Brief Report

Twitter-Based Sentiment Analysis and Topic Modeling of Social

Media Posts Using Natural Language Processing, to Understand
People’s Perspectives Regarding COVID-19 Booster Vaccine
Shots in India: Crucial to Expanding Vaccination Coverage
Praveen SV 1, *, Jose Manuel Lorenz 2,3 , Rajesh Ittamalla 4 , Kuldeep Dhama 5 , Chiranjib Chakraborty 6 ,
Daruri Venkata Srinivas Kumar 7 and Thivyaa Mohan 1

1 Department of Management Studies, National Institute of Technology,

Tiruchirappalli 20015, Tamil Nadu, India
2 Centro Tecnológico de la Carne de Galicia, Adva. Galicia n◦ 4, Parque Tecnológico de Galicia,
San Cibrao das Vinus, 32900 Ourense, Spain
3 Facultade de Ciencias de Ourense, Universidade de Vigo, Área de Tecnoloxía dos Alimentos,
32004 Ourense, Spain
4 Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad 502285, Telangana, India
5 Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India
6 Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Admas University,
Kolkatta 700126, West Bengal, India
7 School of Management Studies, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad 500046, Telangana, India
Citation: SV, P.; Lorenz, J.M.;
* Correspondence: praveenscissci@gmail.com
Ittamalla, R.; Dhama, K.;
Chakraborty, C.; Kumar, D.V.S.;
Abstract: This study analyzed perceptions of Indians regarding COVID-19 booster dose vaccines
Mohan, T. Twitter-Based Sentiment
using natural language processing techniques, particularly, sentiment analysis and topic modeling.
Analysis and Topic Modeling of
Social Media Posts Using Natural
We analyzed tweets generated by Indian citizens for this study. In late July 2022, the Indian govern-
Language Processing, to Understand ment hastened the process of COVID-19 booster dose vaccinations. Understanding the emotions and
People’s Perspectives Regarding concerns of the citizens regarding the health policy being implemented will assist the government,
COVID-19 Booster Vaccine Shots in health policy officials, and policymakers implement the policy efficiently so that desired results can
India: Crucial to Expanding be achieved. Seventy-six thousand nine hundred seventy-nine tweets were used for this study. The
Vaccination Coverage. Vaccines 2022, sentiment analysis study revealed that out of those 76,979 tweets, more than half (n = 40,719 tweets
10, 1929. https://doi.org/10.3390/ (52.8%) had negative sentiments, 24,242 tweets (31.5%) had neutral sentiments, and 12,018 tweets
vaccines10111929 (15.6%) had positive sentiments. Social media posts by Indians on the COVID-19 booster doses have
Academic Editors: Pedro Plans-Rubió focused on the feelings that younger people do not need vaccines and that vaccinations are unhealthy.
and Manoj Sharma
Keywords: booster dose; COVID-19; NLP; topic modeling; sentiment analysis
Received: 9 September 2022
Accepted: 10 November 2022
Published: 15 November 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
The first case of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory
published maps and institutional affil-
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was recorded at the late end of 2020 in China, and
iations.
within a few months, this novel disease rapidly spread in many countries and, consequently,
led to a devastating pandemic affecting more than 200 countries worldwide [1–3]. At the
time of writing this article—as of 5 September 2022—more than 600 million cases and nearly
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
6.5 million deaths have been reported worldwide, and, in India alone, there have been
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. around 44.5 million cases and 5.28 million deaths [4]. According to a recent study published
This article is an open access article in The Lancet, COVID-19 vaccinations reduced the possible global death toll during the
distributed under the terms and epidemic by nearly two-thirds in their first year and saved an estimated 19.8 million
conditions of the Creative Commons lives [5]. Governments worldwide have recommended that their citizens receive two
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// doses of vaccines to gain adequate immunity [6]. While the initial two doses of COVID-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 19 vaccines can immunize people against severe COVID-19 cases and death, immunity
4.0/). tends to wane after some time, which necessitates the administration of booster shots to

Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10111929 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/vaccines

Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929 2 of 9

sustain the protective levels of immunity as SARS-CoV-2 constantly mutates and with
the continuous emergence of newer variants that could evade host immunity [3,7,8]. The
emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants such as Delta, Omicron, and its lineages (variants of concern,
VOCs) have been found to cause significant adverse impacts by overpowering protective
immunity induced by COVID-19 vaccines and antibody-based therapies, resulting in
vaccine breakthrough infection, re-infection, and overall surging of cases and deaths
amid different waves of the ongoing pandemic. Therefore, efforts are being made to
develop more effective vaccines including variant-specific, mutation proof, universal next-
generation vaccines, as well as administering more doses of vaccines (booster shots) for
boosting protective immunity to safeguard health amid emerging variants [9–15]. Despite
the development of few vaccines and the ongoing global vaccination drive, COVID-19
vaccination hesitancy, diplomacy, and inequitable access to vaccines, particularly among
low- and middle-income countries, also constitute significant reasons for some hindrances
in the ongoing global vaccination drive, including booster shots, which helped in the
sustained global burden of COVID-19; hence, global vaccination coverage needs to be
enhanced holistically [16–21].

2. Materials and Methods

In this study, we analyzed the social media posts of Indians to understand their
perspectives regarding COVID-19 booster doses and the concerns they shared regarding
booster doses. Recent studies have confirmed that one of the reliable ways to predict,
control, and prevent a health crisis or pandemic is by analyzing social media data [22,23].
It is important for the government and policymakers to understand the opinions of people
regarding any health policy they implement, because implementing any policy that is not
supported by most of the population will lead to failure in achieving the desired results.
Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Twitter has evolved into a medium
through which people can express their experiences, emotions, and perspectives regard-
ing health policies. Therefore, we chose tweets as the data source for our study. Several
research studies were conducted during the initial days of COVID-19 using Twitter data to
analyze the situation and understand the perception of common people regarding health
policies and various aspects of the pandemic [24,25]. To implement a successful policy and
promote adequate disease prevention strategies and public safety measures, government of-
ficials and policymakers must understand the beliefs and perceptions of citizens regarding
COVID-19 vaccination and booster doses. In this study, we used natural language process-
ing (NLP) techniques, in particular, sentiment analysis and topic modeling, to comprehend
the Indian general public’s perceptions regarding the COVID-19 booster dose

2.1. Data Collection

Tweets with the words “COVID-19 Booster” posted by Indians after 1 March 2022
to 7 September 2022 were scraped using the Python library Twint. After we removed the
tweets belonging to other languages and duplicate tweets, we were left with 76,979 English
tweets. We removed the tweets that were not in English because of the nature of the tweets.
The vast majority of Indian tweets in other languages (Hindi, Tamil, and Telugu) were
mixed with English and a particular language. For example, most of the Hindi tweets were
not written in Hindi alphabets and were written in English alphabets (Hindi words being
written with the English alphabet), and, due to this, it is not possible to extract sentiment or
topics out of it, and therefore we removed such tweets from our corpus. Since the tweets in
our dataset were from different states in India, our results are applicable to the entire Indian
population. Twint is an advanced Python Twitter scraping tool that allows researchers
to access Twitter data without the need for an Application Programming Interface (API);
therefore, we used it to collect data [26].
Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929 3 of 9

2.2. Data Cleaning

Data cleaning is a vital task in text analytics studies to achieve the desired results. The
data cleaning process includes removing all the entities that are not needed for textual data
analysis; before we started our analysis, we cleaned the data. We removed stop words,
punctuations, URLs, and other unwanted entities that are not needed for the text analytics.
Stop words are words such as ‘a’, ‘a’, an’, ‘an’, and ‘the’ that do not have any meaning on
their own and are, therefore, not needed for the analysis. We also stemmed and lemmatized
the data in our corpus. Stemming is the process of reducing words into their root type by
chopping off end letters such as ‘goals -> goal’ and ‘pens -> pen’ [27]. Lemmatizing is the
process in which words of a similar tree are grouped together and analyzed so that analysis
can be qualitative [28].

2.3. Sentiment Analysis

Sentiment analysis is an automatic method for extracting and analyzing subjective
judgments on different aspects of an item or entity. Sentiment analysis helps us understand
the premises of the text and the emotions exhibited by the author of the text [29]. Under-
standing common people’s sentiments regarding a particular aspect, such as a particular
health policy, can help governments and policymakers understand whether the policy
they implement attracts common people. In our study, we used sentiment analysis to
understand Indian social media users’ perceptions of COVID-19 booster dose vaccines. We
used the Python library TextBlob for the process of sentiment analysis. The TextBlob library
uses natural language processing and advanced machine learning principles to analyze
every word in the documents presented in the corpus, defining the overall sentiments being
projected as positive, negative, or neutral. The TextBlob library works on the bag-of-words
model and a predefined dictionary classifying negative and positive words. The TextBlob
library goes through each word in the document and assigns an individual score to all
words, and the final score of that document is determined by a pooling operation (taking
an average of all sentiments) [30].

2.4. Topic Modeling

Sentiment analysis helps us to understand the perceptions of common people re-
garding a particular health policy. However, the factors that drive emotions can only
be understood through topic modeling. Topic modeling is a generative statistical model
that captures the essence of a text. Latent Dirichlet allocation (LDA) topic modeling is a
prominent technique used to understand the premises of a text, upon which the entire
corpus is built. LDA algorithms follow the bag-of-words model and operate under two
assumptions [31]. The LDA algorithm assumes that all documents present in the corpus
are a mixture of topics, where each topic is a probability distribution over words [32].
The Dirichlet process is a probability distribution, whose range is a set of probability
distributions. A graphical representation of the LDA model is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2 provides the graphical representation of the LDA Model. All nodes in the
model are random variables, and the observed variable (Wd,n) is shaded. Alpha (α) is
a Dirichlet parameter. θd denotes the per-document topic proportion. Zd,n refers to the
per-word topic assignment. Wd,n is the observed words. K refers to the different topics. N
refers to the number of words in the document. Bk refers to the probability distribution
over the top different words for a given topic K. D refers to the total number of documents.
Eta (η) is a topic hyperparameter.
LDA algorithms find the latent (hidden) subjects and topics in the corpus, and the
observed variables are words. The hyperparameters are alpha (α) and Eta (η). The higher
the value of alpha, the higher the probability of all topics appearing, which results in
skewed results. For this reason, in our model, we set the value for alpha as low as possible,
as a lower alpha corresponds to the model preferring one topic with a higher probability
than the other. We ran the model multiple times using different parameters to achieve
the desired results. The distribution of LDA algorithms used to draw the per-document
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Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929 5 of 9

Compared to previous methods such as manual content analysis and the word fre-
quency method, LDA topic modeling is the best fit for understanding the topics based
on which the corpus is built, particularly when dealing with unstructured data. Manual
content analysis was the first attempt to understand the determinants of perception in
textual data [33]. However, one of the significant drawbacks of manual content analysis is
that the entire process relies heavily on the expertise of the expert; therefore, the results
are unreliable. Next to manual content analysis, the word frequency model was used to
understand the determinants of perceptions in the textual data. The major drawback of this
method, however, is that the word frequency analysis method does not consider the word’s
context and is merely a representation of the word counts; therefore, the conclusions based
on this can often be confusing and ambiguous [34]. LDA is a standard method used by
many researchers because it employs a probabilistic framework to determine and detect
hidden themes and topics in the corpus by following the bag-of-words approach; therefore,
we employed LDA algorithms to understand the concerns Indian citizens discuss regarding
COVID-19 booster doses.

3. Results
This study was conducted in two parts. First, sentiment analysis was performed to
understand people’s sentiments towards booster doses of COVID-19 vaccines. Sentiment
analysis detects sentiments expressed by a person in a text. TextBlob algorithms examine
each word in the tweet and determine whether the general sentiment of the particular
text in the corpus is positive, negative, or neutral [35]. Second, LDA topic modeling was
utilized to identify the major aspects that Indian social media users discussed regarding
COVID-19 booster doses on social media. Topic Modeling is an assemblage of algorithms
that summarizes a massive corpus of texts by independently identifying obscure subjects
and themes covered by a collection of corpora. LDA adheres to the Bayesian principle,
where the algorithm considers that each text in the corpus is composed of a variety of
discrete topics, each of which has a multinomial word-frequency distribution [36–38]. A
total of 76,979 tweets were used in this study. We selected an equal number of tweets every
month in the corpus for an effective comparison. The sentiment analysis study revealed
that out of 76,979 tweets, more than half of the tweets (n = 40,719 tweets (52.8%)) about
COVID-19 booster doses had negative sentiments, 24,242 tweets (31.5%) showed neutral
sentiments, and 12,018 tweets (15.6%) had positive sentiments. The monthly distribution of
sentiments is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Sentiment analysis.

Month Total Tweets Positive % Neutral % Negative %

March 2022 10,997 1409 11.7 4754 19.6 4834 11.8
April 2022 10,997 1572 13.0 3736 15.4 5689 13.9
May 2022 10,997 1417 11.7 3057 12.6 6523 16.0
June 2022 10,997 1680 13.9 2699 11.1 6618 16.2
July 2022 10,997 1945 16.1 3612 14.8 5440 13.3
August 2022 10,997 2058 17.1 3057 12.6 5882 14.4
September 2022 10,997 1937 16.11 3327 13.7 5733 14.0
76,979 12,018 24,242 40,719

Figures 3 and 4 provide us the graphical representation of the Table 1. In Part 2,

topic modeling was conducted on the tweets to determine the important aspects that
Indians discuss when tweeting about “COVID-19 Booster Doses” on social media. For
the topic modeling study, we only used tweets about COVID-19 booster doses that had
negative sentiments, as the objective of the study was to understand the concerns of Indians
regarding the COVID-19 booster doses. The results of topic modeling are presented in
Table 2.
 June 2022 10,997 1680 13.9 2699 11.1 6618 16.2
July
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17.1 3057
3057 12.6
12.6 5882
5882 14.4
14.4
2022
2022
September
September 10,997
Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929 10,997 1937
1937 16.11
16.11 3327
3327 13.7
13.7 5733
5733 14.0
14.0
6 of 9
2022
2022
76,979
76,979 12,018
12,018 24,242
24,242 40,719
40,719

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Table 2. Topic modeling.
Table 2.2.Topic
Topic modeling.
modeling.

Topic Label Top Words

Feeling that young people don’t need Age, dose, young, waste, booster, first
booster doses Dose, booster, higher, risk, condition, health
Not healthy to take booster dose BioNTech, news, pharma, shit, profit, dose data
Skepticism towards big Pharma booster, risk, COVID, severe, ill, mrna
Fear of illness vaccines, COVID, taken, even, reinfect, distrust
COVID-19 vaccines not trustworthy person, require, immune, vaccine,
Feeling already immune enough enough, taken
Fear of side effects pain, hand, tired, vaccine, work, high
Negative perceptions created by media article, booster, media, news, negative, can
Chest pain booster, COVID, chest, pain, will, infect
Feeling not necessary immune, new, healthy, food, nature, develop
Note: Top words are generated by the model. Topic names were manually created.
Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929 7 of 9

4. Discussion
Our sentiment analysis showed that nearly 84.4% of Indians‘ social media posts on
the COVID-19 booster dose were either negative or neutral. A previous study analyzing
Indians’ perceptions regarding the first two doses of vaccines concluded that 17% of
the opinions of Indians regarding normal COVID-19 vaccines were negative and 47% of
opinions regarding normal COVID-19 vaccines were neutral [39]. There was an increase
of approximately 35% in the negative tone and a 16% decrease in the neutral tone. Our
results show that Indians’ opinions on booster doses are more negative and polarized than
the original normal COVID-19 vaccines. As shown in Figures 2 and 3, the percentage of
people posting about COVID-19 booster doses in a neutral sentiment fluctuated throughout
the time period. Compared to March 2022, the percentage of Indians positive for booster
doses increased slightly in the later months. Comparing with March, there is a considerable
reduction in the percentage of people posting about booster doses in a neutral sentiment. It
can be inferred from our results that when comparing to the initial months of 2022, Indians
have become more polarized in their opinion regarding the booster dose vaccines.
Our topic modeling results showed that certain aspects, such as feeling that there is
no need for young people to take booster doses, feeling that taking booster doses is not
healthy, skepticism towards big pharma companies, fear of illness, COVID-19 vaccines
not being trustworthy, feeling that normal doses of vaccines are enough, fear of severe
side effects, negative perceptions created by media regarding booster doses, fear of chest
pain, and feeling booster doses are unnecessary, are the concerns Indian citizens discuss
about COVID-19 booster doses. With only 15.6% of the population feeling positive about
booster doses, it will be difficult for Indian governments and health policymakers to
encourage more citizens to take up additional vaccines. The Indian governments and
policymakers should administer and promote effective awareness programs and policies
through social media and all forms of necessary communications to educate the Indian
public regarding the necessity of taking booster doses to achieve the desired results of
protective immunity among the population and safeguard their health amid the ongoing
COVID-19 pandemic under the threats of continuously emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants,
sub-variants, and lineages. This research has a few limitations. We analyzed the perceptions
of Indians regarding booster doses for a period of seven months. The results may vary
slightly across different periods. In our research, we also did not consider the aspect
of subculture that plays a role in individuals developing their perceptions of COVID-19
vaccines. Future research can analyze the aspect of subculture and how much it modifies or
influences an individual’s perception of the development of perception towards COVID-19
vaccines. Further, we have only used English tweets for this study, and so our results
analyzed only the perception of English-speaking people in India. Future research can
focus on understanding the difference in perception of Indians speaking various languages.

Author Contributions: Designed the study, P.S. and K.D.; made the first draft, J.M.L.; updated the
manuscript, R.I., C.C., D.V.S.K. and T.M.; reviewed and edited the final draft, K.D. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are with corresponding author and will be provided upon rea-
sonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Vaccines 2022, 10, 1929 8 of 9

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