Road Construction- 

means the establishment and extension of a new road or new section of road; this

does not include road maintenance or significant road improvement operations on already existing

temporary or permanent roads.

What are the materials used in road

construction?
1. Asphalt
2. Concrete
3. Composite pavement
4. Recycled Materials

 Road construction is the installation of soil stabilisers, concrete, asphalt, and

other building materials on a path to create a surface that vehicles can travel
on from one destination to another.

While common types of road construction methods differ based on the nature
of the envisioned road, every highway project require months or years of
planning before work can begin on site.

While on a road trip or on the way to work, have you ever wondered what materials
were used to construct the road you are on? It’s important to know the materials that
go into constructing roads, especially if you are in the construction business. You
might have your road roller or paving machine at the ready but without proper
knowledge on road materials and surfaces, your construction project might not be a
success.

However, there is no need to panic because here is what you need to know about the
materials used for road construction.

Asphalt
First on the list is Asphalt. This material is petroleum in a viscous liquid or semi-solid
form. When it is used for pavements and road construction it comes in the form of a
composite material, asphalt concrete. Asphalt concrete is about 70% asphalt and 30%
aggregate particles.

Asphalt is one of the most commonly used materials for road construction for a

number of reasons. The first reason is that it is 100% recyclable. Most construction
companies make it a point to recycle all asphalt gathered from a job site. Not only is
that good for the environment, but it also makes for stronger roads. Recycled asphalt
mixes are stronger, longer-lasting, and have a stronger rut resistance than fresh asphalt
mixes. Asphalt is also cost-efficient, good for road noise-reduction and the materials
needed to create it are highly accessible. When it comes to pavements and roads,
asphalt is a go-to.

Concrete
Concrete is another mainstay of road construction and construction as a whole. The
reason for that is its flexibility and ease of construction. Made from cement, coarse
aggregate (like gravel), fine aggregate (like sand), and water. These materials make up
60-75% of concrete, while the rest is made up of chemical admixtures.

Concrete can be shaped and/or molded to just about any shape. The idea behind using
concrete is its incredible durability that can reliably maintain the structural integrity of
buildings and other constructs through years of wear and tear. In terms of road
construction, it is used primarily because of its small maintenance cost together with
the elongation of the service life of the structure. Concrete also makes construction
cost less because you can use it to increase the bearing capacity of already-made
pavement layers. For example, it is used to repair asphalt surfaces to extend its
lifetime and bearing capacity.

Composite Pavement
Meanwhile, composite pavements are all about bringing the best aspects of asphalt
and concrete together to form a ‘super’ pavement. Typically, concrete is used as the
base layer which provides structural capacity while asphalt is used for the surface
layer which provides a wearing surface course.

Composite pavements, when compared to the more traditional flexible and rigid
pavements, have the potential to become a more cost-effective alternative because
they may provide better levels of performance and longevity, both structurally and
functionally. Maintenance operations also tend to be more cost-effective. All of this
makes composite pavements a viable option for high traffic roads that are exposed to
the elements.

The downsides of using asphalt and concrete individually like fatigue cracking,
subgrade rutting, and erosion are also mitigated. However, that doesn’t mean that
composite pavements are an end-all solution to potential problems because they are
also more prone to distresses like reflective cracking and rutting in the surface layer. It
can take costly mitigation techniques or a premium asphalt surface to help with these
potential problems, so weigh your options wisely.

Recycled Materials
For the more environmentally conscious construction projects, using recycled
materials is also an option. While asphalt is usually recycled, the materials being
talked about in this section are the secondary and tertiary kind of waste materials and
by-products which include, but are not limited to recycled concrete aggregates, plastic
wastes, scrap tires, mine wastes, foundry sand, recycled crushed class, and various
forms of coal combustion products.

While it is not uncommon for these materials to be used in road construction, there are
still concerns and knowledge gaps that require intensive research and assessment in
order to build better roads while preserving natural resources. Some of these issues
involve long-term performance and structural integrity when exposed to the elements
and high volume. Overall, it might still be worth it for small scale roads and
pavements.

 
Key Takeaway
There are many materials available for road construction, and knowing them is
important because different materials mean different characteristics. In certain asphalt
is a more ideal option than concrete and vice-versa. Other times, a composite or
recycled pavement might be needed for your construction plans. Once you have made
a proper evaluation of your resources and what is needed for the job, that can be your
go-signal to get your road roller and other equipment ready for some road
construction.

Road construction is a highly technical venture that requires a range of

distinct materials to ensure the motorways are durable and well able to
support heavy loads and traffic.

Road materials range from natural soils, aggregates, binders such as lime,
asphalt, concrete, and assorted products used as admixtures for improved
quality of roads.

Road materials list

Here’s a list of the popular types of road construction materials:

1. Soil
Soil naturally tops the list of materials used in road construction. It is the
eventual point which supports the complete structure of the road.

Indeed, soil is the primary road material for the foundation, subgrade, or the
pavement in the case of low traffic rural roads. It provides the essential flat
base that offers the vital support for the road structure.
A process known as compaction, where soil particles are pressed together to
reduce pore space between them, is usually carried out on site to give the soil
at the base some higher resistance and greater stability.

2. Aggregate
Stone aggregate, also known as mineral aggregate, is easily the most
important component of materials for road construction. It is made by
breaking up naturally occurring rocks to form coarse aggregate (like gravel) or
fine aggregate (like sand).

Aggregates are used for granular bases, sub-bases, as part of bituminous

mixes and cement concrete. They are also used as the primary material for
relatively cheaper road, known as water-bound macadam.

Like soil, aggregates must be tested by a road engineer to ascertain that they
are strong enough and durable for a specific project. These properties are
influenced by their origin, mineral components and the nature of bond
between the components.

3. Asphalt and Bitumen

Asphalt and bitumen are often mistaken as being one and the same thing.
However, while asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used for
constructing roads and their associated furniture, bitumen is actually the
semi-solid binder that holds asphalt together.

Bitumen, which is also known as mineral tar, is obtained through unfinished

distillation of crude petroleum. It contains 87% carbon, 11% hydrogen and 2%
oxygen.
On the other hand, asphalt is manufactured in a factory that heats, dries and
mixes aggregate, bitumen and sand into a composite mix. The material is then
applied on site using a paving machine at a nominated or required thickness,
depending on the type of project.

When used for road construction, asphalt comes in the form of a composite
material known as asphalt concrete. This road making material is 70% asphalt
and 30% aggregate. Asphalt is 100% recyclable, which makes it one of the
most popular materials for making roads.   

4. Concrete
Concrete offers a lot of flexibility and ease of construction – making it an
important road material. It is created by mixing cement, coarse aggregate, fine
aggregate, water, and chemical admixtures (which make up 25-40% of
concrete).

In addition to reducing costs, concrete is popular among road builders due to

its ability to extend the service life of a road.

It can also be used to raise the bearing capacity of existing pavement layers.

A well-made concrete mixture sets and hardens because of the binding

property of cement. It forms a mix with slimmest void space.

On curing with water, it provides a strong, steady and long-lasting pavement

for a road – resisting repetitive impact from heavy commercial vehicles.

Composite Pavement
This is a type of pavement that uses both asphalt and concrete to form a
‘super’ pavement.
Composite pavements can potentially become a cheaper alternative to
traditional pavements thanks to their ability to provide higher levels of
performance and durability, both structurally and functionally.

The downside of concrete is that it is susceptible to problems such as

reflective cracking and rutting in the surface layer. However, these potential
hitches can be resolved by applying a premium asphalt surface or through
some other (costly) mitigation techniques.

Eco Friendly Road Material

Road builders are increasingly under pressure to lower their carbon footprint.
This is important considering that cement, a key input material in road
construction, contributes one tonne of carbon for every tonne of cement
produced.

Reduction of carbon emission can be achieved by use of alternative road

construction materials such as crushed concrete – a recycled material –
which can generate enormous savings in energy and production costs.

Sustainability can also be reached through the use of eco friendly concrete,
which cuts the usage of Portland cement in road construction.

Besides, the use of recycled materials components, which are produced from
industrial wastes, can lower greenhouse gas emissions while cutting costs.

Other sustainable materials include reclaimed asphalt pavements, recycled

concrete aggregate, and coal combustion products obtained from coal-fired
power plants.

FAQ:
What are the materials used for road construction?

Asphalt and concrete are the most common types of road materials.

Asphalt is manufactured in a factory that heats, dries and mixes aggregate,

bitumen and sand into a composite mix. Concrete is created by mixing
cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, and chemical admixtures.

What material is best for road construction?

Asphalt is easily the best and most popular material used in road
construction.

Asphalt-based road construction method offers numerous benefits including

low noise during pavement, and relatively low construction costs.

What are the types of road construction?

The four major types of road construction methods. These include earth road,
and gravel road, bituminous road, concrete road, and water-bound macadam
road.

2. Soil Tests for Road Construction  

The soil tests that must be carried out for road construction are briefly explained as
follows:

  a. Moisture Content Test   

The moisture content of the soil is the amount of water it contains and is expressed as
the percentage of dry mass.

The test for determining the moisture content of the soil is vital for assessing the
existing natural state of the soil.

It is also necessary to understand the bearing capacity and the probable settlement of
the soil.

It is carried out in the laboratory itself.

 

Apparatus Required:

1. Non-corrodible airtight container

2. Weighing Balance of adequate sensitivity

3. Desiccator

4. Oven

Procedure:

The procedure for laboratory determination of moisture content can be listed as follows:

i. The air-tight container along with its lid must be first weighed(W1).

ii. The specimen sample is then taken in the container, and the container, along with its
lid and the sample, is weighed(W2).

iii. Then, the container is left in the oven. The specimen is dried to a constant weight at
a temperature ranging from 105 degrees Celsius to 110 degrees Celsius for about 16 to
24 hours.

iv. The container, lid, and dried sample are finally weighed(W3).

v. The moisture content is then calculated using the following formula:

W= [ (W2-W3) / (W3-W1) ] * 100

Where,

W1= Weight of the container with a lid in grams

W2= Weight of the container with lid and wet sample in grams

W3= Weight of the container with lid and dry sample in grams

  b. Specific Gravity Test By Pycnometer Method   

The specific gravity of soil may be defined as the ratio of the mass of solids to the
mass of an equivalent volume of water at 4ºC.

Mathematically, 

G = Ms / Mw = ρs / ρw = γs / γw
Where, 

ρs = Density of Solid

ρw = Density of Water 

γs = Unit Weight of Solid

γw = Unit Weight of Water

A specific gravity test is necessary to understand various soil properties such as void
ratio, degree of saturation, etc.

Pycnometer Method 
A pycnometer or constant volume method is most reliable for determining specific
gravity. Normally about 200 gm of the dry mass of the sample and 500 cc. Constant
volume bottles are taken.

Apparatus Required:

1. Pycnometer -  standard vessel often provided with a thermometer for measuring

and comparing the densities or specific gravities of liquids or solids.

Fig: Pycnometer

2. Weighing Balance with a weighing accuracy of 1gm

Procedure:
The laboratory procedure for determining the specific gravity of soil by pycnometer
method can be listed as follows:

1. Find the mass of the empty pycnometer, say M1.

2. Fill pycnometer with about 200 gm of dry sample and take its weight, say M2.

3. Add water to the pycnometer such that it is half full of water. The air in the soil sample
is completely expelled by heating or suction.

Then the water is added to its full capacity, and the pycnometer is weighed and say M3

4. Empty the pycnometer of all its contents and clean it. Next, the pycnometer is filled
with water only, and its weight is determined say M4.

Calculation: 

G = [M2-M1] / [ (M2-M1) – (M3-M4)]

Where,

G = Specific Gravity

M1 = Mass of empty container

M2 = Mass of Container + Dry Soil

M3 = Mass of Container + Dry Soil + Water

M4 = Mass of Container + Water

  c. Particle Size Distribution Test   

The particle size distribution of soil may be defined as the proportion of the dry mass of
soil distributed over specified particle-size ranges, i.e., gradation of soil.

Determining particle size distribution is necessary to check the soil’s suitability for use in
road construction

This test aims to determine the percentages of different grain sizes contained in the soil.

Normally sieve analysis is used for determining the particle distribution for larger
particles, and a hydrometer test is used for the finer ones.

Sieve Analysis For Particle Distribution

Apparatus Required:

1. Weighing Balance

2. Set of sieves

3. Cleaning brush

4. Sieve shaker

Procedure:

The procedure for sieve analysis involves the following series of steps:

1. A sample of about 500 grams is first taken.

2. The representative sample is dried in a ventilated oven.

3. If the sample consists of lumped particles, the lumps must be crushed.

4. The sample is weighed, and its mass is duly recorded.

5. The sieves of different sizes are then taken and arranged in a particular order, i.e.,
the largest aperture size at the top and the smallest at the bottom. A pan is placed at
the bottom to collect the samples.

6. The weighed sample is poured into the top of the stack of sieves, and the lid is put.

7. The stack of sieves is stacked in the sieve shaker, and the clamps are fixed.

8. The timer is set to 10 or 15 minutes, and the sieve shaker is switched on.

9. Afterwards, the sample retained on each sieve is weighed.

10. The result is then calculated using the following formula:

% Retained = (W sieve /W total ) * 100%

Where,

W sieve = mass of aggregate in the sieve

W total = total mass of aggregate

 

% cumulative passing = 100% – % cumulative retained

The values are then plotted on the graph with the sieve size on X-axis and the
cumulative % passing on the Y-axis.

  d. Proctor Test   
The Proctor test is a type of compaction test carried out to determine the compaction
properties of soil.

In actuality, this test is used for determining the mass of dry soil per cubic meter when
the soil is compacted over a range of moisture contents providing the maximum dry
density at the optimum moisture content.

Proctor test includes establishing the relationship between the moisture content and dry
density of soils compacted in a mold of a specific size with a 2.5kg rammer dropped
from a height of 30cm.

There are two methods of Proctor Tests.

a. Standard Proctor Test ( AASHO Test)

b. Modified Proctor Test ( Modified AASHO Test )

a. Standard Proctor Test ( AASHO Test)

R.R. Proctor developed Standard Proctor Test. This test is used to determine the
optimum moisture content for the soil under given compaction.

Apparatus Required

a. Standard Proctor Apparatus

i. Cylindrical metal mold of an internal diameter of 4 inches ( 102 mm ) and effective

height of 4.6 inches ( 117 mm ) with an internal volume of 1/30 cu. ft ( 0.945 ltr ).

ii. A 50 mm diameter rammer of weight 2.5 kg and height of fall of 1 foot ( 305 mm ),
moving in the metallic outer sleeve.

iii. Detachable collar of 50 mm effective height ( 60 mm total height ).

iv. Detachable base plate

b. Thermostatically controlled oven (105°C +- 110°C)

c. Mixing Tools like a spoon, trowel, and spatula.

d. Tray & scoop

e. Containers

Procedure

i. About 3 kg of air-dried and pulverized soil passing through a 4.75 mm sieve is taken
in a tray.

ii. The quantity of water added for the first trial is computed.  The computed quantity of
water is added to the soil in the tray and mixed thoroughly by hand to ensure uniform
water distribution.

iii. The mold is cleaned and dried, and the weight of the empty mold with the base plate
but without a collar is taken ( say M1 ). The collar is then attached to the mold.

iv. The mold is filled with wet soil taken from a tray in 3 equal layers and compacted
each layer with 25 uniformly distributed blows on the surface using a standard rammer.

v. The collar is removed, and extra soil is trimmed off to make it level with the top of the
mold.

vi. The mold weight with base plate and compacted soil is taken ( say M2 ).

vii. Knowing the mass of compacted soil ( M2-M1 ), bulk density(ρ) is calculated.

i.e. Bulk Density(ρ) = M / V = (M2-M1) / V

Where V = Volume of soil (the same as the volume of the mold).

viii. A representative sample of compacted soil is taken from the middle of the mold,
and its water content is determined. It is best to take 3 or more samples to determine
water content.

The dry density of the soil is obtained as :

ρdry = ρ / (1+W)

ix. Several such tests are conducted with soil samples having different moisture content
and ρdry workout for all the tests. 
x. A graph is plotted between dry density and water content to obtain a compaction
curve.

xi. The optimum moisture content and the corresponding maximum dry density are determined
from the graph.

b. Modified Proctor Test ( Modified AASHO Test )

The modified proctor test was developed to give higher standard compaction with the
advent of heavy vehicles and the need for higher compaction.

As this test was standardized by the American Association of State Highway Officials, it
is also known as the modified AASHO test.

The test procedure is similar to a standard proctor test, except for applying higher
compactive effort. The mold used is the same as in the standard proctor test ( proctor
mold of capacity 1/30 cu. ft. or 0.945 ltr). But the soil compacted into 5 layers giving 25
blows to each layer, with a rammer of 10 lb (4.54 kg) and height of fall of 18 inches
( 45.72 cm ).

The dry densities are obtained for different water contents by adopting a similar
procedure as in the standard proctor test, and the compaction curve is drawn.

Since the compactive effort is more for this test than for a standard proctor test, the
compaction curve for the modified proctor lies higher.

The heavier compaction increases the maximum dry density but decreases the optimum
moisture content.

e. California Bearing Ratio Test   

California Bearing Ratio Test is carried out to check the strength of the subgrade
of pavement.

By comparing the results of this test with a set of standard curves or values, the
thickness of the subsequent layers can also be determined.

It is a type of penetration test and is extensively used in the design of flexible

pavements. This test was developed by the California Division of Highways of the
United States.

California Bearing Ratio is the ratio of force per unit area required to penetrate a
soil mass with a piston of 1.25mm/min corresponding to that required for the
penetration of a standard material.
CBR = ( Test load / Standard load ) * 100

Apparatus Required:

a. Steel: Cutting Collar

b. Dial Gauges

c. Weighs

d. IS Sieves

e. Penetration Plunger ( Diameter: 50 mm & Height: 100 mm )

f. Spacer Disc ( Diameter: 148 mm &  Height: 47.7 mm )

g. Loading Machine

h. Cylindrical Mould ( Diameter: 150 mm & Height: 175 mm )

i. Rammers

California Bearing Ratio Test Procedure:

The procedure for conducting the CBR test is as follows:

1. Prepare the soil sample passing through a 20 mm IS sieve but retained on a 4.75 mm
IS sieve.

3. About 4.5kg to 5.5 kg of the sample is mixed with water ( commonly distilled water ).
A spacer disc is placed over the base plate, and coarse filter paper is placed over the
spacer disc. Then internal oiling of the mold is done, and the mold is fixed in its position.
At the top of the mold, a collar is placed.

4. The soil mix is compacted in several layers by static or dynamic compaction.

For Static Compaction: Compacting soil in loading machine ( gradually increasing load

).

For Dynamic Compaction: Compacting soil by rammer ( impact load ).

For light compaction, the soil is compacted into 3 layers by 56 blows with a 2.6 kg
rammer from a height of 31 cm.

For heavy compaction, the soil is compacted into 5 layers by 56 blows with a 4.89 kg
rammer from a height of 45 cm.

  f. Core Cutter Method   

Determining dry density by the core cutter method generally involves hammering
or jacking a  steel cylinder ( with known mass and volume)  into the soil, thereby
determining the mass of the soil.

This method is used for dry density determination.

This method is not desirable for coarse-grained soil or coarse-grained pavement

materials.

Apparatus Required:  

1. A steel rammer of mass of 9kg and the overall length, including the foot and staff, of
about 900mm.

2. A cylindrical core cutter with 100mm internal diameter and 130mm long.

3. Weighing balance with an accuracy of 1 gram.

4. Steel dolly with 100mm internal diameter and 25mm high.

5. Palette knife.
6. Straight edge, ruler of steel, etc.

Procedure:  

The procedure for the dry density determination by the core cutter method involves the
following series of steps:

i. The experimental setup of the cylindrical core cutter is first made.

ii. The steel dolly is placed over the cutter to prevent damage to the edges of the core
cutter.

iii. The cylinder is then embedded into the ground up to its full height with the help of a
rammer and is taken out by excavating its sides without disturbing the sample.

iv. The surplus soil at both ends is trimmed, and the weight of the cylinder with soil is
determined.

v. Then, volume is determined from the cutter’s known dimension.

vi. Moisture content of the soil is determined with the oven drying method. 

vii. The dry density of the soil is then computed using the following formula:

Bulk Density (γ t ) = (W 2 – W 1 ) / V

Dry Density (γ d ) = γ t / ( 1 + W)

Where,

W 1 = Weight of cutter

W 2 = Weight of the soil + cutter

W 2 – W 1 = Weight of soil

V = Volume of the cutter

  g. Sand Replacement Method   

Usually, the soil after compaction in the field has to be checked for the specified dry
density. This is usually done by the sand replacement method.

This method is also commonly known as the Sand Cone Method.

The determination of dry density is of utmost importance as it is required for the
estimation of the bearing capacity of the soil.

Furthermore, it is also used for assessing the pressure on underlying strata of soil,
settlement of the soil as well as the stability of the soil layer.

This method is highly suitable for cohesionless soil.

The general test procedure for determining the dry density of soil by the sand
replacement method is relatively simple and easy to conduct.

The test can be carried out using a small or large cylinder. Commonly, it is conducted
using a large cylinder.

The sand replacement test is mostly carried out at the ground or formation levels.

Apparatus: 

1. Sand Cone Apparatus or Sand Pouring Cylinder.

2. Soil excavation and cutting equipment such as scrapers.

3. A plane surface such as a square glass plate with a thickness of 9mm or larger.

4. A metal container for the collection of the excavated soil.

5. A square metal tray about 40 mm deep with a hole of about 100mm in diameter at the
center of the tray.

6. Weighing balance with an accuracy of up to 1 gram.

7. A ventilated oven.

Procedure: 

The procedure for the determination of dry density by the sand replacement method
involves the following series of steps:

i. Initially, the apparatus is set up as shown in the figure below.

ii. The square tray is then placed on the leveled ground.

iii. A small quantity of soil is then excavated from the hole.

iv. The excavated soil is duly weighed, and the water content of the excavated soil is
determined.

v. The hole is then filled by the sand of known density from a sand bottle.

vi. Then, the weight of the sand filling the cone of the sand bottle is taken separately.

vii. The dry density is computed as follows:

Weight of sand filling the hole = W 2 – W 3 – W 4

Unit weight of sand = γ

Volume of sand = (W 2 – W 3 – W 4 ) / γ = Volume of hole (V)

Bulk density (γ t ) = W 1 / V

Thus,

Dry Density (γ d ) = γ t / ( 1 + W)

Where,

W 1 = Weight of soil in the hole

W 2 = Weight of the sand bottle before pouring

W 3 = Weight of sand bottle after pouring

W 4 = Weight of sand filling conical 

3. Advantages of Soil Tests for Road Construction  

a. It helps to finalize the requirement of soil for road construction.

b. It gives the knowledge about various properties of soil.

c. It helps to determine the moisture content present in the soil.

d. It helps to find out the strength of road or pavement subgrade.

e. It helps to analyze the quality of the soil.

f. Material requirements for road construction and the nature of the road can be easily
determined.

g. It helps to predict the thickness of the road pavement.

i. It helps to determine the load-bearing capacity of the road.

Bridge construction is one of the key elements of physics and civil

engineering. Furthermore, the basic principles of bridge construction or
design are dependent on the load-bearing structure; whether convex,
concave, or flat.

Introduction to Bridge Construction

Bridge construction is characterized by huge projects that include the
utilization of skills related to various engineering disciplines including
mechanical, geology, electrical, civil, and computer sciences. Moreover,
the preparation of the initial plans must take place regarding the project,
including the site details, the characteristics of the desired bridge, and
the requirement of resources.

The determination of the bridge design takes place by the type of bridge
whose construction is to take place. The main types of bridges are arch,
cantilever, truss, beam, and suspension. Moreover, categorization of the
bridges can take place by the planned use, pedestrian pavement,
material to be used like concrete or steel, and moveable or fixed.

Bridge Foundation
When it comes to constructing a bridge, basic constructions of the
foundations is the first step. Furthermore, this step involves specific
detailed geotechnical investigations of the bridge site. Moreover,
experts must select the type of bridge foundation, like the opened
foundation, well foundation, and pile foundation.

An important point to note is that each foundation is appropriate for

specific soil strata, and the desired bridge characteristics. Furthermore,
the soil characteristics will determine important parameters like the
load-bearing capacity. Also, the design of the superstructure is basically
in accordance with the aesthetic reasons, technical requirements, and the
construction methodology.

The execution of the excavation needed for the foundations must be in

accordance with the sizeable depths, involving hard ground, before the
reaching of the solid rocks. Furthermore, there will be involvement of
engineering feats to avoid water, and avoid the diggings collapsing.
Also, there may be subjecting of tunnels to sudden failures.

Bridge Construction Equipment

Extensive usage of heavy equipment takes place during the bridge
construction. Furthermore, this involves using formworks, excavators,
bulldozers, asphalt mixers, and fabrication equipment. Also, there must
be a thorough identification of the construction and other equipment in
accordance with their capability and other important functions.
The experts here must consider the foundation and the superstructure
design. Furthermore, cautious use of this expensive equipment must
take place in order to achieve an optimum advantage.

Bridge Loads
A bridge is designed keeping in mind the various loads that shall act on
it. When it comes to loads, dynamic loads hold a prime significance.
Furthermore, the design of a bridge is such that it is able to endure the
normal vehicle loads and other forces whose creation is due to
earthquakes and winds.

The collapse of several bridges takes place due to high-speed winds.

Moreover, even in the case of low wind speeds, the dynamic forces can
still turn out to be excessive for the bridge to be able to resist. Initially,
the violent vibrations may happen on the bridge, thereby causing the
structure to fail at some weak elements, or even ruin the major
components.

Investigations conducted after bridge failures have shown that the real
forces on such bridges were significantly less in comparison to the loads
for which the bridge was constructed. However, the creation of
the oscillations because of the winds was enough to cause the failure.

Therefore, there may be a need for special reinforcement as prevention

against earthquakes and high-speed winds. Thus, the use of lighter
materials takes place whose arrangement takes place in suitable
geometric structures. Also, the configuration must be aerodynamically
stable.

Testing of Bridges
Since bridge construction project is an expensive project, it is really
important that all necessary tests take place before the beginning of the
actual construction. Furthermore, these tests and investigations can
reveal bridge behaviour under various different dynamic loads.
Moreover, experts must use computer-aided design and testing in order
to assist in the bridge design.

Bridge materials
Some of the main materials found on a bridge are steel, concrete, stone and asphalt. Other
materials include iron, timber, aluminum, rubber and other joint materials. Below is a
description of some typical uses for these materials in a bridge.

Concrete

Concrete is commonly used for many bridge superstructure members such as decks, pre-
stressed concrete beams, curbs, sidewalks and parapets (side traffic barrier walls). It is
used extensively in new construction for the entire abutment, including the footings, stem
(main front wall), wingwalls, cheek walls, backwalls, endwalls (for traffic barrier connection),
beam seats, and the piers with similar members. It can also be used for cast-in-place or
precast concrete piles to support the abutments and piers.

Steel

Steel is commonly used in the bridge superstructure for armoring expansion joints, beams,
bearings, floor beams, girders, reinforcing bars in concrete, traffic barriers and trusses. It is
used in the substructure for the reinforcing bars in concrete, armoring for expansion joints,
anchor bolts, etc. It is also used for piles to support the abutments and piers.

Stone

Stone was commonly used for building the abutments and piers in the 1940s and earlier.
This is particularly true where local field stone was readily available. Many spectacular
stone arch bridges were built for the B&O railroad system in the 1800s. In Harford County,
the remains of some MA & PA Railroad bridge abutments and piers are still standing.
Asphalt

Asphalt is the material that has been used extensively for the wearing surfaces on
corrugated metal decks, timber decks and concrete decks in Harford County.

Iron

Iron was used typically in beams and trusses that were built before 1900. Steel replaced
iron because it has more tensile strength than iron and is less brittle. There are almost no
uses for iron in today’s bridge designs.

Timber

Timber is used for several decks and traffic barriers in Harford County. It is also used for the
beams on one bridge and the abutments and piles on another bridge.

Aluminum

Aluminum is sometimes used in fabricating bridge railings.

Rubber

Rubber and synthetic rubber products are used for bearings and for expansion joint
material.

Different Methods of Bridge Construction

Described below are the different methods employed in the construction of bridges.

1. Cast-in-situ Method of Bridge Construction

This method is a flexible method of bridge construction where complex and unusual geometrical
shapes of dams can be constructed easily. Situations when it is hard to transport pre-fabricated
elements either due to size or unreachability, this method is a good choice. Read More: Cast-in-situ
Method of Bridge Construction
2. Balanced Cantilever Method of Bridge Construction
This method is used for constructing bridges with span 50 to 250m. The bridge constructed can either
be cast-in-place or precast. Here, the segments are attached in an alternative manner at opposite ends
of the cantilevers supported by piers. This is the best choice for the construction of long span length
bridges, irregular length, and cable-stayed bridges.

3. Precast Method of Bridge Construction

In this method, the bridge is constructed with the help of precast concrete elements. The
prefabrication is performed in different methods. The precast elements include:

 Precast Beams
 Precast Decks
 Precast Segmental Decks
4. Span by Span Casting method of Bridge Construction
This method is associated with cantilever construction method but with many advancements in the
technique, it is considered as most economic and rapid in construction. For long bridges and viaducts
with an individual span up to 60m, the method is feasible. Decks are begun at one abutment and
constructed continuously by placing segments to the other end of the bridge. Segments can be
positioned by either a temporary staying mast system through more commonly using an assembly
truss. Read More: Span by Span Casting method of Bridge Construction

5. Incremental Launching Method of Bridge Construction

The Incremental Launching Method (ILM) method of bridge construction is employed mainly for the
construction of continuous concrete bridges or steel girder bridges. The method performs the
procedure in increments. With this method of construction, the bridge deck is built in sections by
pushing the structure outwards from an abutment towards the pier. The ILM method can be used for
bridge decks with a length greater than 250m.

6. Cable-Stayed Method of Bridge Construction

In the cable-stayed method of construction, cables are used to carry the bridge deck from one or both
sides of the supporting tower. The cables carry and transfer all the loads to the foundations. Cable-
stayed method of construction is used for constructing bridges that span more than 300m. Read
More: Cable Stayed Method of Bridge Construction

7. Arch Method for Bridge Construction

Arch shaped bridge construction is one of the most economical choices when the bridge under
consideration is required to cross over landscapes that are inaccessible. Many modern arch
construction methods have made the arch construction more economical. The arch construction can
be built with concrete or pre-cast concrete. The cast-in-situ free cantilever method and slip formed
sections are two main construction techniques coming under arch methods. Read More: Arch
Method for Bridge Construction

Equipment
eXpert 2600 Dual Column Testing Machine
eXpert 2600 series universal testing systems are on offer in table top and floor standing
configurations up to 400 kN (90,000 lbf) force capacity. The servo-control motor enables
tests to be run at extremely slow net deflection rates. In consequence, greater capacity
eXpert 2600 models issued with MTESTQuattro software are frequently of use in
running complicated testing standards like ASTM C1609.

eXpert 2654 – ASTM C1609 Concrete Test

eXpert 1600 Servohydraulic Testing Machine
eXpert 1600 servo-hydraulic testing systems, able to measure up to 600 kN (135,000
lbf), are developed to conduct compression, tension, and flexion testing.

Both the eXpert 2600 and the eXpert 1000 universal testing systems can be outfitted
with various accessories including the ASTM C469 compressometer-transducer
assembly, ASTM C1609 bend fixture assembly with two transducer installed, simple
compression platens or spherically seated compression platens,  as well as the EN
14651 bend fixture with one transducer mounted mid-point on the fixture.

MegaForce Automatically Controlled Hydraulic Power Unit

The MegaForce Testing System was designed to address the problems with concrete
systems that are manually-operated and the high expense associated with typically
used servo-hydraulic testing systems designed with big and costly actuators, the system
can be used with compression machines that operate up to 69 MPa or 10,000psi.

Dependent upon the indicator selected with the system, automated compressive
strength test reports are created, saving time as well as expenses needed to create
reports by hand while reducing the risk of errors. Some examples of ADMET indicators
of use in concrete testing applications can be seen below.

DFG Concrete Indicator

DFG indicator, commonly used in the running of ASTM C39, C78, and C109 test
procedures, reports the peak load and stress together with the specimen geometry,
dimensions, time, date, and specimen number. Further test report parameters
frequently coveted by testing labs include the average rate of loading and the cylinder
correction factor that are automatically calculated, the operator ID, specimen weight and
age, submitted by the operator, and the cylinder break type and cap type.

ADMET’s GaugeSafe Data Exchange software is at one’s disposal for DFG indicators to

enable the raw test data exported in ASCII comma delimited format for more developed
analysis in typical spreadsheet programs.
 Hydraulic Testing Machine equipped with ADMET’s MegaForce

Gauge Buster 2 Indicator

Gauge Buster 2 characteristics include an Auto-Test-Reset mode for hands-free
operation, bar graph load rate display, permanent test data storage and the additional
auxiliary (encoder) and strain (analog) channels for running ASTM C469 testing.

GaugeBuster 2 Basic can have additional upgrades with printer capabilities or the USB
flash drive port, which enables the saving of test results, XY data, test settings, and
calibration tables straight to a flash drive. Additionally, all GaugeBuster 2 models can be
outfitted with the GaugeSafe Basic, Plus, or Live software.

For those that are considering an upgrade from manual to automated concrete testing,
ADMET supplies a variety of equipment for concrete testing, which includes indicators
to be used with current manually-controlled systems, controllers to retrofit servo-control
machines, the MegaForce Concrete Testing system specially made for the testing of
concrete, as well as servo-control machines that enable various concrete testing to be
performed on a single system.

Composites Testing
ADMET provides a complete line of electromechanical and servohydraulic universal
testing machines to determine the mechanical properties of composite materials. Each
system is outfitted with MTESTQuattro® the pc-based materials testing software which
can conduct tests under strain, force and displacement control.

Testator® will also create stress vs. strain curves and find the strength, modulus and
yield properties in compression, tension, shear and flexure in accordance with typical
ASTM composite material test methodology.

Operators may select either servohydraulic or electromechanical testing systems to

conduct typical ASTM testing standards such as:

 ASTM C273 – Standard Test Method for Shear Properties of Sandwich Core Materials
 ASTM C297 – Standard Test Method for Flatwise Tensile Strength of Sandwich
Constructions
  ASTM D3039 – Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials
 ASTM D3410 – Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Polymer Matrix
Composite Materials with Unsupported Gage Section by Shear Loading
 ASTM D5379 – Standard Test Method for Shear Properties of Composite Materials by
the V-Notched Beam Method
 ASTM D5528 – Standard Test Method for Mode I Interlaminar Fracture Toughness of
Unidirectional Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites

Equipment
eXpert 2600 Dual Column Testing Machine
eXpert 2600 series dual column electromechanical testing machines are available in
table top units to 100 kN (22,500 lbf) and floor standing units to 400 kN (90,000 lbf).
These machines have the wide column spacing and force capacities to perform various
composite testing including shear, tension, compression, and flexion.

eXpert 1600 Series Servo-Hydraulic Static Testing Machine

eXpert 1600 series static test systems are offered with capacities from 50 kN (11,250
lbf) to 600 kN (135,000 lbf). The hydraulic power supply and electronics are integral with
the frame thereby conserving highly valued lab space.

eXpert 1900 Series Servo-Hydraulic Dynamic Testing Machine

eXpert 1900 series dynamic test systems are on offer in capacities from 10 kN (2250
lbf) to 250kN (55,000 lbf). Each eXpert 1900 Series tester is engineered to reach the
force-stroke-frequency imperatives of each application. Dependent upon the size of the
hydraulic power supply (HPU), the 1900 Series HPU is either free-standing or an
integral part of the frame.
eXpert 1000 Series equipped with High-Capacity Wedge Grips
Metals Testing
ADMET materials testing systems define significant characteristics of metals like elastic
modulus, elongation, yield, reduction of area, R-value, n-value, Poisson’s ratio, fracture
toughness plus a lot of torsional properties.

Operators may choose either electromechanical or servohydraulic testing systems to

perform typical metals ASTM testing standards such as:

 ASTM A370 – Standard Test Methods and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of Steel
Products
 ASTM A938 – Standard Test Method for Torsion Testing of Wire
 ASTM E8 – Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials
 ASTM E9 – Standard Test Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at
Room Temperature
 ASTM E111 – Standard Test Method for Young’s Modulus, Tangent Modulus, and
Chord Modulus
 ASTM E399 – Standard Test Methods for Linear-Elastic Plane-Strain Fracture
Toughness KIc of Metallic Materials
 ASTM E646 – Standard Test Method for Tensile Strain-Hardening Exponents of Metallic
Sheet Materials

Equipment
eXpert 2600 Dual Column Testing Machine
All eXpert 2600 systems can conduct dependable and duplicable compression, tension,
peel, and flexure tests. ADMET provides a complete line of grips, fixtures, load cells,
extensometers as well as heating and cooling for the systems.

eXpert 1600 Series Servo-Hydraulic Static Testing Machine

The eXpert 1600 servohydraulic testing systems are used in many places to test metal
products at load capacities up to 600 kN. ADMET’s simple to use servohydraulic
systems offer accuracy by steering clear of having to compensate for piston friction and
operate with highly precise, self-identifying ADMET load cell technology. The pumping
system can fit inside the machine table on the majority of models, which results in a
compact design.

eXpert 1900 Series Servo-Hydraulic Dynamic Testing Machine

The eXpert 1900 dynamic servohydraulic testing machines conduct fatigue testing of
metals at forces up to 250 kN (55,000 lbf). These systems enable automatic calculation
of vital parameters such as the amount of cycles to failure, the utmost load at failure,
fracture toughness, dynamic modulus, and more.

These systems can be changed to the requirements of the operator. Features that can
be customized include the separation between columns, the vertical test space, the
power stroke, and the piston locale.

eXpert 9000 Series Torsion Testing Machine

The test bed length or frame structure of eXpert 9000 series torsion systems can be
changed to accommodate various specimen sizes and lengths. Load cells and
displacement sensors can be brought in to take measurements of axial forces and
spindle displacement. Torsion testing machines are offered in horizontal or vertical
orientations for static and fatigue testing applications.
 Metal Tension Testing per ASTM E8

Conclusion
ADMET testing systems are on offer for research and testing on materials used in
bridges. Recommended equipment for these materials illustrates the fact that the
versatility of ADMET’s universal testing machines enables many types of materials, like
concrete, composites, and metals, to be tested with one system rather than being
forced to buy separate testing equipment for each new material.

A tunnel construction is an underground passage provided beneath earth surface or water. Different
methods of tunnel construction and their details are discussed. In most of the cases tunnel
construction is expensive but it saves time and provides comfort. Large excavation of soil or rock etc.
is necessary for a tunnel construction. With the availability of modern equipment, excavation and
backfilling has become easier. Tunnels can be used for roadways, railways and even as waterways
also. In many cities, underground metro rail networks work inside a tunnel.

Methods of Tunnel Construction

There are various types of construction techniques developed for construction of tunnels which are
discussed below:

 Cut and cover method

 Bored tunnel method
 Clay kicking method
 Shaft method
 Pipe jacking method
 Box jacking method
 Underwater tunnels
Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction
Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build shallow tunnels. In this
method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some support which can be capable of bearing
load on it. The cutting can be done by two methods. One is bottom up method in which a tunnel is
excavated under the surface using ground support. Another method is top-down method in which
side support walls are constructed first by slurry walling method or contiguous bored piling.
Then roof is located on the top of the walls and excavation is carried out. Finally, base slab is
constructed. Most of the Underground metro rail stations are constructed using cut and cover method.

Bored Tunnel Method

Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring machines are used which
automatically work and makes the entire tunneling process easier. It is also quicker process and good
method to build tunnel in high traffic areas. Tunnels boring machines (TBM’s) are available in
different types suitable for different ground conditions. These machines can be used in difficult
conditions such as below the water table etc. A special pressurized compartment is provided for
TBM to work in below water table conditions. The workers should not enter that compartment except
for repair works. Care should be taken while TBM is in working conditions. The only difficulty with
this TBM is its heavy weight. So, transportation is difficult and costlier.

Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction

This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and used for small works
like sewage pipes installations etc. In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and after some
depth tunnel is excavated which is done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at 45 o angle. An
excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that tool is collected by other
workers. This is well famous because it is the method used by Englishmen to put mines under the
German empire during First World War.

Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction

In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. The shaft is built up to
the depth where tunnel is required. Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with concrete
walls. At required depth, tunnels are excavated using TBM’s. Shafts are provided at both inlet and
outlet of tunnels. Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long. After the construction
process, these shafts can also be used for ventilation purpose as well as emergency exits.

Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like road ways, railways
etc. In this method, specially made pipes are driven into underground using hydraulic jacks.
Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for tunnels.

Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes, specially made boxes
are driven into the soil. A cutting head is provided at the front side of the box. Excavated matter is
collected within the box. Larger size tunnels can be excavated using box jacks up to 20 meters.
Underwater Tunnel Construction
An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way through it. If
construction of bridge is not possible then under water tunnel is good choice.
Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over bridge or ferry links. Immersed
tubes or bored tunnel are two most common methods which are used to construct under water
tunnels. Read More: Tunnel Surveying -Methods and Procedures of Tunnel Surveying Tunnel
Engineering -Features, Advantages and Methods of Tunneling in Construction Tunnel Form
Construction Technique and Process for Structures Ventilation in Tunnels -Types of
Ventilation Systems in Tunnel Construction
Products for Tunnelling Testing

GDSTAS – Triaxial Automated System

The Triaxial Automated System (TAS) is a

load frame based triaxial testing system.
The system is configured by choosing from a
range of load frames, triaxial cells, pressure
controllers and software. The system can be
configured as a multi-station commercial
testing apparatus right through to high
range rock testing at research level. If an
existing triaxial system requires upgrading,
parts of the TAS system can be incorporated
with existing equipment (including those
from other manufacturers) to perform the
upgrade. Typical drained and undrained
shear strength parameters, such as the
angle of internal friction and cohesion, can
be obtained from the TAS to enable tunnel
stability assessments to be made when
designing and constructing new
underground spaces.
GDSTTS - Triaxial Testing System

The Triaxial Testing System (TTS) is a fully

automated triaxial testing system designed
principally for stress path testing. The TTS is
based on the classic Bishop and Wesley type
stress path triaxial cell, which applies axial
and radial stresses directly to the soil
specimen. Stress paths that relate to a
specific construction sequence for an
underground space may be applied to test
specimens in this system, allowing the
unique soil response to be observed and
tunnel designs adjusted accordingly.

GDSRCA - Resonant Column Apparatus

The Resonant Column Apparatus (RCA) is

used to obtain values of the shear modulus,
Young’s modulus, and damping coefficient
across the small to medium shear strain
range (<1 %). This is achieved through use of
an electro-magnetic drive system, which
applies high frequency (15 – 300 Hz)
torsional or flexural cyclic loading to
saturated and consolidated cylindrical soil
specimens. Note the system can also be
upgraded to carry out torsional shear tests
in the 2 Hz and below frequency range,
allowing the full shear stress-strain
behaviour to be observed. Parameters
gained from a resonant column apparatus
allow advanced analytical and numerical
response analyses to be conducted, such as
those using finite element or non-linear
analytical methods, enabling the soil
response surrounding or above a tunnel to
be assessed.
GDSBES - Bender Element System

The Bender Element System (BES) enables

measurement of the small strain shear
modulus of a soil, a parameter important
when conducting advanced analytical and
numerical response analyses of soil
surrounding a tunnel or other underground
space. The system is unique in that it has
been designed to make bender element
testing reliable and easy to perform, with a
signal hardware box used to generate and
record propagated compressional (P) and
shear (S) waves. The BES system can be
added as an option to most GDS laboratory
test systems, as well as laboratory systems
produced by other manufacturers. To date
bender elements have been installed in
triaxial and resonant column systems, as
well as consolidation, direct simple shear
systems and unconfined core holders.

GDSVIS – GDS Virtual Infinite Stiffness

loading system

The GDS Virtual Infinite Stiffness loading

system (GDSVIS) is the premier load frame
in the GDS range with load capacities or
100kN, 250kN, 400kN and 500kN. The
GDSVIS load frames are designed to be
stiffer than classical loading frames. This is
to allow more accurate testing of stiffer
specimens with less equipment compliance.
Furthermore each GDSVIS is internally
calibrated to allow automatic self-
compensation for any remaining
compliance. This type of frame is exclusive
to GDS. When combined with a triaxial cell,
pressure/volume controllers, and data
acquisition, the GDSVIS enables typical
drained and undrained shear strength
parameters to be determined for use when
designing and constructing new
underground spaces.

ELDYN – Enterprise Level Dynamic

Triaxial Testing System

The GDS Enterprise Level Dynamic Triaxial

Testing System (ELDYN) is an entry level
dynamic triaxial system, based on an axially-
stiff load frame with a beam mounted
electro-mechanical actuator. The ELDYN has
been designed to fulfill the demand within
the geotechnical laboratory testing industry
for a lower cost, more basic dynamic triaxial
testing system, yet still perform to the very
advanced standards that customers expect
from GDS. This enables the ELDYN to
provide typical drained and undrained shear
strength parameters, as well as the cyclic
response of soil, for use when designing and
constructing new underground spaces.

DYNTTS – Advanced Dynamic Triaxial

Testing System

The Advanced Dynamic Triaxial Testing

System is a high-end, no compromise
testing apparatus combining a triaxial cell
with a dynamic actuator capable of applying
load, deformation and stresses up to 10Hz.
The cell itself is screw-driven from an
integral base unit housing the motor drive.
Axial force and axial deformation are
applied through the base of the cell.  The
system can be combined with a dynamic cell
pressure actuator such that cell pressures
may also be applied dynamically up to
fundamental frequency of the machine (i.e.
2Hz, 5Hz or 10Hz). These features allow the
DYNTTS to provide typical drained and
undrained shear strength parameters, as
well as the cyclic response of soil, for use
when designing and constructing new
underground spaces.

GDSTTA – GDS True Triaxial Apparatus

The GDS True Triaxial Apparatus (GDSTTA)

has the defining characteristic that, unlike
conventional triaxial apparatus, all three
principal stresses can be controlled
independently, rather than just two in a
conventional triaxial system. This allows a
wider range of complex stress paths to be
performed. This dynamic cyclic system is
powered by advanced electro-mechanical
actuators or optional hydraulic actuators
and is an extremely sophisticated research
tool. Vertical and one horizontal axis are
loaded via the dynamic actuators (axis 1 and
2), stress control is provided for the 2nd
horizontal axis, (axis 3) via cell pressure.
Altogether the GDSTTA can be used to apply
a wide range of stress paths to soil
specimens, including those relevant for use
when designing and constructing new
underground spaces.
ETAS – Environmental Triaxial Automated
System

The Environmental Triaxial Automated

System (ETAS) is a temperature controlled
load frame-based triaxial testing system.
Key features include, Frozen Soil Testing,
Gas Hydrate Testing, High Pressure Testing
and High & Low Temperature Testing. The -
20oC cooling system provides ideal
conditions for frozen soil testing. Its high
pressure testing capability (up to 100MPa)
along with low temperature provides the
ideal environment for Gas Hydrate Testing.
The system also has the option for a Heating
only system. Such options enable the ETAS
to conduct triaxial tests across a range of
temperatures and confining pressures, plus
provide typical drained and undrained shear
strength parameters for use when designing
and constructing new underground spaces.

ETTS – Environmental Triaxial Testing

System

The Environmental Triaxial Testing System

(ETTS) is a temperature controlled testing
system for stress path testing. Key features
include, Frozen Soil Testing, Gas Hydrate
Testing, High Pressure Testing and High &
Low Temperature Testing. The -20oC cooling
system provides ideal conditions for frozen
soil testing. Its high pressure testing
capability (up to 100MPa) along with low
temperature provides the ideal environment
for Gas Hydrate Testing. The system also
has the option for a Heating only system.
Such options enable the ETAS to conduct
triaxial tests across a range of temperatures
and confining pressures, plus provide typical
drained and undrained shear strength
parameters for use when designing and
constructing new underground spaces.

ST-RTS – Static Triaxial Rock Testing

System

Static Triaxial Rock Testing System (ST-RTS)

is a triaxial system which enables load
application from 100kN to 2MN using a
passive triaxial cell and stiff load frame, or
alternatively a 2MN active triaxial cell which
applies load via its own hydraulic piston.
Triaxial confining pressures of up to 100MPa
are common when using this system. The
ability to apply high loads and pressures
with the ST-RTS makes the system useful
when determining strength and
deformation parameters of rock specimens
as part of the design and construction of
new underground spaces.

AT-RTS – Active Triaxial Rock Testing

System

Active Triaxial Rock Testing System (ST-RTS)

is a triaxial system which enables load
application up to 2MN using an active
triaxial cell which applies load via its own
hydraulic piston. Triaxial confining pressures
of up to 100MPa are common when using
this system. The ability to apply high loads
and pressures with the ST-RTS makes the
system useful when determining strength
and deformation parameters of rock
specimens as part of the design and
construction of new underground spaces.

DT-RTS – Dynamic Triaxial Rock Testing

System

Dynamic Triaxial Rock Testing System (DT-

RTS) is a cyclic triaxial system designed to
apply loads from 50kN to 1500kN, at loading
frequencies of up to 5Hz, 10Hz, or 20Hz.
Triaxial confining pressures of up to 70MPa
may be reached with this system, due to use
of a dynamic ratio loader to ensure cell
pressures are consistently controlled. The
ability to apply high loads and pressures
dynamically with the DT-RTS makes the
system useful when determining strength
and deformation parameters of rock
specimens as part of the design and
construction of new underground spaces.

GDSAE – Acoustic Emissions transducers

Acoustic Emissions (GDSAE) transducers are

submersible sensors that attach to a test
specimen to record either continuously or
triggered micro-fracture noises. Systems
range from simple counters through to
complete systems that can locate the origin
of the fracture event within a specimen.
Upgrading a rock testing system to include
GDSAE transducers can prove useful when
determining the response of rock under
loadings exerted by the construction of new
underground spaces.
GDSAV – Acoustic Velocity transducers

Acoustic Velocity (GDSAV) transducers

measure the P- and S- wave velocities within
a test specimen.  Sensors and sources can
be mounted in either the pedestal and top-
cap, or both sides of the specimen in some
cases, enabling acoustic velocities to be
measured in multiple directions. Such small-
strain information is often required when
designing and constructing new
underground spaces.

GDSHC – Instrumented Hoek Cell 

The Instrumented Hoek Cell (GDSHC) is a

highly sophisticate version of the traditional
Hoek cell that can be fully instrumented,
including with GDSAE and GDSAV
transducers. This allows small-strain
information to be gathered, which is often
required when designing and constructing
new underground spaces.
HARRCA – Hardin Type Resonant Column
Apparatus

Hardin Type Resonant Column Apparatus

(HARRCA) is a system that allows specimens
to be tested in resonance while maintaining
an anisotropic loading. This is achieved by a
slender, thin walled loading column passing
through the drive system to the top-cap. The
GDS Hardin style oscillator contains an
electro-magnetic drive system incorporating
precision wound coils and composite
sintered neodymium iron boron (NdFeB)
“rare-earth” magnets. The apparatus can be
mounted in a stand-alone system with an
integral axial force actuator, or as a cell for
integration into an existing load frame.
Providing G and D curves for soil specimens,
the HARRCA is a useful tool when designing
and constructing new underground spaces.

GDSAOS – GDS Automatic Oedometer

System

The GDS Automatic Oedometer System

(GDSAOS) is the modern replacement for a
traditional hanging weight oedometer. The
GDSAOS is a self-contained stepper motor
driven unit that can be controlled using its
Smart Keypad, or from a PC using a USB
interface. There is no requirement for
compressed air or manually placed weights.
When used with the GDSLAB control and
data acquisition software, the GDSAOS can
be used for a complete array of tests
beyond those which a hanging weight
oedometer can perform. This includes
determination of consolidation parameters
useful when designing and constructing new
underground spaces.

GDSCTS – GDS Consolidation Testing

System

The GDS Consolidation Testing System

(GDSCTS) is a state-of-the-art, fully-
automated consolidation testing system
designed for soil. The system is based on
the Rowe and Barden type consolidation cell
using GDS pressure/volume controllers from
the Advanced, Standard, or Enterprise
range. Two of these pressure controllers link
to the computer, one for axial stress and
axial displacement control and one for
setting back pressure. Such functionality
enables the GDSCTS to determine
consolidation parameters useful when
designing and constructing new
underground spaces, including permeability
(with the addition of one pressure/volume
controller).
GDSCRS – GDS Consolidation Constant
Rate of Strain cell

The GDS Consolidation Constant Rate of

Strain cell (CRS) is designed primarily for
advanced commercial testing laboratories
who want to reduce the time required to
complete a consolidation test. The CRS cell
fits either a new GDS or existing load frame
in place of a triaxial cell. The load frame-
based one dimensional consolidation cell is
capable of applying back pressure and
measuring pore pressures up to 1MPa (low
pressure version) or 20MPa (high pressure
version). Overall the CRS system allows
consolidation parameters useful when
designing and constructing new
underground spaces to be determined
quickly and accurately.

GDSLADS - Large Automated Direct Shear

System (300mm)

The Large Automated Direct Shear system is

an electro-mechanical direct shear testing
device for specimens of up to 300mm
square in size.
 HPBPS - Back Pressure Shearbox - High
Pressure

The High Pressure Back Pressures Shearbox

is a high pressure version of the GDSBPS.
Normal and shear loads of up to 100kN may
be applied to the test specimen, with a back
pressure of up to 10MPa available.

Large dam projects are implemented aiming for multiple benefits includingwater for agriculture, power
generation and flood control. There are considerableenvironmental and social changes behind these
large dam projects, which have not beendiscussed openly compared to the benefits received from them.
However, it is important toanalyse the social and environmental changes that could occur as a result of
these damprojects in order to evaluate the net benefits received.

Dams are structural barriers built to obstruct or control the flow of water in rivers and streams.
They are designed to serve two broad functions. The first is the storage of water to compensate
for fluctuations in river discharge (flow) or in demand for water and energy. The second is the
increase of hydraulic head , or the difference in height between water levels in the lake created
upstream of the dam and the downstream river.

Dams are among the oldest structures built by humans for collective use. A dam is a barrier that
is constructed across a river or stream so the water can be held back or impounded to supply
water for drinking or irrigation, to control flooding, and to generate power. The main kinds of
dams are earth fill, rock fill, concrete gravity, concrete arch, and arch gravity. The last three
types are all made of concrete, reinforced concrete, or masonry. (The term masonry can mean
concrete, bricks, or blocks of excavated rock.) Fill dams include all dams made of earth
materials (soil and rock) that are compacted together. One type of fill dam called a tailings dam
is constructed of fine waste that results from processing rock during mining; at mine sites, this
soil-like waste is compacted to form an embankment that holds water for the mining and milling
processes or to retain the tailings themselves in water.

Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Fill-Dam.html#ixzz7cm33Xt3h
The materials used for construction of dams include earth, rock, tailings from
mining or milling, concrete, masonry, steel, timber, miscellaneous materials
(such as plastic or rubber) and any combination of these materials.
 Products for Embankment Dams Testing
GDSTAS – Triaxial Automated System

The Triaxial Automated System (GDSTAS) is

a load frame based triaxial testing system.
The system is configured by choosing from a
range of load frames, triaxial cells, pressure
controllers and software. The system can be
configured as a multi-station commercial
testing apparatus right through to high
range rock testing at research level. If an
existing triaxial system requires upgrading,
parts of the GDSTAS system can be
incorporated with existing equipment
(including those from other manufacturers)
to perform the upgrade. Typical drained and
undrained shear strength parameters, such
as the angle of internal friction and
cohesion, can be obtained from the GDSTAS
to enable stability analyses to be carried out
for embankment dam design.

GDSTTS - Triaxial Testing System

The Triaxial Testing System (GDSTTS) is a

fully automated triaxial testing system
designed principally for stress path testing.
The GDSTTS is based on the classic Bishop
and Wesley type stress path triaxial cell,
which applies axial and radial stresses
directly to the soil specimen. Stress paths
that relate to a specific construction and
operational sequence for embankment dam
materials may be applied to test specimens
in this system, allowing the unique soil
response to be observed and dam designs
to be optimised.
GDSVIS – The GDS Virtual Infinite
Stiffness Loading system

Is the premier load frame in the GDS range

with load capacities or 100kN, 250kN, 400kN
and 500kN. The GDSVIS load frames are
designed to be stiffer than classical loading
frames. This is to allow more accurate
testing of stiffer specimens with less
equipment compliance. Furthermore each
GDSVIS is internally calibrated to allow
automatic self-compensation for any
remaining compliance. This type of frame is
exclusive to GDS. When combined with a
triaxial cell, pressure/volume controllers,
and data acquisition, the GDSVIS enables
typical drained and undrained shear
strength parameters to be determined for
use during stability assessments of existing
and planned embankment dams.

ETAS – The Environmental Triaxial

Automated System

Is a temperature controlled load frame-

based triaxial testing system. Key features
include, Frozen Soil Testing, Gas Hydrate
Testing, High Pressure Testing and High &
Low Temperature Testing. The -20oC cooling
system provides ideal conditions for frozen
soil testing. Its high pressure testing
capability (up to 100MPa) along with low
temperature provides the ideal environment
for Gas Hydrate Testing. The system also
has the option for a Heating only system.
Such options enable the ETAS to conduct
triaxial tests across a range of temperatures
and confining pressures, plus provide typical
drained and undrained shear strength
parameters for use during stability
assessments of existing and planned
embankment dams.
ETTS – The Environmental Triaxial Testing
System

Is a temperature controlled testing system

for stress path testing. Key features include,
Frozen Soil Testing, Gas Hydrate Testing,
High Pressure Testing and High & Low
Temperature Testing. The -20oC cooling
system provides ideal conditions for frozen
soil testing. Its high pressure testing
capability (up to 100MPa) along with low
temperature provides the ideal environment
for Gas Hydrate Testing. The system also
has the option for a Heating only system.
Such options enable the ETAS to conduct
triaxial tests across a range of temperatures
and confining pressures, plus provide typical
drained and undrained shear strength
parameters for use during stability
assessments of existing and planned
embankment dams.

ELDYN – The GDS Enterprise Level

DynamicTriaxial Testing System 

Is an entry level dynamic triaxial system,

based on an axially-stiff load frame with a
beam mounted electro-mechanical actuator.
The ELDYN has been designed to fulfill the
demand within the geotechnical laboratory
testing industry for a lower cost, more basic
dynamic triaxial testing system, yet still
perform to the very advanced standards
that customers expect from GDS. This
enables the ELDYN to provide typical
drained and undrained shear strength
parameters, as well as the cyclic response of
soil, for use during stability assessments of
existing and planned embankment dams.
DYNTTS – The Advanced Dynamic Triaxial
Testing System 

Is a high-end, no compromise testing

apparatus combining a triaxial cell with a
dynamic actuator capable of applying load,
deformation and stresses up to 10Hz. The
cell itself is screw-driven from an integral
base unit housing the motor drive. Axial
force and axial deformation are applied
through the base of the cell.  The system can
be combined with a dynamic cell pressure
actuator such that cell pressures may also
be applied dynamically up to fundamental
frequency of the machine (i.e. 2Hz, 5Hz or
10Hz). These features allow the DYNTTS to
provide typical drained and undrained shear
strength parameters, as well as the cyclic
response of soil, for use during stability
assessments of existing and planned
embankment dams.

GDSTTA – The GDS True Triaxial

Apparatus 

Has the defining characteristic that, unlike

conventional triaxial apparatus, all three
principal stresses can be controlled
independently, rather than just two in a
conventional triaxial system. This allows a
wider range of complex stress paths to be
performed. This dynamic cyclic system is
powered by advanced electro-mechanical
actuators or optional hydraulic actuators
and is an extremely sophisticated research
tool. Vertical and one horizontal axis are
loaded via the dynamic actuators (axis 1 and
2), stress control is provided for the 2nd
horizontal axis, (axis 3) via cell pressure.
Altogether the GDSTTA can be used to apply
a wide range of stress paths to soil
specimens, including those relevant for
stability assessments of existing and
planned embankment dams.
GDSSS – ShearbaseSystem

The Shearbase System (GDSSS) is an electro-

mechanical shear testing device that can be
configured as either a direct shear or direct
simple shear test apparatus. The benefit of
this apparatus is that the conversion
between direct shear and direct simple
shear is straightforward, and therefore if
both options are not supplied at time of
build the missing option can be supplied at
a later date. Note slow cyclic loadings may
also be applied to test specimens using the
SS, allowing multi-reversal tests to be
automated and the residual strength of a
soil at large strain to be estimated.

GDSBPS – BackPressured Shearbox

The Back Pressured Shearbox (GDSBPS) is

used to perform static direct shear tests on
soil specimens with precise back pressure
control. Note the static GDSBPS range
includes a saturated version providing
control of pore water pressure, and an
unsaturated version providing control of
pore water and pore air pressures. Direct
shear tests may be performed using
constant volume or constant normal stress
conditions.
EMDCSS – ElectromechanicalDynamic
Cyclic Simple Shear

The Electromechanical Dynamic Cyclic

Simple Shear device (EMDCSS) is used for
the simple shear testing of cylindrical soil
specimens. It is capable of carrying out
dynamic cyclic tests from small strain (0.005
% shear strain amplitude) to large strain (10
% shear strain amplitude), as well as
extremely accurate quasi-static loading. The
easy-to-prepare specimen is subjected to
principal stress rotation representative of
soil responses directly under an
embankment dam. Note user-defined cyclic
loading patterns, such as acceleration time
histories recorded during earthquake
shaking, can also be applied to the test
specimen when using the EMDCSS.

ST-RTS – Static Triaxial Rock Testing

System 

Is a triaxial system which enables load

application from 100kN to 2MN using a
passive triaxial cell and stiff load frame.
Triaxial confining pressures of up to 100MPa
are common when using this system. The
ability to apply high loads and pressures
with the ST-RTS makes the system useful
when determining strength and
deformation parameters of rock specimens
as part of stability assessments for existing
and planned embankment dams.
AT-RTS – Active Triaxial Rock Testing
System

Is a triaxial system which enables load

application up to 2MN using an active
triaxial cell which applies load via its own
hydraulic piston. Triaxial confining pressures
of up to 100MPa are common when using
this system. The ability to apply high loads
and pressures with the AT-RTS makes the
system useful when determining strength
and deformation parameters of rock
specimens as part of stability assessments
for existing and planned embankment
dams.

DT-RTS – Dynamic Triaxial Rock Testing

System

Is a cyclic triaxial system designed to apply

loads from 50kN to 1500kN, at loading
frequencies of up to 5Hz, 10Hz, or 20Hz.
Triaxial confining pressures of up to 70MPa
may be reached with this system, due to use
of a dynamic ratio loader to ensure cell
pressures are consistently controlled. The
ability to apply high loads and pressures
dynamically with the DT-RTS makes the
system useful when determining strength
and deformation parameters of rock
specimens as part of dynamic stability
assessments for existing and planned
embankment dams.
GDSAE – Acoustic Emissions transducers 

Are submersible sensors that attach to a

test specimen to record either continuously
or triggered micro-fracture noises. Systems
range from simple counters through to
complete systems that can locate the origin
of the fracture event within a specimen.
Upgrading a rock testing system to include
GDSAE transducers can prove useful when
determining the response of rock under
loadings exerted by existing and planned
embankment dams.

GDSAV – Acoustic Velocity transducers 

Measure the P- and S- wave velocities within

a test specimen.  Sensors and sources can
be mounted in either the pedestal and top-
cap, or both sides of the specimen in some
cases, enabling acoustic velocities to be
measured in multiple directions. Such small-
strain information is often required when
conducting stability assessments of existing
and planned embankment dams with
foundations bearing on rock deposits.
GDSHC – The Instrumented Hoek Cell

Is a highly sophisticate version of the

traditional Hoek cell that can be fully
instrumented, including with GDSAE and
GDSAV transducers. This allows small-strain
information to be gathered, which is often
required when conducting stability
assessments of existing and planned
embankment dams.

DYNBPS– The Dynamic Back Pressured

Shearbox

Is used for static and dynamic direct shear

testing on soil specimens with control of
pore pressures. The control of pore
pressure during direct shear testing allows
real-world situations to be modelled in the
laboratory. This dynamic version of the
device allows a landslide to be modelled as
it quickly gains velocity after the initial
moment of failure. Cyclic direct shear testing
is also possible while still controlling and
measuring pore pressure. While initially
designed for landslide testing, the DYNBPS
offers typical shear strength parameters of
soil useful for stability assessments of
existing and planned embankment dams.
GDSLADS – GDS Large Automated Direct
Shear System

Is an electro-mechanical direct shear testing

device for large specimens, up to 300mm
square or round. Different specimen sets
can be used to monitor the response of geo-
membranes and rock specimens under
direct shear deformation. These options
make the GDSLADS a useful tool when
determining strength parameters required
for stability assessments of existing and
planned embankment dams.

VDDCSS – The variable direction dynamic

cyclic simple shear system 

Allows simple shear to be performed in two

directions, rather than the standard single
direction. This is achieved by having a
secondary shear actuator that acts at 90
degrees to the primary actuator. When used
as a variable direction machine, the
secondary shear axis can be used
independently or in conjunction with the
other shear axis. Therefore, simple shear
may be performed in any horizontal
direction. Such features allow strength
parameters required for stability
assessments of existing and planned
embankment dams to be determined.
GDSIST – The Interface Shear Tester 

Is a CRS consolidation cell with the

additional ability that the base pedestal may
infinitely rotate. The internal load cell
measures both the axial force on the
specimen as well as the torque generated.
The system is designed to test the shear
interface between the specimen and the
top-cap.  Users may bond specific materials
to the top-cap for testing. Such features
allow the GDSIST to define interface
strengths between materials, as well as
determine the residual strength of soils as
part of embankment dam stability
assessments.

GDSHCA– The GDS Small-Strain Hollow

Cylinder Apparatus

Allows for rotational displacement and

torque to be applied to a hollow cylindrical
specimen of soil. Using this device it is
possible to control the magnitude and
direction of the three principal stresses.
Studies can for example be made to assess
the effect of anisotropy of soil specimens,
principal stress rotation, and the effect of
varying intermediate principal stress. Two
versions of the SS-HCA are available: A
dynamic (SSHCA d), and a lower cost static
(SS-HCA s) version. Each version can
however be used to determine typical
drained and undrained shear strength
parameters for use during stability
assessments of existing and planned
embankment dams.
GDSAOS – The GDS Automatic Oedometer
System

Is the modern replacement for a traditional

hanging weight oedometer. The GDSAOS is
a self-contained stepper motor driven unit
that can be controlled using its Smart
Keypad, or from a PC using a USB interface.
There is no requirement for compressed air
or manually placed weights. When used with
the GDSLAB control and data acquisition
software, the GDSAOS can be used for a
complete array of tests beyond those which
a hanging weight oedometer can perform.
This includes determination of consolidation
parameters useful when assessing the
performance of existing and planned
embankment dams.

GDSCTS – The GDS Consolidation Testing

System

Is a state-of-the-art, fully-automated
consolidation testing system designed for
soil. The system is based on the Rowe and
Barden type consolidation cell using GDS
pressure/volume controllers from the
Advanced, Standard, or Enterprise range.
Two of these pressure controllers link to the
computer, one for axial stress and axial
displacement control and one for setting
back pressure. Such functionality enables
the GDSCTS to determine consolidation
parameters useful when assessing the
performance of existing and planned
embankment dams, including permeability
(with the addition of one pressure/volume
controller).
 GDSCRS – The GDS Consolidation
Constant Rate of Strain cell

Is designed primarily for advanced

commercial testing laboratories who want
to reduce the time required to complete a
consolidation test. The CRS cell fits either a
new GDS or existing load frame in place of a
triaxial cell. The load frame-based one
dimensional consolidation cell is capable of
applying back pressure and measuring pore
pressures up to 1MPa (low pressure version)
or 20MPa (high pressure version). Overall
the CRS system allows consolidation
parameters useful when assessing the
performance of existing and planned
embankment dams to be determined
quickly and accurately.

Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete Dams

Dam structures vary in size and shape. The inspection and monitoring of small dams can be
an easy and straight forward task; however, the inspection and monitoring of larger
concrete dams is a challenging task. Even basic visual inspection of large concrete dams  is
labor-intensive and time-consuming. It requires skilled inspectors and hard work to identify
surface deficiencies in these structures. Visual inspection can is first in line, as it can identify
the locations where further inspection is required. Later, we will discuss acoustic methods
that can be used to evaluate the condition of concrete materials.
1- Visual Inspection by Drones

Recent advancement in drone technology, have opened a new chapter in the visual
inspection of concrete Dams. Drones are used for visual inspection of concrete surface and
identifying surface cracks and defects. Drones equipped with Infrared Thermography sensor
can also be used for detecting traces of moisture or sub-surface deficiencies for an
enhances inspection. The main disadvantage of visual inspection (with or without drones) is
that the method does not provide information about the properties of concrete, or condition
of concrete (physical of chemical damages).

2- Impact-Echo (IE)
Impact-Echo can be used to investigate the condition of concrete and extent of cracking in
concrete dams (Olson, L. D. and Sack, D. A. 1995). In Impact-Echo test, a stress pulse is
generated at the surface of the element. The pulse spreads into the test object and is
reflected by cracks, flaws or interfaces, and boundaries. The surface response caused by
the arrival of reflected waves, is monitored using a high precision receiving transducer
(Malhotra and Carino, 2004). When stress waves travel within the concrete element, a part
of emitted acoustic waves by the stress pulse on the surface is reflected over the boundary
layers, where different the material stiffness changes. The data received by the transducer
is normally analyzed in the frequency domain to measure the wave speed and the
thickness. Impact-Echo has the advantage of requiring access to only one side of the
component. The method can be used to identify freeze and thaw defects in concrete
spillways.

3-  Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW)

The Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW) method has many applications in material
characterization of multilayer systems. This can be used for in-situ evaluation of concrete
quality, thickness of layer and boundary condition in multilayer systems as well as
estimating the modulus elasticity. The SASW is a seismic exploration, which relies on the
determining the stiffness of medium. SASW is a powerful method when only a single side
access is available. Olson and Sack (1995) argues that “The SASW method is capable of
providing the shear wave velocity versus depth profile of a structure, including
measurements of the velocity of soils or rock behind the structure, with no coring or other
damage to the structure required.” The SASW method can also be used to identify freeze
and thaw defects in concrete spillways.

4- UPV Tomography / Seismic Tomography

When there is no access problems (2 or more

directions available), Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) methods can be used for evaluation of
concrete properties. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) is an effective non-destructive testing
(NDT) method for quality control of concrete materials, and detecting damages in structural
components. Ultrasonic testing of concrete is an effective way for quality assessment and
uniformity, and crack depth estimation. The test procedure has been standardized as
“Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity through Concrete” (ASTM C 597, 2016). The
most practical form of the UPV measurement in concrete structures is the seismic
tomography. This is one of the imaging techniques, which can prepare a two or three
dimensional mapping from the present state of concrete structures, quantifying the internal
anomalies and deficiencies based on the order of velocities. Rivard et al. (2010) shows the
seismic tomography testing contour map for a cross-section of a hydraulic concrete
structure.
Conclusion
Nondestructive methods such as Impact-Echo and SASW have a great potential in
identifying deficiencies in concrete dams. The methods can be used to evaluate damages
due to ASR, and freezing and thawing which are common in older dam structures. When
access is possible, UPV tomography can be used to evaluate sub-surface deficiencies such
as voids, and cracks

Building construction projects involves the process of adding a structure to real

property. The majority of building construction projects is small renovations, such as
simple additions to rooms or the renovation of a bathroom. In these cases, the owner
of the underlying property will act as the project manager. That being said, all building
construction projects will include some elements in common, such as financial, legal
and design considerations.

Types of Building Materials Used in Construction

1. Natural Construction Materials
Construction materials can be generally categorized into two sources, natural and synthetic. Natural
materials are those that are unprocessed or minimally processed by industry, such as lumber or glass.
Synthetic materials are made in industrial settings after much human manipulations, such as plastics
and petroleum based paints. Both have their uses. Mud, stone, and fibrous plants are the most basic
materials, aside from tents made of flexible materials such as cloth or skins. People all over the world
have used these three materials together to create homes to suit their local weather conditions. In
general stone and/or brush are used as basic structural components in these buildings, while mud is
used to fill in the space between, acting as a type of concrete and insulation. A basic example is
wattle and daub mostly used as permanent housing in tropical countries or as summer structures by
ancient northern peoples.
2. Fabric
The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world over. Two well known
types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major construction
technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings can
be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel cables or
internal (air pressure.)

3. Mud and clay

The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is usually
connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay usually mean using
the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually associated with sod building. The other main
ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw/grasses. Rammed earth is both an old and
newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by hand, now
forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used. Soil and especially clay is good thermal
mass; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be
naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it
over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or
lowering the temperature can use more resources than in say a wood built house, but the
heat/coolness stays longer. Peoples building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe,
resulted in homes that have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe as well as the rest
of the world, and continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have
remained habitable for hundreds of years.

4. Rock
Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting building
material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock through out the
world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is a very
dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a material is its weight and
awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big draw-back, as stone is hard to keep warm
without using large amounts of heating resources. Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as
humans have put one stone on top of another. Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold
the stones together, cement being the most commonplace now. The granite-strewn uplands of
Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided ample resources for early settlers.
Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze
Age, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still be seen today. Granite continued to be used
throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor longhouse) and into modern times. Slate is another
stone type, commonly used as roofing material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world
where it is found. Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built
entirely with stone such as the Pyramids in Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the Inca
civilization.
5. Thatch
Thatch is one of the oldest of materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily harvested. Many
African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In Europe, thatch roofs on
homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favour as industrialization and improved
transport increased the availability of other materials. Today, though, the practice is undergoing a
revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many of new builds too have thatched roofs with special
ridge tiles on top.

6. Brush
Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in tropical and subtropical
areas, such as rainforests, where very large leaves can be used in the building. Native Americans
often built brush structures for resting and living in, too. These are built mostly with branches, twigs
and leaves, and bark, similar to a beaver's lodge. These were variously named wickiups, lean-tos, and
so forth.

7. Ice
Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos, but has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in
northern areas that might not otherwise see many winter tourists.

8. Wood
Wood is a product of trees, and sometimes other fibrous plants, used for construction purposes when
cut or pressed into lumber and timber, such as boards, planks and similar materials. It is a generic
building material and is used in building just about any type of structure in most climates. Wood can
be very flexible under loads, keeping strength while bending, and is incredibly strong when
compressed vertically. There are many differing qualities to the different types of wood, even among
same tree species. This means specific species are better for various uses than others. And growing
conditions are important for deciding quality. Historically, wood for building large structures was
used in its unprocessed form as logs. The trees were just cut to the needed length, sometimes stripped
of bark, and then notched or lashed into place. In earlier times, and in some parts of the world, many
country homes or communities had a personal wood-lot from which the family or community would
grow and harvest trees to build with. These lots would be tended to like a garden. With the invention
of mechanizing saws came the mass production of dimensional lumber. This made buildings quicker
to put up and more uniform. Thus the modern western style home was made.

9. Brick and Block

A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also may be of lower quality
mud, etc. Clay bricks are formed in a moulding (the soft mud method), or in commercial manufacture
more frequently by extruding clay through a die and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the
stiff mud process). Bricks were widely used as a construction material in the 1700, 1800 and 1900s.
This was probably due to the fact that it was much more flame retardant than wood in the ever
crowding cities, and fairly cheap to produce. Another type of block replaced clay bricks in the late
20th century. It was the Cinder block. Made mostly with concrete. An important low-cost material in
developing countries is the Sandcrete block, which is weaker but cheaper than fired clay bricks.
10. Concrete
Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate (composite) and a
binder such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which
consists of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), portland cement and water. After mixing,
the cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic
sense, this is the material referred to by the term concrete. For a concrete construction of any size, as
concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it is generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known
as rebars). This strengthened concrete is then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimise
any air bubbles, that would weaken the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been
entrained when the liquid concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the
predominant material in this modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport.

11. Metal
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external
surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose
major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal structural construction. It is strong,
flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when it
comes to longevity. The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin
sometimes overcome their greater cost. Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted
to specific uses or specialty items today. Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures
such as the Quonset hut, and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of
human labor to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for the building industries.
Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural
purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration,
because these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile strength or
hardness.

12. Glass
Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building.
They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time keeping
inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates, and is very
brittle. Modern glass "curtain walls" can be used to cover the entire facade of a building. Glass can
also be used to span over a wide roof structure in a "space frame".

13. Ceramics
Ceramics are such things as tiles, fixtures, etc. Ceramics are mostly used as fixtures or coverings in
buildings. Ceramic floors, walls, counter-tops, even ceilings. Many countries use ceramic roofing
tiles to cover many buildings. Ceramics used to be just a specialized form of clay-pottery firing in
kilns, but it has evolved into more technical areas.

14. Plastic
Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor in a Canadian highrise apartment building The term plastics
covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that
can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in
their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely
in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of
composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today

15. Foam
Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for firestop mortar at CIBC bank in Toronto. More
recently synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used on a limited scale. It is light
weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural insulated
panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood or cement.

16. Cement composites

Cement bonded composites are an important class of construction material. These products are made
of hydrated cement paste that binds wood or alike particles or fibers to make precast building
components. Various fibrous materials including paper and fiberglass have been used as binders.
Wood and natural fibres are composed of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates,
glycosides and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore, before
using a wood in making cement boned composites, its compatibility with cement is assessed. Wood-
cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement composite
to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage value. To
determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used, such as,
hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology. Various methods are used by
researchers such as the measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-aggregate mix; the
comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the visual assessment of
microstructural properties of the wood-cement mixes. It has been found that the hydration test by
measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most convenient method. Recently,
Karade et al. have reviewed these methods of compatibility assessment and suggested a method
based on the ‘maturity concept’ i.e. taking in consideration both time and temperature of cement
hydration reaction.
The different MMC used in construction field includes:

1. Precast Flat Panel System

2. 3D Volumetric Modules
3. Flat Slab Construction
4. Precast Cladding Panels
5. Concrete Wall and Floors
6. Twin Wall Technology
7. Precast Concrete Foundation
8. Concrete Formwork Insulation
Precast Flat Panel System
This method of construction involves the procedure of making floor and wall units off site. For this,
separate factory outlets and facilities is required. Once the panel units are made as per the design
specification and requirements, they are brought to the site and placed. This method is best suited for

repetitive construction project activities.

Fig.1. Precast Flat Panel System

The panels manufactured has the services of windows, doors and the finishes. This method also
brings building envelope panels which are provided with insulation and decorative cladding that is
fitted by the factory which can also be used as load – bearing elements.

3D Volumetric Construction
As the name implies, the 3D volumetric construction involves the manufacture of 3D units in the
form of modules in off site. At the time of installation, they are brought to the site and assembled
module by module. Each modular unit manufactured are 3D units, hence this construction is called as

3D volumetric construction or modular construction. The

transportation of the modules can be carried out in various forms or methods. This can involve the
transportation of the basic structure or a completed unit with all the internal and external finishes,
services installed within it, that the only part remaining is the assembly. The factory construction
brings different unit of same product maintaining their quality throughout. Hence this method is best
suited for repetitive projects so that rapid assembly of the products is possible.
Flat Slab Construction
The flat slabs are structural elements that are highly versatile in nature. This is this versatility that it
is used widely in construction. The flat slab provides minimum depth and faster construction. The

system also provides column grids that are flexible.

Fig.3.Flat Slab Construction

Wherever it is necessary to seal the partitions to the slab soffit as a reason of acoustic and fire
concerns, the flat slabs are a desirable solution. When compared with other forms of construction, the
flat slabs are faster and more economic in nature. The construction of flat slabs can be completed
with good surface finish for the soffit, this enables to utilize he exposed soffits. The flat slab
construction is also a means of increasing the energy efficiency as this allows the exploitation of
building thermal mass in the design of ventilation, heating and the cooling requirements.

Precast Concrete Foundations

For the rapid construction of foundation, the precast concrete system can be employed. This method
is more suited for a bespoke design. Here, the elements required for the construction of foundation
are constructed separately in the factory (off site) and brought to the site and assembled. The
manufactured product must have the assured quality as specified by the designer.

Fig.4. Precast Concrete Foundations

The foundation assembled is mainly supported by concrete piles. During assembling, both the
systems are connected together. These foundation systems helps in increasing the productivity,
increase quality, decrease the soil excavation quantity. This is best suited for extreme and adverse
weather conditions. When the construction is dealt on a highly contaminated ground, this system of
construction is a best choice.
Twin Wall Technology
The twin wall technology is a hybrid solution of wall system that combines the qualities of erection
speed and precast concrete with the structural integrity of in-situ concrete. This type of wall system
guarantees structural integrity and waterproof reliability for the structure.

Fig.6: Twin Wall Technology

The twin wall system has two walls slabs that are separated as shown in the figure-6. The two slabs
are separated by a cast in lattice girders. The procedure involves:

1. The wall units are placed in the site.

2. The twin units are propped temporarily.
3. The wall units are later joined by means of reinforcing.
4. The gap between the wall units are filled by means of concrete.
This system of construction is faster than normal construction methods and economical. The twin
wall system is mainly employed in association with the construction of precast floors.
Insulating Concrete Formwork
The system of insulating concrete formwork (ICF) have twin walled panels that are either
polystyrene panels or blocks are employed. These are built quickly to create the formwork as the wall

of the buildings.

Fig.7. Insulating Concrete Formwork

The formwork that is made is filled with concrete. This concrete is factory produced that have quality
assurance so that a ready – mixed concrete. Mostly the mix is ready mix concrete. Higher level of
thermal insulation is provided by expanded polystyrene blocks. The concrete core will provide good
robustness and better sound insulation.

Precast Cladding Panels

The cladding system is the installation of a material over another that finally act as a skin or a layer.
This system of layer is not only intended for aesthetics, but it can help in controlling the infiltration

of the weather elements.

Fig.8. Precast Cladding Panels

No kind of waterproof condition is provided by the cladding. Instead, the cladding is a control
measure against water penetration. This safely help in directing the water or the wind so that there is
control of the runoff. This helps to prevent the infiltration into the building structure.
Concrete Walls and Floors
Concrete walls are mainly applied for seat walls, retaining wall, decorative exterior, and interior
finishes. The concrete is also used a flooring material. As per the latest technology, the concrete
floors can be provided with good finish to provide smooth and attractive flooring. When compared
with any other material, the concrete floors provide a wide variety of material for applications like
acid-stained painted, radiant floors, overlays, and micro toppings. The concrete flooring can also be
called as cement flooring. When compared with other flooring types, concrete flooring is affordable
and maintenance is easy. Proper sealing of concrete flooring can be cleaned by a dust mop.

Railway construction is also called track laying and ballasting. It is the process of laying
the railway sleepers and tracks on the track bed. The railway construction process
mainly include transportation and laying of railway sleepers and rails, ballast
transportation and laying.
3.Railway track material
Qualitative materials, which are combined in different ways. Generally speaking, the bottom of the
track is the trackbed, which provides the elastic and drainage function for the track. Rails can also be
laid on concrete plinths (common on Bridges) or even embedded in concrete.
Sleeper buried in the bed, generally for horizontal laying, with wood, reinforced concrete or steel.The
rail is fastened to the rail pillow by connecting parts.
1.Ballast
Ballast laid on the roadbed, under the sleeper, in order to protect the sleeper object. According to the
laying, the position can be divided into two layers, the upper layer is the top layer of slag, the bottom
layer of slag.

The functions of trace slag are as follows:

1. Bear the pressure transmitted by the sleeper and distribute the pressure on the roadbed evenly.
2. Fix the sleeper position to maintain the correct line and slope of the track.
3. Eliminate the rainwater around and under the sleeper to prevent the soil deformation of the
roadbed due to wet and soft.
4. Increase the elasticity of the track, so that the rail after being crushed by the train can quickly
return to the original correct position.
5. Prevent weeds from growing on the tracks.

In order to ensure the safety of high-speed railway operation, improve the strength of roadbed and
reduce the maintenance of dregs clearing and sieving. The concrete foundation is used to replace
dregs, sleepers, and roadbeds, which is called a "slag-free track". It can reduce maintenance time,
maintain good quality and traffic safety.

2.Rail

Rail is a railway construction for rolling train wheels on which the main functions are as follows:

1. Bear wheel weight and wear.

2. Scatter the wheel weight on the sleeper under the rail.
3. Under constant stress.

Regardless of the weight of the rail, the proportion of cross-section mass should be approximately
42% at the head, 21% at the waist and 37% at the bottom, and the height of the rail should be equal
to the width of the bottom. When the railhead is worn 0.64 cm, the rail should be replaced
immediately.
The connecting device

1.The railroad spike

The function of railway spike is to buckle the rail on the rail pillow and maintain the fixed gauge
between the two rails, the most commonly used railway spike is a common spike, hook spike, and
spiral spike varieties.

2.Rail joint
Rail joint parts are to maintain the strength and stiffness of the joint so that the rail has uniform
elasticity. Generally, two fishtail plates are attached to the waist of both sides of the rail, and the bolt
with a spring washer is tightened. Fishtail version has 60 cm and 90 cm two kinds, the use of 60 cm
version to screw with 4 bolts, the use of 90 cm to screw with 6 bolts.
In order to completely improve the defects of rail joint parts, continuous welding is adopted to
replace rail joint by continuous welding of rail, so as to reduce the maintenance work of rail and
increase the service life of the rail.

3.Rail brace
It is used to support the waist on the outside of the rail to resist the lateral force on the railhead and
prevent the spike from loosening due to the rail tilt.
4.Railway Fasteners
The metal clip or handle on the bottom of the rail is embedded with the sleeper, which can not only
resist the vertical rolling of the wheel and the lateral thrust but also prevent the longitudinal crawling
of the rail.

5.The climbing equipment

Installed under the rail, with its side against the sleeper (and pad), in addition, to prevent the rail
caused by the rolling of the wheel longitudinal crawling, and can control the rail due to the increase
in temperature and the phenomenon of extension. 

6.Technical standard editor

All high-speed railways are built using a standard gauge (1435mm). The only exceptions are the
1520mm wide-gauge high-speed railways used by Russia and Finland. General railway generally
divided into three broad gauges, standard gauge, narrow gauge. Most of China's early railway
construction by Britain and Belgium engineer a pro-western policy at that time so the gauge use
British standard, so most of our country with a standard for the standard rail (1435 mm), in the
Yunnan-Guizhou region, Henan and northeast forest farm before liberation and narrow gauge
railway built in the early years of liberation, also calls the MiGui, for gauge meter, and some local
railways and industrial self-rail also USES MiGui, in recent years has been transformed.

7.Sleeper bearing pad

The sleeper bearing pad under the rail is a railway object used to support the rail. Its functions are as
follows:

1. The load transferred by the rail is evenly distributed on the ballast.

2. Maintain the line of the rail and the gauge between the two rails.
3. Ensure that the track has a uniform spring, acting as a building beam

Construction of Railway Track Methods

There are three distinct methods of construction of railway track. These are:

1. Telescopic Method
2. Tramline Method
3. Mechanical Method
Telescopic Method of Construction of Railway Track
In this method, rails, sleepers and fastenings are unloaded from the material train as close to the rail
head as possible. The sleepers are carried by carts or men along the adjoining service road and
spread on the ballast. The rails are then carried on pairs to the end of last pair of connected rails and
linked.

To carry rails manually over a long distance is a tedious job. So certain carriers called Anderson rail.
Carriers are used to carry rails to the ends of the rail head.

It can also take rails up to a head last pair linked with the help of temporary track consisting of 3" x
3" angle irons of the same length as rails and fastened to the sleepers.

A further consignment of the material is deposited at the advances rails head and the procedure is
repeated.

Tramline Method Railway Track Construction

 This method is used where tram carrier are installed for carrying earthwork or in rainy season due to
difficulty in movement of cart. Some tramline is established on with a gauge of 2'-2'-6". The basic
difference between this and telescopic method lies in the conveyance and spreading of the sleepers.

The track can be assembled at more than one points simultaneously, which is the great advantage
of this method. Sometimes an additional track is laid on the side of existing track for which this
method is best.

Mechanical Method Railway Track Construction

This method is extensively used in Britain and America by using special track laying machine. There
are two types of machines available.  In first type of machine, the track material carried by the
material. Train is delivered at the rail head and laid in the required position by means of projecting
arm or mounted on the truck nearest to the rail head. The material train moves forward on the
assembled track and operation is repeated.

In the second type of machines a long cantilevered arm projecting beyond. The wagon on which is
fitted. A panel of assembled track consists of pair of rail with appropriate number of sleepers on the
ballast layer. This panel is conveyed by special trolley running over the wagons of material train to
the jibs. It is lowered by the jib in the required position and connected to the previous panel. The
MEGGER MIT430/2 INDUSTRIAL
track laying machine then movies forwarded and operation is repeated.
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