentralisation
3.6 Contribution of Decentralisation
3.7 Other Related Concepts
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will be introduced to some basic concepts that describe
local governments on the bias of how much power local government
enjoy vis a vis the central government. It is on this basis, that local
governments are classified.
The major concept is that of decentralisation. Other associated words are

defined and in some cases applied. You are required to familiarise
yourself with meanings and usage of these concepts because this will be
useful at a comparative level. For example, if we say local governments
in France before 1982 was a deconcentration, we expect you to figure
out the meaning without much stress (watch out for the question that
applies to Nigeria at the end of the unit).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define decentralisation and the various associated with it

• differentiate between decentralisation, devolution and
deconcentration
• differentiate between local authority, local government and local
self government
• appreciate the element of power in all the above definition and
differentiation
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• list five contributions of decentralisation to developing
governments
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
Local government is a decentralised political entity. You may recall in

the first unit how we identified what types of power local governments
enjoy, including constitutional, legal, political and administrative etc.
The powers of local governments are subject to various forms of control
by the central government etc. The balance of this control is the power
enjoyed by local government (which is technically referred to as
autonomy). It is therefore possible to say that the less control on local
government by the central government, the more autonomy conceded to
these units. In this same vein, the tighter the control of local government
affairs by the central government, the less the autonomy of local
government powers.
Decentralisation is a term that summarises this spectrum of power

relations or levels of institutional powers. In some systems, local
governments enjoy greater control over their affairs (especially federal
system) while in unitary system, the tendency is for greater control of
local government.
The concept of decentralisation refers to the transfer of government

functions and power to both agents and units of government in a given
country. What makes this term or concept important for local
government is its types. There are two types of decentralisation:
deconcentration and devolution.
Deconcentration is the delegation of authority, adequate for the

discharge of specified functions to staff of central departments who are
situated outside the headquarters. Aldermen (1967) adds that it is the
transfer of powers to subordinate authorities, whether offices,
individuals or field units.
Devolution is the legal function instrument of conferring powers to

discharge specified or residual power upon formally constituted local
authorities. Local governments can therefore be classified as a
deconcentration (deconcentrated units) or devolution (units with
substantial power). Local governments that enjoy devolution of powers
are likely to be more autonomous (or exercise greater powers over its
local affairs) than local governments that are deconcentrated.
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Local governments that enjoy devolution are likely to exhibit the

following characteristics:
• its existence is constitutionally guaranteed

• it also has constitutional backing to perform certain statutory
functions
• exercise power or control over policies, budget preparation, its
revenue and its staff
• the council is democratically constituted and therefore
accountable to the people (the people become a primary source of
power).
A deconcentrated arrangement denies local governments of the powers

enjoyed especially in (c) above.
3.2 The Meaning of Decentralisation
As can be appreciated by now and as a matter of fact, local governments

are forms of decentralisations. We have also explained the two forms of
decentralisation, namely, deconcentration and devolution and their
meanings. Some authors will equate devolution with decentralisation
because it is closer in usage to local governments. Remember
deconcentration means transfer of powers to subordinate authorities,
whether offices, individuals or field units. Such transfer of powers is
done by central governments for ease of administration. Such
arrangement is close to what is referred to as Field Agency i.e. any
organisation or ministry or department of the central government
operating outside the headquarters. The characteristics of devolution or
decentralisation outlined above explains why they are synonymous with
local governments, especially the attribute of elected leadership and
measure of control over staff and finance, all of which are lacking in
field agencies. One thing we can say is that the more the devolution of
powers the more autonomous local government will become.
3.3 Why Decentralise?
a. Decentralisation becomes imperative because of the need for

social change (especially in developing countries) and the
difficulty of communication
b. There is need to establish local governments to serve as a nuclei
of local energies, enthusiasm and initiative for a more virile
system of local authorities. Such units will take care of diversity,
local variations and the difficulty in (a) above.
c. Not all functions can be performed by the centre, some functions
are local in nature. Decentralisation therefore is a devise to aid
the achievement of the ends of government or aid development.
22
3.4 Objectives of Decentralisation
The objectives of both deconcentration and devolution are:
a. to decongest the functions of government from one centre to

various parts of a country or state
b. to provide government services and facilities to every nook and
corner of a country or state i.e. to promote even development of
all parts
c. to involve all citizens of a country and or state in governance
through political means and policy making
d. to tap human, financial and material resources from all parts of a
country or state for public use
e. to take care of peculiar needs and or problems of each parts of a
country or state.
3.5 Factors Affecting the Decision of Government to

Decentralise
For government to be able to carry out its domestic services, it requires

organisations outside its headquarters. This applies to traditional
centered functions like tax collection, policing, post and
telecommunication, to personal services of citizens such as agriculture,
education, health and welfare or the supporting services of these, such as
irrigation, forestry and trunk road construction. The level of
decentralisation will depend on the general conditions or the phase of
development in which the administration and the people are in each
country.
3.6 The Contribution of Decentralisation
The most important contributions that agencies can make to the

tremendous problems facing governments are as follows:
a. the provision of services in the area where they are required,

matching central government policy and local need
b. close contact with the local area, enabling detailed plans to be
evolved
c. economy in men, materials, and equipment
d. flow of information recurring from the rural areas and outwards
to the headquarters
e. intimate association with local people to aid societal and
economic change
f. protection of rural inhabitants and aid in emergencies
g. maintenance of infrastructures and capital work
h. development of local government system.
23
List two advantages and two disadvantages of decentralisation.
3.7 Other Related Concepts
• Centralisation is the concentration of powers in the hands of the

central government. Inability or unwillingness to delegate or
decentralise power, as a result of constitutional or institutional
constraints or attitude of higher civil servants and political
officials.
• Local Government: the system of local authorities
• Local Authority: a system of government controlled by a local
council which is authorised by the central government to pass
ordinances having a local application. Levy local taxes or exact
labour within the limit specified by the government, vary
centrally decided policy and applying it locality
• Note that in a unitary system where local governments are
created by acts of parliament and not enshrined in the
constitution, the term local authorities is often used to describe
these units
• Local Self-Government: traditionally associated with local
government in England, Wales and Germany and a principal
feature of the English local government system. Very crucial is
the idea of the electoral basis of the system which shields it from
becoming purely dependent elected existence. The electoral
feature mitigates it existence as mere local administration or just
local organ of the central government. This shows that even
though these are local authorities, they are safeguarded in their
right to regulate under their own responsibility all the affairs of
their local community within the limits of law.
• Field Agency: any sub-organisation or ministry, department, or
administrative agency, operates in the field that is outside
headquarters
• Community Development: the process by which the effects of the
communities themselves are united with those of governmental
authorities, to improve the economic, social and cultural
conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into
the life of a nation and to enable them to contribute fully to
national progress.
The following are five statements. March the appropriate statement with
the concepts defined in the unit.
24
i. Power exercised by local government is enhanced by electoral
basis of the system
ii. The people and government interest are united for development
purpose
iii. Tendency for more powers to be concentrated at the centre
iv. The twin concept of deconcentration
v. Created by Act of parliament
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has attempted to define some basic terms or concepts essential
to the understanding of local government. Of special note have been
decentralisation and its twin concepts. From decentralisation to
community development, the idea has been that of control over
resources (power) and power relations. In any polity, local government
is at the lower rung and indeed the receiving end. It is therefore
important to appreciate these power relations so as to understand the
classification of local governments and you have to learn and
differentiate this. One feature that stands out is that despite all these
administrative and political powers or decentralisation, electoral power
is very important because that will be the basis for relating to the
community and it is also the basis for political accountability and other
facets of accountability. As we saw in the local self-government, it is the
point at which central control and local administration is mitigated. This
is therefore the major source of power and autonomy for local
government.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have come across the following concepts in this unit:
• decentralisation
• devolution
• deconcentration
• centralisation
• local government
• local authorities
• local self-government
• field agency
• community development
All these concepts as you have seen have to do with power relationship.
It is the amount of power enjoyed by local government that determines
its classification. Remember however that local government that enjoys
devolution are more likely to be viable and autonomous (i.e. enjoy more
25
power and control over its resources) than those that are deconcentrated.
Can you apply the above statement to Nigeria local governments since
independence?
i. State and explain four characteristics of local government that

enjoy devolution of powers
ii. Explain the term deconcentration and how it relates to field
agencies
Barber, P. (1975). Local Government (3rd Edition). Macdonald & Evans

Ltd.
Madicck, H. (1965). Democracy, Decentralisation & Development.

Bombay: Asia Publishing House.
26
UNIT 5 JUSTIFICATION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Justification of Local Governments
3.1.1 Justification
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the reasons why local government has become an
attractive level of administration in most countries of the world.
Contemporary states see it as ideal to provide for the welfare and
happiness of their citizens through efficient provision of services.
Grassroots local government has the potentials to be more efficient
because of the smallness of the geographical area and population they
cover.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• recall the definitions of local government

• describe decentralisation in relation to local government
• explain reasons for the desirability of local government
• explain the inter-connecting role of local government between the
grassroot people and the upper tiers of government
• appreciate the development role of local governments at the
grassroot level.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Justification for Local Governments
3.1.1 Justification
Let us recall what you learnt in unit 1 of this course. In the unit, you
learnt of the concepts of local government and decentralisation.
Decentralisation was described as a system of delegating power and
27
authority from a central government to other units or agencies of

government. You learnt that the implication of decentralisation of power
is that power rather than being concentrated on a single focus of
administration, is shared among other lower levels unit of government.
You also learnt that local government is a form of decentralisation
which can be defined as a political sub-division of a state as approved by
law and for specific functions. It is a government at the grassroots level
exercised through representative council, established by law to perform
specific responsibilities in defined areas. Decentralisation and local
government have their purpose in promoting administrative efficiency.
There are some other globally acknowledged reasons why local
government has become an attractive administrative system.
1. The Need for Decentralisation
The first justification for local government is the need for

decentralisation due to largeness in terms of geographical area as well as
large population. For instance, let us take Nigeria as our unit of analysis.
Nigeria as a very large country geographically and demographically,
would have been very difficult for government to effectively rule
directly from Abuja, the Federal Capital. Therefore, there is the need for
decentralisation for the purpose of administrative efficiency and
effectiveness so as to be able to satisfy the basic needs of the people.
Government realised this fact and consequently divided the country into
774 local governments. State governors have started creating more local
governments in the states, though not approved by the federal
government.
2. Trends in Contemporary Administrative Practice
Decentralisation of political and administrative powers has been the

vogue throughout the world which has resulted into the creation of local
governments. This global trend of which Nigeria has become a part is
made possible because of contemporary dynamics. New problems are
emerging for government’s attention every day, the population is
growing, new diseases such as AIDS is in the increase, there are inter-
ethnic and national wars, problems of hunger and internally displaced
people to mention a few, have all pre-occupied government and
subsequently brought up the need for administrative decentralisation.
3. Grassroots Accelerated Development
Nigerian leaders also realised that local government as the closest

government to the people, will easily know the problems of its people to
cope with because of their closeness, small population and
geographically united area. That local government will respond quickly
28
to their development aspirations than the other higher levels of
government, that is, state and federal governments makes it imperative.
4. Bridging Communication Gap
You should recall that we said that Abuja is too far away to people at the
remote areas of Nigeria. The president and the governors do not know
many of these areas. A gap of communication therefore exists between
the grassroots people and the two higher levels of government.
Therefore, local governments serve to bridge the communication gap
that exists. Therefore local governments act as the link in terms of
knowing the problems of the people by government on one hand, and
what government is doing about the plight of the people on the other
hand.
5. Training of Future Leaders
Local government is seen as a training school for future national leaders.

It is the belief that entering into political leadership right from the local
level, either as chairman or councilor, will confer the necessary
leadership training that will enable them to lead at the state regional
level and from that level to the federal level. Passing through from local
to state government would have conferred the necessary leadership
qualities and training for a higher task at the federal level. You will
recall that many of our relatives or friends are now either chairmen of
local governments or councilors of their wards in their respective local
governments. These political office holders at the grassroots are
indirectly being groomed for higher political calling (Ajayi, 2000: 1-7).
i. Examine the concepts of decentralisation and local government?
ii. Account for the reasons why local government has become
attractive as an administrative system to most countries of the
world.
iii. In what ways can local government be regarded as a political

training school?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The acceptance and practice of local government as a lower level of

government in most state of the world is a reflection of the utility of the
administrative system in some ways. Local government is first seen as a
means of decentralisation of power to lower levels in order to ensure
29
efficiency in social service delivery especially for the rural people. The
rural people most often are not aware of the existence of the higher
levels of government, and on the other hand, the higher levels of
government are ignorant of the needs and problems of the rural people.
The local government therefore acts as the connecting bridge between
the higher level governments and the rural people. It bridges the
communication between the two ends. Local governments, in modern
times, have transcended beyond a mere administrative centre. More
importantly, they are now regarded as political schools for the training
of future political leaders who will eventually take up the mantle of
leadership. Local government offers the necessary training and provides
the initial knowledge and experience for such tasks.
5.0 SUMMARY
You learnt in this unit that local government has become an enduring
administrative system as it provides the need for decentralisation of
power to lower levels in order to provide for administrative efficiency.
You also learnt that developments in contemporary states, involving

increased complexities of governance arising from new problems
emerging everyday and calling for government attention make local
government indispensable. These problems are more often than not very
difficult for the central authority alone to handle without involving
lower levels of government and external assistance. Therefore, it
becomes very imperative for higher levels of government to decentralise
power.
You also learnt that local government is an engine of facilitating

accelerated grassroots rural development. The remoteness of the rural
areas is a disadvantage to the rural dwellers who on many occasions are
forgotten by the scheme of development by the central authorities. The
local government is to correct the development negligence of the rural
people by the central authorities. The local government is primarily
empowered to engineer development at the rural area. This is made
possible because of the smallness of the local government areas.
i. Justify the place of local government as an engine of

development in the rural areas.
ii. Account for the reasons why local government system has
become attractive to modern states.
30
Adewale, A. (1990). Issues on the Practice of Local Government in

Nigeria, Ikeja: Comfort Press.
Ajayi, K. (2000). Justification and Theories of Local Government. Ekiti:

University of Ado Ekiti Press.
Gboyega, A. (1987). Political Values and Local Government in

Nigeria. Lagos: Malthouse Press.
Kolawole, D. (1997). Readings in Political Science. Ibadan: Dekaal.
31
MODULE 2
Unit 1 The Structure of Local Government

Unit 2 The Functions of Local Government
Unit 3 The Structure of Local Government in Britain
Unit 4 The Structure of Local Government in France
Unit 5 The Structure of Local Government in the United States of
America.
Unit 6 The Structure of Local Government in India
Unit 7 The Structure of Local Government in Tanzania
Unit 8 The Structure and Functions of Local Government in
Nigeria
UNIT 1 THE STRUCTURE OF LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Types of Structure in Local Government
3.1.1 Tiers of Local Government (as Structure)
3.1.2 Political Structure in Local Government
3.1.3 Administrative Structure in Local Government
3.2 Relationship between the Political and Administrative
Structure in Local Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Now that you have understood the basic concepts underlying local
government and what local governments stand for, let us look at the
structure of local government. Understanding the structure of local
government will provide the basis on how these institutions operate. In
this unit, two types of structures are presented viz: political and
administrative. You will also to see the relationship between the political
and administrative structures. A diagram of these structures and their
relationships is also presented. An understanding of this unit will
facilitate the understanding of local government in other countries.
32
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• differentiate between single and multi-tier structure of local

government
• differentiate between politics and administrative structures of
local government
• describe the composition of the political structure in a few
countries
• describe how the administrative structure relates to the political
structure
• present the political and administrative structure in a diagram.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Types of Structures in Local Government
Every organisation or institution has a structure. By structure we mean

the components of an organisation that perform certain functions geared
towards the achievements of organisational goals. In administration,
these component or structures are hierarchically organised. This
therefore entails that the structures offer positions that are stratified i.e a
superior/subordinate relationship. In local government, just like in other
governments, the administrative structure is patterned along these lines.
Local government also has a political structure. All elected officials fall
into this structure and it is principally made up of the legislature and the
executive.
In the local government, there are also committee structures set up to

look at issues and take decisions on behalf of the government – a lot of
such decisions are subject to ratification by the council or the superior
body as the case may be.
The structure of local government can also refer to the status of local
government i.e whether it is all or multi-purpose or single tier local
government or a multi-tier local government with layers of local
authorities below the local government structure.
State three levels at which we can look at the structure of local

governments.
33
3.1.1 Tiers of Local Government
There are two types of structure related to the status of local

governments. First is a single-tier (multi-purpose) structure in which
only one authority is recognised by law at the local level. Any other
arrangement under local government is a matter of administrative
convenience. A good example of this is the Nigeria local government
system which is described as single tier. Only this level of authority is
recognised by the 1979 and 1999 constitution. Districts, villages, wards
and even area development authorities are just for administrative
purpose and thus vary from state to state.
The multi-tier system is one where the authorities under the local
government like districts, counties, borough, special districts, home rule,
etc are recognised by the Law and related with appropriately by the
central/state governments. However, in some countries like Britain, the
lower authorities are not responsible as such to the higher authorities i.e.
within its own sphere. It enjoys a functional independence, meaning
that it is responsible for the administration of a group of services or parts
of services. In France on the other hand, the level of decentralisation
makes the communes subordinate to the department in certain cases. So
also are the sub-districts to the districts in India.
Would you think there are unique advantages to be enjoyed operating a

single tier as against a multi-tier structure of local government? (State
two of these).
3.1.2 Political Structure
Local governments are politically structured and constituted. This is also

a fall-out of the system of leadership in local governments. As pointed
out earlier, the political structure is responsible for policy making, law
making and even policy implementation at the local level. The major
organs of the political structure are the executive, the legislature and
committee. These committees can be standing committees (statutory) or
house/executive committees set up to study issues and report to the
parent body. The legislature is made up of councilors and in some cases
alderman. The executive could be made up of supervisory councilors or
supervisors together with the chairman.
The political structure varies from country to country depending,

sometimes, on the system of leadership. Some systems advocate a strong
chairman while others a weak one. Some have a large number of
34
councilors, others small. The executive may also follow the same
pattern.
In the US, the political structure addressed four types of leadership,

namely the strong mayor, the weak mayor, the commission system and
the council or city manager system. Structure can also refer to the
minimum population spelt out for the creation of local governments. In
Nigeria, the 1976 Reform spells out a population of 150,000-800,000.
This is done in such a way as to respect the issue of viability. On this
basis, 301 local governments were created. In multi-tier system, the
population of the smaller units is bound to be much less.
The administrative structure of local government is hierarchical as in

any other government. At the head is a secretary to the local government
(which in France is referred to as the prefect). In some local government
systems (e.g. Nigeria) the secretary is the chief executive but through
reforms he had come to be answerable to the chairman. He is the head of
administration. Under the secretary, are departments which are headed
by heads of departments. The departments in local governments are
created in such a way that they perform a group of functions. Normally,
such departments are those of finance, personnel (administration),
agriculture, education, health, works, social welfare and community
development, etc. The number of departments a local government
should have will depend on the complexity of the local government (e.g.
urban-rural) or the laws setting up local governments.
Sometimes these departments are classified as service and operational

departments. The service departments are normally those that deal with
staff and finance, both of which support service delivery. The
operational departments deliver the services on the field.
Each department is organised in such a way that there are sections and
units or divisions and branches which deal with particular services that
add up to the entire services of the department. The operational
departments also have their structure right into the community where
they deliver these services. These are called field or extension workers
and they could be of a technical, professional and administrative nature.
The sections and units are answerable to the heads of department while
the local government secretary coordinates the activities of the heads of
departments. The secretary in turn is largely responsible to the chairman
in some system. The secretary is expected to be the watchdog for
effective administrative practice at the local government level.
35
3.1 Relationship between the Political Structure and

Administration Structure
As shown earlier in Unit 3 (i.e. theories of local government), local

authorities are about democracy and service delivery. The political
structure in local governments represents the democratic concern of
local government while the bureaucracy or the administrative structure
represents the instruments for effective services. The problem with local
government is how the political structure can use the administrative
structure for providing efficient service.
The political structure makes laws and policies for local government
including approval of local government’s estimates and budgets. The
chairman works closely with the secretary and heads of departments to
implement policies agreed at the executive and legislative councils. To
forge a close link between the political and administrative structure,
political heads are attached to each department. These are called
supervisory councilors or supervisors (depending on the system of
government). These supervisors control the activities of heads of
departments. Policies agreed upon in the executive council are
implemented by the supervisors through their heads of departments.
These Heads also channel the needs and activities of their department to
the council through their supervisors. The supervisors are therefore the
eyes of the chairman at the level of the department.
In the same way, the secretary is the chief adviser to the chairman on
local government administration. Such advises are on administrative
procedure, planning, financial management, staffing and inter-
governmental relations. The chairman may be eager to ensure the
implementation of his programmes but the secretary is there to ensure
proper implementation procedure.
In all these, there is bound to be friction between the political office

holders and the key administrative functionaries (i.e. career officials).
The challenge of administration at the local government level is how to
forge more of cordial relationship between the political and
administrative group as they perform their roles. A typical structure of
local government will look like this:
36
What is the composition of local government political structures and that

of the administrative structures?
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can now agree that understanding the structure of local government
is the basis for understanding the composition and roles and even
relationships of actors within this structure. The political structure is
supposed to use administrative structure for translating political
promises into services. How well this takes place depends on the type of
relationship between the political and career staff of local government.
Sometimes, this relationship is cordial, other times the relationship is

strained and conflictual, especially as a result of personality clash, and
interpretation of guidelines. Other times, the political office holders are
impatient with the regulations governing administrative practices
especially financial management. Such crises slow down the operation
of local government and this had become a big source of worry in local
governments in developing countries. This is where qualities of good
leadership are called into question. It may not be structures that create
the problem but the people that manage it.
37
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have leant about the following that:
• structures are classified based on the status or system of local

government-single tier or multi-tier
• political structures contain the legislature and executive organs of
local government
• administrative structures deal with the office of the secretary and
the departments, sections and units within the local government
• the political structure deploys the administrative structure policies
into services and in so doing, actors in both structures must work
towards a cordial relationship.
How does the political and administrative structures relate in the local
government.
Barber, M.P. (1974). Local Government. London: Macdonald & Evans

Ltd.
Price, H.P. (1975). Comparative Local Government. London:

Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.
38
UNIT 2 THE FUNCTIONS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Principles
3.2 Comparative Perspective
3.3 The Nigerian Example
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
By now, you are supposed to be familiar with the concept and role of
local government. Whichever way you look at local government, it is the
functions they perform and how much of it they perform efficiently at a
given point in time that matters. In this unit, you will be taken through
what these functions are, how these functions are allocated and
comparative experiences as to the classification and nature of these
functions in a few advanced and developing countries. The function of
local governments in Nigeria is also presented in full. Some of the
problems associated with these functions are briefly highlighted.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify three principles governing the assigning of functional

responsibilities to local government
• differentiate between the various classification of functions in
three countries
• list the various functions of local government in Nigeria under
two classification.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Principles in Functions Allocation in Local Governments
There are certain principles to consider while allocating functions to

local governments.
39
• The nature of such local government – urban or rural. The

functions of rural local governments are more mundane and
simple than urban ones.
• Viability of the local government. The question here is whether
the local government has the capacity (human, material and
financial resources) to discharge these functions.
The local government will be subjected to the standards required by the

central government, especially in efficient services and planning
management.
In general, the functions which local governments should perform are:
1. that which require detailed local knowledge for efficient

performance;
2. that in which success depends on community responsiveness and
participation;
3. that which are of personal nature requiring provision close to
where the individuals affected live; and
4. that in which significant use of discretion or understanding of
individuals are needed.
3.2 Comparative Perspective
Local government as the lowest tier of government performs primary

functions. This is deliberate since the central government controls more
funds and has better competence and expertise to handle more secondary
or gigantic programmes. However, city governments, borough and urban
or municipal councils take up greater and more sophisticated functions
than rural councils.
Most constitutions or statutory Acts establish functional areas that local

governments can engage in. In such an exercise, some functions are
concurrent between the local government and the state or regional
governments while others are exclusive to local governments.
The Nigerian constitution makes these distinctions. While exclusive

functions include planning, revenue-generation related functions,
welfare-like services like maintenance of roads, street lighting; the
concurrent ones include agriculture, health, education (especially
primary education) and many other functions prescribed from time to
time by the state house of assembly (Constitution 1999 – Schedule IV).
40
In Britain, local authorities perform three broad functions:
i. environmental
ii. protective and
iii. personal.
Environmental functions concern the citizens’ immediate physical

surrounding-road construction, provision and maintenance of street
light, water supplies, recreational grounds, street clearing and refuse
disposal.
Protective functions are those that deal with safety of citizens (police
and fire services).
Personal services - deal with individual well-being such as housing,

education, libraries and museum, schools and health services. It should
be noted that in Britain today, the most significant, complex and
cumbersome function of local authorities is housing. However, not all
local governments can perform these functions. In rural districts, parish
councils have limited control in matters of local interest such as
allotments, burial grounds, lighting, and provision of amenities, such as
recreational grounds, shelters and parish halls.
Local authorities can in addition acquire further power through

delegated legislation or bye-law. They also have general powers to
acquire land by agreement through the means of purchase, lease or
exchange.
In the United States, special districts are created to carry on specific

functions or projects. The most numerous of such is the management of
the public school system.
Other functions performed by local governments in the US are policing

and fire protection, public works, libraries and recreation, public
utilities, city planning, public health, airports, harbour and housing.
These are indeed gigantic functions which municipal, especially city
governments can take on.
In India, the functions of the Panchayati Raj (i.e. local government)

follow a similar pattern like the one above except for police and the
gigantic function of harbours and airports. The functions here are similar
to the Nigerian situation. Briefly, the functions can also be classified as
obligatory and discretionary. Such functions include agricultural
programmes, animal husbandry, buildings and communications,
41
education administration, fishery, forestry, small-scale industries,

irrigation and medical services, etc.
The urban councils could perform obligatory functions like

conservation, street lighting, drainage and construction and maintenance
of roads. Larger ones could also engage in water supply, street cleaning,
refuse disposal, fire service and being in charge of primary schools.
Urban local government performs more complex functions than rural

ones. List five of such functions.
3.3 The Nigerian Example
To deliberate on this functional responsibility of local government, a

rundown of the functions of local government in Nigeria is done below
as contained in the 1999 constitution (fourth Schedule). The main
functions of a local government council are as follows:
a) the consideration and the making of recommendations to a state

commission on economic planning or any similar body on the
economic development of the state, particularly in so far as the
area of authority of the council and of the state are affected, and
proposals made by the said commission or body
b) collection of rates, radio and television licenses
c) establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds and
homes for the destitute or infirm
d) licensing of bicycle, trucks (other than mechanically propelled
trucks), canoe, wheel barrow and carts
e) establishment, maintenance and regulation of slaughter houses,
slaughter slabs markets, motor parks and public conveniences
f) construction and maintenance of roads and street, street lightings,
drains and other public highways, parks, gardens, open spaces, or
such public facilities as may be prescribed from time to time by
the House of Assembly of a State
g) naming of road and street and numbering of houses
h) provision and maintenance of public conveniences, sewage and
refuse disposal
i) registration of all births, deaths and marriages
j) assessment of privately-owned houses or tenements for the
purpose of levying such rates as may be prescribed by the house
of assembly of a state, and
k) control and regulation of:
i) out-door advertising and boarding
42
ii) movement and keeping of pets of all description, shops
and kiosks restaurants, bakeries and other places for sale
of food to the public
iii) laundries; and
iv) licensing regulation and control of the sale of liquor.
The functions of a local government council shall include participation

of such councils in the government of a state in the following matters:
• provision and maintenance of primary, adult and vocational

education centre
• development of agriculture and natural resources, other than
minerals resources
• provision and maintenance of the health services, and
• such other functions as may be conferred on a local government
council by the house of assembly of the state.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2
List five mandatory and three concurrent functions of local governments

in Nigeria.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Local government can be seen to be saddled with a lot of functions from

the trivial to the gigantic. The problem in performing these functions is
with the resources available to do them. Such resources may include
financial and manpower. In the advanced countries, these worries are
not as acute as in developing countries. Most developing countries
depend on grant from the central governments to run these functions. To
reduce such problem of funding, a lot of functions, especially the
exclusive or mandatory functions have revenue attached to them. In
most cases, these functions can be referred to as extractive functions
because in performing them, local government is indirectly raising
revenue for its services.
In Nigeria, the experience has been that the tax base of the rural
community is very low and therefore local government experiences
great difficulty in performing these functions. At times, it neglects such
extractive functions and wait for grants to carry out the other functions.
The implication had been low viability and low level of autonomy since
these units are largely dependent on statutory allocations to function.
This issue is raised again in subsequent unit under local government
finance and problems of local government.
43
5.0 SUMMARY
You have come across different types of functions that local

governments perform. On the one hand, they have been classified as
exclusive (mandatory) and concurrent. In India, the classification of
obligation is discretionary and similar to Nigeria’s classification.
In Britain, the classification is on the basis of environmental, protection

and personal. The United States’ classification is close to this. Some of
these functions irrespective of countries are mundane while others are
complex (e.g. harbour, airports, etc.).
Performance of these functions requires lots of money. In developing

countries, functions that ought to generate funds for local government
are not as attractive as that of the advanced countries because of the law
on taxable capacity of individuals, communities and their economies.
However, the best way to judge a local government is through its
functional performance.
What do you understand by executive (mandatory) and concurrent

functions of local government in Nigeria and why are they so classified?
Barber, M .P. (1974). Local Government. London: Macdonald & Evans

Ltd.
Guidelines for Local Government Reform, 1976.
Price, H.P. (1975). Comparative Local Government. London:

Hutchinson & Co. Ltd.
The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Federal

Government Press.
44
UNIT 3 THE STRUCTURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES
OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES IN BRITAIN
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The State of Local Authorities in Britain
3.2 Units of Local Government
3.3 Democratic Structure and Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit 4, you were introduced broadly to the structure of local

governments. In these series that follow,, we narrow down our focus to
specific countries. For this unit, the United Kingdom (particularly
England and Wales are examined). The major units of local government
are identified, so also are their relationships. A diagram representing
these structures is also presented.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the key units of local governments in Britain

• describe their functions
• describe their relationships
• represent these units diagrammatically
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Status of Local Authorities in Britain
Local governments in Britain are principally referred to as local

authorities. They are created by an act of parliament. Even though there
are various forms of control, the idea of democratic self-government is a
serious form in the power structure of these authorities. The government
however hesitates to give appreciable autonomy or independence to
these units because such may act as distractions in the face of the social,
45
economic and political unity needed by Britain as it forges integration

democratically and with the rest of Europe.
Despite this fundamental hold on local governments, in practice, things

are not as tight as it may seem (because of this general disposition to
make the system work and the powers local governments derive from
acting intra vires). For example, Pollard reports that:
Local authorities in Britain are not emanations of the State but are
responsible bodies, competent to discharge their own functions and
although they may be the statutory body through which government
policy is given effect and may operate to a large extent with government
money, they exercise their own responsibility in their own right, not
ordinarily as agents of government departments.
This means that government, having given their local authorities certain
powers and functions by statutes, thereafter allows these authorities to
discharge their functions without interference as long as they do so
effectively and justifiable.
The main units of local governments are counties, urban municipalities

and rural local authorities, (urban municipalities consists of county
boroughs, a non-county and metropolitan boroughs councils).
Traditionally, the main pattern of local government organisation in
England and Wales outside Greater London is a division of the country
into county boroughs and administrative counties.
County boroughs are mainly chartered towns with population of over

75,000. In other words, boroughs are based on charters granted at
different times by the monarchy to small towns to exercise some right in
its own justices and courts and settle dispute locally. Furthermore,
provision was made for separate parliamentary representation which the
other types of councils did not have. The county borough has the power
over a non-county borough council, which a county council does not
have. This also includes police affairs.
However, administrative counties are the more numerous and popular.

Administrative counties can be broken into non-county borough and
county districts. The latter consists of urban districts and rural districts,
while rural districts are made up of rural parishes (or 20-30) in a district.
This may be shown diagrammatically as follows:
46
Each of these divisions or units has its own powers and duties and
administration by its elected council. But meanwhile, the number of
these units is as follows:
• 58 County councils
• 82 County borough councils
• 264 Non- county borough councils
• 532 Urban districts councils
• 3,300 Parish meetings
Greater London boroughs are responsible for such issues as, housing,
water supply, sewage, minor roads and bridges buildings, etc. Services
of urban and rural district councils are similar to those provided by non-
county borough councils except that the rural districts are not
responsible for highways, bridges and libraries.
Parish councils are able to provide local amenities including allotments,

village halls, playing field, street lighting upkeep of footpath, etc.
However, a new structure emerged as from 1974 even though it did not
affect Greater London. This is diagrammatically represented below:
47
ENGLAND ENGLAND WALES

NON-METROPOLITAN NON-METROPOLITAN
AREA AREA
(54.5%) (24.0%)
LEVEL AUTHORITY
First Tier MMCC (39) MCC (b) CC (8)
Second Tier MMCDC (296) C (39) CDC (37)
Third Tier Parish Virtually none Community

Government
Note: The structure of local government in Greater London left

unchanged, (%) shows estimate in proportions of the population of
England and Wales.
Key: MMCC = Non-Metropolitan County Council

MCC = Metropolitan County Council
CC = County Councils (Wales only)
MMCDC = Non-Metropolitan County Districts
CDC = County Districts Councils (Wales only).
There has been no fundamental difference between the traditional and

new structure. First, the structure of Greater London was untouched.
Second, the plurality of administrative counties have been neatly divided
into non-metropolitan which is now used to qualify the type of county
council except that the use of “Urban” has been dropped with only
“districts” retained. In Wales, there is no such broad distinction but the
name “urban” is also dropped.
Generally, non-metropolitan area local governments parade a three-tier

structure (just as in the traditional local government system). The same
is true for Wales except that the name of the “parish” has changed to
“community”. For metropolitan areas in England, a two-tier system is
still visible as in the traditional system, except that the term “urban” has
been removed. Of course it should be noted that the number of councils
has changed.
48
Present a diagram showing the structure of local government in England

and Wales from 1974.
3.3 Democratic Structure and Administration
Local government councils act on behalf of the people since they are
elected bodies. The elective offices are mainly those of the chairman and
councilor plus the alderman. Let us see how this operates.
In administration of counties, the post consists of chairman, alderman

and councilors. The chairman is elected annually from council or
alderman to hold that office. Alderman is actually drawn from the pool
of individuals who possess sterling qualities, and who may not want to
subject themselves to elections but whose contribution to local
governance may be highly cherished. He possesses qualifications
equivalent to a local government councilor. Alderman is elected for six
years by the councilors in a proportion of 1.3 with half retiring every 3
years. Councilors are elected every three years and are all eligible for re-
election. Note that by the time council is dissolved at the end of every
three years, with half of the aldermen, the other half provides continuity
in running the local government.
For urban and rural district counties, the chairman is also chosen from
among council who is a justice of the peace of the county. Elections for
district councilors take place either annually or tri-annually. On annual
basis, 1/3 ceases to hold office unless re-elected so that by the end of the
three years, the whole council must have been renewed. Normally
meetings are held four times in a year.
Rural parishes with a population of 300 or more are under one parish
council. However, a parish council consists of chairman and not less
than 5 or not more than 21 members (as may be determined by the
county council). They hold office for three years. The members are
elected tri-annually as a whole.
County and non-county boroughs have councils along the lines of

administrative counties i.e. who are elected from councils one in a year
and exercises ceremonial powers while council determines his
remuneration. The Mayor may appoint his deputy councilors who are
elected for three years but 2/3 of them retire annually. Alderman
consists of 2/3 of total number of councilors either elected from among
councilors or persons qualified to hold office. Their tenure is 6 years,
half of the number retiring every three years. (This is usually referred to
49
as aldermanic elections). Meetings are normally held in these councils

four times in a year.
Looking at the British democratic structure of council, there are certain

striking features. First is that unlike the American strong mayor system,
chairmen are chosen from among councilors. So also is the fact that his
tenure is only for a year in each case. Second, the aldermanic factor is an
innovation which combines democracy with merit and provides for
continuity in administration. Third is the fact that 1/3 of councilor retires
every year implying that such an exercise is capable of gingering them
to brace up to their responsibilities squarely. The point of interest in
either the American or British experiences, however, is that no matter
the population of the local unit, councils are run through representative
government.
Make a list of political office holders at the local government level in

Britain and express their roles in a sentence each.
4.0 CONCLUSION
British local government system is multi-tier and each level is

responsible for a ground of local functions. The plurality of authorities
may have been confusing to you but the 1974 reform has simplified this.
You can recall that in Britain today there is the three-tier system of
county council, district council and parish council especially in the non-
metropolitan area which constitute 54.5% of councils. The metropolitan
area including Greater London takes 24.0% but with a two-tier structure.
There is no parish government because it is difficult to find such
communities in metropolitan areas.
Note that in our discussion, the responsibilities of these councils have

been stated. You have also seen the democratic basis for administration
with actors like councilors, chairman/mayor and alderman.
5.0 SUMMARY
Let us summarise this unit thus:
• that modern British Councils are structured into county councils.

Districts councils and parish councils at the level of Non-
metropolitan councils while for metropolitan councils, we have
only a two-tier structure of metropolitan county councils and
metropolitan county districts councils
50
• the most numerous councils are the administrative counties
ranging from 58 county councils to 3,000 Parish meetings
• each council is responsible for a group functions with the parish
performing the most basic functions
• the major political actors in British local authorities are the
Mayor (Chairman) or the Lord Mayor (in London), the
Councilors and the Alderman. Germany is provided in local
administration by the latter as 1/3 or 2/3 of councilors retires
every year, depending on the council.
Compare County Boroughs and Administrative Counties.
Humes, S. & Martins, E.(1961). Structure of Local Government

throughout the World. The Hague.
Price, H.P. (1965). Comparative Government.
Punnett, R.M. (1971). British Government and Politics. London:

Heinemann Press.
51
UNIT 4 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF

LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 System and Structure of Government
3.2.1 Counties
3.2.2 Rural Municipalities
3.3 Democratic Structure
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
American local governments operate under the control of state

governments. Despite this control, they have wide variety of powers.
Such powers are informed by their democratic base and its attendant
quality services and accountability.
The structure of American local government is like the British system,

i.e. multi-tier. In this unit, you will be introduced to the various units of
local government and their responsibilities. While emphasis in this unit
is on counties and rural municipalities, the next will be devoted to city
governments in America. Find out what is more unique and exciting
about city governments in the next unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the major units of local governments in the US

• present the structure in a diagram
• appreciate the role of democracy in these units especially with the
‘home rule’
• comment on the composition of the country executive and rural
municipalities
• state some functions of these units
52
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 System and Structure of Government
The United States of America operates a federal system of government

and as such powers are shared between the federal and state
governments. (There are 54 States in all). Federalism was adopted as a
way of reacting to the vast size of the territory, the nationality problem,
the forces of diversity and very importantly, the most viable option for
an amicable harmonious co-existence after the historic war between the
northern and southern states in the country between 1861to 1865.
There is a Constitution of the United States of America which shares

powers among the tiers of government in a way that federal-culture
enjoys “exclusive and concurrent” power only. Local governments are
created by the states even though they are the pillars of the entire state
structure. They however receive mention in the constitution and they
enjoy residual powers.
Government administration is manifested in such political institution as

the executive and the legislature. The U.S. operates the presidential
system of government where the president is an executive one – a chief
executive and the whole nation is his constituency. His cabinet is
separate from parliamentary status.
Parliamentary (or congress) at the national level consists of two houses –

House of Representatives and Senate, the latter being the upper house.
This bicameral legislature makes laws for the good governance of the
state, sometimes having enormous powers to hold the president to
ransom even in finance matters. The president of course evokes his veto
on certain occasions.
The state has governors as chief executive running similar

administration as in the centre. Parliament however is unicameral. It
makes law for the good governance of the state, and like the centre, it is
a “watchdog” over the executive.
One thread that runs through the organisation of government at the

various levels is the fact that political activity is generated and governed
by institutions like the political party. All elective posts in government
are to very large extent filled through party candidature except for one
or two independent candidates. Even appointive posts are largely
colored by the incidence of party candidature and interest. Let us now
look at how local governments operate within such a democratic and
constitutional framework.
53
Alderman captioned his book 80,000 Governments. In it, he discussed

the politics of sub-national America. This description is apt of the
American system with one federal government, 54 states and the rest are
local governments. This alarming figure arises not just out of the various
units of local government, but also the closeness of these units to the
common man. Prominent among these are the counties (most
representative nomenclature for local government). Counties could
consist of township (rural counterparts to municipalities and rural
counties).
The second classification of the units of American local government is

incorporated place or municipalities. This includes cities, boroughs
village and incorporated towns. (Some of these were created at the
instance of the people’s desire for the provision of services).
It should be noted that although the municipalities are geographically

included within the county, they are not administratively subordinate to
the county government. County government has no power of review
over municipal government activities. Where ever there are no rural
municipalities the county becomes the basic unit of government.
System of Administration
Local governments in the US are governed by laws of the states and not
those of the national government; therefore no national pattern of local
government exists. The law and practice of local government varies
from state to state.
State governments have direct legal control over the counties which
operate as agencies of the state to enforce state law. Nevertheless, these
local units are powerful because they enjoy enormous power by way of
legal competence, financial resources (especially in cities) and their
democratic base.
Classify the major units of local government in the US.
3.2.1 Counties
American counties are agencies of state government which also may be

abolished. The nature and functions vary from place to place. In the
New England states, this unit of government is primarily a judicial
district, in the southern and far western states; it serves as the primary
54
rural units, controlling courts, education, health, public welfare works
and roads. In a greater number of the state, urban municipalities are
within the county and their residents pay taxes to support the county
government as well as that of their municipalities. Councils are
democratically constituted on the composition and size of membership
could depend on the complexity of the county.
Generally, the governing organ of countries may levy taxes, appropriate

money, issue bonds, maintain law and order, care for prisoners, maintain
roads, record deeds and vital statistics, settle estates, care for dependent
and negated children, advance agriculture and assume certain public
education responsibilities. It can also execute optional powers granted to
it by the state, such as county planning and zoning, various public health
and recreation activities and housing.
Note that in the interest of good government, some counties have elected
chief executive or presidents whose duties are similar to those of the
strong mayor. In other small counties, the county council may appoint a
county administrator, whose duties are similar to those of the manager.
(the concepts of strong and city manager are explained in the next unit).
State four functions performed by the county executives in the US.
3.2.2 Rural Municipalities of Towns
The township or town exists in a large number of American states. A

few of these town governments cover all rural areas. Generally, large
densely populated areas are not included within township government
although the smaller ones may be and their residents then pay township
taxes and vote in township elections.
Some states having township governors, charge the township

government with only the assessment and collection of taxes and acting
as a judicial and election area. In other states, the townships have large
urban areas and must provide many of the services of the incorporated
municipality. In general, the townships assume such functions as
maintaining roads and administering certain health and public welfare
services. The trend had however been to transfer these functions from
township to the county.
The town government is elected and headed by a superior of a trustee

(but popularly called a chairman). He serves a two or three-year term
and his primary concern is with coordinating township activities. Apart
from three other people who may be elected with the chairman to serve
55
as the governing organ, officials of the town administration may be a

clerk, assessor, justices of the peace, constable, treasurer and tax
collector.
3.3 Democratic Structure of Local Government
Local governments in the US are constantly democratic in nature. To the

people, there is the belief that “small local government is better than
distant big government”.
In connection with this, the “Parent Commission” has once observed

that it is only at “the lowest level of government that every citizen had
the opportunity to participate actively and directly”. So also has the
Advisory Committee on Local Government expressed the following
views on local government “local governments are to total government
what basic tissues are to the human body. Within them, government
would have no vitality”.
All these observations point to the fact that the system is imbued with a
heavy dose of democracy. One appreciates this at a glance if informed
that all the “80,000 governments” practice some form of representative
democracy, including counties or schools districts some with a
population of 227 people. (This population must have changed with
time).
One of the hallmarks of this democracy is the “home rule charter”. This
is an attempt by communities to seek legislation through which they
could rule themselves. “Home rule means simply that local units are
granted powers of self-government without interference from state law”.
(note however that there is nothing like complete autonomy for local
units. It is a relative matter). The objectives of home rule are three:
• to prevent legislative interference with local government

• to enable cities to adopt the type of government they desire
• to provide cities with sufficient powers to meet the increasing
need for services
Moreover, local units are said to be the pillars of American democracy.

The various types of local governments down to the lowest unit (i.e. the
districts) have their own executive bodies elected by the people. In fact,
local authority units serve as returning officers in both state and national
elections. Through such representative bodies, the will of the people is
expressed and public accountability ensured. This democratic variable in
addition, confers on city government wide powers in budget preparation
while the state government hardly interferes with local government. On
accountability, any executive that does not perform stands the risks of
56
being voted out or removed by the people. On the other hand, local
governments are open in their administration and ensure prudence in
financial management.
Furthermore, this democratic structure shields local government from

the excesses of state council, in such a way that even though these units
are established by state charters of legislation, no state government can
dissolve a county or city council, since their primary mandate is from
the people who elected them. In most cases however, the relationship is
that of co-operation rather than antagonism.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have been introduced to the structure and

responsibilities of American local governments, especially the counties
and townships. You were informed that the county is the basic tier of
local government. Other local governments operate within this.
The major features of these local governments are that their governing
body is elective, they assess and raise taxes in some cases (rating and
electing authorities) and in some cases also, they are judicial and
electoral units. Attention is placed on the county and township councils.
What is left to be done is to look at the city councils. What is interesting
in the city council is their type of executive. This will form the subject
of the next unit.
5.0 SUMMARY
The major points learnt in the unit are as follows:
• local governments in the US are the concerns of the state

• the county is the basic unit of local government under which are
municipal, township, city and district councils (a multi-tier
structure)
• the executives of these councils are elected .
• many communities seek ‘Home Rule’ to enhance democracy
autonomy
• some council especially those in the townships could be a rating
authority, a precepting authority, a judicial and electoral area
• counties perform functions like maintenance of law order, road
maintenance, child welfare, advanced agriculture, public
education.
• rural municipalities perform functions such as road maintenance,
public welfare, health services, and tax collection.
57
Comment on the democratic nature of American local government.
Alderfer, H. (n.d). American Local Government and Administration.
Humes, S. & Martin, E. (n.d). The Structure of Local Government

Throughout the World.
Price, J.H. (n.d). Comparative Local Government.
Skidmore, M. & Wamke, M. (1981). American Government: A Brief

Introduction. USA: St. Martin’s Press Inc.
58
LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN FRANCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of Decentralisation
3.2 The Structure/Administration of Local Government
3.2.1 Departments
3.2.2 The System of Preference Today
3.2.3 Regions
3.3 Functions/Responsibilities
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
French local government presents a good example of both aspects of

decentralisation. You may realise that the American system, even
though unitary in nature, significantly devolves powers to the counties
and Britain and promotes local self government. In this unit, French
local government will be x-rayed before and after 1982. The functions
and responsibilities of these councils and the democratic content of the
councils will be discussed. At the end of the unit, you may (as in the
American case) want to look at the epoch of local government
administration in Nigeria and see how the French model applies to them.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the major units of French local government

• classify and explain the type of decentralisation that went on
before and after 1982
• compare the role of the Prefect in the administration of
‘departments’ before and after 1982
• state the functions of each tier of government
• identify the types of executive or system of government as
practiced in French local government
59
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
French operated a unitary system of government and by implication

exercises much control over the local authorities. The structure of local
authorities in France is multi-tier. The effective or basic unit of local
government administration before 1982 has been the power of the
prefect. During this period, the Prefect was more powerful than the
elected local government executive council. But from 1982, the powers
were greatly reduced. Let us now discuss the units, their administration,
their functions or responsibilities and their power more systematically.
3.2 The Structure/Administration of Local Government
The structure of government in France is as follows:
Central Government
Regions
Departments
Cantons & Arrondissement
Communes
Note that before the creation of regions, the province which is the
department was the first local unit under the state. When regions were
created in 1972 (as administrative unit) it pushes the department below
it. Arrondissement and cantons are like sub-provinces and districts. The
municipality is actually the commune.
The commune is the lowest unit of government in France. They were

born out of the French Revolution and replaced the old parishes of the
ancient regime. The whole of France is divided into 38,000 communes
to make sure local uniformity is ensured.
It had served basic administration unit over the three centuries or more.
The population of 38,000 communes leaves an average population of
60
1,300. As Blondel points out, if one excludes the large towns and cities
such as Paris, Marseille, or Lyons, the average communes’ size is even
much smaller. For instance, 35,000 communes have less than 2,000
inhabitants as their average population.
This may look so small for any viable or credible administrative unit to
emerge let alone of mobilising resources to develop such area.
Nevertheless, the democratic principle is very strong here and the
principle of representation forms the basis of administrative
organisation. In this connection, the commune has a “deliberate body”
elected by direct universal suffrage, (i.e. the municipal council) and an
executive arm (the mayor) himself elected by the municipal council.
(Mayor of communes have been elected since 1882 but under the
Napoleonic order they were appointed by the central government,
making the system authoritarian in nature).
The council holds at least four sessions in a year and its role is to
primarily supervise the action of the mayor and to deliberate on the
budget. Even though the council elects the Mayor, it does not have the
right to vote him out or force him to resign. This is not true of the
parliamentary system. In matters of budget, where the council refuse to
approve the mayor’s budget, he may be led to resign and government is
then likely to dissolve the council and call for fresh elections.
Such exercises are rare because the majority party more often than not
dominates the council and the mayor enjoys the goodwill and support of
these members – at least a majority. This is not to talk of the fact that
many Mayors have considerable personal followers in the communes
and can distribute patronage store to parliamentary or higher
governmental carrier.
Present the structure of French local government in a diagram.
3.2.1 Departments
“Departments replaced the old provinces whose continued stay was seen
as a danger to national unity”. There are 96 departments in France and
they are supposed to have been created out of a group of communes. In
other words, they oversee the activities of communes and either pool
their activities together or support them individually to make them
viable, considering their very small population and resources.
However, communes can be said to be more democratic than

departments because of the nature of representation and leadership.
61
There was normally a weak elected council of the department known as

“general council” (conseil generale) in which executive power remained
in the land of Nepoleon’s creation, the Prefect.
The prefect was the representative of government in each department

and also the executive agent of the department. He corresponds with the
mayor of the commune but he is an appointee of the central government.
He is more like a colonial governor than like the head of a local
authority. The prefect before 1982 detracts from real local democratic
activity in two ways. First, he is not local and does not come from the
area; second, prefects are moved every two or three years as matter of
policy so as not to get involved in local troubles as a result of a long
stay. This would enable him concentrate on government policy.
In a lot of cases, prefects are chosen from among sub-prefects whose

men are posted in each arrondissement to supervise the activities of
mayors and if necessary, block or reverse their decisions within the
limits of the powers which the law gives them.
Furthermore, prefects have among their central government functions,

that of supervising the activities of mayors and municipal councils.
Prefects had power to alter budgets, to appoint officials and sometimes
even to suspend elected councils. This used to be the practice for many
years. Note that budgets of small local authorities are, for instance, often
drafted by agents of the sub-prefect as these mayors do not have the
skill, or the staff to draft the budgets themselves. Note also that the
relationships between prefects and mayors are not necessarily
antagonistic because the prefects help out the mayors and other councils
in technical problems apart from the budgets stated above. But this is
rather as a result of the small size of the local authority. It does not
necessarily justify the control.
The point made from the beginning about the control system in the
French system is not borne out of the relationship between prefect and
council and its subsequent negation of the people’s supremacy.
How does the council of a committee operate vis a vis the mayor?
3.2.2 The System of Prefecture Today
France today has moved away from this tight control measures with its
attempt to relegate popular will. This is because of the 1982 Reforms
which came into operation as a result of a “socialist government” which
62
regarded “decentralisation as a cornerstone of local government
administration”.
Briefly what this reform has done is to water the power of the prefect
and enhance the power of council and the mayor. This was to affect all
the communes, departments and the 22 regions. It embodied measures
which rendered these authorities relatively more “autonomous and fully
accountable”. Secondly, it transferred to local authorities powers
hitherto enjoyed by the central government and exercised by its national
region of departmental representatives. Some of these newly devolved
or decentralised powers include:
• Rights and liberties of communes, departments and regional Act

of March, 1982
• Abolition of a priori powers i.e. Prefects veto power on measures
adopted by local assemblies was reduced to advisory role
• Transfer of executive power in regions and departments i.e. the
prefect no more served as the executive head of department and
region (as the representative of central governments and regional
councils). Prefects now prepare the measures adopted by council
and ensure their implementation – some civil servants rather than
policy-maker role
• Accountability of local government. Local government activities
must however be overseen by the state in spite of the above
concessions. Even though these concessions are wide, the prefect
still serve as a watchdog for council activities. The only change
now is that decision may only be reviewed by a superior. In this
case, prefect may not overrule but the judiciary can review both
administrative and financial acts. Prefects (now known as the
commissioner of the republic) can refer illegal acts to
administrative/legislative units. Local government can only act
intra vires.
3.2.3 Regions
The regions are a recent creation in France. The communes and

departments were found too inappropriate for certain planning and
development objectives to be implemented. Regions are more of
planning units than overtly political as in the preceding two.
Actually a referendum was held in 1969 under De-Gaulle as to the need

for regions but this was rejected. In 1972, however, the region appeared
as a new administrative unit, with a council of its own (i.e deliberate
body) whose members were appointed by departments and the
communes. Membership also includes all the region members of
Parliament plus an executive arm who is the regional prefect. This is
63
another attempt in French administration towards decentralisation

which, as was indicated earlier, picked up momentum with the 1982
reforms. Altogether, there are 22 regions.
It appears from all we have said on these local units that their central
administrative control is an important feature of French politics but also
that local autonomy is conceded, especially with the decentralisation
reform which eroded some of the powers of the prefect.
One other important feature is that French politics is that of “politics of

access”. By this we mean ability to go to Paris and get as much cake for
the periphery. The good Mayor or parliamentarian is one who is able to
accomplish this. This is possible because of the structure and mobility
available to the political elites within the system. For example, a mayor
could be a member of the departmental council, the regional assembly
and even a parliament in Paris or the central legislature. And that is why
we said from the beginning that despite the seeming tight control by
virtue of this multiple membership, which is locally sourced and rooted,
the local units tends to enjoy autonomy because of this organic link
between the centre and the periphery.
How did decentralisation affect ‘provinces’ and regions?
3.3 Functions/Responsibilities
These include:
1. Adoption of budget
2. Approval of the yearly financial records
3. Maintenance of public property
4. Building and road
5. Provision of public education, health, sanitation and assistance
services
Cantons are a collection of communes initially found for the army,

judicial and electoral administration and for the collection of taxes as
well as for registration of various kinds of required information. The
Arrondissement is purely administrative with elective body but purely to
care of the administration of departments. The head of this body is the
sub-perfect who is appointed by the central government. The sub-prefect
has as his functions the following:
• receives and passes official papers, documents and orders from

the governor to the municipalities
64
• approves the appointment of certain officials (including local
police)
• arranges the details of elections
• has certain supervisory powers over municipal mayors within his
territory (particularly on budget and police ordinances)
• he/she gives technical assistance to those officials and liaise
between the local and provisional governments
• advised the central government on putting into effect state or
provisional policy within the area.
The function of the council here is to adopt a budget (which before 1982
was presented to the governor (i.e. prefect) after the local council have
approved it. Council also does the following:
• dispose of provincial and estates matters

• build and maintain highways
• provide public assistance institution and welfare services
• provided certain aspects of public education
• can also set municipal rates and appropriate taxes for municipal
development
• exercise control over the province (department) as the
representative of the central government in the department. This
is a source of sweeping powers over mayors and councils.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You can see from this exposition on French local government that
control under unitary system can be more exerting to local government.
It has also demonstrated a classical case of decentralisation, meaning
that devolution did not quite start until 1982. Even then, the prefect still
remains the effective central government representative at the local
level. (this chief executive status has not been totally eroded). Such
systems have their advantage of ensuring accountability and efficient
management of resources. The disadvantage is the encroachment on
local democracy and hence local autonomy. The communes continue to
perform their basic functions under same democratic inspiration and just
like the department; their deliberative body operates the parliamentary
system. The experience also demonstrated a situation where in a multi-
tier arrangement, the departments exercised extensive control over the
communes than in the other experiences we have come across. The
experience (before 1982) is very relevant to the Nigerian experience
before the 1976 Reform.
65
5.0 SUMMARY
Having completed this unit, the highlights could be stated as follows:
• France operates a unitary system and this makes control over

local government enormous
• Even though the mayor of the communes has a lot of initiatives,

the Department exercises extensive control over him especially
that his action in most cases has to be intra-vires
• The department is the major unit of local government and under it

are arrondissement and cantons. The primary level in this multi-
tier system is the commune. Note: communes can be both
municipal and rural
• The local authorities have a deliberate body headed by a mayor or

chairman who has wide ranging powers but whose powers are
often monitored by the prefect (secretary general). He is however
subjected to his council and implements council’s decisions. The
council acts as a check on the chairman
• The reforms of 1982 brought in more devolution of powers and

so it is properly tagged the decentralisation reforms. The main
feature of this is that it waters down the powers of the prefect and
increases council control of local affairs. The chairman is largely
a policy maker and political leader while the prefect is charged
with daily administration
• French local governments perform not too different functions

from earlier ones in Britain and the U.S - education, works,
building of roads, rates and police are the major functions. You
may have noticed however that there is much talk about
budgeting approvals, supervision and control
Why are Departments and the Prefect remarkable features of French

local government administration?
Blondel, J. (1974). The Government of France. Melthouse and Co. Ltd.
Blondel, J & F. Ridely, F. (n.d). Public Administration in France.

London: Routledge Keagan Paul.
66
Humes, H & Martin, E. (n.d). The Structure of Local Government
throughout the World.
Price, J.A. (n.d). Comparative Government.
67
UNIT 6 THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF

LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN INDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Structure, Composition and Power of Rural Municipalities
3.1.1 Panchayats
3.1.2 Panchayats Samiti
3.1.3 Zila Parished
3.2 Functions of the Panchayati Raj
3.3 Urban Councils (Composition and Functions)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
India like the United States of America operates a federal system of

government. The expectation therefore is that devolution should occur at
the local level. States exercise some form of control but this is at the
level of the district. There are some measures of autonomy to control
funds and run services. In this unit, you will be introduced to the major
units of local governments in India, their structure, functions and
composition. You may at the end start thinking of any general
observable pattern of local government in federal settings. This will later
on be strengthened by the Nigeria system which is also a federal system.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the major units of local government in India and describe

their composition
• explain the relationship between these units
• state the functions of these units
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Structure/Composition and Powers
Local government in India operates a three-tier system known as

PanchayatiRaj. This actually sums up what an author refers to as a
68
“synthesis” consisting of the three levels of the districts, sub districts
and the village levels. Locally, they are referred to as the Zila Parishad,
the Panchayati Samitri (or Kshetra Samitri) and Panchayat respectively.
They are normally structured according to ascending order of authority.
This is represented in the diagram below:
DISTRICT LEVEL (ZILA PARISHAD)

MUNICIPAL COUNCILS
SUB DISTRICT (PANCHANYATI SAMITRI OR

KSHETRA SAMITRI
VILLAGE PANCHANYATI
These units were actually created as a result of the balwantrai mehta

committee which suggested a 3-tier system of local democratic
decentralisation of powers. The premise for this idea lies in the fact that
the constitution after independence was based on the plural nature of the
India society, including the realisation of the villages (which houses
80% of the population) as the basic springboard of democracy. Added to
this is the fact that the Indian Government Act of 1935 had offered
autonomy to the provinces (now states), which in turn gave further
impetus to development of local self government which in turn was the
foundation of independence. Such right hand also has to be further
extended to the grassroots for the reason stated earlier on.
Graphically show the structure of local government in India.
3.1.1 Panchayats
Let us now look at the working of these units in ascending order of their
authority.
This is the basic or lowest unit of local authority in India. Ordinarily,

they are to be equated with villages which could be as large as 2,000
people and above. The major aim of this unit is to involve the people in
government right from the grassroots level. Apart from this basic
political function, there is the planning and functional dimension. The
basic political arrangement is that the village panchayats is constituted
on universal adult suffrage. There is some form of direct election into
the village council but any other election to the higher authorities
(smatia and parishad) are based on indirect or secondary elections.
(mention must however be made of move by some states to have the
higher authorities elected directly). Therefore there are variations in
69
pattern. Normally, the chairman of the village council becomes an ex-

officio member of the kshetra samiti.
Furthermore, at the panchayats level there is the meeting of all adult

members in the village normally known as the gram sabba. It is
normally consulted by the panchayats on proposed budgets and plans for
development, especially agricultural production. Such plans are
supposed to guide the village for a particular period of time. It is also
consulted on progress of work over a period of time. This body meets
periodically about 2-3 times a year or as occasion demands.
There is no gainsaying that this level is the least financially equipped

and even their secretary, is hired and paid from state offices or
secondary by the district council. This staff acts as liaison between the
state and the village in the collection of revenue and maintenance of
records and other documents. Departmental officers also monitor the
activities of these panchayats.
The panchayats have judicial powers, but of a very limited nature. These
are in the areas of minor thefts, trespassing, encroachment on public
property and civil suits up to a few hundreds of rupees. In fact, a special
council, nyanya panchayats or adalat panchayats whose membership is
elected from among councilors of four to five villages may decide minor
dispute involving cattle trespass, theft or gambling.
3.1.2 Panchayats Samiti
This is also referred to as kshetra samiti. It is a form of “middle council”

comprising a block or group of villages. They are more functional than
political. Duties include more of execution of policy from districts and
supervision of village activities. The population of such clusters of
village or the samitis could range from 60000 to three million.
As pointed out earlier, the councils are constituted democratically,

through the elected representatives of village on mostly indirect basis
(i.e. from the panchayat). Their major function is sharing in
development activities concerned with improving agriculture, forestry
promotion, cooperatives, small industries, provision of educational,
medical and public health services.
In terms of staffing, the chief executive officer is the “bloc development

officer” who acts as secretary to the panchayats and responsible for
ensuring that decisions of samatri are carried out. He in addition
coordinates the activities of the various departments.
70
3.1.3 Zila Parishad
This is the colonial districts, basically carried out for the purpose of
revenue collection and maintenance of law and order. It was inherited
and adapted to suit post-independence structure. (It shares the same
experience as in Tanzania). It is the most viable level of local
government which works through the other tiers for grassroots
development in revenue generation. It is also a vehicle for state
government’s presence in the rural area. The district therefore is
important for development and for administrative purposes. Apart from
these, it is also important as a representative body. It is the main local
government council harbouring representatives of the panchayats,
through the samiti to the districts. It can therefore be said to be an
integration or synthesis of local democracy and administration, the
embodiment of the unequal trinity – the Panchayats Raj.
Members of this body are elected either directly on the basis of universal
adult suffrage or indirectly, for terms varying from 3-5 years. Such
members could be between 20 and 40 in number. They could also
include co-opted or association members in that area who may not speak
but vote. The council could meet not less than 4 times a year or as often
as possible. The president of the council is chosen from within the
council in line with the cabinet system at the federal and state levels.
The major activity of the district is to meet, formulate and deliberate on

plans and proper utilisation of resource, supervision and inspection by
districts level officers of the various departments. Government or
administration at this level could be organised through committees.
Its principal activities could also include construction and maintenance

of roads and bridges and provision of education, mainly at the
elementary level.
In its general administration, it exercises a lot of control over the units

below it. For example, the zila parishad has power over grants going to
the panchayats samiti and the latter over the panchayats. Zila parishad in
every instance coordinates and supervises the work of the panchayats
samiti in area of submission of budgets, of detailed development plans
and of periodic progress report. Also, in administrative terms, the
general administrator namely the collector, or deputy commission, the
senior officer at the district level, is regarded by many as “the eyes and
ears of the government”. This is in tune with what happens in other
developing nations were as a point of interest to government, effective
control of the grassroots, is necessary through its appointed agents, be he
the secretary of the commissioner at that level. Needless to say it is a
71
colonial tradition. (Even the French have watered down the powers of
the prefect considerably as seen earlier).
The technical officers at the district level are responsible for ensuring
that in the panchayats samitis, both executive and technical departments
are functioning efficiently and carrying through the programs properly.
Thus, the framework exists through common representative,
coordinating power and official hierarchy to bring together all three
levels into a coherent system of local government and administration.
What are the major roles of village councils?
3.2 Functions of the Panchayati Raj
Besides the specific functions mentioned of each, there are certain

general functions which are performed mainly by the zila parishad.
These are functions found in any other setting in any developing
country. These include all aspects of agricultural programmes affecting
the former directly, animal husbandry, buildings and communication,
education, administration (including secondary education) fisheries,
forestry, small scale industries, irrigation, medical services, public
health, social education and welfare and the collection of all land
revenue. Many of these functions are handled by the district level while
the minor ones are devolved to its subordinates. In some cases,
subordinates are just used to execute these.
3.3 Urban Councils (Composition and Functions)
There are over 300 urban municipalities in India. While some could be
as large as some state capitals, others are either medium or small cities.
Urban municipalities are also democratic entities and administration is
either through a council, committee or board. Election is based on adult
suffrage on a single member constituency. The duration of council could
vary from between threetofive years. Such councils consist of chairman
and members. The chairman could be mayor of president, elected from
council among its own members for between onetofive years. He
provides leadership but cannot override council as in many urban types
of council. He could either be removed by a vote of no confidence of 2/3
(two-thirds) of council members, or by the state government. This is the
parallel of the cabinet system at both state and federal/union levels as
regards the democratic practice of removal. The other aspect of removal
by state government is common with Third World countries. The
experience is also similar in district council.
72
Urban municipalities are viable because of their human, material and
financial resources. They are also viable because of their strategic
locations. They perform great tasks which could either be obligatory or
discretionary. The former could include conservancy, street lighting,
drainage, and construction and maintenance of road. Some larger ones in
addition to the above embark on water supply, street cleaning and
disposal of refuse and prevention of epidemics, while very large ones
engage in additional functions like fire fighting services, health,
markets, slaughters and primary schools.
Discretionary tasks include public concerns, public parks, gardens,

museum, libraries, halls, rest houses, tree planting along roads,
construction, or purchasing and maintenance of short distance railways
and runways, providing public housing, city plan, land reclamation,
census and other surveys, relief grants, and healthcare for the mentally
ill.
From this listing, one could see that areas above the capabilities of local
governments in certain other developing countries discussed in this work
could be ventured into by urban councils here. Even in Britain, rail
management is provided by British rail. Perhaps we can say at this
juncture that those functions could be the prompting of certain ambitious
councils. It may also depend on the national fiscal arrangement.
Broadly, urban councils perform both representative and administrative

functions. At the political level, these councils make bye-laws, vote
taxes budgets, sanctions above certain amount and appoint higher
municipal employees. Administratively, they function through statutory
and “permissive committee” which closely supervise the day-to-day
functions of municipal operations.
4.0 CONCLUSION
You have just gone through the structure of local governments in India.
These structures or local units are taken very seriously because of the
rural development focus of government. Community and rural
development is topmost in federal and state governments’ plans in as
much as these are democratic structures. They are seen much more as
instruments of change in rural areas. The colonial three-tier structure has
lasted this while and has become very functional. In keeping with the
rural development focus over the years, the panchayats have been turned
into centers for agrarian development. Human resource development and
mobilisation has become the cardinal strategy of India local
governments.
73
Note that urban councils in a developing setting like India also

undertake gigantic functions like short distance railways and support,
public housing, land reclamation, census and other surveys. This tells
you the rate at which urban councils have grown (i.e. in complexity).
5.0 SUMMARY
Having gone through this unit, we can try to recall some of the major
highlights of the unit together, as follows:
• the major tiers of local governments are the zila parishad, the
kshetra samitri and the panchayat. These are district, sub-district
and village councils respectively. There is also an urban council
which is single tier in nature. The government system is known
as the Panchayats Raj
• the councils or executives of these councils are elective. At the
panchayat level is the village council. Members from here
represent the panchayat at the village, subordinate and district
levels (secondary election). The chairman of the village council is
however an ex-officio member at the next level
• the samiti contains a group of villages and they are more
functional than political
• the zila parishad is the most viable and highest level of local
government. It works through the other tier of local government
for grassroots development. The council is elected for a tenure of
3-5 years and the system of government is parliamentary
• there are 300 urban municipalities in India, some of which are as
large as state capitals. The administration is either through a
council, committee or board. The Mayor or President runs the
council in a cabinet or parliamentary system
• functions of the Panchayat Raj range from agriculture, to
education (including secondary) and to economic functions like
small scale industries and revenue collection (especially land
revenue).
Identify the main features of the zila parishad as the main unit of local
government administration in India.
74
Blondel, J. (1974). The Government of France Melthouse and Co. Ltd.
Blondel. J. & Ridely, F. (n.d). Public Administration in France. London:

Routledge and Keagan Paul.
Humes, H. & Martin ,E.(n.d). The Structure of Local Government

throughout the World.
Price, J.A. (n.d). Comparative Government.
75

LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN TANZANIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Setting
3.2 Local Administration Before and During Arusha i.e. The
Sixties
3.2.1 Election and Composition of Council
3.2.2 Administration and Functions
3.3 Post-Arusha Governments: Major Changes
3.3.1 Further Changes
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
You have just been introduced to the structure and functions of local
government in India. You are about to be introduced to the same
exercise in Tanzania which is another developing country. The only
difference is that Tanzania operates a unitary system of government.
India parades a history of successful democracy while Tanzania has
gone through a history of one-party democracy and highly ideological
leadership especially during the Nyerere era. In this unit, you will come
across the ideological basis for local government structure, composition
and how it operates. You will also encounter cases of deconcentration
associated with most unitary systems (and more especially as
conditioned by the ideological structure). The discussion will be
organised into local government before the Arusha Declaration of 1972
and after.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the structure of local governments and their functions

before 1972
• describe the major changes that took place after 1972
• explain the role of ideology and party machinery in local
government administration during these periods.
76
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Setting
Tanzania, a union or federation between Tanganyika and Zanzibar,

became independent in 1961 from British colonial rule, even though the
actual union took place three years after independence. With such a
union, Tangayika the senior and mightier partner, produced the president
while Zanzibar the vice president (at least to start with).
Tanzania may not be a rich country but it has produced a main man of
Africa, a talented and progressive leader, full of ideas and ready to go,
but unfortunately constrained by both internal and external forces.
Before we go into an exploration of this, let us go through a political
structure/administration configuration of the country and the place of
local government.
A one-party state, just like its Chinese and Soviet counterparts, the party
was government and government was party. So every activity of
government, every idea and every structure was either informed by or
governed by party ideology.
Structurally, there is a central government in Dar es Salaam, below it are

regions, then districts after which come division and villages. At least
this was the position before Arusha and much of this was also retained
even after Arusha. This is a unicameral parliamentary legislature at the
center while each of these units except, perhaps the regions is
democratically constituted. As pointed out above, the Tanganyika
African National Union (TANU) is the sole party and the principal
unifying force within the country. Politically, Tanzania has gone through
three phases in its post-colonial history viz pre-Arusha, Arusha and post
Arusha. These come with different ideological phases namely capitalist
and socialist. The model local government system is discussed under the
first era while changes to these are discussed under the other
experiments.
3.2 Local Administration Before and During Arusha (i.e the

Sixties)
The following is a diagram of the structure of local government before

being restructured in 1972.
77
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
REGIONS
DISTRICT/URBAN COUNCILS
DIVISIONS
SUB-DIVISION
VILLAGES
The effective nucleus of local government is actually the district. Above

the districts are regions, 17 in number. Regions are more of coordinative
and planning bodies with no elected representatives but with some
controlling powers. They are headed by regional commissioners, who in
most cases is the regional secretary of TANU (does this remind you of
French local government?).
There was 60 districts in Tanzania with a distribution of two to six in

each region. This was the effective seat of local government
administration even though subject to the regional government. For
urban councils, there are 15 of them. The style of administration in Dar
es Salam and Tanga towns are based on different sets of laws modeled
after English local government.
Division, (subdivision) and villages operate below districts for planning

purposes, welfare and other basic functions. Of course, the villages are
the most natural entities out of these, while the rest are either artificial
creations or done for administrative convenience. The structure as it
looks could also have some coincidence with some traditional native
authorities but after independence and especially under guidance of
TANU, these structures were either removed, ignored or where retained
and modernised to suit the postcolonial drive for development.
Describe the structure of local government in Tanzania before 1972.
78
3.2.1 Election and Composition of Councils
Local governments, rural or urban are divided into wards, from where
representatives are elected into councils. List of candidates are however
drawn up by the local TANU while the president has powers and does
actually appoint ten people into the council, mostly TANU district
executive committee or civil servants. The local TANU leader becomes
the chairman of the local council on ex-officio basis. Such exercise
replicates themselves at the other subordinate levels. At the regional
level however, the picture is much different. Because its major function
is administrative i.e. development planning, its composition is that of a
combination of party secretary, members, districts chairman and experts.
Local governments can therefore be said to experience little democratic
experience under an arrangement where list of candidates are pre-
prepared and imposed. This of course is typical of one-party states.
What is the composition of a typical planning committee for local

government?
3.2.2 Administration and Functions
Normally, council is the highest authority in the local level but each
subordinate authority is subject to that above it and entirely dominated
in complexion by the TANU party at that level – a sort of “dual
subordination’’ as in the socialist state
The bureaucracy of the local government is headed at the district level

by the Head of the administration, sometimes referred to as the
executive officer (who is directly in charge of personnel and
administration. His counterpart at the urban center is called the town
clerk (as in Britain). However, the rest of the departmental heads are the
representative of the various central government ministries serving in
the district. This personnel system may cut overhead costs as an
advantage but could create problems for local unit.
At the divisional level, the executive officer is appointed by the district

council with the approval of the regional commissioner, while an
assistant divisional officer takes charge of the subdivision. Village
executive officers are also appointed by the district to take charge of
village administration.
The major function of these tiers of local government right from the
region to the village is planning. As such, there are planning committees
replicated at each level with a hierarchy of authority and accountability
79
in this respect. Development and planning committee become all too

important in rural areas. The major function is to draw up budgets or
annual development estimates which must be approved by council. On
the other hand, these planning committees supervise projects through the
various local committees i.e. right from regional to village level. Such
plans must in the first case, pass through the estimated line of authority
with much vetting done at the district planning committee level and
“much politicking” at the regional and even central government levels.
A typical planning committee could include the regional commissioner

as chairman, all members of the finance committee, all departmental and
technical officers in the district, cooperative society officials, and the
area chairman of TANU and the executive officer of the council who
acts as the secretary. Such composition depicts politics, administration,
and expertise at work but showing, of course, the overriding dominance
of the political with both regional chairman and secretary (both TANU
official) at the core.
The other functions which local governments perform are social and
education (especially in the rural areas which are quite incapacitated by
finance and personnel). District councils undertake roads, apart from
trunk ones (for which grant is received). This is apart from the approval
of plans from development and planning committee from below.
Much of the activities and administration of the councils are carried out
through committees. One of it has been mentioned. Others could include
finance committee. Central government officers serving in such areas
could be co-opted into these standing committees. They normally make
recommendation to council from time to time.
3.3 Post-Arusha Local Government: Major Changes (i.e. the

Seventies and After)
In 1972, the blue-print of political reorganisation began to receive

actualisation on the ground, especially with the decentralisation of
government Act of 1972. This abolished the old local government but
transferred many of the functions previously performed by national
ministries to regions and districts, where former local officials plus
technical officials continued to serve as members of the national civil
service. Administration therefore became four tiers with the president
and his ministers dealing with issues of national and international scope,
while local administration became the prerogative of regions, districts,
wards, villages. The regional and districts levels were headed by a
commissioner assisted by development directors (to promote Ujama).
Wards and villages were served or headed by party secretaries.
80
As pointed out above, the new structures were meant to decentralise
power to the people. Instead of the usual administrative and bureaucratic
structure interlocking with the party structure which was often in
conflict, these were put strictly under party leadership and control and a
fused structure, sort of, evolved. This was necessary because this phase
of socialism was fused to be the new ‘Illagisation or Ujama’. The aim of
such an exercise was to allow villages to pool resources together to be
able to attract funding and become more viable and productive. Human
resources would also be available for translating resources into service
through such an experiment.
As would be experienced, such radical changes would move hamlets

from their natural habitat to join more viable ones. Literature abounds
on the Ujama programme and its successes and failures. The major
failure of the programme, however, arose from the limited funds of
government, apart from organisational problems.
So the elaborate plan of Nyerere in the 1970s to succeed, had to be

village oriented/centered, a local democracy with some local autonomy.
Following from the structure already discussed, there is the village
development committee consisting of 25 members, chaired by the party
secretary. Decision from here passed to the ward development
committee for approval, then to the district development committee (to
be received) and approved by TANU executive committee). From here,
it passed to the regional development committee and then to the prime
minister’s office. The approval plans are then implemented by regional
and district development directors.
The difference in the system of the 1970s was not much from what
existed. As earlier indicated, the difference is in the area of invigorating
the level of participation at the village, ward and district levels specially
the first, but it appears the influence of the rural village man stops there.
As can be seen, the same bureaucracy and control are evident by party
and the service. It is not just enough to give the people more say. It is
not an end in itself, especially when their input has no way of passing
through bureaucratic and political channels un-mutilated. Even with the
introduction of Ujamaa from 1973, with the demarcation of 250
families, and with its voluntary and later coercive results cannot register
themselves where power is not located and where these results are
supposed to be shown, which does not take us far as the Arusha stage. It
meant there was still something fundamentally faulty with the society.
The system of local government still required some shake up.
81
3.3.1 Further Changes
After some stock-taking over decades, another reform in 1982 made it

glaring that neither the system of ideology, nor the structure it created
nor the system of government worked.
The major functions are as follows:
• all major existing laws on local government were replaced by

new legislation (including the 1975lLaw on villages) showing the
admission that accelerated development via Ujama had failed
• urban and district councils resurfaced
• regional development committee survived and was to be
“coordinative” and “consultative” in role
• urban councils were to become more democratic, thus
terminating some ex-officio and regional nominees and even the
power of the regional commissioners on these councils
• rural district became multi-tier districts, wards and villages.
Wards were for planning purpose so also were villages and their
activities responsible to districts
• districts could establish town authority while three of its
members must be part of the town executive
• districts council became the only local government or body with
sufficient finances to employ its own fully qualified staff
• the composition and administration of these various councils are
laid out
• on staffing, experienced staffs were recalled while others were
seconded to the new councils. A unified local government service
like one of the 60s was adopted
• note also that the president retained the power of appointment of
chief executive officers of urban councils while districts councils
could exercise this under the advice of the local government
service commission.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The Tanzanian experience has been interesting not because of the

fluctuating changes but because the ideological option which was
supposed to remedy the system crumbled under a supposedly
charismatic leader and a socialist system. However, the structure of local
government reflected the ideological and party structures. One sees
control of party and ideology through the district down to village
councils. Such controls were so excessive that it did not give breathing
space for local energies to be released for development.
82
Nevertheless, the impact of ideology on such structures and the
development process has been a high level of mobilisation, especially
political education and participation. There was mass awareness of both
the ideology and the party structure and this worked for mobilisation of
the people. The problem has been that such mobilisation did not
translate into much of concrete development. Other variables outside the
subject under study like finance may be able to explain this better.
5.0 SUMMARY
Having gone through this unit, the following should occur to you as
some of the main highlights.
• Tanzania operates a unitary system and therefore the experience

here is more of deconcentration than devolution
• Ideology and the single party system impacted heavily on the
structure and functions of local government in Tanzania.
• Tanzania operated a multi-tier system of local government-
district/urban council division and villages with changes after
1972
• Councils were elected with local TANU leaders taking charge of
the local council as chairmen.
• Major functions of Council includes planning, drawing up
budgets, social services and education, roads and rural
development.
• Greater decentralisation was attempted as from 1972 since more
functions were transferred to them while transforming local
governments into 4-tier structure with the addition of Regions.
Such decentralisation was an evidence that the Ujamaa
programme has failed.
Highlight the major changes brought by the post Arusha Reforms of

1972 (i.e. before 1982 reform).
Humes, S. & Martin, M. (1963). Local Government in the 20th Century.

IULA: The Hague.
Whool, P.M. (1987). “The Search for Participation in Tanzania.” in P.

Mawhood (Ed.) Local Government in the Third World: The
Experience of Tropical Africa. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
83

LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Single Tier Structure
3.2 Political and Administrative Structure
3.3 Functions
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A third of the federal system to be considered after US and India is

Nigeria. We expect the level of decentralisation to be high. In Nigeria, it
has been a vacillation between deconcentration and devolution, but since
the landmark 1976 reform of local government, these units have become
more of devolution, especially and ironically even though during a
military administration. In this unit, you will be introduced to the
structure of local government especially since 1976. Both political and
administrative measures will be given attention. Functions are
elaborately presented, classified and discussed. At the end of the unit,
you will have a further chance to consider the pattern that still emerges
from a federal structure.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the single tier structure of local government in the

Nigeria local government system
• present the administrative structure of Nigeria local governments
in a diagram (both for the 1976 structure and the 1998 structure)
• compare the political structure of 1976 to that of 1991
• state the mandatory and concurrent functions of local
government in Nigeria and comment on what differentiates them.
84
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Single Structure
The 1976 reforms explain this as follows:
All the statutory and public service functions of local government in

Nigeria should be concentrated in multipurpose single tier institution
called local governments with complete and self-contained budgets, so
that the whole system of local government within any area can be
identified, costed and coordinated.
It also went on to say this:
The term “tier” is used in this context as meaning a set of local

governments with their own identity, powers and sources of revenue
established under state legislation and with functions for which they are
responsible to the state. Subordinate councils which are created by them
and derive their funds by allocations from the “present” local
governments do not comprise a separate tier but are part of the tier
comprised of the parent local government.
Such local government should serve populations of between 150,000

and 800,000. The idea about the single tier structure here is that no unit
created under the basic local government structure is recognised legally.
They are just for administrative convenience.
Identify 5 main features of the single-tier structure of Nigeria local

government as defined by the 1976 Reform.
3.2 Political and Administrative Structure
Local governments have come to have similar structure and perform

similar functions since the 1976 reforms. This is because the reforms
emphasised and standardisation throughout the federation. The 1976
structure, which endured up to early 1991 (with little modification), can
be divided into two, viz: political and administrative structures. At the
top is the political structure consisting of the local government council
and chairman followed by the committees and supervisory councilors,
then the office of the secretary to the local government and the various
departments. Normally, the departments operated in sections and units in
1988 but there was a reform that broke them down into divisions,
branches and sections. Under the 1976 reform, the parliamentary system
was the vogue but even then the chairman of the local government was
85
picked out of 3 nominees of council by the state governor. He presided

over council in both legislative and executive capacity. He was
responsible for council but accountable to the governor who appointed
him. The secretary was however the chief executive and acted like a
Prefect.
In 1991, with the operation of the presidential system in local

government (and its attendant principles of separation of powers), there
was a plurality in the political structure, with even the office of the
secretary becoming political. So, there was the executive council, the
legislative council, office of the chairman, office of the secretary, and
departments (with the personnel department exalted among the others
because of additional responsibilities). The chairman nominated his
supervisors outside council (3-5of them). He depended on the council to
approve his budget. Council also made laws for local government. The
secretary as a political figure never enjoyed the power of the former
secretaries. The power passed down to the director of personnel or
administration department (such powers include signatory to cheques).
Hitherto, the secretary was part of this. A diagrammatic representation
of both structure are as follows:
Local Government Council

Chairman
Supervisory Standing Councilor

Committee
Office of the Secretary

Admin Treasure Education Agric & Works
Medical
N.R
This structure is typical of a cabinet system with the chairman and

councilors belonging to the same council with a strong secretary as chief
executive. In 1988 the civil services reform, changed the nomenclature
of the two service departments of administration and treasury to
personnel management and finance and supplies respectively. In the
1991 structure below, the executive council which is headed by the
chairman operates separately but interdependently with the legislature
council. This is a presidential type of structure.
86
The 1991 Structure
Executive Council
Office of the Chairman Legislative Council
Office of the Secretary
Departments
Agric Works P/Mgt. Finance Medical Education
Draw the structure of Local Government.
3.3 Functions
Local governments can be said to perform both mandatory and

concurrent functions. The mandatory ones are the ones they have to
perform without necessary assistance from higher governments. The
concurrent once are shared with the other tiers of government especially
the state government. Before commencing on these functions, let us
itemise them below:
1. Mandatory Functions
a. Economic planning of the local government

b. Collection of rates, radio and T.V. licenses
c. Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries, burial grounds and
homes for the destitute or the infirm
d. Licensing of bicycles, trucks, (other than mechanically propelled
trucks) canoes, wheel barrows and carts
e. Markets, motor parks and public conveniences
f. Roads, streets, drains, public highways, parks, open spaces
g. Naming of roads and streets
h. Provisions and maintenance of public conveniences and refuse
disposal
i. Registration of births, death and marriage
j. Tenement rates or property tax
k. Control and regulation of:
87
i) Out-door advertising and boarding.

ii) Movement and keeping of pets of all description.
iii) Shops and kiosks.
iv) Restaurants and other places for sale of food to the public.
v) Laundries.
2. Concurrent Functions
The functions which a local government can perform with other tiers
government especially state are in respect of:
a) Provisions and maintenance of primary education

b) The development of agriculture and natural resources other than
the exploitations of minerals
c) The provision and maintenance of health services
d) Such other functions as may be conferred on a local government
council by the house of assembly of the state
Looking at the mandatory functions, there appears to be a wide range of

such functions. Nevertheless, they look very mundane and residual. Of
course, this is why local government should perform such functions.
Moreover, apart from the functions of economic planning, all other
functional items carry a financial implication with it, with further
exception of function (f) on the list. Even then, good roads encourage
the opening up of rural areas and markets and hence ability to generate
revenue.
The key and major functional area that could generate revenue is rates
and T.V. licenses, market and parks and property rating. In the rural
areas, markets are the dominant sources of internal revenue while for
urban, property rating and markets and parks contribute the most.
While the mandatory functions carry revenue implication with it, the
concurrent functions emphasise provisions of certain costly social
services. These are services that do not raise revenue directly. They are
rather investment in human capital. Except for agriculture that produces
food on the short run, all others produce results that may be more than
short term. A lot of money is invested in primary education and health
care. It is because of such expenditure implication that these functions
are shared with other governments. Of course, if we take a look at local
government capital estimates, most of the money goes into these areas
especially primary education until very recently.
Finally on functions, we should note that certain changes have taken

place between 1991 and the present, especially in the area of concurrent
88
functions. For example, a commission for primary education has been
set up. The commission is now responsible for the funding and
management of primary education in the country.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Structures of local government in Nigeria have remained fairly stable

since the 1976 reform. More changes have been experienced at the
political level because of the different stands of political leadership that
run local government administration. At a point, it is the parliamentary
type, at other point it is the presidential type. In between, there has been
appointment of sole administrators and what is referred to as caretaker
or management committees. These to a large extent are undemocratic,
especially the sole- administrator system. Their administration of local
government has been least responsive even though they record success
at bringing into organisation efficiency in services division. The
administrative structure was only modified by the 1988 civil service
reforms and the presidential system. The single tier structure is still in
vogue even though by 1984, the Dasuki Report on local government had
recommended establishment of development area which was just for
administrative purposes. The functions have however remained more
stable with primary education as the knotty problem area.
5.0 SUMMARY
We shall give a summary of this unit as follows:
• local government in Nigeria is a third tier structure

• leadership and political structure have taken on several forms as
the parliamentary system, the presidential system, sole
administrator system and the caretaker/management committee
system
• the secretary was the chief executive of local government
between 1976 up to the 1988 civil service reforms. After this, the
local government chairman took total charge
• the administrative structure of local governments have remained
fairly stable with changes coming in the nomenclature of two
departments in 1988. (namely personnel and finance). The
director of personnel took effective charge of the functions of the
administrative secretary when the latter became politically
appointed
• functions of local governments have remained stable since the
1976 reforms with only education serving as the knotty problem
area. The medical department has also changed to primary health
care department and taken up enormous basic health activities.
89
Identify mandatory functions that are revenue raising and those that are
service providing and those that are administrative.

Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd.
Price, J.H. (1975). Political Institutions of West Africa. London:

Hutchinson & Co. Publications.
90
MODULE 3 THEORIES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Unit 1 Efficiency Theory of Local Government

Unit 2 Democracy Theory of Local Government
Unit 3 Accountability Theory of Local Government
UNIT 1 EFFICIENCY THEORY OF LOCAL

GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Efficiency Theory of Local Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
We have provided the justification for the existence and adoption of

local government system in most countries of the world. This unit
theoretically provides further explanatory opinions and assumptions for
the relevance of local government in the administrative arrangement of a
state. Three basic theories will be examined in three successive units.
The theories are the efficiency, democracy and accountability theories of
local government. This unit will first treat the efficiency theory.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• enumerate by way of recalling the justification for local

government existence
• explain the basic values of Local government
• describe the efficiency service theory of local government
• explain the factors that made efficiency service delivery possible
at the local level.
91
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Efficiency Theory of Local Government
You have learnt the varied explanations why local government has
become accepted to most countries of the world. As you will recall, one
of these justifications was for the purpose of decentralisation in order to
promote administrative convenience.
Decentralisation is thought necessary because many states are very large

in area and in terms of population. It therefore becomes very difficult to
administer all part of the nation concerned from the national capital.
Decentralisation through local government made possible the creations
of small units and centers of government power that can cater for
equally smaller numbers of the population.
You also learnt that the burden of governance in the modern day world
grows every day. Both man-made and natural disasters affect a nation’s
everyday existence. This therefore demands that the central government
should only concern itself with national issues while minor and local
issues should be left to the small units of government.
You were also told that local government serves to bridge the
communication gap between the rural, grassroots people and the other
higher levels of government. In most cases, the local people are not
aware of the existence of the higher levels of government, and likewise,
the higher tiers of government are too pre-occupied with national issues
and therefore, may not have sufficient time to pay adequate attention to
local issues. The local government becomes a tool to bridge the
communication gap between the two.
The efficient services or efficiency theory of local government provides

insights into the value of local government as a grassroots government.
The efficient services theorists believed that the local government
occupies the best position for the efficient performances of certain
functions. This is made possible because of the nearness of the council
to the people, and the smallness of the population.
Firstly, decisions on policy issues are easily and quickly arrived at since
the targets of decisions can be quickly reached, consulted and responses
(feedback) from them known quickly.
The closeness of the local government similarly makes possible in-depth

knowledge of the nature of the problems of the people and invariably the
appropriate solutions to the problems. Adequate understanding of the
people’s problems and the resultant solutions are easier to know because
92
a large percentage of the localities are indigenes that know the local
government area inside-out and have adequate knowledge of the
peculiarities of the area.
i. Highlight and discuss briefly four basic justification local

government.
ii. Discuss the claim that local government is in the best position to
provide efficient services.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The smallness of local government area coupled with an equally small

population avails local governments the advantage of small scale
production of services, which therefore means dealing with a small
number of clients, small number of problems, prompt, efficient and
effective remedies to the problems. It is based on this very perspective
that local governments are created to handle local problems; whereas
higher levels of government with larger population and geographical
area require more time, financial, personnel and material resources to
handle problems within their respective areas.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt the efficient services theory which believes that
local government is best placed to engage in efficient service delivery to
the local people, because of its narrow geographical area and small
population and the limited level of resources required to perform. You
also learnt that as a result of the limited operational scope of local
government, they enjoy the merit of small-scale production with little
capital and labour.
i. Identify and discuss the basic propositions of the efficiency

theory of local government.
ii. Account for the submission that local government is best
positioned to serve the people more efficiently than other tiers of
government.
93

Kunle, A. (2000). “Justification and theories of Local Government.” In

Kunle Ajayi (Ed.) Theory and Practice of Local Government,
Ado-Ekiti: University of Ado-Ekiti.
Laski, H. J. (1982). A Ground of Politics. London: Allen & Unwin.
94
UNIT 2 DEMOCRACY THEORY OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Democracy Theory of Local Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit presents another theoretical view of local government. The last
unit discussed the view of efficient services theorists on local
government. According to them, local government occupies the best
positions to provide efficient services to the people of the local area; the
reasons being that local government operates on the basis of small scale
due to the small population being served and also coupled with the
smallness of land area. Due to the fact that it renders limited services,
only small resources are therefore required to perform its functions.
The local government is also in a vantage position to know the nature of

the problems confronting the people and invariably in a better position
to know the appropriate solutions better than the higher levels of
government. The democracy theory of local government perceived the
system from another perspective.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• recall the cardinal opinions of efficiency school of local

government
• explain the relevance of local government in the growth and
development of democracy in any state
• appreciate the place of local government in political education
• evaluate the political training capacity of local government
95
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Democracy Theory of Local Government
There is the need to refresh your memory on what you have learnt in the
last unit concerning the efficiency theory of local government.
According to the theory, local governments occupy the best place in
providing efficient theory services to the people because of the
smallness of the geographical area, small population coupled with
limited resources required. It is also averred that because the local
government officials are closer to the people, they have the advantage to
appreciate the nature of the problems of the locality and consequently
provide the most suited solutions.
The democracy theory of local government focuses on the democratic

benefits derivable from the practice of local government system. The
theory believes that local government serves as a training ground for
political leaders. It holds that most national politicians use local
government as leverage for acquiring political training and leadership
qualities by first contesting as councilors at the local government level
(Ajayi, 2000:6).
After spending some years at the local government level and having
secured the necessary experience at that level, these local politicians can
then contest politics at higher levels of the state and federal
governments. It is based on this opportunity provided that Lord James
Bryce remarks that local government is the best school of democracy
and the best guarantee for its success is the practice of local self-
government.
The concept of self-government at the local level simply implies that it

is the local people themselves that govern themselves. This is made
possible because the indigenes of the local government area constitute
more than 70% of the workforce in the local government. All the
political offices in the council such as the chairman, vice-chairman,
secretary to the local government, supervisory councilors, house leaders,
councilors and other positions are occupied by the indigenes of the area.
Even, the workforce mainly consists of the indigenes of the area.
Local government is also seen as one of the institutions which provide

political education. This involves the political education of the citizens
by the local administrative institutions.. The political role of local
governments gives many people who lack either the opportunity or
resources for national politics to participate in grassroots politics.
96
i. In what ways can local government be regarded as political

training school?
ii. Discuss the assertion that local government is the best platform
for self-government.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The democracy school of local government has projected the institutions

as an avenue for political “apprenticeship” for future politicians and
national leaders. This is so because it allows local politicians to undergo
the necessary training and acquire the basic political and government
experience to be able to cope with higher national callings that is
necessary in governance and larger politics.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have learnt in this unit that local government serves as a kind of
democratic, political school for people at the grassroots to enable them
acquires the needed experience for higher political responsibilities. You
also learnt that the concept of self-government is best demonstrated at
the local government level. This implies that the political and
administrative management of the local government is being shouldered
by the indigenes of the locality that constitute the bulk of the workforce
of the local government.
i. Discuss the assertion that “local government is the best guarantee

for the success of self-government”.
ii. In what way is local government regarded as a place of
“apprenticeship” for local politicians?

Kunle, A. (2000). Theory and Practice of Local Government. Ado-Ekiti:

University of Ado-Ekiti Press.
97
UNIT 3 ACCOUNTABILITY THEORIES OF LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Accountability Theory of Local Governments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit will conclude our discussion on the theories of local

government. The first and second units respectively treated efficient
services and democracy theories. In this unit, you will learn about
Accountability theory. The demand for accountability is germane to
good governance. Those who control and manage public resources must
be made accountable, while political office holders must be held
responsible for their promises and manifestoes to the electorate. The
concept of accountability and the demand for it permeates every level of
government including the local government.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the basic tenets of efficiency and democracy theories of

local government as a way of recalling what you learnt in the
previous units
• explain the concept of accountability and what it constitutes
• identify and discuss the basic assumptions of accountability
theory as it applies to local governments
• appreciate the important role of accountability in governance.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Accountability Theory of Local Government
It is important to recall what you learnt in the last unit which dealt with
the democracy theory of local government. Democracy theory espouses
that local government is a training school for politicians and future
98
leaders because it provides the primary avenue for knowing or learning
about the intrigues of politics and complexity of governance. Local
government is also perceived by this theory as the best parameter for
gauging and guaranteeing the success of the practice of self-government.
This submission is informed by the fact that majority of the workforce in
the local government is made up of the sons and daughters of the local
government area. You also learnt, according to the theory, that local
government provides political education for the citizens and thereby
affording people at the grassroots to be politically enlightened.
Accountability and control theory of local government views the

institution from another perspective. According to these theorists,
political participation of the citizens in their local affairs through
election ensures they elect their representatives into the local councils.
The electorate elects whoever they trust and is competent to shoulder the
burden of responsibility of the council. The electorate elects the
chairman, councilors, legislators and vice-chairman, from the locality.
The local election allows the electorate to choose between competing

claims and contestants. It is through choosing their representatives by
themselves that the people can make the representatives accountable
(Ajayi, 2000:7).
The implication of the local electorate role of choosing their

representatives directly is that they can be made accountable to the
people. Again, a major advantage of this practice is that whatever may
be the success or failure of the locality, they are in the best position to
decide whether the political officials will be re-elected again or rejected
at the polls. Consequently, the function of electing the council officials,
and the duty of watching and checking them rest with the citizens who
are the electorate in the locality.
Evaluate the major contributions of accountability and control theory to

the understanding of local government system.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you learnt the basic propositions of accountability theory of

local government. It is the belief of the theory that local government
provides the primary opportunity and best avenue to make politicians,
right from the grassroots accountable for their political deeds in office.
That the local electorate has the power to choose whoever they like to
govern them based on the parties programmes (manifesto) which are
promises made during electioneering campaigns.
99
The elected officials are held responsible for the advertised programmes
and promises during the campaigns. Since the representatives are
answerable to the people through the polls, the future of their political
career lies with the people, and therefore, they (the representatives) will
strive to perform while in office to the best of their ability. This will
determine whether they will be re-elected or not. Participation of the
local people in the local administration therefore teaches them the art of
weighing and choosing between competing claims and the choice as a
just one.
5.0 SUMMARY
• You have learnt in this unit the basic contributions of

accountability and control theory to the understanding and
relevance of local government institutions as a grassroots
government. Specifically, you learnt that the local people
participate directly in the choice of their representatives in the
local council. They elect the political officials whom they can
trust to fulfill their election promises and perform efficiently.
• You also learnt that once the representatives are chosen by the
people themselves they can be made accountable to the people.
You learnt further that the political future of the local politicians
serving in the councils are determined by the people who will
determine whether to return the representatives to power or not,
based on their success or failure in office. The people are
therefore the watchdog of political officials at the grassroots.
i. Discuss in details the basic propositions of the accountability and

control theory of local government.
ii. Examine the roles played by the local electorate to make council
political officials responsible.
Gboyega, A. (1987). Political Values and Local Government in Nigeria

Kunle, A. (2000). Theory and Practice of Local Government. Ado-Ekiti:

University of Ado-Ekiti.
100
MODULE 4
Unit 1 Imperatives and History of Comparative Local and Public

Administration
Unit 2 Nature, Utility and Problems of Comparative Local
Government
Unit 3 Differences and Similarities in Strategies of Comparative
Local Government Administration
Unit 4 Experimental, Statistical and Case-Study Strategies of
Comparative Local Government
UNIT 1 IMPERATIVES AND HISTORY OF

COMPARATIVE PUBLIC AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Imperatives for Comparative Study
3.1.1 Everyday Experiences
3.1.2 Requirement for Science of Politics, Public and
Local Government Administration
3.1.3 Understanding Administrative Behaviour
3.2 Historical Development before WWII
3.2.1 Development from End of WWII
3.2.2 Development in Contemporary Times
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we shall mainly focus on why it is necessary to embark on a

comparative study of public and local government administration in
different settings. You will learn the evolution of comparative public
and local government administration as a discipline. A cross national
comparisons of political systems is as old as history having had its root
in Europe through the works of Aristotle in 4 B.C. You will learn in this
unit the different phases of the growth and development of the study.
101
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain why comparative public and local government

administration has become an indispensable discipline
• explain how comparative public and local government
administration emerged through the historical years
• analyse the nature of comparative public and local government
administration
• identify and explain the fundamental motives why students study
comparative public and local government administration
• evaluate reasons for different administrative behavior in various
settings.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Imperatives for Comparative Study
3.1.1 Everyday Experiences
You go out everyday to your school or work place, market, church or

mosque. You also travel to other cities, tourist center or to other
countries to find out that in our daily contacts, we evaluate some people
as beautiful or ugly, good or bad, hostile or friendly, tall or short, fat or
thin.
We also compare non-human objects. Some houses are just simply

beautiful and attractive, while others are adjudged as un-fascinating and
inhabitable. When we do all these, we are directly or indirectly engaging
in comparative analysis. To compare and identify similarities and
differences by us are parts of the in-built nature of man. Comparison is
therefore a daily affair in our contacts and observation with people and
objects.
3.1.2 Requirement for Science of Politics, Public and Local

Government Administration
Local government administration is a subset of a country’s public

administration. It is a special science or management discipline which
relies on scientific approach in its findings. It is about understanding all
variables/ phenomena in administrative setting. To make its findings
valid, it relies on observations for factual data. Similar variables are
grouped together, while variations are noted. Feit et al (1978) note that
the more variations displayed by examples, the more likely it is that
102
many cases will have to be studied before reliable generalisations will be
possible.
Thus, to make a valid explanatory generalisation on any issue, we need

to compare assembled facts (data).
It is therefore a key requirement of science to gather information (data)

with examples, compare them, and based on these, make accurate
explanatory generalisations which are later built into theories.
Observations make comparison possible; the later in turn makes
scientific generalisation and theory building possible.
3.1.3 Understanding Administrative Behaviour
Your knowledge of comparative public and local government

administration will enable you to appreciate the behavioral attitude in
different milieu. Public and local government administration across
countries address differently, exhibits various degrees of efficiency, earn
different salaries, project differences in conformity with administrative
law, perceive accountability and abuse of office (corruption) from
different perspectives and so on. All these are as result of varied factors.
Administrative practices are therefore similar in some countries which

share some commonalities of factors. Comparative public and local
government administration provides the methodology and tool for
understanding whatever similarities and differences there are in the
different political systems.
i. In terms of methodological approach, compare public and local

government administration with other disciplines in the social or
management sciences.
ii. Discuss the requirement of scientific study.
3.2 Historical Development before WWII
Comparative study of public and local government administration in its

rudimentary form evolved at about 4.B.C through the works of Aristotle.
Aristotle was a western political theorist. How did Aristotle start this? In
his curiosity to know what happens in other lands, government systems,
laws, and regime types, he sought to find out perceivable similarities and
differences. In doing this, Aristotle assembled about 130 different
national constitutions and carefully studied them. His findings produced
two major enduring outcomes namely: one, he was able to evaluate
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some government as good or bad. Two, he categorised political systems

into different classifications as shown in fig. 1 below:
No of In whose interest power is exercised

person
who rules
All (collective) Themselves (sectional) tyranny
monarch Aristocracy kinship Oligarchy Democracy
Polity or mob rule
Fig. 1: Aristotle’s Classification Scheme
Source: Modern Political Analysis. Robert, D. (1984:64). Prentice Hall:
Englewood Cliffs.
The foundation laid by Aristotle later became the basis for contemporary
comparative study in politics, public and local government
administration. The development of comparative public and local
government administration in its contemporary form is traceable to the
periods between 1895 and 1920 when comparative research efforts
gained momentum.
Max Weber, a German sociologist played significant roles in further

advancing its status as a discipline. Robert Freud (1920; 318-344)
acknowledged Weber’s contributions when he opined that “lifting
comparative political and administrative studies from a level of analysis
to a height of sophistication, and with breath of scope seldom attained
since”. More European scholars during the 1930’s carried out other
comparative studies.
3.2.1 Development from End of WWII
At the end of World War II (WWII), the centre of comparative study of

political, public and local government administrations shifted from its
traditional European base to the United States. Interest in comparative
study became high; a development fuelled by the American Political
Science Association (APSA) and the Society for Public Administration
(SPA). Several scholars in these associations demonstrated aggressive
research efforts towards building a universal comparative theory of
public and local government administration.
Another impetus for the growing interest by scholars in comparative

studies was the technical assistance programmes of United States,
United Nations and private foundations to countries after the war.
104
Consequently, American students, teachers of public and local
government administration and professionals found themselves in
foreign countries. This exposure therefore stimulated interest in making
comparison between American and Western and nonwestern political
systems and practices imperative (Dwight Waldo, 1984: 4-18).
The post war period also coincided with the behavioral science
movement in Europe and particularly in America. The movement was
characterised by scientific methodology in making enquires. Scientific
enquiry became a norm in many discipline, and without being an
exception, it was attended to by the study of administration. There was
emphasis on observations and other techniques for data collection for
hypotheses testing and generalisations.
3.2.2 Development in Contemporary Times
The impact of behavioral science continued to be felt in the field of

comparative administration beyond the post war era. The Comparative
Administration Group (CAG) was formed in the 1960s.
The group committed all available resources towards building a

universally accepted theory of public and local government
administration through comparative study and analysis. Toward this end,
scholar’s developed various theories for the understanding of different
societies.
Fred Riggs, for instance, developed the theory of prismatic society based
on his study of public administration in non western institutions that
were legal-rational, in form but not in traditional as a matter fact (Riggs,
1964).
Scholarly interest in comparative studies not only continued during the

1960s but also spread beyond Europe and American sphere to the
Middle East, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Between 1965 and 1975,
publications on comparative public and local government administration
flourished as reflected in a number of books written basically on
comparative public and local government administration, including
articles on the topic published in journals, monographs and conference
proceedings.
The scientific basis of the study continues to be consolidated and efforts

intensified in its competition with the natural and physical sciences,
regarding the scientific methodology approach. The era of globalisation
and the ease in information gathering through super information
technology has facilitated easier comparative research. This is because
data on across national administrative practice can be sourced on the
105
internet and websites. Global system of mobile phones equally eased the
problem of oral research interviews across the globe.
i. Examine the contributions of Aristotle, American government

and other agencies to the development of contemporary public
and local government administration.
ii. Highlight the fundamental requirements for science of politics,
public and local government administration.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, the basis for studying comparative public and local
government administration was examined, as comparisons is part of our
daily life. As you move along, you compare in your mind the people,
objects, houses, animals and musical songs we come across implying
that, comparison is as old as man.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you learnt the imperatives and historical background of

comparative public and local government administration. You learnt the
comparison is as old as man because in our daily life we do compare
things, people and institutions.
• You also learnt about the science of politics, public and local
government administration which burdens on the application of
science methodology to the study of comparative administration.
You, in addition, learnt that the essence of science of comparative
public and local government administration is to build theories of
comparative public and local government administration which
are universally acceptable and verifiable.
• You also learnt that enhancing your capacity for understanding

administrative behavior is a key motive of comparative public
and local government administration studies.
• Again, you also learnt that historically, comparative public and

local government administration emerged in Europe through the
works of Aristotle in 4 B.C. It was later that more European
scholars joined in carrying out various comparative studies.
106
i. Explain reasons why you think the study of comparative public

and local government administration is desirable.
ii. Examine the basic contributions of Aristotle and American
institutions to the growth and development of comparative
administration.
Agagu, A. A. (2001). Comparative Political and Administration Studies.

Ado-Ekiti: Department of Political Science, UNAB.
Felt, E. et al. (1978). Government and Leaders an Approach to

Comparative Politics. Houghton: Mifflin Company.
Finer, S. E. (1971). Comparative Government. London: Penguin Press.
Fried, R. C. (1902). “Comparative Public Administration: The Search

for Theories”. In N.B. Lynn and A. Wildarsky (Eds). Public
Administration: The State of the Discipline. New Jersey:
Chatham House Publisher.
Riggs, F. W. (1964). Administration in Developing Countries: The

Theory of Prismatic Society. Boston: Mifflin.
Robert, D. (1984) Modern Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs:

Prentice Hall.
Waldo, W. (1980). “The Study of Public Administration”. In R. J.

Stillman (Ed.) Public Administration Concepts and Case.
London: Mifflin.
107
UNIT 2 NATURE, UTILITY AND PROBLEMS OF

COMPARATIVE LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature, Utility and Problems of Comparative Local
Government
3.1.1 Nature of Comparative Local Government
3.1.2 Utility of Comparative Local Government
3.1.3 Problems in Comparing Local Governments
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you learnt the basis for studying comparative local
government and its historical background. You specifically learnt that
making comparisons between objects and people is as old as man. This
is because our everyday activities are full of making comparison either
directly or indirectly.
However, you learnt that the initial most systematic attempt at

comparing local government system was made by Aristotle. His
achievements invariably became the foundation for contemporary
studies in comparative local government.
You also learnt that after WWII, the focus of development attention of
comparative studies shifted from Europe to the United States, where the
government, the United Nations and private institutions sponsored
varied technical assistance programmes, which enabled local
administration, lecturers of local government administration and
professionals to travel to foreign countries. This exposure stimulated
greater interest in comparative study resources on American, European
and Non-western political systems.
In this unit, you will learn the nature, utility and problems of
comparative government as a discipline. The nature of comparative
government administration reflects its major concern as a field of study,
while utility is concerned with its values. Like other disciplines,
comparative study of local government has its own peculiar problems.
108
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this study, you should be able to:
• explain the subject matter of comparative local government

• describe the values of the study
• appreciate the major constraints facing comparative studies
researches
• evaluate why administrators behave the way they do
• explain the major problems confronting researchers of cross
national administrative studies.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nature, Utility and Problems of Comparative Local

Government
3.1.1 Nature of Comparative Local Government
The nature of comparative local government reflects its major concern

as a field of study. The primary goal of the discipline is in line with the
scientific demand which is to build and test proposition about
administration, and assumption that is universally shared within the
public administration fraternity (Signalman, 1976; 621-25).
It is committed to verifiable generalised statement about local

government across political systems and different environments. It is
believed by scholars of comparative local government studies that public
officials, the entire political process will perform better if local
government and its practice can be rooted in developed theoretical and
empirical foundations.
Signalman believed that local government which reflects theorising and

empirical research as its core activities denies its adherents (and
practitioners) any legitimate claim to political influence. Essentially,
therefore, comparative local government’s major interest is building
theories from the study of local government practice in different
political settings so as to generate a universal theory of local government
that can be applied to varied cultures and political environments.
3.1.2 Utility of Comparative Local Government
Comparative local government has two major values which are

enumerated as follows:
109
1. It affords us as scholars, analysts and practitioners greater

understanding of local government across national boundaries.
Observed difference in practice and scope can be situated within
varied identifiable factors, including ecology which encompasses
very many other factors such as the type of political system,
culture, economy, level of education and other variables. These
factors will also determine the level of efficiency of practitioners.
Thus, the local government system can be evaluated as efficient
or inefficient depending on the prevailing internal factors.
2. Understanding administrative behavior of bureaucrats and
political officials is another enduring legacy of comparative
administrative study. Bureaucrats or administrators of each
country have their peculiar characters and behavior different from
others in another country. Therefore, among the tasks of
comparative local government is the administrative behavior
which covers different political settings. Generally, knowledge of
comparative local government administration saves scholars and
practitioners some embarrassment and surprise when having the
advantages to operate beyond their immediate political and
cultural environments.
3.1.3 Problems of Comparing Local Governments
As a field study, comparative local government scholars are confronted

with various limitations and challenges. First, is the problem of
openness of some countries. Some countries are open, while others are
closed in varied degrees. Freedom in terms of accessibility to crucial
data is greater in the liberal developed western countries.
Data on issue, even including to a large extent, on security and defense,

are readily made available to comparative researchers. But one cannot
say the same about closed societies such as China and the former
socialist states. Search for comparative data could be translated to
espionage, stealing of cultural property, spying and sabotage. These are
all criminal offences with heavy punishment. Therefore, concluding
comparative research in these political systems is a high risk.
Further compounding the problem of data gathering is issue of

differences in the level of information dissemination. Some countries
such as the western world, enjoy advanced information technology,
including modern telephone communication system and satellite, radio
and television facilities, and marine and orbit information technology.
These arrays of technological inventions afford easy data collection
about other countries without leaving one’s shores. The Third World
does not enjoy these kinds of facilities as they lack the technological
know-how for developing them.
110
While data collected through the internet and website exploration has
become a tradition in America, Europe and Australia; it is yet to take
proper shape in academic researchers in Africa, Latin America and Asia
because of lack of basic infrastructure such as regular provision of
electricity.
Regime types also condition accessibility to information and data. Some

countries are democratic, while others are dictatorships including
military rule. Democratic regimes afford researchers ample freedom to
conduct investigations and collect data including interviews and
examination of documents such as parliamentary proceedings, cabinet
papers and so on. But dictatorship regimes foreclose such opportunities,
and researchers can even be passed as spies, saboteurs and opposition
agents. Comparative studies are therefore made difficult in such
environments.
Introduction of behavioral, scientific approach to the study of

administrative behavior is also faulted. It is believed by people, that
political and bureaucratic officials are unpredictable and therefore not
readily subjected to scientific assessment compared to non-living things
and lower animals.
The non-predictability of political leaders had on many occasions led to

frequent changes in administrative systems and styles. For instance, in
Nigeria, during the Babangida administration, permanent secretary was
changed to director-general in 1998, while the situation was reversed by
the Abacha regime in 1997. Some other administrative changes were
effected during Obasanjo’s regime.
Therefore, behavioral instability of leaders, coupled with actual political

instability is a major problem to comparative studies in local
government administration.
In what ways is the administrative behavior of local government

administration in your country different from those of other country?
4.0 CONCLUSION
You have learnt that your daily experiences have always involved
comparing people and objects. Comparative local government
administration as a scientific discipline makes it possible for you to
explain administrative behavior of administrators across national
borders.
111
Its methodological orientation becomes more emphasised since the end

of WWII and its progressive development has not wanted since then.
You also learnt that comparative study of local government
administration goes beyond national borders and has its own limitations
embedded in human factors and variations in level of political stability.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit has explained to you why it is necessary to study comparative

local government administration. You were told that it makes possible
the understanding of administrative behavior in different political and
cultural settings.
• You also learnt about the nature, utility and problems of

comparative local government administration, which provides
theories that can be universally applied in the analysis of local
government administration of countries. The unpredictability of
human beings coupled with variations in the degrees of openness
and technological development of countries pose the most serious
problem to comparative studies of local government.
Assuming, a German scholar is in Nigeria for comparative research

investigations on the country’s local government administration,
enumerate and discuss the problems that may confront the German in
the research endeavour.
Agagu, A. A. (2001). Comparative Political and Administration Studies.

Ado-Ekiti: Department of Political Science, UNAB.
Felt, E. et al. (1978). Government and Leaders an Approach to

Comparative Politics. Houghton: Mifflin Company.
Finer, S. E. (1971). Comparative Government. London: Penguin Press.
Fried, R. C. (1902). “Comparative Public Administration: The Search

for Theories”. In N.B. Lynn and A. Wildarsky (Eds.) Public
Administration. The State of the Discipline. New Jersey: Chatham
House Publisher.
Riggs, F. W. (1964). Administration in Developing Countries: The

Theory of Prismatic Society. Boston: Mifflin.
112
Robert, D. (1984) Modern Political Analysis. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall.
Waldo, W. (1980). “The Study of Public Administration”. In R. J.

Stillman (Ed.) Public Administration Concepts and Case.
London: Mifflin.
113
UNIT 3 DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES IN

STRATEGIES OF COMPARATIVE LOCAL
GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Differences and Similarities in Strategies
3.1.1 Difference Approach
3.1.2 Similarities Approach
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Strategies of comparative public and local government administration

deal with the various methods of making comparative analysis. You will
learn the differences, similarities, experimental, statistical and case study
methods of comparative public and local government administration in
general.
However, this unit will specifically address the differences and

similarities strategies of comparative public and local government
administration.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the basic approaches for making comparison

• identify differences between a seemingly similar people, object
and institutions
• describe similarities between likely different people, object and
institutions
• recall the basic explanations of the two strategies learnt
114
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Differences and Similarities Strategies
3.1.1 The Differences Approach
In your everyday contacts with people, objects, institutions and

practices, you tend to believe that the only identifiable attribute between
or among them is that they all look differently. The only perceivable
difference between two women is that one is fat and the other is thin.
One house is beautiful, the other one is not.
The differences approach proffers a contrary opinion. First, it

acknowledges the fact that there may be differences between the people,
objects and institutions, but at the same time, there are similarities
between the compared people, objects or particles no matter how few or
non-prominent.
For instance, the administrative behavior of public and local government

administration in the Western world may be significantly different in
forms of belief about corruption and abuse of offices, but the basic
bureaucratic principles regarding hierarchical structure and which rules
regulations are common and shared between the two.
Japanese workers are noted for their exceptional industry and efficiency
contrary to Nigeria workers. On the other hand, the political officials of
both political systems are corrupt with varying degrees. It is therefore
the contribution of the approach that no two things or people are totally
different without some element of similarity.
3.1.2 The Similarities Approach
It is often claimed that there are identical twins, or that there are people
that look “exactly alike” to the extent that many people, including their
parents on some occasions, cannot differentiate between the two.To
compound the problems of observers, friends and relations, the identical
twins most of the time dress and talk the same way. These are indeed
realities.
However, despite the constraint in differentiating similar people and

things, the similarity approach enables us to know that there are some
differences in very similar cases, no matter how small or few. For
instance, a small dot on the ear of the identical twins is enough to give
him away. One may be a fraction of an inch taller than the other.
115
In terms of behavioral attitude, one may be polite than the other. Two
cars of the same brand definitely have differences which could be in
terms of colour, chassis number or year of manufacture. United States of
America and Nigeria are both practicing democratic administration, but
the America democracy is older than that of Nigeria. You should note
that in all cases therefore, there are no totally similar people, things
system or practice. In a way, things, people, system and countries have
their differences.
i. Look very well around you and identify two people or objects
that are contradictorily different. Highlight ten ways in which
they look similar (variations of answers are acceptable).
ii. Ghana and Nigeria are both developing African countries with
emerging democracies, highlight ten attributes that makes them
look un-similar.
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has treated two methodologies of analysis in comparative

public and local government administration. Each discipline has its own
way of doing things, ways of analysis, and ways of research enquiries.
The two strategies you learnt here are unique in that you might probably
in the past, like most other observers, thought that similar things are so
similar or look alike in all respects. Or think that all things or people
who look very un-similar or different do not have common features at
all. You have learnt in this unit that is not the case.
5.0 SUMMARY
You have also learnt in this unit two major approaches in the practice of
making comparisons in comparative public and local government
administration. You learnt that the differences approach concern
identifying points of similarities in two seemingly different objects,
people, countries or practices. The approach believes that whatever may
be the differences there is also a little similarity.
The similarity approach has a direct opposite thinking with the

differences approach. It believes that differences exist between people,
objects, particles and countries despite the fact they seemingly look
similar. That though, the differences may be so insignificant, yet the
little differences, really makes the difference.
116
i. Identify and discuss the major attributes of differences and

similarities in approaches in comparative public and local
government administration.
ii. Ghana and Nigeria are both developing countries in Africa with
emerging democracies highlight 10 attributes that make them
look un-similar.
Akindele, S. T. et al. (1996). The Subject Matter of Political Science.

Ibadan: College Press.
Sharkansky, I. (1975). Public Administrative Policy Making in

Government Agencies. (3rd ed.). Chicago: Rand Mc Nally
College Publishing Company.
117
UNIT 4 EXPERIMENTAL, STATISTICAL AND CASE

STUDY STRATEGIES OF COMPARATIVES
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Experimental Approach
3.1.1 Experimental and Control Groups
3.2 The Statistical Approach
3.2.1 Partial Correlation of Variables
3.3 The Case Study Approach
3.3.1 Stereotypes
3.3.2 Categories
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you learnt about differences and similarities approaches
in the study of local government. You should be able to recall the major
facts in the two approaches.
You learnt that the differences approach concerns itself with

identifying some similarities between the objects, people, practices
systems and countries that we are comparing . The method makes us
believe that no matter the degree of differences between what we
may be comparing that there are some similarities also between them,
no matter how little or insignificant.
You also learnt in the second approach, which is the similarities

approach based on the same principles of differences method. It submits
that no matter the level of similarities between what is compared,
they are not totally similar as there are some differences between
them, no matter how little.
In this unit, you will learn further about the other methods utilised in
local government studies, such as the experimental approach. Each of
them has its own uniqueness.
118
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• recall the basic facts about differences and similarities approach

• explain the basic principles of experimental approach
• explain the concept of control group and experimental group
• analyse how case-study approach works
• describe how statistical tools can be used for comparative
analysis.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Experimental Approach
3.1.1 Experimental Approach and Control Groups
You have learnt before that the goal of the experimental approach is to
make verifiable comparison of cases based on scientific explanations. In
doing this, two equivalent groups are provided, one group is labeled
experimental group while the other is the control group. A stimulus
which we may also call an independent variable is introduced by the
experimental group, though it is derived from the control group.
Therefore, the two groups are kept on observation to evaluate the effects
of the stimulus. A concrete example of this situation is testing the effect
of alcohol on the two groups.
Some of your friends do take alcoholic drinks such as beer. It is

therefore easy for us to predict the outcome on the experimental group
to which it was introduced. Drunkenness is the effect experienced by the
experimental group provided no variable was introduced.
The control group did not experience drunkenness because it was not
introduced to the alcohol stimulus. Comparative explanations can be
made on the two groups based on the scientific experiment on them.
You need to know that experimental comparative approach has
limitations bordering on what was previously said.
Design an experiment on your own which should involve an

experimental group and a control group; introduce a stimulus to the
experimental group only and later measure its effects. Compare the
relationship between the two groups thereafter.
119
3.2 The Statistical Approach
3.2.1 Partial Correlation of Variables
You have just learnt that experimental approach aims at scientific

explanation about certain issues. The statistical approach has similar
aim, though its processes are not the same.
The difference in their processes concerns the manipulation of

empirically observed data in the statistical method but which is not
possible in the experimental method, so as to identify controlled
relationship among the variables.
Partial correlation is used to deal with the problem of controlling the

variables. For example Agagu (2001:21) said if you want to look into
relationship between political participation and level of education
attained, a student should control the influence of age because younger
generations have received more education than older generations.
A student can achieve this by dividing his sample into a number of

different age groups and looking at the correlation (relationship)
between participation and education within each age bracket.
In essence, statistical approach is about identifying relationship between

variables (education and political participation), pointing out how and to
what degree one has brought impact or influence on the other.
You should note that statistical approach seems to be an approximation

of experimental method as they both share the logical attributes of
science, but this should not be taken to mean that they are equivalent
to each other. This is because; statistical approach lacks the control
aspect of the experimental method.
Appraise the essential distinctions between experimental method and

Statistical approach of local government.
3.3 The Case Study Approach
3.3.1 Stereotypes
This is more common in the advanced world, where particular crimes

are arrogated to certain groups and races because of past cases involving
one of its nationals.
120
The case study approach in essence is about focusing on a single,
specific case at a time. The value of this case study is that it gives ample
opportunity for a thorough consideration of all attributes of a case at
hand. And on the basis of the findings, propose general propositions that
can eventually lead to theory building.
3.3.2 Categories
You learnt in unit 3.1.1 that the focus of the case study method is “one
case at a time”, so as to generate proposition that can be applied to a
larger group. Students should note the various categories of case study
approach. They are the descriptive theoretical and hypothesis-generating
case studies.
• Descriptive Case Study

Descriptive case study essentially describes the basic attitudes of
a particular case. It does not aim at providing explanations for an
action, but just to describe the actions exhibited by the case. It
has the advantage of providing large volumes of data that are
useful for theory building arising from generalisations.
• Theoretical Case Study
A theoretical case study has its goals in providing an extensive
analysis of the areas of interests in the case being studied rather
than trying to build theories. It throws more light on the case by
examining it in all its ramifications.
A theoretical case study, according to Lizphart (1971), is a study
in applied sciences since it does not aim to contribute to empirical
generalisations. Consequently its value in terms of theory-
building is nil.
• Hypothesis Generating Case Study
This type of case study is motivated by a desire to formulate
general propositions that may lead to theory-building. It begins
with some basic assumptions meant to be tested by gathering
basic data.
Hypothesis generating case study is a direct contradiction to a
theoretical case study. As you have learnt, a theoretical case
study is motivated by the need to formulate a general theoretical
construct.
Distinguish between theoretical and descriptive case study.
121
4.0 CONCLUSION
In this unit, you were introduced to various approaches (methods) which

can be used to compare political and administrative systems and
behavior. Some of these methods aim at generalisation that leads to
theory building, while others are motivated by mere descriptions of the
attributes of the cases rather than providing generalisations for theory-
building. You should employ some of these methods on your own in
your daily attempts at distinguishing people, things and issues.
5.0 SUMMARY
What you have learnt in this unit is the numerous methods you can use
to compare administrative systems, practice and behaviour. You learnt
five (5) methods altogether. The differences methods identify
similarities in cases, while the similarity methods identify differences.
The experimental and control groups for its comparative explanations, is
based on the introduction and measurement of a stimulus in one group
(experimental). Statistical approach uses partial correlation to gauge the
relationships between variables such as education and political
participation. The case study method concentrates on the examination
of the attributes of only one case which is seen as sufficient enough to
make generalisations .
The case study methods of local government studies gives room for
stereotyping, describing in details the various categories of the method.
Identify and discuss the major elements of experimental approach.
Akindele, S. T. et al. (1996). The Subject Matter of Political Science.

Ibadan: College Press.
Sharkansky, I. (1975). Public Administrative Policy Making in

Government Agencies. (3rd edition). Chicago: Rand Mc Nally
College Publishing Company.
122
MODULE 5
Unit 1 Local Government as an Instrument of

Development
Unit 2 Problems of Development at Local Government
Level
UNIT 1 LOCAL GOVERNMENT AS AN INSTRUMENT

OF DEVELOPMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Meaning of Development in Local Government
3.2 Development Potentials of Local Government
3.3 Planning and the Development Process in Local
Government
3.4 Achievements of Performance
3.4.1 General Assessment of Performance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
At grassroots level, people are more interested in imperial development,

which has to do with institution building. In assessing the role of local
government, people are interested in physical development by sighting
physical infrastructures. These dovetails to the projects whose general
functions can be of benefit to communities within a given period of
time. The question is what have been delivered and what have been the
obstacles in the attempt to deliver them. These are the concerns of this
unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify what constitutes development at the local government

level
• describe the planning and development process in local
governments
123
• identify the nature of projects associated with various sections in

the budget
• give examples of what services have been actually delivered by
local governments.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Meaning of Development in Local Government
The meaning of development may be difficult to pin down but it points

at some quantitative and qualitative advancement in structures, values
and skills in a society. It deals with advancement, progress, increase,
transformation etc. Development therefore is movement to a much more
desirable stage than the one presently experienced.
Development is supposed to tackle obstacles, be they human or physical.

Conquering this means making progress. Overall, development should
improve the content and quality of life of individuals or groups or the
community as a whole.
In local government administration, such areas where such improvement

is required are infrastructure like roads and markets. It also includes
service areas like education, health, sanitation, works etc. This is a
breakdown of local government services and functions. The question is
how have local governments gone ahead to handle these projects and
services and what has actually been delivered and at what cost.
3.2 Development Potentials of Local Government
Local governments are known as agents of transformation at the

grassroots level, because of the capabilities of local government to bring
about development at the local communities. These capabilities are
based on their potentials. Such potentials are sourced from their
constitutional basis, their financial wherewithal, their quality of
personnel, the quality of leadership and the support they get from the
local communities. When these variables are rolled together in an
optimum mix, there should be no reason for not performing its role of
socio- economic development.
What is required of local governments is how to plan for resource

mobilisation (both funds and community resources) and translate these
into services. Planning becomes the key instrument here which must be
backed up by good and dynamic leadership and a good human and
capital resource base.
124
What constitutes the development potentials of local government?
3.3 Planning and the Development Process in Local

Government
Planning is considered as a proposal of action of a person, group or

government within a given environment, providing obstacles and
opportunities which the policy is proposed to utilise and overcome in an
effort to reach a goal or realise its objectives or a purpose (Frederick,
1963).
Simply put, planning brings to focus the need for efficient allocation of
scarce resources in any society or by every organisation. Planning
therefore refers to the process of preparing a set of decisions for future
action directed at achieving goals by some means. The key elements in a
plan therefore are:
• it is futuristic in nature
• it is goal oriented
• it is prescriptive (i.e. based on existing order, it prescribes steps
to follow in future)
• planning is an administrative and management ability undertaken
by government’s organisation and groups.
A planning document at the local government level goes through the

following process:
a. the statement of goals or objectives

b. an analysis of system structure i.e. components of the problem
and how they are interrelated
c. evaluation and selection of possible solution to problems
d. the design of the implementation procedure (i.e how these
solutions are to be translated into concrete actions).
In a local government set up, there are short, medium and long-term
planning structures. The importance of planning for development,
therefore, is that the plan states its objectives in relation to development,
the activities to be engaged in and how they are arrived at, the cost of
the activities and projects, and the strategies for implementing the
activities. It is these activities that translate into policies, programmes,
sub-programmes, and projects in local governments. These are
concretely conveyed or elaborated on by the local government budget,
where concrete plan for the year is drawn and concrete projects and
services are itemised, including their costs; the approval of this
125
kickstarts their implementation. It is the implementation of these that

translates into infrastructural and other socio-economic development in
the local councils. When a particular project in the plan cannot be
implemented in a given year, it is rolled over into the following year.
But the pending issue(s) still remains, what is the impact of grassroots
development as regards the rural existence.
What constitutes developments in a local council?
i. Planning
ii. Policies
iii. Programmes
iv. Budgeting
v. Implementation
vi. Project and Services
vii. Development
3.4 Achievements or Performance
It is very difficult to put the achievements of local government in a

project form. There are however different ways of assessing
achievements or physical performance.
One of the ways of assessment is to look at the functional schedule of

local government and measure to what extent each has been performed.
Another way is to look at the plans of local government and assess them
in terms of implementation according to the time frame and the projects.
Moreover, assessment can be done by taking a look at the local

government capital budget and assess how much of the projects and
services that are targeted have been implemented. One can also look at
the chairman’s annual address on achievements in his local government
and get a feel of what the local government has been able to do. There
are various sources and yardsticks and many studies and evaluations
carried out in the local councils’ physical performance are drawn from
these sources.
3.4.1 General Assessment of Performance
In Nigeria, the exclusive or mandatory functions of local governments

have lagged behind the concurrent functions. The first mandatory
function of local governments is that of planning. Local governments
have not taken the issue of planning very seriously. They rather engage
in perfunctory planning, but sooner or later jettison the document partly
126
because of the instability in government leadership. The incoming
executive does not always believe in the efficacy or relevance of the
plan he meets on the ground and so it is avoided. Some chief executives
do not even believe in plans as they feel that plan do not support their
own attitude to development.
The other mandatory functions which are largely revenue generation do

not receive considerable attention either. Apart from markets and motor
parks, community tax and collection of rates on shops and business
premises, the very lucrative ones like radio and television licensing and
property rating do not appear to be exploited. In fact, most local
governments in the rural areas rely on markets as their major source of
internal revenue. In the same vein, services like roads, naming of streets,
street lighting, recreation, sanitation and burial grounds and cemeteries
are not given the right priorities.
On the other hand, local governments concentrate on the concurrent

functions of agriculture, health and education where the tendency for
expenditure is higher. They do not emphasise revenue generation but
prefer to wait for the monthly grants from the federation account to pay
salaries and pay contractors for projects whether executed or not. Local
governments do more of expending than generating. This is one of the
biggest problems of local governments in development today. When
politicians campaign, nobody asks them about where they are going to
get money to deliver on their campaign promises. The answers are of
course from the federation account. There is almost a zero initiative
about transforming the rural economy in order to expand the wealth and
tax base which in turn will provide adequate funds for local
administration.
The vibrant departments in the local councils are the primary health
care, education and until recently agriculture.
Primary healthcare is implementing the national primary health care

policy and therefore receives additional funding or assistance from the
federal and state governments and even international donors from time
to time. In local governments, the United Nations Children Emergency
Fund (UNICEF) assisted programmes on capacity building and safe
delivery are evident. The Bamako initiative has also been a big project
of the international agencies and the federal government. Local
government builds, equips and staffs rural health facilities. The major
problem has been the sustainability of drug supply.
Primary education was hitherto a programme of local governments, but

the national primary education commission has taken this over.
Nevertheless, local governments still control this aspect due to
127
deductions from the source of teachers’ salaries. This has thrown many
local council into debts. This is the source of the ‘Zero Allocation’. The
commission builds schools, so do local governments. Both bodies also
equip them. The local inspection and coordination however rests with
the local authority education committee of which the chairman of local
governments still head.
Agriculture is not vibrant as other sectors. Most of the activities

associated with agriculture are fertilizer procurement and distribution,
farm inputs, seed multiplication, tractor hiring and forestry. Serious
funds are not allocated to this sector. Fertilizer appears to be the most
vibrant activity in a lot of local councils especially in the north. Animal
husbandry is also an activity that is promoted. Tractor hiring is
important, especially, for people in the North because of the suitability
of the land for mechanical ploughing.
In terms of rural works, local governments can boast of attempts to

provide trunk C roads, culverts, drains, building of markets, and motor
parks, small scale irrigation works, boreholes as well as television
viewing centers, staff houses, district heads’ house, latrines and a few
demonstration.
In what ways can we assess development at the local level?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Development in local government may not be straight forward to report.

This can however be done by looking at functions, projects in plans and
budgets and the physical or actual budgets on the ground. To be
meaningful, the financial allocation to these projects and services will
allow the reader appreciate the nature and quality of such projects.
The clue to understanding development at the local level is the capital

budget. The amount allocated to this vis-vis the recurrent expenditure is
indicative of the development potentials and attention.
Local governments tend to perform more of the concurrent functions

than the exclusives ones. This is because it is less painful to spend than
to generate revenue. The statutory allocation encourages them to spend
without recourse to their internal source which leads to their lack of
attention to these sources.
The items of expenditure of local governments remain very basic yet

local governments find it difficult to implement these. The difficulty in
128
providing services is as important as the level of services that has been
delivered.
5.0 SUMMARY
Having gone through this unit, it can then be summarised as follows:
• development at a local level, especially as contained in the

functional schedule of local governments, is mainly a socio-
economic issue. These consists of projects, infrastructure and
services
• a local government’s development potentials lie in its revenue
base, leadership quality and personnel quality, and support from
local communities
• general achievements or performance of local governments lie in
the concurrent functions and a few items under exclusive
functions
• local governments spend more than they generate. The statutory
allocation has been responsible for this.
In what ways can we describe local government as an instrument of

development at the community level?
Aliyu, A.Y. (1980). The Role of Local Government in Social, Political

and Economic Development in Nigeria. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello
University.
Oyeyipo, E.A & Odoh, A. (1980). Local Government as a Vehicle for

National Development. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University.
129
UNIT 2 PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPMENT AT THE

LOCAL GOVERNMENT LEVEL
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Finance
3.1.2 Personnel Incompetence
3.1.3 Politics and Leadership
3.1.4 The Community
3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations
3.1.6 Planning and Ideology.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further-Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you can state categorically that measuring development in

local councils can be done in form of structural facilities provided and
service delivered. Development has been largely discussed around
functional, budgetary and project activities. In this unit, you would be
concretely exposed to the specific problems local government are facing
in the provision of efficient service delivery or rural infrastructure.
These problems revolve around the finances of local governments,
personnel, politics, community or societal problem, inter governmental
relations and a lack of effective planning and local government
ideology.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the major problems militating against local governments

(in Nigeria) in their developmental efforts
• raise two issues discussed under each of these factors or problems
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Problem Areas
As mentioned in the introduction, the problem areas to be discussed are,

finance, personnel, politics and leadership, community attitude,
130
intergovernmental relations, planning and ideology. This is one way of
classifying these problems.
3.1.1 Finance
Finance is mainstay of local government development, but too much

money is spent on recurrent budget, sometimes up to 80-90% leaving a
smaller percentage for social and economic services. This is in
consonance with the low base of internally generating revenue capacity
of local governments, which amounts to only 10% of the total local
government revenue. The over-dependence on statutory allocation has
made the prospect of economic and social development rather slow in
the local government. Coupled with this, leadership is slow to explore
alternative sources of revenue in local governments.
Despite the low level of finance, massive corruption takes place in the
local government. Both administrative and political officials are
involved. Contracts are issued even to council staff and politicians.
Evidence of corruption surfaces from inspectors reports and probe
panels into local government council funds.
3.1.2 Personnel and Competence
Surveys have shown that in recent years, the quantum of staff has
increased. Also, there has been more quality staff in administration than
the technical and professional fields in local governments. A survey in
1977 by the UNDP shows that the planning and research unit of local
government has been under-staffed and those that managed these units
do not receive any special training to prepare them for the job. One also
hardly finds an economist or a statistician or a social scientist in this
department. Many of the staff in the health departments are merely
community health workers. Medical doctors are difficult to come by.
Agriculturalists are largely those who have gone for one diploma course
or the other. The import of all these is the fact that planning for
development is handicapped in local governments because of the dearth
of qualified staff. Plans therefore become an incremental thing, a
traditional muddling through, than an objective and data fed-document.
Professional advice to politician too suffers as a result of the quality of
intellectual weight brought to bear on the exercise. When it comes to
implementation, it is replete with the same stories. Targets and standards
in plans may suffer as a result of paucity of professional requirement
and competence. Even where there are qualified staff to do this, they
will still fall victim of the corruptive influence of society brought to bear
by either the contractor or politicians or community pressure. In
summary, local government lacks the executive, technical and
131
professional competence to formulate good plans and to implement

them.
3.1.3 Politics and Leadership
The attitude of politicians to development may not coincide with

established ways to doing community needs assessment by the local
government bureaucracy. Some projects are outrageously sited even
without assessing their utility. Political criteria overrides data based
issues. The politician imposes his will partly because of the impulse
driven by his constituency needs and because of his party manifesto.
More importantly is his perception of community and the goings in the
other tiers of government. Because corruption is fashionable and politics
has become an avenue of getting rich, the chairman sees his period in
power as his own opportunity to amass wealth. So the few resources
base of the local government is illegitimately depleted leaving the
crumbs for developmental purposes. This is the problem of development
today. Governance has become a reward system for contractors and
party supporters. There is a large retinue of local supporters who have to
be catered for from the lean resources base of local government.
3.1.4 The Community
The communities often feel marginalised in development. Even

community development efforts are not adequately supported by local
government. Even where the intervention occurs, it is not done in a
participatory manner. The net effect of this is that the community feels
marginalised from development programs and efforts.
This also affects the sustainability of projects. The more programs and
projects are community-driven and participatory, the more the
community would want to own and sustain the program. This is a far cry
from what happened at the local level. This is why the community is not
bothered on the issues of theft or fraud.
Community attitude also reinforces the corruptive attitude of politicians.

Instead of demanding for accountability from politicians who amass lots
of wealth and status symbols while in office, they perceive this as the
ultimate objectives of politics. Going into politics means going to
defraud the council and where politics stops at primitive accumulation
without results, development hardly becomes an objective.
3.1.5 Intergovernmental Relations
Intergovernmental relationships in Nigeria are usually associated with

control. Too many things are being controlled like the personnel,
132
finance, guidelines for administrative practices, budgets, projects etc.
Control may be functional but to the extent that it facilitates the business
of government in an efficient and effective manner. It has been realised,
however, that control in a lot of cases impede development. Control of
finance which is revenue and disbursement has hampered development
in the past. When money is centrally paid into a joint account for local
governments, local government tampers with this thus reducing the
volume of funds coming to local government for development. In
Nigeria, most state governments do not remit their 10% statutory
allocation of their internal revenue to local governments. Worse still,
local governments keep getting circulars and directives from the state
that amount to extra budgetary commitment. This is because even
without their knowledge, approval would have been issued by the state
government directing them to do certain purchases or contribute to
one project or the other, which in almost all cases, may not have
been their budgetary commitment. The implication is that they have to
abandon their original budget to take care of such projects. This is not
healthy for development, let alone planned development at the local
government level.
Furthermore, call circular from the ministry at the beginning of the

budget exercise restricting the expenditures of local government and
allocations to certain areas or sectors expenditure is not healthy for local
government development. Development ought to be based on a need
assessment of local communities. These functions should be performed
by operational departments in the local governments and with ready-
made data from extension workers. Such imposition does not always
augur well for elected officials who want to deliver on their promises.
Inter-governmental relations and politics also demoralise the local

government development efforts. Sometimes, some state chief
executives impose candidates on local governments or communities
and by the time candidates get power, he sees himself as more
accountable to the state rather than to the people. Some sections of the
community may avoid his administration and refuse to be drawn into
any participatory overtures. The rapport between communities and such
chief executive cannot guarantee the necessary development.
State policies on personnel may also end up being detrimental to

development in a way. Certain personnel of local government are key to
development efforts, but some of these personnel insist on the right
thing- an internal auditor who insists on standards before approvals are
given and cheques released. The impatient local government chairman
may consider this as an affront, or politicise these actions and brand
these personnel as enemies of his administration. He could liaise with
state officials at the service commission and ministry and effect such an
133
officer’s transfer. Pliable officers could replace them and that would be
the end of efficiency and quality project in that local government.
Associated with the above is the way inspectors’ reports are treated at
the state level. Many of their reports are politically treated rather than
the administrative consideration they deserve .This encourages
corruption at the local councils.
3.1.6 Planning and Ideology
Local governments’ plans in Nigeria are supposed to fit into state and
national plans. In the 1975 plans, the federal government came up with
very sketchy phrases that defined the objectives of the plan such as ‘a
just and egalitarian society’; ‘a land full of promises and opportunities’
etc. These were supposed to serve as the ideology of the plan. Since
then, subsequent plans built their overall objective around these.
However, the implementation of plans since 1974-80 has not

demonstrated any systematic effort to achieve the objectives. Instead,
plans have become more and more meaningless because they
become mere documents of intentions rather than documents of
commitments.
This attitude has spilled over to the state and local governments. State
governments have not demonstrated any leadership planning, and
neither have they showed any commitments. If plans are instruments for
developments, which they are, the lack of commitments to them means
lack of systematised development. The type of development that takes
place at the state and local government levels are impulsive, haphazard
and un-coordinate. The cumulative effects of the plan cannot be seen;
neither can the evidence of phased development.
Even in the type of development, planning has not benefitted the rural
population much. The state and local governments are satisfied with the
provision of social services and rural infrastructure. Their hope is that
this will always stimulate the rural economy. There is no direct or
concerted efforts or attempt in their part to intervene in real economic
development. Attempts have stopped in either agriculture or building of
rural markets. Agricultural production is not enough to stimulate the
rural economy. Even then, it is bedeviled by many problems. Markets
can be seen as mere social and commercial entities that facilitates trade.
The real problem is in the area of production. Agricultural production
alone cannot improve the economic nature which ought to have been
promoted by now; so also glaring area like small scale industries of an
agrarian nature relevant to community resources. Such direct
interventions are lacking and until more investment is planned in
134
employment-generating ventures in rural communities, the standards of
living of the rural person will not appreciate. This is really the challenge
of local government as they plan rural development. The capitalist
ideology which operates at the national level must also start penetrating
the rural areas for concomitant development.
All these will require a more positive, dynamic and even selfish attitude
to development on the part of leadership. This is so because this requires
substantial capital outlays and sustained monitoring and interaction with
local communities.
Highlight the main issues under the financing of local councils.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the above discussion, local government problems can be classified

as institutional problems, political problems and societal problems. A lot
of problems have been institutional, which includes personnel, finance,
planning, and intergovernmental relations that relates to the way the
local governments operate.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the problems of local government administration in its

developmental process were identified to include:
1. Finance
This is the bedrock of local government development but in
terms of revenue base and even they way these revenues are
managed, they do not portend good prospects for development.
2. Personnel and Competence

There is the problem of qualified personnel in the technical
and professional departments in local government and
unfortunately these are the staff that implements and monitors
local government developments projects.
3. Politics
The attitude of politicians is such that they see local government
as a rehabilitation center rather than as an instrument of
development. They pursue policies that promote their welfare
rather than the overall development of the institution and the
society. A very important factor in policies and leadership is the
unstable leadership at the local level. This encourages disjuncture
135
in development, which incidentally is an important factor in

policy formulation.
4. Community Attitude
The value system of the community is such that does not promote
development. It encourages and condones corrupt practices which
are antithetical to development. Furthermore, local government
policies alienate communities, especially at the level of
participatory decision-making and so communities feel
marginalised and are unaffected by the government
programmes.
5. Intergovernmental Relations
Control of local governments can be negative to development.
This manifests in interference in local government service. Such
interference prevents local governments from implementing
their plans and budgets, since state governments direct from
time to time new expenditures to be funded by local
governments (outside local governments own budgets). So also
are delays in approvals of budgets, thereby threatening the
timing and target of activities planned for.
6. Planning and Ideology

The plan document has become just a document of intention and
not commitment. All tiers of government pay lip service to plans.
There is no sustained ideological commitment to the spirit of the
plan. A lot of effort has been placed on social service and
infrastructural development at the local level and very little on
economic development. There is no way the rural area can be
developed. There has to be concerted and sustained economic
development programmes by all tiers of government.
In what ways have planning and ideology become a problem of

development at the local government level?
Aliyu, A.Y. (1980). The Role of Local Government in Social, Political

and Economic Development in Nigeria. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello
University.
Oyeyipo, E.A & Odoh, A. (1980). Local Government as a Vehicle for

National Development. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University.
136

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: PAD 831

COURSE TITLE: ADVANCED COMPARATIVE LOCAL

Unit 1 The Idea of Local Government……………… 1

Unit 1 Structure of Local Governments……………. 29

Unit 1 Efficiency Theory of Local Government…….. 88

Unit 1 Imperatives and History of Comparative

Module 5………………………………………………….. 120

Unit 1 Local Government as an Instrument of

Unit 1 The Idea of Local Government

UNIT 1 THE IDEA OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• advance five reasons why local governments are necessary

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Place of Local Government in a Nation

Local government is the closest tier of government to the people. In a

3.2 The Need for Local Government

The need for local government may be stated specifically as follows:

a. it is more democratic. This is referring to the fact that it increases

h. local variations and needs in service provision can better be

3.3 The Meaning of Local Government

Local government is grassroots government recognised by law. It is

Maddick (1963) defines local government as ‘a sub-unit of government

The United Nations Article of Declaration (1948) defines local

The Nigeria Local Government Reform document (1976) defines local

From the three definitions above, certain characteristic of local

a. the local government is a subordinate system of government

From the characteristics of local governments, state five powers local

3.4 Roles of Local Government

3.4.1 The Roles of Local Government

Local governments are veritable and appropriate institutions for

Another political role is that of maintenance of law and order. Local

3.4.2 Socio-Economic Role

The exercise of democracy and human rights can only be meaningful if

In providing socio-economic services, local governments have to work

These two roles of local governments will be revisited in another form

Local governments, from the brief discussion on need, definition and

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akpan, P.C. (1984). ‘Modern Local Government Administration in

Barber, H. (1974). Local Government. (3rd ed.). London: Macdonald &

Maddick, H.A. (1963). Democracy, Decentralisation & Development.

UNIT 2 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF LOCAL

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept of decentralisation which is an essential term

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Conceptual Analysis

3.1.1 Definition of Decentralisation

In a federal state, in addition to national capital, we also have regional or

The largeness of a country in terms of geographical spread may further

Decentralisation, according to Osaghae (1990: 84) means a system of

3.1.2 Local Government

As you have just learnt, decentralisation is about dispersal of power to

Local government is therefore defined by the United Nations document

The 1976 Local Government Reforms Guidelines also defined local

Very clear from these interpretations is the acknowledgement that local

Therefore, in a federal system, local government is the third-tier level of

Local government is also regarded as grassroots government for, it is the

i. What is meant by the concept of decentralisation?