PCAA CPL MPL ATPL Learning Objectives - V1.0 - Mar 2022

Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority (PCAA)
FLIGHT CREW LICENSING

TECHNICAL THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE
EXAMINATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LOs)

PERSONNEL LICENSES – ATPL, MPL, CPL
(AEROPLANE AND HELICOPTER)
th
Publication date: 14 March 2022
PCAA, FCL (ATPL, MPL, CPL) Learning Objectives, v1.0, March 2022
Page 1 of 494
Table of Contents
1.1 Training aims ................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Additional Material ......................................................................................................... 6
A. SUBJECT 010 - AIR LAW .......................................................................................................... 7
B. SUBJECT 021 - AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS, POWER PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT .......................................................................................................................... 56
C. SUBJECT 022 - INSTRUMENTATION .................................................................................... 122
D. SUBJECT 031 - MASS AND BALANCE .................................................................................. 166
E. SUBJECT 032 - PERFORMANCE (AEROPLANE) .................................................................... 176
F. SUBJECT 033 - FLIGHT PLANNING & MONITORING ............................................................ 193
G. SUBJECT 034 - PERFORMANCE (HELICOPTER) .................................................................... 207
H. SUBJECT 040 - HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS .............................................. 216
I. SUBJECT 050 - METEOROLOGY ........................................................................................... 249
J. SUBJECT 061 - GENERAL NAVIGATION ............................................................................... 290
K. SUBJECT 062 - RADIO NAVIGATION .................................................................................... 317
L. SUBJECT 070 - OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ...................................................................... 367
M. SUBJECT 081- PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT (AEROPLANE) .......................................................... 403
N. SUBJECT 082 - PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT (HELICOPTER) ......................................................... 452
O. SUBJECT 091 - VFR COMMUNICATIONS ............................................................................. 484
P. SUBJECT 092 - IFR COMMUNICATIONS .............................................................................. 490
Page 2 of 494
DETAILED THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE SYLLABUS AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THE ATPL, MPL, AND CPL,
AEROPLANE AND HELICOPTER.
General note
Learning Objectives (LOs) provide a detailed breakdown of the PCAA syllabi for Flight Crew Licensing purposes. LOs
are derived from the technical theoretical knowledge requirements as specified in ICAO Annex 1, based on the
PCAA requirements and standards, using best practices derived from the United Kingdom and European standards
and associated applicable documents. Throughout this document (and LOs) ATOs and candidates are guided to
Legislation, Standards, References and Publications issued by the European Union (EU), European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) and/or United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority (UKCAA) where PCAA have adopted best practices in
content from these Institutions/Organizations.
The detailed theoretical knowledge syllabus outlines the topics that should be taught and examined in order
to meet the theoretical-knowledge requirements appropriate to ATPL, MPL, and CPL.
For each topic in the detailed theoretical knowledge syllabus, one or more Learning Objectives are set out in the
chapters as shown below.
Page 4 of 494
Reference Subject Chapter
010 Air law and ATC procedures A.
020 Aircraft general knowledge
021 Airframe and systems, electrics, power plant and emergency B.

equipment
022 Instrumentation C.
030 Flight performance and planning
031 Mass and balance D.
032 Performance (Aeroplane) E.
033 Flight planning & monitoring F.
034 Performance (Helicopter) G.
040 Human performance & limitations H.
050 Meteorology I.
060 Navigation
061 General navigation J.
062 Radio navigation K.
070 Operational procedures L.
080 Principles of flight
081 Principles of flight (Aeroplane) M.
082 Principles of flight (Helicopter) N.
090 Communications
091 VFR communications O.
092 IFR communications P.
The applicable Learning Objectives for each License or the instrument rating are marked with an ‘x’.
The Learning Objectives define the theoretical knowledge that a student should have assimilated on successful
completion of an approved theoretical -knowledge course prior to undertaking the theoretical-knowledge
examinations. They refer to measurable statements of the skills and knowledge that a student should be able to
demonstrate following a defined element of training.
The Learning Objectives are intended to be used by an ATO when developing FCL theoretical-knowledge elements
of the appropriate course. It should be noted, however, that the Learning Objectives do not provide a ready -
made ground-training syllabus for individual ATOs and should not be seen by organization’s as a
substitute for thorough course design.
Page 5 of 494
1.1 Training aims
After completion of the training, a student should be able to apply the acquired knowledge and skills to:
- understand the capabilities and limitations of the equipment used;
- identify sources of information and analyse information relevant to the operation;
- identify hazards, assess risks and manage threats;
- apply solutions to common problems including errors.
Specific examples of the application of knowledge and skills will be provided in the respective appendix to a
subject, if needed.
1.2 Additional Material
The abbreviations used are ICAO abbreviations listed in ICAO Doc 8400 ‘Abbreviations and Codes’..
The General Student Pilots Route Manual (GSPRM), otherwise known as the Training Route Manual (TRM), contains
planning data plus aerodrome and approach charts that may be used in theoretical-knowledge training courses.
UKCAA CAPS 696, 697, 698 for Aeroplanes and CAP 758 for Helicopters, may be used in training courses and for
reference during theoretical -knowledge examinations. "
Some numerical data, e.g. speeds, altitudes/levels and masses, used in questions for theoretical-
knowledge examinations may not be representative for helicopter operations but the data is satisfactory for
the calculations required.
Page 6 of 494
A. SUBJECT 010 - AIRLAW
A. SUBJECT 010 - AIR LAW
The subjects ‘Air law’ and ‘ATC procedures’ are primarily based on ICAO documentation and PCAA/EASA/UK
regulations and standards.
Syllabus reference Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 00 00 00 AIR LAW
010 01 00 00 INTERNATIONAL LAW:

CONVENTIONS, AGREEMENTS AND
ORGANIZATIONS
010 01 01 00 The Convention on International Civil

Aviation (Chicago) – ICAO DOC 7300
Explain the historical background that led to x x x x

01 the establishment of the Convention on
International Civil Aviation, Chicago, 7
December 1944.
010 01 01 01 Part I – Air navigation
Be familiar with the general contents of x x x x

01 relevant parts of the following chapters:
- general principles and application of
the Convention;
- flight over territory of Contracting
States;
- nationality of aircraft;
- measures to facilitate air navigation;
- conditions to be fulfilled with respect
to aircraft;
- international standards and
recommended practices (SARPs),
especially notification of differences
and validity of endorsed certificates
and Licenses.
02 General principles x x x x
Describe the application of the following
terms in civil aviation:
- sovereignty;
- territory, high seas, according to the
UN Convention on the High Seas.
Page 7 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
03 Define the following terms and explain how x x x x
they apply to international air traffic:
- right of non-scheduled flight
(including the two technical
freedoms of the air);
- scheduled air services;
- cabotage;
- landing at customs airports;
- applicability of air regulations;
- rules of the air;
- search of aircraft.
04 Describe the duties of Contracting States in x x x x

relation to:
- documents carried on board of the
aircraft:
• certificate of registration;
• certificates of airworthiness;
• Licenses of personnel;
• recognition of certificates and
Licenses;
- cargo restrictions;
- photographic apparatus
010 01 01 02 Part II — The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO)
01 Describe the objectives of ICAO. x x x x
02 Explain the organization and duties of the x x x x

ICAO Assembly, Council and Air Navigation
Commission (ANC).
03 Explain the organization and duties of the x x x x
ICAO Headquarters and Regional Offices.
04 Describe the worldwide ICAO regions. x x x x
05 Be familiar with the hierarchy of the ICAO x x x x
publications (SARPs, Docs): documents
- annexes to the Convention;
- documents
010 01 02 00 Other conventions and agreements
010 01 02 01 The International Air Services Transit

Agreement
(ICAO Doc 7500)
01 Explain the two technical freedoms of the x x x x
air.
Page 8 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 01 02 02 The International Air Transport Agreement
01 Explain the three commercial freedoms of the x x x x

air.
010 01 02 03 Suppression of unlawful acts against the
safety of civil aviation; the Conventions of
Tokyo, Den Haag and Montreal
01 Explain the facts that led to the x x x x
Conventions and Supplements concerning
unlawful acts against the safety of civil
aviation.
02 Explain the content of the Convention on x x x x
Unlawful Acts Committed on Board Aircraft.
(Doc 8364 — Convention on Offences and
Certain Other Acts Committed on Board
Aircraft, Tokyo, 14 September 1963)

Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft.
(Doc 8920 — Convention for the Suppression
of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, Den Haag, 16
December 1970, and Protocol for the
Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the
Safety of Civil Aviation, Montreal, 23
September 1971)

Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at
Airports Serving International Civil Aviation in
accordance with Doc 8966 — Convention for
the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the
Safety of Civil Aviation, done at Montreal on
23.9.1971, and signed at Montreal on 24
February 1988).
05 Describe the measures and actions to be x x x x
taken by the PIC of an aircraft in order to
suppress unlawful acts against the safety of
the aircraft.
(Doc 9518 — Protocol supplementary to
the Convention for the Suppression of
Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil
Aviation, done at Montreal on 23
September 1971, and signed at Montreal
on 24 February 1988)
010 01 02 04 Bilateral agreements
Page 9 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 Explain the reason for the existence of x x x
bilateral agreements for scheduled air
transport
(Digest of Bilateral Air Transport
Agreements, ICAO Doc 9511).
010 01 02 05 International private law
01 Explain the Conventions and Protocols x x x x

designed to cover liability towards persons
and goods in accordance with the Warsaw
System based on the Convention for the
Unification of Certain Rules Relating to
International Carriage by Air, Warsaw, 2
October 1929.(Doc 9740)
02 Explain the legal significance of the issue of a x x x x
passenger ticket and/or of baggage/cargo
documents.(Doc 9740)
03 Describe the consequences for an airline x x x x

and/or the PIC when a passenger ticket is not
issued.(Doc 9740).
04 Explain that the liability towards persons and x x x x

goods may be unlimited on the basis of the
Montreal Convention of 28 May 1999.
06 Explain the liability limit in relation to x x x x
destruction, loss, damage or delay of
baggage.(Doc 9740)
010 01 02 06 Operators’ and pilots’ liabilities towards

persons and goods on the ground in case of
damage and injury caused by the operation of
the aircraft
01 Explain the Conventions and Protocols x x x x
designed to cover liability towards persons
and goods on the ground based on the
International Convention for rules relating to
Damage Caused by aircraft, signed at
Rome on 29 May 1933 and on 7
October 1952, and at Montreal on 23
September 1978.
010 01 02 07 The Convention of Rome (1933) and
other documents related to rights in
aircraft.
01 Understand the rules relating to x x x x
international recognition of rights in aircraft
and the rules relating to precautionary
arrest of aircraft.
Page 10 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 01 03 00 World organizations
010 01 03 01 The International Air Transport

Association (IATA)
01 Describe the general organization and x x x
objectives of IATA.
010 01 04 00 European organizations
05 Describe the relationship between EASA, x x x x

ICAO and other organizations.
010 02 00 00 AIRWORTHINESS OF AIRCRAFT
010 02 01 00 ICAO Annex 8 and the related Certification

Specifications
01 Explain the definitions of ICAO Annex 8. x x x x
02 Explain the Airworthiness Standards of ICAO x x x x

Annex 8.
03 State to which aircraft the Standards of ICAO x x x x

Annex 8 apply.
010 02 02 00 Certificate of Airworthiness (CofA)
01 State the issuing authority of a CofA. x x x
02 State the necessity to have a CofA. x x x
03 Explain the various elements that are x x x

required for a CofA.
04 State who shall determine an aircraft’s x x x x
continuing airworthiness.
05 Describe how a Certificate of Airworthiness x x x
can be renewed or may remain valid.
010 03 00 00 AIRCRAFT NATIONALITY AND
REGISTRATION MARKS
010 03 01 00 Definitions of ICAO Annex 7
01 Recall the definitions of the following terms: x x x x

- aircraft;
- heavier-than-air aircraft;
- State of Registry.
010 03 02 00 Aircraft nationality, common and
registration marks to be used.
Page 11 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 State the location of nationality and x x
common and registration marks.
02 Explain the combination of nationality and x x x x
registration marks (sequence, use of
hyphen).
03 State who is responsible for assigning x x x x
registration marks.
010 04 00 00 PERSONNEL LICENSING
010 04 01 00 ICAO Annex 1
010 04 01 01 Differences between ICAO Annex 1 and the

National Aircrew Regulation
01 Describe the relationship and differences x x x x
between ICAO Annex 1 and the Aircrew
Regulation.
010 04 01 02 Definitions
01 Define the following: x x x x

category of aircraft, cross-country, dual
instruction time, flight time, instrument time,
instrument flight time, instrument ground
time, MCC, multi-pilot aircraft, night, private
pilot, proficiency check, renewal, revalidation,
skill test, solo flight time, type of aircraft.
010 04 02 00 National Regulations - CARs
010 04 02 03 Commercial Pilot License (CPL)
01 State the requirements for the issue of a x x x x

CPL.
02 State the privileges of a CPL. x x x x
010 04 02 04 Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL) and

Multi-crew Pilot License (MPL)
01 State the requirements for the issue of an x x x
ATPL and MPL.
02 State the privileges of an ATPL and MPL. x x x

010 04 02 05 Ratings
02 Explain the requirements for type ratings, x x x x

their validity and privileges.
03 Explain the requirements for instrument x x

ratings, their validity and privileges.
Page 12 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 04 03 00 PCAA National Regulations – Medical
02 MMedical
State the requirements for a medical x x x x
certificate.
03 Name the kind of medical certificate x x x x
required when exercising the privileges of a
CPL or ATPL.
04 State the actions to be taken in case of a x x x x
decrease in medical fitness.
010 05 00 00 RULES OF THE AIR
01 Explain the definitions of ICAO Annex 2. x x x x
010 05 02 00 Applicability of the Rules of the Air
01 Explain the territorial application of the x x x x

ICAO Rules of the Air.
02 Explain the compliance with the Rules of the x x x x

Air.
03 State who on board an aircraft is primarily x x x x

responsible for the operation of the aircraft
in accordance with the Rules of the Air.
04 Indicate under what circumstances x x x x
departure from the Rules of the Air may be
allowed.
05 Explain the duties of the PIC concerning x x
pre-flight actions in case of an IFR flight.
06 State who has the final authority as to the x x x
disposition of the aircraft.
07 Explain the problematic in the use of x x x
psychoactive substances by flight crew
members.
010 05 03 00 General rules
01 Describe the rules for the avoidance of x x x
collisions.
02 Describe the lights to be displayed by x x x
aircraft.
03 Understand marshalling signals. x x x x
04 State the basic requirements for minimum x x x x

height for the flight over congested areas
of cities, towns or settlements, or over an
open-air assembly of persons.
Page 13 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
05 Define when the cruising levels shall be x x x x
expressed in terms of flight levels (FL).
06 Define under what circumstances cruising x x x x
levels shall be expressed in terms of
altitudes.
07 Explain the limitation for proximity to x x x x
other aircraft and the right-of- way rules,
including holding at runway-holding
positions and lighted stop bars.
08 Describe the meaning of light signals x x x x

displayed to and by the aircraft.
09 Describe the requirements when carrying x x
out simulated instrument flights.
10 Indicate the basic rules for an aircraft x x x x
operating on and in the vicinity of an
aerodrome (AD).
11 Explain the requirements for the submission x x x x
of an ATS flight plan.
12 Explain why a time check has to be obtained x x x x
before the flight.
13 Explain the actions to be taken in case of flight- x x x x
plan change or delay.
14 State the actions to be taken in case of x x x x
inadvertent changes to track, true airspeed
(TAS) and time estimate affecting the current
flight plan.
15 Explain the procedures for closing a flight plan. x x x x
16 State for which flights an air traffic control x x x x

clearance shall be obtained.
17 State how a pilot may request an air traffic x x x x
control clearance.
18 State the action to be taken if an air traffic x x x x
control clearance is not satisfactory to a pilot-
in-command.
19 Describe the required actions to be carried x x
out if the continuation of a controlled VFR
flight in VMC is not practicable anymore.
20 Describe the provisions for transmitting a x x x x
position report to the appropriate ATS unit
including time of transmission and normal
content of the message.
Page 14 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
21 Describe the necessary action when an x x x x
aircraft experiences a COM failure.
22 State what information an aircraft being x x x x
subjected to unlawful interference shall give
to the appropriate ATS unit.
010 05 04 00 Visual Flight Rules (VFRs)
01 Describe the Visual Flight Rules as contained x x x x

in Chapter 4 of ICAO Annex 2.
010 05 05 00 Instrument Flight Rules (IFRs)
01 Describe the Instrument Flight Rules as x x

contained in Chapter 5 of ICAO Annex 2.
010 05 06 00 Interception of civil aircraft
01 List the possible reasons for intercepting a x x x x

civil aircraft.
02 State what primary action should be carried x x x x
out by an intercepted aircraft.
03 State which frequency should primarily be x x x x
tried in order to contact an intercepting
04 aircraft.
State on which mode and code a transponder x x x x
on board the intercepted aircraft should be
operated.
05 Recall the interception signals and phrases. x x x x
010 06 00 00 PROCEDURES FOR AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES

— AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS (PANS-OPS)
010 06 01 00 Foreword and introduction
01 Translate the term ‘PANS-OPS’ into plain x x

language.
02 State the general aim of PANS-OPS Flight x x
Procedures (ICAO Doc 8168, Volume I).
010 06 02 00 Definitions and abbreviations
01 Recall all definitions included in ICAO Doc x x

8168, Volume I, Part I, Chapter 1.
02 Interpret all abbreviations as shown in ICAO x x
Doc 8168, Volume I, Part I, Chapter 2.
010 06 03 00 Departure procedures
010 06 03 01 General criteria (assuming all engines

operating).
Page 15 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 Name the factors dictating the design of x x
instrument-departure procedures.
02 Explain in which situations the criteria for x x

omnidirectional departures are applied.
010 06 03 02 Standard instrument departures (SIDs)
01 Define the terms ‘straight departure’ and x x

‘turning departure’.
02 State the responsibility of the operator x x

when unable to utilise the published
departure procedures.
010 06 03 03 Omnidirectional departures
01 Explain when the ‘omnidirectional method’ is x x

used for departure.
02 Describe the solutions when an x x

omnidirectional procedure is not possible.
010 06 03 04 Published information
01 State the conditions for the publication of x x

a SID and/or RNAV route.
02 Describe how omnidirectional departures are x x
expressed in the appropriate publication.
010 06 03 05 Area Navigation (RNAV) departure
procedures and RNP- based departures
01 Explain the relationship between RNAV/RNP- x x

based departure procedures and those for
approaches.
010 06 04 00 Approach procedures
010 06 04 01 General criteria
Page 16 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 General criteria (except the table ‘Speeds x x
for procedure calculations’) of the
approach procedure design:
- instrument approach areas;
- accuracy of fixes;
- fixes formed by intersections;
- intersection fix-tolerance factors;
- other fix-tolerance factors;
- approach area splays;
- descent gradient.
02 Name the five possible segments of an x x
instrument approach procedure.
03 Give reasons for establishing aircraft x x

categories for the approach.
04 State the maximum angle between the x x

final approach track and the extended RWY
centre line to still consider a non-precision-
approach as being a ‘straight-in approach’.
05 State the minimum obstacle clearance x x

provided by the minimum sector altitudes
(MSAs) established for an aerodrome.
06 Describe the point of origin, shape, size x x

and subdivisions of the area used for MSAs.
07 State that a pilot shall apply wind corrections x x

when carrying out an instrument-approach
procedure.
08 Name the most significant performance factor x x
influencing the conduct of instrument-
approach procedures.
09 Explain why a pilot should not descend x x
below OCA/Hs which are established for:
- precision-approach procedures;
- non-precision -approach procedures;
- visual (circling) procedures.
10 Describe in general terms the relevant x x

factors for the calculation of operational
minima.
Page 17 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
11 Translate the following acronyms into plain x x
language:
DA, DH, OCA, OCH, MDA, MDH, MOC, DA/H,
OCA/H, MDA/H.
12 Explain the relationship between the terms: x x
DA, DH, OCA, OCH, MDA, MDH, MOC, DA/H,
OCA/H, MDA/H.
010 06 04 02 Approach-procedure design
01 Describe how the vertical cross section for x x

each of the five approach segments is
broken down into the various areas.
02 State within which area of the cross section x x
the Minimum Obstacle Clearance (MOC) is
provided for the whole width of the area.
03 Define the terms ‘IAF’, ‘IF’, ‘FAF’, x x
‘MAPt’ and ‘TP’.
04 Name the area within which the plotted x x

point of an intersection fix may lie.
05 Explain by which factors the dimensions of x x
an intersection fix are determined.
06 State the accuracy of facilities providing track x x

(VOR, ILS, NDB).
07 Describe the ‘other fix-tolerance factors’: x x

surveillance radar (Terminal Area Radar
(TAR)), En Route Surveillance Radar (RSR),
DME, 75 MHz marker beacon, fixes
overhead a station (VOR, NDB).
08 Describe the basic information relating to x x

approach-area splays.
09 State the optimum descent gradient x x

(preferred for a precision approach) in
degrees and per cent.
010 06 04 03 Arrival and approach segments
01 Name the five standard segments of an x x

instrument APP procedure and state the
beginning and end for each of them.
02 Describe where an ARR route normally ends. x x
Page 18 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
03 State whether or not omnidirectional or x x
sector arrivals can be provided.
04 Explain the main task of the initial APP x x

segment.
05 Describe the maximum angle of x x
interception between the initial APP
segment and the intermediate APP
segment (provided at the intermediate fix)
for a precision approach and a non-
precision approach.
06 Describe the main task of the intermediate x x
APP segment.
07 State the main task of the final APP x x

segment.
08 Name the two possible aims of a final APP. x x
09 Explain the term ‘final approach point’ in x x

case of an ILS approach.
10 State what happens if an ILS GP becomes x x

inoperative during the APP.
010 06 04 04 Missed approach
01 Name the three phases of a missed- x x

approach procedure and describe their
02 geometric limits.
Describe the main task of a missed- x x
approach procedure.
03 State at which height/altitude the missed x x

approach is assured to be initiated.
04 Define the term ‘missed approach point x x
(MAPt)’.
05 Describe how an MAPt may be established x x
in an approach procedure.
06 State the pilot’s reaction if, upon reaching x x
the MAPt, the required visual reference is
not established.
07 Describe what a pilot is expected to do in x x
the event a missed approach is initiated
prior to arriving at the MAPt.
Page 19 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
08 State whether the pilot is obliged to cross the x x
MAPt at the height/altitude required by the
procedure or whether they are allowed to
cross the MAPt at an altitude/height greater
than that required by the procedure.
010 06 04 05 Visual maneuvering (circling) in the
vicinity of the aerodrome
01 Describe what is meant by ‘visual x x

maneuvering (circling)’.
02 Describe how a prominent obstacle in the x x

visual maneuvering (circling) area outside the
final-approach and missed-approach area has
to be considered for the visual circling.
03 State for which category of aircraft the x x
obstacle-clearance altitude/ height within an
established visual- maneuvering (circling) area
is determined.
04 Describe how an MDA/H is specified for visual x x
maneuvering (circling) if the OCA/H is known.
05 State the conditions to be fulfilled before x x

descending below MDA/H in a visual-
maneuvering (circling) approach.
06 Describe why there can be no single x x
procedure designed that will cater for
conducting a circling approach in every
situation.
07 State how the pilot is expected to x x
behave after initial visual contact during a
visual maneuvering (circling).
08 Describe what the pilot is expected to do if x x
visual reference is lost while circling to land
from an instrument approach.
010 06 04 06 Area Navigation (RNAV) approach
procedures based on VOR/DME
01 Describe the provisions that must be fulfilled x x
before carrying out VOR/DME RNAV
approaches.
02 Explain the disadvantages of the VOR/DME x x

RNAV system.
03 List the factors the navigational accuracy of x x

the VOR/DME RNAV system depends on.
Page 20 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
04 State whether the VOR/DME/RNAV approach x x
is a precision or a non- precision procedure.
010 06 04 07 Use of FMS/RNAV equipment to follow

conventional non- precision approach
procedures
01 State the provisions for flying the x x

conventional non-precision approach
procedures using FMS/RNAV equipment.
010 06 05 00 Holding procedures
010 06 05 01 Entry and holding
01 Explain why deviations from the in- flight x x

procedures of a holding established in
accordance with Doc 8168 are dangerous.
02 State that if for any reasons a pilot is unable x x

to conform to the procedures for normal
conditions laid down for any particular
holding pattern, they should advise ATC as
early as possible.
03 Describe how right-turn holdings can be x x
transferred to left-turn holding patterns.
04 Describe the shape and terminology x x
associated with the holding pattern.
05 State the bank angle and rate of turn to be x x
used whilst flying in a holding pattern.
06 Explain why pilots in a holding pattern x x
should attempt to maintain tracks and
how this can be achieved.
07 Describe where outbound timing begins in a x x
holding pattern.
08 State where the outbound leg in a holding x x

terminates if the outbound leg is based on
DME.
09 Describe the three heading-entry sectors for x x
entries into a holding pattern.
10 Define the terms ‘parallel entry’, ‘offset entry’ x x
and ‘direct entry’.
11 Determine the correct entry procedure for a x x
given holding pattern.
12 State the still air time for flying the outbound x x
entry heading with or without DME.
Page 21 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
13 Describe what the pilot is expected to do x x
when clearance is received specifying the
time of departure from the holding point.
010 06 05 02 Obstacle clearance (except table)
01 Describe the layout of the basic holding area, x x

entry area and buffer area of a holding
pattern.
02 State which obstacle clearance is provided by x x
a minimum permissible holding level referring
to the holding area, the buffer area
(general only) and over high terrain or in
mountainous areas.
010 06 06 00 Altimeter-setting procedures
010 06 06 01 Basic requirements and procedures
01 Describe the two main objectives of altimeter x x x x

settings.
02 Define the terms ‘QNH’ and ‘QFE’. x x x x
03 Describe the different terms for altitude or x x x x

flight levels respectively which are the
references during climb or descent to change
the altimeter setting from QNH to 1013.2 hPa
and vice versa.
04 Define the term ‘Flight Level (FL)’. x x x x
05 State where flight level zero shall be located. x x x x

06 State the interval by which consecutive flight x x x x
levels shall be separated.
07 Describe how flight levels are numbered. x x x x
08 Define the term ‘Transition Altitude’. x x x x
09 State how Transition Altitudes shall normally x x x x

be specified.
10 Explain how the height of the Transition x x x x
Altitude is calculated and expressed in
practice.
11 State where Transition Altitudes shall be x x x x
published.
12 Define the term ‘Transition Level’. x x x x
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13 State when the Transition Level is x x x x
normally passed on to the aircraft.
14 State how the vertical position of the aircraft x x x x

shall be expressed at or below the Transition
Altitude and Transition Level.
15 Define the term ‘Transition Layer’. x x x x
16 Describe when the vertical position of an x x x x

aircraft passing through the transition
layer shall be expressed in terms of flight
levels and when in terms of altitude.
17 State when the QNH altimeter setting x x x x

shall be made available to departing
aircraft.
18 Explain when the vertical separation of an x x x x

aircraft during en route flight shall be
assessed in terms of altitude and when in
terms of flight levels.
19 Explain when, in air–ground x x x x

communications during an en route flight,
the vertical position of an aircraft shall be
expressed in terms of altitude and when in
terms of flight levels.
20 Describe why QNH altimeter-setting x x x x

reports should be provided from sufficient
locations.
21 State how a QNH altimeter setting shall x x x x

be made available to aircraft approaching
a controlled aerodrome for landing.
22 State under which circumstances the x x x x
vertical position of an aircraft above the
transition level may be referenced to
altitudes.
010 06 06 02 Procedures for operators and pilots
01 State the three requirements that selected x x x x

altitudes or selected flight levels should
have.
02 Describe a pre-flight operational test in case x x x x
of QNH setting and in case of QFE
setting including indication (error)
tolerances referred to the different test
ranges.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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03 State on which setting at least one x x x x
altimeter shall be set prior to take- off.
04 State where during the climb the altimeter x x x x
setting shall be changed from QNH to
1013.2 hPa.
05 Describe when a pilot of an aircraft x x x x
intending to land at an AD shall obtain the
transition level.
06 Describe when a pilot of an aircraft x x x x
intending to land at an AD shall obtain the
actual QNH altimeter setting.
07 State where the altimeter settings shall x x x x
be changed from 1013.2 hPa to QNH
during descent for landing.
010 06 07 00 Simultaneous operation on parallel or near-
parallel instrument runways
01 Describe the difference between x x x x

independent and dependent parallel
approaches.
02 Describe the following different operations: x x x x

- simultaneous instrument departures;
- segregated parallel
approaches/departures;
- semi-mixed and mixed operations.
03 Describe the terms ‘normal operating zone x x x x

(NOZ)’ and ‘no transgression zone (NTZ)’.
04 Name the aircraft equipment requirements x x x x
for conducting parallel instrument
approaches.
05 State under which circumstances parallel x x x x

instrument approaches may be conducted.
06 State the radar requirements for x x x x

simultaneous, independent, parallel
instrument approaches and how weather
conditions effect these.
07 State the maximum angle of interception for x x x x
an ILS localiser CRS or MLS final APP track in
case of simultaneous, independent, parallel
instrument approaches.
08 Describe the special conditions for tracks on x x x x

missed approach procedures and departures
in case of simultaneous, parallel operations.
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Learning Objectives
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010 06 08 00 Secondary surveillance radar (transponder)
operating procedures
010 06 08 01 Operation of transponders
01 State when and where the pilot shall operate x x x x

the transponder.
02 State the modes and codes that the pilot x x x x
shall operate in the absence of any ATC
directions or regional air navigation
agreements.
03 Indicate when the pilot shall operate Mode x x x x

C.
04 State when the pilot shall ‘SQUAWK IDENT’. x x x x
05 State the transponder mode and code to x x x x

indicate:
- a state of emergency;
- a communication failure;
- unlawful interference.
06 Describe the consequences of a transponder x x x x
failure in flight.
07 State the primary action of the pilot in the x x x x
case of an unserviceable transponder
before departure when no repair or
replacement at the given aerodrome is
possible.
010 06 08 02 Operation of ACAS equipment
01 Describe the main reason for using ACAS. x x x x
02 Indicate whether the ‘use of ACAS x x x x

indications’ described in Doc 8168 is
absolutely mandatory.
03 Explain the pilots’ reaction required to x x x x
allow ACAS to fulfil its role of assisting pilots
in the avoidance of potential collisions.
04 Explain why pilots shall not manoeuvre x x x x
their aircraft in response to Traffic
Advisories only.
05 Explain the significance of Traffic Advisories x x x x
in view of possible Resolution Advisories.
06 State why a pilot should follow Resolution x x x x
Advisories immediately.
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Learning Objectives
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07 List the reasons which may force a pilot to x x x x
disregard a Resolution Advisory.
08 Decide how a pilot shall react if there is a x x x x
conflict between Resolution Advisories in
case of an ACAS/ACAS coordinated
encounter Resolution Advisories.
09 Explain the importance of instructing ATC x x x x

immediately that a Resolution Advisory
has been followed.
Explain the duties of a pilot as far as ATC is x x x x
10 concerned when a Resolution Advisory
situation is resolved.
010 07 00 00 AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES AND AIR TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
010 07 01 00 ICAO Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services
01 Recall the definitions given in ICAO Annex 11. x x x x
010 07 01 02 General
01 Name the objectives of Air Traffic Services x x x x

(ATS).
02 Describe the three basic types of Air Traffic x x x x
Services.
03 Describe the three basic types of Air Traffic x x x x
Control services (ATC).
04 Indicate when aerodrome control towers x x x x
shall provide an accurate time check to
pilots.
05 State on which frequencies a pilot can x x x x
expect ATS to contact them in case of an
emergency.
06 Understand the procedure for the transfer x x x x

of an aircraft from one ATC unit to another.
010 07 01 03 Airspace
01 Describe the purpose for establishing FIRs x x x x

including UIRs.
02 Understand the various rules and services x x x x
that apply to the various classes of airspace.
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Learning Objectives
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03 Explain which airspace shall be included in an x x x x
FIR or UIR.
04 State the designation for those portions of the x x x x
airspace where flight information service (FIS)
and alerting service shall be provided.
05 State the designations for those portions of x x x x
the airspace where ATC service shall be
provided.
06 Indicate whether or not CTAs and CTRs x x x x

designated within an FIR shall form part of
that FIR.
07 Name the lower limit of a CTA as far as ICAO x x x x

standards are concerned.
08 State whether or not the lower limit of a CTA x x x x
has to be established uniformly.
09 Explain why a UIR or Upper CTA should be x x x x

delineated to include the Upper Airspace
within the lateral limits of a number of lower
FIRs or CTAs.
10 Describe in general the lateral limits of CTRs. x x x x
11 State the minimum extension (in NM) of the x x x x
lateral limits of a CTR.
12 State the upper limits of a CTR located within x x x x
the lateral limits of a CTA.
010 07 01 04 Air Traffic Control services
01 Name all classes of airspace in which ATC shall x x x x

be provided.
02 Name the ATS units providing ATC service x x x x
(area control service, approach control
service, aerodrome control service).
03 Describe which unit(s) may be assigned with x x x x
the task to provide specified services on the
apron.
04 Name the purpose of clearances issued by an x x x x
ATC unit.
05 Describe the aim of clearances issued by ATC x x x x
with regard to IFR, VFR or special VFR flights,
and refer to the different airspaces.
06 List the various (five possible) parts of an ATC x x x x
clearance.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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07 Describe the various aspects of clearance x x x x
coordination.
08 State how ATC shall react when it becomes x x x x
apparent that traffic, additional to that
already accepted, cannot be accommodated
within a given period of time at a particular
location or in a particular area, or can only be
accommodated at a given rate.
09 Explain why the movement of persons, x x x x
vehicles and towed aircraft on the
maneuvering area of an AD shall be controlled
by the AD TWR (as necessary).
010 07 01 05 Flight Information Service (FIS)
01 State for which aircraft FIS shall be provided. x x x x
02 State whether or not FIS shall include the x x x x

provision of pertinent SIGMET and AIRMET
information.
03 State which information FIS shall include in x x x x
addition to SIGMET and AIRMET information.
04 Indicate which other information the FIS shall x x x x
include in addition to the special information
given in ANNEX 11.
05 Name the three major types of operational FIS x x x x
broadcasts.
06 Give the meaning of the acronym ATIS in plain x x x x
language.
07 Show that you are acquainted with the basic x x x x
conditions for transmitting an ATIS as
indicated in ANNEX 11.
08 Mention the four possible ATIS messages. x x x x
09 List the basic information concerning ATIS x x x x

broadcasts (e.g. frequencies used, number of
ADs included, updating, identification,
acknowledgment of receipt, language and
channels, ALT setting).
10 Understand the content of an ATIS message x x x x

and the factors involved.
11 State the reasons and circumstances when an x x x x
ATIS message shall be updated.
010 07 01 06 Alerting service
01 Indicate who provides the alerting service. x x x x
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Learning Objectives
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02 State who is responsible for initiating the x x x x
appropriate emergency phase.
03 Indicate the aircraft to which alerting service x x x x
shall be provided.
04 Name the unit which shall be notified by the x x x x
responsible ATS unit immediately when an
aircraft is considered to be in a state of
emergency.
05 Name the three stages of emergency and x x x x

describe the basic conditions for each kind of
emergency.
06 Demonstrate knowledge of the meaning of x x x x
the expressions INCERFA, ALERFA and
DETRESFA.
07 Describe the limiting conditions for the x x x x

information of aircraft in the vicinity of an
aircraft being in a state of emergency.
010 07 01 07 Principles governing RNP and ATS route
designators
01 State the meaning of the expressions RNP 4, x x x x
RNP 1, etc.
02 State the factors that RNP is based on. x x x x
03 Describe the reason for establishing a system x x x x

of route designators and Required Navigation
Performance (RNP).
04 State whether or not a prescribed x x x x
RNP type is considered an integral part of the
ATS route designator.
05 Demonstrate general knowledge of the x x x x
composition of an ATS route designator.
010 07 02 00 ICAO Document 4444 — Air Traffic
Management
010 07 02 01 Foreword (Scope and purpose)
01 Explain in plain language the meaning of the x x x x

acronym ‘PANS- ATM’.
02 State whether or not the procedures x x x x
prescribed in ICAO Doc 4444 are directed
exclusively to ATS services personnel.
03 Describe the relationship between ICAO Doc x x x x
4444 and other documents.
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Learning Objectives
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04 State whether or not a clearance issued by x x x x
ATC units does include prevention of collision
with terrain, and if there is an exception to
this, name the exception.
01 Recall all definitions given in Doc 4444 except x x x x
the following:
accepting unit/controller, AD taxi circuit,
aeronautical fixed service (AFS), aeronautical
fixed station, air-taxiing, allocation, approach
funnel, assignment, data convention, data
processing, discrete code, D-value, flight
status, ground effect, receiving
unit/controller, sending unit/controller,
transfer of control point, transferring
unit/controller, unmanned free balloon.
010 07 02 03 ATS system capacity and Air Traffic Flow

Management (ATFM)
01 Explain when and where ATFM service shall x x x x
be implemented.
010 07 02 04 General provisions for Air Traffic Services
01 Describe who is responsible for the x x x x

provision of flight information and alerting
service within a Flight Information Region
(FIR) within controlled airspace and at
controlled aerodromes.
010 07 02 05 ATC clearances
01 Explain ‘the sole scope and purpose’ of an x x x x

ATC clearance.
02 State which information the issue of an ATC x x x x
clearance is based on.
03 Describe what a PIC should do if an ATC x x x x
clearance is not suitable.
04 Indicate who bears the responsibility for x x x x
adhering to the applicable rules and
regulations whilst flying under the control
of an ATC unit.
05 Name the two primary purposes of x x x x
clearances issued by ATC units.
06 State why clearances must be issued ‘early x x x x
enough’ to en route aircraft.
07 Explain what is meant by the expression x x x x
‘clearance limit’.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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08 Explain the meaning of the phrases ‘cleared x x x x
via flight planned route’, ‘cleared via
(designation) departure’ and ‘cleared via
(designation) arrival’ in an ATC clearance.
09 List which items of an ATC clearance shall x x x x

always be read back by the flight crew.
010 07 02 06 Horizontal speed control instructions
01 Explain the reason for speed control by ATC. x x x x
02 Define the maximum speed changes that ATC x x x x

may impose.
03 State within which distance from the x x x x
threshold the PIC must not expect any kind of
speed control.
010 07 02 07 Change from IFR to VFR flight
01 Explain how the change from IFR to VFR can x x

be initiated by the PIC.
02 Indicate the expected reaction of the x x
appropriate ATC unit upon a request to
change from IFR to VFR.
010 07 02 08 Wake turbulence
01 State the wake-turbulence categories of x x x x

aircraft.
02 State the wake-turbulence separation x x x x
minima.
03 Describe how a ‘heavy’ aircraft shall indicate x x x x
this in the initial radiotelephony contact with
ATS.
010 07 02 09 Altimeter-setting procedures
01 Define the following terms: x x x x

- transition level;
- transition layer; and
- transition altitude.
02 Indicate how the vertical position of an x x x x

aircraft in the vicinity of an aerodrome shall
be expressed at or below the transition
altitude, at or above the transition level, and
while climbing or descending through the
transition layer.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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03 Describe when the height of an aircraft using x x x x
QFE during an NDB approach is referred to
the landing threshold instead of the
aerodrome elevation.
04 Indicate how far altimeter settings provided x x x x
to aircraft shall be rounded up or down.
05 Define the expression ‘lowest usable flight x x x x
level’.
06 Determine how the vertical position of an x x x x
aircraft on an en route flight is expressed at or
above the lowest usable flight level and below
the lowest usable flight level.
07 State who establishes the transition level to x x x x
be used in the vicinity of an aerodrome.
08 Decide how and when a flight crew member x x x x
shall be informed about the transition level.
09 State whether or not the pilot can request the x x x x
transition level to be included in the approach
clearance.
10 State in what kind of clearance the QNH x x x x
altimeter setting shall be included.
010 07 02 10 Position reporting
01 Describe when position reports shall be made x x x x

by an aircraft flying on routes defined by
designated significant points.
02 List the six items that are normally included in x x x x
a voice position report.
03 Name the requirements for using a simplified x x x x

position report with flight level, next position
(and time over) and ensuing significant points
omitted.
04 Name the item of a position report which x x x x
must be forwarded to ATC with the initial call
after changing to a new frequency.
05 Indicate the item of a position report which x x x x
may be omitted if SSR Mode C is used.
06 Explain in which circumstances the indicated x x x x
airspeed should be included in a position
report.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
07 Explain the meaning of the acronym x x x x
‘ADS’.
08 State to which unit an ADS report shall be x x x x
made.
09 Describe how ADS reports shall be made. x x x x
10 Describe which expression shall precede the x x x x

level figures in a position report if the level is
reported in relation to 1013.2 hPa (standard
pressure).
010 07 02 11 Reporting of operational and

meteorological information
01 List the occasions when special air reports x x x x
shall be made.
010 07 02 12 Separation methods and minima
01 Explain the general provisions for the x x

separation of controlled traffic.
02 Name the different kinds of separation used x x
in aviation.
03 Understand the difference between the x x
type of separation provided within the
various classes of airspace and the various
types of flight.
04 State who is responsible for the avoidance x x
of collision with other aircraft when
operating in VMC.
05 State the ICAO documents in which details of x x
current separation minima are prescribed.
06 Describe how vertical separation is obtained. x x
07 State the required vertical separation x x
minimum.
08 Describe how the cruising levels of aircraft x x
flying to the same destination and in the
expected approach sequence are correlated
with each other.
09 Name the conditions that must be adhered to x x

when two aircraft are cleared to maintain a
specified vertical separation between them
during climb or descent.
10 List the two main methods for horizontal x x

separation.
Page 33 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
11 Describe how lateral separation of aircraft at x x
the same level may be obtained.
12 Explain the term ‘geographical separation’. x x
13 Describe track separation between aircraft x x

using the same navigation aid or method.
14 Describe the three basic means for the x x
establishment of longitudinal separation.
15 Describe the circumstances under which a x x
reduction in separation minima may be
allowed.
16 Indicate the standard horizontal radar x x

separation in NM.
17 Describe the method of the Mach- number x x
technique.
18 State the wake-turbulence radar x x
separation for aircraft in the APP and DEP
phases of a flight when an aircraft is
operating directly behind another aircraft at
the same ALT or less than 300 m (1 000 ft)
below.
010 07 02 13 Separation in the vicinity of aerodromes
01 Define the expression ‘Essential Local Traffic’. x x x x
02 State which possible decision the PIC may x x x x

choose to take if departing aircraft are
expedited by suggesting a take-off direction
which is not ‘into the wind’.
03 State the condition to enable ATC to initiate x x x x

a visual approach for an IFR flight.
04 Indicate whether or not separation shall be x x x x
provided by ATC between an aircraft
executing a visual approach and other arriving
or departing aircraft.
05 State in which case, when the flight crew are x x x x
not familiar with the instrument approach
procedure being carried out, only the final
approach track has to be forwarded to them
by ATC.
06 Describe which flight level should be assigned x x x x

to an aircraft first arriving over a holding fix
for landing.
Page 34 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
07 State which kinds of priority can be applied to x x x x
aircraft for a landing.
08 Understand the situation when a pilot of an x x x x
aircraft in an approach sequence indicates
their intention to hold for weather
improvements.
09 Explain the term ‘Expected Approach Time’ x x x x
and the procedures for its use.
10 State the reasons which could probably lead x x x x
to the decision to use another take-off or
landing direction than the one into the wind.
11 Name the possible consequences for a PIC if x x x x

the ‘RWY-in-use’ is not considered suitable for
the operation involved.
010 07 02 14 Miscellaneous separation procedures
01 State the separation of aircraft holding in x x x x

flight.
02 State the minimum separation between x x x x
departing aircraft.
03 State the minimum separation between x x x x
departing and arriving aircraft.
04 State the non-radar wake-turbulence x x x x
longitudinal separation minima.
05 Describe the consequences of a clearance to x x x x
‘maintain own separation’ while in VMC.
06 Give a brief description of ‘essential traffic’ x x x x
and ‘essential traffic information’.
07 Describe the circumstances under which a x x x x
reduction in separation minima may be
allowed.
010 07 02 15 Arriving and departing aircraft
01 List the elements of information which shall x x x x

be transmitted to an aircraft as early as
practicable if an approach for landing is
intended.
02 List the information to be transmitted to an x x x x

aircraft at the commencement of final
approach.
03 List the information to be transmitted to an x x x x
aircraft during final approach.
Page 35 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
04 Acquaint yourself with all the information x x x x
regarding arriving and/or departing aircraft on
parallel or near-parallel runways, including
knowledge about NTZ and NOZ and the
various combinations of parallel arrivals
and/or departures.
05 State the sequence of priority between x x x x
aircraft landing (or in the final stage of
an approach to land) and aircraft intending
to depart.
06 Explain the factors that influence the x x x x
approach sequence.
07 State the significant changes in the x x x x
meteorological conditions in the take- off or
climb-out area that shall be transmitted
without delay to a departing aircraft.
08 Describe what information shall be forwarded x x x x
to a departing aircraft as far as visual or non-
visual aids are concerned.
09 State the significant changes that shall be x x x x

transmitted as early as practicable to an
arriving aircraft, particularly changes in the
meteorological conditions.
010 07 02 16 Procedures for aerodrome control service
01 Describe the general tasks of the Aerodrome x x x x

Control Tower (TWR) when issuing
information and clearances to aircraft under
its control.
02 List for which aircraft and their given positions x x x x

or flight situations the TWR shall prevent
collisions.
03 Name the operational failure or irregularity of x x x x
AD equipment which shall be reported to the
TWR immediately.
04 State that, after a given period of time, the x x x x
TWR shall report to the ACC or FIC if an
aircraft does not land as expected.
05 Describe the procedures to be observed x x x x
by the TWR whenever VFR operations are
suspended.
06 Explain the term ‘RWY-in-use’ and its x x x x
selection.
Page 36 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
07 List the information the TWR should give to x x x x
an aircraft:
- prior to taxiing for take-off;
- prior to take-off;
- prior to entering the traffic circuit.
08 Explain that a report of surface wind x x x x

direction given to a pilot by the TWR is
magnetic.
09 Explain the exact meaning of the x x x x
expression ‘runway vacated’.
010 07 02 17 Radar services
01 State to what extent the use of radar in air x x x x

traffic services may be limited.
02 State what radar-derived information shall be x x x x
available for display to the controller as a
minimum.
03 Name the two basic identification procedures x x x x
used with radar.
04 Define the term ‘PSR’. x x x x
05 Describe the circumstances under which an x x x x

aircraft provided with radar service should be
informed of its position.
06 List the possible forms of position information x x x x

passed on to the aircraft by radar services.
07 Define the term ‘radar vectoring’. x x x x
08 State the aims of radar vectoring as shown in x x x x

ICAO Doc 4444.
09 State how radar vectoring shall be achieved. x x x x
10 Describe the information which shall be given x x x x

to an aircraft when radar vectoring is
terminated and the pilot is instructed to
resume own navigation.
11 Explain the procedures for the conduct of x x x x
Surveillance Radar Approaches (SRA).
12 Describe what kind of action (concerning the x x x x
transponder) the pilot is expected to perform
in case of emergency if they have previously
been directed by ATC to operate the
transponder on a specific code.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 07 02 18 Air traffic advisory service
01 Describe the objective and basic principles of x x x x

the air traffic advisory service.
02 State to which aircraft air traffic advisory x x x x
service shall be provided.
03 Explain why air traffic advisory service does x x x x
not deliver ‘clearances’ but only ‘advisory
information’.
010 07 02 19 Procedures related to emergencies,
communication failure and contingencies
01 State the mode and code of SSR equipment a x x x x
pilot might operate in a (general) state of
emergency or (specifically) in case the aircraft
is subject to unlawful interference.
02 State the special rights an aircraft in a state of x x x x

emergency can expect from ATC.
03 Describe the expected action of aircraft after x x x x
receiving a broadcast from ATS concerning
the emergency descent of an aircraft.
04 State how it can be ascertained, in case of a x x x x
failure of two-way communication, whether
the aircraft is able to receive transmissions
from the ATS unit.
05 Explain the assumption based on which x x x x
separation shall be maintained if an aircraft is
known to experience a COM failure in VMC or
in IMC.
06 State on which frequencies appropriate x x x x
information, for an aircraft encountering two-
way COM failure, shall be sent by ATS.
07 Describe the expected actions of an ATS unit x x x x

after having been informed that an aircraft is
being intercepted in or outside its area of
responsibility.
08 State what is meant by the expression x x x x
‘strayed aircraft’ and ‘unidentified aircraft’.
09 Explain the minimum level for fuel- dumping x x x x
and the reasons for this.
10 Explain the possible request of ATC to an x x x x
aircraft to change its RTF call sign.
010 07 02 20 Miscellaneous procedures
Page 38 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 Explain the meaning of ‘AIRPROX’. x x x x
02 Determine the task of an air traffic incident x x x x

report.
010 08 00 00 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE
010 08 01 00 Introduction
01 State, in general terms, the objective of the x x x x

Aeronautical Information Service.
01 Recall the following definitions: x x x x

Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC),
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP),
AIP amendment, AIP supplement, AIRAC,
danger area, Integrated Aeronautical
Information Package, international airport,
international NOTAM office (NOF),
maneuvering area, movement area,
NOTAM, Pre-flight Information Bulletin
(PIB), prohibited area, restricted area,
SNOWTAM, ASHTAM.
010 08 03 00 General
01 State during which period of time x x x x

aeronautical information service shall be
available with reference to an aircraft flying in
the area of responsibility of an AIS, provided a
24-hour service is not available.
02 Name (in general) the kind of aeronautical x x x x
information/data which an AIS service shall
make available in a suitable form to flight
crews.
03 Summarise the duties of aeronautical x x x x

information service concerning aeronautical
information data for the territory of the State.
04 Understand the principles of WGS 84. x x x x
010 08 04 00 Integrated Aeronautical Information

01 Package
Name the different elements that make up an x x x x
Integrated Aeronautical Information Package.
010 08 04 01 Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
01 State the primary purpose of the AIP. x x x x
02 Name the different parts of the AIP. x x x x
Page 39 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
03 State in which main part of the AIP the x x x x
following information can be found:
- differences from the ICAO Standards,
Recommended Practices and
Procedures;
- location indicators, aeronautical
information services, minimum flight
altitude, VOLMET service, SIGMET
service;
- general rules and procedures
(especially general rules, VFR, IFR,
ALT-setting procedure, interception
of civil aircraft, unlawful
interference, air traffic incidents);
- ATS airspace (especially FIR, UIR,
TMA);
- ATS routes (especially lower ATS
routes, upper ATS routes, area
navigation routes);
- aerodrome data including aprons,
- AD surface-movement guidance and
control system and markings;
- RWY physical characteristics,
declared distances, APP and RWY
lighting;
- AD radio navigation and landing
aids;
- charts related to an AD;
- entry, transit and departure of
aircraft, passengers, crew and cargo.
04 State how permanent changes to the AIP shall x x x x

be published.
05 Explain what kind of information shall be x x x x
published in the form of AIP Supplements.
06 Describe how conspicuousness of AIP x x x x
Supplement pages is achieved.
010 08 04 02 NOTAMs
01 Describe how information shall be published x x x x

which in principle would belong to NOTAMs
but includes extensive text and/or graphics.
02 Summarise essential information which leads x x x x
to the issuance of a NOTAM.
03 State to whom NOTAMs shall be distributed. x x x x
Page 40 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
04 Explain how information regarding snow, ice x x x x
and standing water on AD pavements shall be
reported.
05 Describe the means by which NOTAMs shall x x x x

be distributed.
06 State which information an ASHTAM may x x x x
contain.
010 08 04 03 Aeronautical Information Regulation and

Control (AIRAC)
01 List the circumstances under which the x x x x
information concerned shall or should be
distributed as AIRAC.
02 State the sequence in which AIRACs shall be x x x x

issued and state how many days before the
effective date the information shall be
distributed by AIS.
010 08 04 04 Aeronautical Information Circulars (AICs)
01 Describe the reasons for the publication of x x x x

AICs.
02 Explain the organization and standard colour x x x x

codes of AICs.
03 Explain the normal publication cycle of AICs. x x x x
010 08 04 05 Pre-flight and post-flight information/data
01 List (in general) which details shall be included x x x x

in the aeronautical information provided for
pre-flight planning purposes at the
appropriate ADs.
02 Summarise the additional current information x x x x

relating to the AD of departure that shall be
provided as pre-flight information.
03 Describe how a recapitulation of current x x x x
NOTAM and other information of urgent
character shall be made available to flight
crews.
Page 41 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
04 State which post-flight information from x x x x
aircrews shall be submitted to AIS for
distribution as required by the circumstances.
010 09 00 00 AERODROMES (ICAO Annex 14,

Volume I — Aerodrome Design and
Operations)
010 09 01 00 General
01 Recognise all definitions of ICAO Annex 14 x x x x

except the following:
accuracy, cyclic redundancy check, data
quality, effective intensity, ellipsoid height
(geodetic height), geodetic datum, geoid,
geoid undulation, integrity (aeronautical
data), light failure, lighting system
reliability, orthometric height, station
declination, usability factor, Reference code.
02 Describe, in general terms, the intent of the x x x x

AD reference code as well as its composition
of two elements.
010 09 02 00 Aerodrome data
01 Describe where the aerodrome reference x x x x

point shall be located and where it shall
normally remain.
010 09 02 02 Pavement strengths
01 Explain the terms PCN and ACN and describe x x x x

their mutual dependence.
02 Describe how the bearing strength for an x x x x
aircraft with an apron mass equal to or less
than 5 700 kg shall be reported.
010 09 02 03 Declared distances
01 List the four most important declared RWY x x x x

distances and indicate where you can find
guidance on their calculation in ICAO Annex
14.
Page 42 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
02 Recall the definitions for the four main x x x x
declared distances.
010 09 02 04 Condition of the movement area and
related facilities
01 Understand the purpose of informing AIS and x x x x
ATS units about the condition of the
movement area and related facilities.
02 List the matters of operational significance or x x x x
affecting aircraft performance which should
be reported to AIS and ATS units to be
transmitted to aircraft involved.
03 Describe the four different types of water x x x x
deposit on runways.
04 Name the three defined states of frozen x x x x
water on the RWY.
05 Understand the five levels of braking action x x x x
including the associated coefficients and
codes.
010 09 03 00 Physical characteristics
010 09 03 01 Runways
01 Describe where a threshold should normally x x x x

be located.
02 Describe the general considerations x x x x
concerning runways associated with a
stopway or clearway.
03 State where in Annex 14 you can find detailed x x x x
information about the required runway width
dependent upon code number and code
letter.
010 09 03 02 Runway strips
01 Explain the term ‘runway strip’. x x x x
010 09 03 03 Runway-end safety area
01 Explain the term ‘RWY-end safety area’. x x x x
010 09 03 04 Clearway
01 Explain the term ‘clearway’. x x x x
010 09 03 05 Stopway
01 Explain the term ‘stopway’. x x x x
Page 43 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 09 03 06 Radio-altimeter operating area
01 Describe where a radio-altimeter operating

area should be established and how far it
should extend laterally and longitudinally.
010 09 03 07 Taxiways
01 Describe the condition which must be fulfilled x x x x

to maintain the required clearance between
the outer main wheels of an aircraft and the
edge of the taxiway.
02 Describe the reasons and the requirements x x x x
for rapid-exit taxiways.
03 State the reason for a taxiway widening in x x x x
curves.
04 Explain when and where holding bays should x x x x
be provided.
05 Describe where runway holding positions shall x x x x
be established.
06 Define the term ‘road holding position’. x x x x
07 Describe where intermediate taxiway holding x x x x

positions should be established.
010 09 04 00 Visual aids for navigation
010 09 04 01 Indicators and signaling devices
01 Describe the wind-direction indicators with x x x x

which ADs shall be equipped.
02 Describe a landing-direction indicator. x x x x
03 Explain the capabilities of a signaling lamp. x x x x
04 State which characteristics a signal area x x x x

should have.
05 Interpret all indications and signals that may x x x x
be used in a signals area.
010 09 04 02 Markings
01 Name the colours used for the various x x x x

markings (RWY, TWY, aircraft stands, apron
safety lines).
02 State where a RWY designation marking shall x x x x
be provided and how it is designed.
Page 44 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
03 Describe the application and characteristics x x x x
of:
- RWY-centre-line markings;
- THR marking;
- touchdown-zone marking;
- RWY-side-stripe marking;
- TWY-centre-line marking;
- runway holding position marking;
- intermediate holding position
marking;
- aircraft-stand markings;
- apron safety lines;
- road holding position marking;
- mandatory instruction marking;
- information marking.
010 09 04 03 Lights
01 Describe mechanical safety considerations x x x x

regarding elevated approach lights and
elevated RWY, stopway and taxiway lights.
02 Describe the relationship of the intensity of x x x x
RWY lighting, the approach-lighting system
and the use of a separate intensity control for
different lighting systems.
03 List the conditions for the installation of an AD x x x x

beacon and describe its general
characteristics.
04 Name the different kinds of operations for x x x x
which a simple APP lighting system shall be
used.
05 Describe the basic installations of a simple x x x x
APP lighting system including the dimensions
and distances normally used.
06 Describe the principle of a precision APP x x x x
category I lighting system including
information such as location AND
CHARACTERISTICS.
Remark: This includes the ‘Calvert’ system
with additional crossbars.
07 Describe the principle of a precision APP x x x x
category II and III lighting system including
information such as location and
characteristics, especially mentioning the
inner 300 m of the system.
Page 45 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
08 Describe the wing bars of PAPI and APAPI. x x x x
09 Interpret what the pilot will see during x x x x

approach using PAPI, APAPI, T-VASIS and
AT-VASIS.
10 Interpret what the pilot will see during x x x x

approach using HAPI.
11 Explain the application and characteristics of: x x x x
- RWY-edge lights;
- RWY-threshold and wing-bar lights;
- RWY-end lights;
- RWY-centre-line lights;
- RWY-lead-in lights;
- RWY-touchdown-zone lights;
- stopway lights;
- taxiway-centre-line lights;
- taxiway-edge lights;
- stop bars;
- intermediate holding position lights;
- RWY-guard lights;
- road holding position lights.
12 Understand the timescale within which x x x x
aeronautical ground lights shall be made
available to arriving aircraft.
010 09 04 04 Signs
01 State the general purpose for installing signs. x x x x
02 Explain which signs are the only ones on the x x x x

movement area utilising red.
03 List the provisions for illuminating signs. x x x x
04 State the purpose for installing mandatory x x x x

instruction signs.
05 Name the kind of signs which shall be x x x x
included in the mandatory instruction signs.
06 Name the colours used for mandatory x x x x
instruction signs.
07 Describe by which sign a pattern ‘A’ x x x x
runway-holding position (i.e. at an
intersection of a taxiway and a non-
instrument, non-precision approach or take-
off RWY) marking shall be supplemented.
Page 46 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
08 Describe by which sign a pattern ‘B’ x x x x
runway-holding position (i.e. at an
intersection of a taxiway and a precision
approach RWY) marking shall be
supplemented.
09 Describe the location of: x x x x
- a RWY designation sign at a
taxiway/RWY intersection;
- a ‘NO ENTRY’ sign;
- a RWY holding position sign.
10 Name the sign with which it shall be x x x x

indicated that a taxiing aircraft is about to
infringe an obstacle- limitation surface or to
interfere with the operation of radio
navigation aids (e.g. ILS/MLS critical/sensitive
area).
11 Describe the various possible inscriptions on x x x x

RWY designation signs and on holding-
12 position
Describesigns.
the inscription on an intermediate x x x x
holding position sign on a taxiway.
13 State when information signs shall be x x x x
provided.
14 Describe the colours used in connection with x x x x
information signs.
15 Describe the possible inscriptions on x x x x
information signs.
16 Explain the application, location and x x x x
characteristics of aircraft stand- identification
signs.
17 Explain the application, location and x x x x
characteristics of road holding- position signs.
010 09 04 05 Markers
01 Explain why markers located near a runway or x x x x

taxiway shall be limited to their height.
02 Explain the application and characteristics of: x x x x
- unpaved RWY-edge markers;
- TWY-edge markers;
- TWY-centre-line markers;
- unpaved TWY-edge markers;
- boundary markers;
- stopway-edge markers.
010 09 05 00 Visual aids for denoting obstacles
Page 47 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 09 05 01 Marking of objects
01 State how fixed or mobile objects shall be x x x x

marked if colouring is not practicable.
02 Describe marking by colours (fixed or mobile x x x x
objects).
03 Explain the use of markers for the marking of x x x x
objects, overhead wires, cables, etc.
04 Explain the use of flags for the marking of x x x x
objects.
010 09 05 02 Lighting of objects
01 Name the different types of lights to indicate x x x x

the presence of objects which must be
lighted.
02 State the time period(s) of the 24 hours of a x x x x
day during which high- intensity lights are
intended for use.
03 Describe (in general terms) the location of x x x x
obstacle lights.
04 Describe (in general and for normal x x x x
circumstances) the colour and sequence of
low-intensity obstacle lights, medium-
intensity obstacle lights and high-intensity
obstacle lights.
05 State where you can find information about x x x x
lights to be displayed by aircraft.
010 09 06 00 Visual aids for denoting restricted use of
areas
01 Describe the colours and meaning of ‘closed
markings’ on RWYs and taxiways.
02 State how the pilot of an aircraft moving on
the surface of a taxiway, holding bay or apron
shall be warned that the shoulders of these
surfaces are ‘non-load-bearing’.
03 Describe the pre-threshold marking (including

colours) when the surface before the
threshold is not suitable for normal use by
aircraft.
010 09 07 00 Aerodromes operational services, equipment
and installations
010 09 07 01 Rescue and Firefighting (RFF)
01 Name the principal objective of a rescue and x x x x

firefighting service.
Page 48 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
02 List the most important factors bearing on x x x x
effective rescue in a survivable aircraft
accident.
03 Explain the basic information the AD category x x x x
(for rescue and firefighting) depends upon.
04 Describe what is meant by the term ‘response x x x x
time’ and state its normal and maximum
limits.
05 State the reasons for emergency- access roads x x x x

and for satellite firefighting stations.
010 09 07 02 Apron management service
01 Describe the reason for providing a special x x x x

apron management service and state what
has to be observed if the AD control tower is
not participating in the apron management
service.
02 State who has a right-of-way against vehicles x x x x
operating on an apron.
010 09 07 03 Ground-servicing of aircraft
01 Describe the necessary actions during the x x x x

ground-servicing of an aircraft with regard to
the possible event of a fuel fire.
010 09 08 00 Attachment A to ICAO Annex 14, Volume 1

— Supplementary Guidance Material
010 09 08 01 Declared distances
01 List the four types of ‘declared distances’ on a x x x x

runway and also the appropriate
abbreviations.
02 Explain the circumstances which lead to the x x x x
situation that the four declared distances on a
runway are equal to the length of the runway.
03 Describe the influence of a clearway, stopway x x x x
and/or displaced threshold upon the four
‘declared distances’.
010 09 08 02 Radio-altimeter operating areas
01 Describe the purpose of a radio- altimeter x x x x

operating area.
02 Describe the physical characteristics of a x x x x
radio-altimeter operating area.
03 Describe the dimensions of a radio- altimeter x x x x
operating area.
Page 49 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
04 Describe the position of a radio- altimeter x x x x
operating area.
010 09 08 03 Approach lighting systems
01 Name the two main groups of approach x x x x

lighting systems.
02 Describe the two different versions of a x x x x
simple approach lighting system.
03 Describe the two different basic versions of x x x x
precision approach lighting systems for CAT I.
04 Describe the diagram of the inner 300 m of x

the precision approach lighting system in the
case of CAT II and III.
05 Describe how the arrangement of an x x x x
approach lighting system and the location of
the appropriate threshold are interrelated
between each other.
010 10 00 00 FACILITATION (ICAO Annex 9)

010 10 01 00 General
010 10 01 01 Foreword
01 Explain the aim of ANNEX 9 as indicated in the x x x x

Foreword.
010 10 01 02 Definitions (ICAO Annex 9)
Understand the definitions. x x x x

01
010 10 02 00 Entry and departure of aircraft
010 10 02 01 General Declaration
01 Describe the purpose and use of aircraft x x x x

documents — as far as the ‘General
Declaration’ is concerned.
02 State whether or not a ‘General Declaration’ x x x x
will be required by a Contracting State under
normal circumstances.
03 State the kind of information concerning crew x x x x
members whenever a ‘General Declaration’ is
required by a Contracting State.
010 10 02 02 Entry and departure of crew
01 Explain entry requirements for crew. x x x x
Page 50 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
02 Explain the reasons for the use of Crew x x x x
Member Certificates (CMC) for flight crews
and cabin attendants engaged in International
Air Transport.
03 Explain in which cases Contracting States shall x x x x

accept the CMC as an identity document
instead of a passport or visa.
04 State whether the entry privileges for crews x x x x
of scheduled international air services can be
extended to other flight crews of aircraft
operated for remuneration or hire but not
engaged in scheduled International Air
Services.
010 10 02 03 Entry and departure of passengers and
baggage
01 Explain the entry requirements for passengers x x x x
and their baggage.
02 Explain the requirements and documentation x x x x
for unaccompanied baggage.
03 Be familiar with the documentation required x x x x
for the departure and entry of passengers and
their baggage.
04 Be familiar with the arrangements in the x x x x
event of a passenger being declared an
inadmissible person.
05 Describe the pilots authority towards unruly x x x x
passengers.
010 10 02 04 Entry and departure of cargo
01 Explain entry requirements for cargo.
02 Be familiar with the documentation required x x x x

for the entry and departure of cargo.
010 11 00 00 SEARCH AND RESCUE
010 11 01 00 Essential Search and Rescue (SAR)
definitions in ICAO Annex 12
alert phase, distress phase, emergency
phase, operator, pilot- in-command, rescue
co-ordination centre, State of registry,
uncertainty phase.
010 11 02 00 Organization
Page 51 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 Describe how Contracting States shall arrange x x x x
for the establishment and prompt provisions
of SAR services.
02 Explain the establishment of SAR Regions by x x x x
Contracting States.
03 Describe the areas within which SAR services x x x x
shall be established by Contracting States.
04 State the period of time per day within which x x x x
SAR services shall be available.
05 Describe for which areas rescue coordination x x x x
centres shall be established.
010 11 03 00 Operating procedures for non- SAR crews
01 Explain the SAR operating procedures for the x x x x

pilot-in- command who arrives first at the
scene of an accident.
02 Explain the SAR operating procedures for the x x x x
pilot-in- command intercepting a distress
transmission.
010 11 04 00 Search and rescue signals
01 Explain the ‘ground–air visual signal code’ x x x x

for use by survivors.
02 Explain the signals to be used for x x x x
‘air–ground signals’.
010 12 00 00 SECURITY
010 12 01 00 Essential definitions of ICAO Annex 17

airside, aircraft security check, screening,
security, security control, security-
restricted area, unidentified baggage.
010 12 02 00 General principles
01 State the objectives of security. x x x x
02 Explain where further information in addition x x x x

to ICAO Annex 17 concerning aviation security
is available.
010 12 03 00 Organization
01 Understand the required activities expected x x x x
at each airport serving international civil
aviation.
Page 52 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
010 12 04 00 Preventive security measures
01 Describe the objects not allowed (for reasons x x x x
of aviation security) on board an aircraft
engaged in international civil aviation.
02 Explain what each Contracting State is x x x x
supposed to do concerning originating
passengers and their cabin baggage prior to
boarding an aircraft engaged in international
civil aviation operations.
03 State what each Contracting State is supposed x x x x
to do if passengers subjected to security
control have mixed after a security screening
point.
04 Explain what has to be done at airports x x x x
serving international civil aviation to protect
cargo, baggage, mail stores and operator
supplies against an act of unlawful
interference.
05 Explain what has to be done when x x x x
passengers, who are obliged to travel because
of judicial or administrative proceedings, are
supposed to board an aircraft.
06 Understand what has to be considered if law- x x x x
enforcement officers carry weapons on
board.
07 Describe what is meant by ‘access control’ at x x x x
an aerodrome.
010 12 05 00 Management of response to acts of
unlawful interference
Describe the assistance each Contracting x x x x
01 State shall provide to an aircraft subjected to
an act of unlawful seizure.
State the circumstances which could prevent x x x x
02 a State to detain an aircraft on the ground
after being subjected to an act of unlawful
seizure.
010 12 06 00 Operators’ security programme
Understand the principles of the written x x x x
01 operator security programme each
Contracting State requires from operators.
010 12 07 00 Security procedures in other documents, i.e.
ICAO Annex 2, ICAO Annex 6, ICAO Annex
14, ICAO Doc 4444
010 12 07 01 ICAO Annex 2 — Rules of the Air,
Page 53 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
Attachment B — Unlawful interference
01 Describe what the PIC should do unless x x x x
considerations on board the aircraft dictate
otherwise.
02 Describe what the PIC should do if: x x x x
- the aircraft must depart from its
assigned track;
- the aircraft must depart from its
assigned cruising level;
- the aircraft is unable to notify an
ATS unit of the unlawful
interference.
03 Describe what the PIC should attempt to do x x x x
with regard to broadcast warnings to decide
at which level the crew is proceeding if no
applicable regional procedures for in-flight
contingencies have been established.
010 12 07 02 ICAO Annex 6, Chapter 13 — Security
01 Describe the special considerations referring x x x x
to flight crew compartment doors with regard
to aviation security.
02 Explain what an operator shall do to minimise x x x x
the consequences of acts of unlawful
interference.
03 Explain what an operator shall do to have x x x x
appropriate employees available who can
contribute to the prevention of acts of
sabotage or other forms of unlawful
interference.
010 12 07 03 ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 3 — Physical
characteristics
01 Describe what minimum distance an isolated x x x x
aircraft parking position (after the aircraft has
been subjected to unlawful interference)
should have from other parking positions,
buildings or public areas.
010 12 07 04 ICAO Doc 4444
Page 54 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 Describe the considerations that must take x x x x
place with regard to a taxi clearance in case
an aircraft is known or believed to have been
subjected to unlawful interference.
010 13 00 00 AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT

INVESTIGATION
010 13 01 00 Essential definitions of ICAO Annex 13
accident, aircraft, flight recorder, incident,
investigation, maximum mass, operator,
serious incident, serious injury, State of
Design, State of Manufacture, State of
Occurrence, State of the Operator, State of
Registry.
02 Define the difference between x x x x
‘serious incident’ and ‘accident’.
03 Determine whether a certain occurrence has x x x x
to be defined as a serious incident or as an
accident.
04 Recognise the description of an accident or x x x x
incident.
010 13 02 00 Applicability of ICAO Annex 13
01 Describe the geographical limits, if any, within x x x x
which the specifications given in Annex 13
apply.
010 13 03 00 ICAO accident and incident investigation
01 State the objective(s) of the investigation of x x x x
an accident or incident according to Annex 13.
02 Understand the general procedures for the x x x x
investigation of an accident or incident
according to Annex 13.
Page 55 of 494
B. SUBJECT 021 – AIRFRAME AND
SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS, POWER
PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
B. SUBJECT 021 - AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS, POWER PLANT AND EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
020 00 00 00 AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
021 00 00 00 AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE –
AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS,
POWER PLANT EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
021 01 00 00 SYSTEM DESIGN, LOADS, STRESSES,
MAINTENANCE
021 01 01 00 System design
021 01 01 01 Design concepts
01 Describe the following structural design x x x x
philosophy;
- safe life;
- fail safe (multiple load paths);
- damage-tolerant.
02 Describe the following system design

philosophy.
021 01 01 02 Level of certification
01 Explain and state the safety objectives x
associated with failure conditions
02 Explain the relationship between the x x

probability of a failure and the severity of the
failure effects.
03 Explain why some systems are duplicated or x x
triplicated.
021 01 02 00 Loads and stresses
Page 56 of 494
PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
01 Explain the following terms: x x x x
- stress;
- strain;
- tension;
- compression;
- buckling;
- bending;
- torsion;
- static loads;
- dynamic loads;
- cyclic loads;
- elastic and plastic deformation.
Remark: Stress is the internal force per unit

area inside a structural part as a result
of external loads. Strain is the deformation
caused by the action of stress on a
material. It is normally given as the
change in dimension expressed in a
percentage of the original dimensions of
the object.
02 Describe the relationship between stress and x x x x

strain for a metal.
021 01 03 00 Fatigue
01 Describe the phenomenon of fatigue. x x x x
02 Explain the relationship between the x x x x

magnitude of the alternating stress and the
number of cycles (S/N diagram or Wöhler
curve).
03 Explain the implication of stress- x x x x
concentration factor.
021 01 04 00 Corrosion
01 Describe the following types of corrosion: x x x x

- oxidation;
- electrolytic.
02 Describe the interaction between fatigue x x x x
and corrosion (stress corrosion).
021 01 05 00 Maintenance
Page 57 of 494
PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
021 01 05 01 Maintenance methods: hard time and on
condition

- hard-time maintenance;
- on-condition maintenance.
021 02 00 00 AIRFRAME
021 02 01 00 Construction and attachment methods
01 Describe the principles of the following x x x x

construction methods:
- monocoque;
- semi-monocoque;
- cantilever;
- sandwich, including honey comb;
- truss.
02 Describe the following attachment methods: x x x x
- riveting;
- welding;
- bolting;
- pinning;
- adhesives (bonding).
03 State that sandwich structural parts need x x x x

additional provisions to carry concentrated
loads.
021 02 02 00 Materials
01 Explain the following material properties: x x x x

- elasticity;
- plasticity;
- stiffness;
- strength;
- strength-to-density ratio.
02 Compare the above properties as they apply x x x x

to aluminium alloys, magnesium alloys,
titanium alloys, steel and composites.
03 Explain the need to use alloys rather than x x x x
pure metals.
04 Explain the principle of a composite material. x x x x
Page 58 of 494
PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
05 Describe the function of the following x x x x
components:
- matrix, resin or filler;
- fibres.
06 State the advantages and disadvantages of x x x x
composite materials compared with metal
alloys by considering the following:
- strength-to-weight ratio;
- capability to tailor the strength to
the direction of the load;
- stiffness;
- electrical conductivity (lightning);
- resistance to fatigue;
- resistance to corrosion and cost.
07 State that the following are composite- fibre x x x x

materials:
- carbon;
- glass;
- aramid (Kevlar).
021 02 03 00 Aeroplane: wings, tail surfaces and control
surfaces
021 02 03 01 Design and construction
01 Describe the following types of construction: x x
- cantilever;
- non-cantilever (braced).
021 02 03 02 Structural components
01 Describe the function of the following x x
structural components:
spar and its components (web and girder or
cap);
- rib;
- stringer;
- skin;
- torsion box.
021 02 03 03 Loads, stresses and aeroelastic vibrations (‘

flutter’)
01 Describe the vertical and horizontal loads on x x
the ground.
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02 Describe the loads in flight for x x
symmetrical and asymmetrical conditions,
considering both vertical and horizontal
loads and loads due to engine failure.
03 Describe the principle of flutter, flutter x x

damping and resonance for the wing and
control surfaces.
04 Explain the significance on stress relief and x x
flutter of the following:
- chord-wise and span-wise position of
masses (e.g. engines, fuel and
balance masses,
- control balance masses);
- torsional stiffness;
- bending flexibility.
05 Describe the following design configurations: x x
- conventional (low or mid set)
tailplane;
- T-tail.
021 02 04 00 Fuselage, landing gear, doors, floor,

windscreen and windows
01 Describe the following types of fuselage x x x x

construction:
- monocoque;
- semi-monocoque.
02 Describe the construction and the function x x x x
of the following structural components of
a fuselage:
- frames;
- bulkhead;
- stiffeners, stringers, longerons;
- skin, doublers;
- floor suspension (crossbeams);
- floor panels;
- firewall.
03 Describe the loads on the fuselage due to x x
pressurisation.
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04 Describe the following loads on a main x x
landing gear:
- touch-down loads (vertical and
horizontal);
- taxi loads on bogie gear (turns).
05 Describe the structural danger of a nose- x x

wheel landing with respect to:
- fuselage loads;
- nose-wheel strut loads.
06 Describe the structural danger of a tail strike x x
with respect to:
- fuselage and aft bulkhead damage
(pressurisation).
07 Describe the door and hatch construction x x

for pressurised and unpressurised
aeroplanes including:
- door and frame (plug type);
- hinge location;
- locking mechanism.
08 Explain the advantages and disadvantages x x

of the following fuselage cross sections:
- circular;
- double bubble (two types);
- oval;
- rectangular.
09 State that flight-deck windows are x x
constructed with different layers.
10 Explain the function of window heating x x

structural purposes.
11 Explain the implication of a direct vision x x

window
12 State the need for an eye reference position. x x
13 Explain the function of floor venting (blow-out x x

panels).
14 Describe the construction and fitting of sliding x x

doors.
021 02 05 00 Helicopter: flight controls structural aspects
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01 List the functions of flight controls. x x
02 Describe and explain the different flight x x
control design concepts for conventional,
tandem, coaxial, side by side, NOTAR and
Fenestron-equipped helicopters.
03 Explain the advantages, disadvantages and x x
limitations of the respective designs above.
04 Explain the advantages, disadvantages of the x x
synchronized elevator.
05 Describe the construction methods and x x
alignment of vertical and horizontal stabilisers.
021 02 05 02 Structural components and materials
01 Name the main components of flight and x x
control surfaces.
02 Describe the fatigue life and methods of x x
checking for serviceability of flight and
control surface components and materials.
021 02 05 03 Loads, stresses and aero-elastic vibrations
01 Describe and explain where the main x x
stresses are applied to components.
02 Describe the dangers and stresses x x
regarding safety and serviceability in flight
when the manufacturer’s design envelope
is exceeded.
03 Explain the procedure for: x x
- static cord-wise balancing;
- static span-wise balancing;
- blade alignment;
- dynamic chord-wise balancing;
- dynamic span-wise balancing.
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04 Explain the process of blade tracking x x
including:
- the pre-track method of blade
tracking;
- the use of delta incidence numbers;
- aircraft configuration whilst carrying
out tracking;
- factors affecting blade-flying profile;
- ground tracking and in-flight trend
analysis;
- use of pitch-link and blade-trim tab
adjustments;
- tracking techniques, including
stroboscopic and electronic.
05 Describe the early indications and vibrations x x

which are likely to be experienced when the
main rotor blades and tail rotor are out of
balance and/or tracking, including the
possible early indications due to possible
fatigue and overload.
06 Explain how a vibration harmonic can be set x x
up in other components which can lead to
their early failure.
07 Describe the three planes of vibration x x
measurement, i.e. vertical, lateral, fore and
aft.
021 02 06 00 Structural limitations
01 Define and explain the following maximum x x

structural masses:
- maximum ramp mass;
- maximum take-off mass;
- maximum zero-fuel mass;
- maximum landing mass.
Remark: These limitations may also be
found in the relevant part of subjects 031,
032 and 034.
02 Explain that airframe life is limited by x x

fatigue, created by alternating stress and
the number of load cycles.
03 Explain the maximum structural masses: x x
- maximum take-off mass.
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04 Explain that airframe life is limited by x x
fatigue, created by load cycles.
021 03 00 00 HYDRAULICS
021 03 01 00 Hydromechanics: basic principles
01 Explain the concept and basic principles of x x x x

hydromechanics including:
- hydrostatic pressure;
- Pascal’s law;
- the relationship between pressure,
force and area;
- transmission of power: multiplication
of force, decrease of displacement.
021 03 02 00 Hydraulic systems
021 03 02 01 Hydraulic fluids: types, characteristics,

limitations
01 List and explain the desirable properties of a x x x x

hydraulic fluid:
- thermal stability;
- corrosiveness;
- flashpoint and flammability;
- volatility;
- viscosity.
02 State that hydraulic fluids are irritating for skin x x x x
and eyes.
03 List the two different types of hydraulic fluids: x x x x

- synthetic;
- mineral.
04 State that different types of hydraulic fluids x x x x
cannot be mixed.
05 State that at the pressures being considered, x x x x
hydraulic fluid is considered incompressible.
021 03 02 02 System components: design, operation,
degraded modes of operation, indications
and warnings
01 Explain the working principle of a hydraulic x x x x
system.
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02 Describe the difference in principle of x x x x
operation between a constant pressure
system and a system pressurised only on
specific demand (open-centre).
03 State the differences in principle of x x x x

operation between a passive hydraulic
system (without a pressure pump) and an
active hydraulic system (with a pressure
pump).
04 List the main advantages and x x x x

disadvantages of system actuation by
hydraulic or purely mechanical means with
respect to:
- weight;
- size;
- force.
05 List the main users of hydraulic systems. x x x x
06 State that hydraulic systems can be x x x x

classified as either high pressure (typically
3 000 psi or higher) and low pressure
(typically up to 2 000 psi).
07 State that the normal hydraulic pressure x x x x

of most large transport aircraft is 3 000 psi.
08 Explain the working principle of a low- x x x x
pressure (0–2000 psi) open centred system
using an off loading valve and an RPM
dependent pump.
09 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of x x x x
a high pressure system over a low -pressure
system.
10 Describe the working principle and functions x x x x
of pressure pumps including:
- constant pressure pump (swash
plate or cam plate);
- pressure pump whose output is
dependent on pump RPM (gear
type).
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11 State that for an aeroplane, the power x x
sources of a hydraulic pressure pump can
be:
- manual;
- engine gearbox;
- electrical;
- air (pneumatic and ram-air turbine);
- hydraulic (power transfer unit) or
reversible motor pumps.
12 State that for a helicopter, the power x x
sources of a hydraulic pressure pump can
be:
- manual;
- engine;
- gearbox;
- electrical.
13 Describe the working principle and x x x x

functions of the following hydraulic- system
components:
- reservoir (pressurised and
unpressurised);
- accumulators;
- case drain lines and fluid cooler
return lines;
- piston actuators (single and double
acting);
- hydraulic motors;
- filters;
- non-return (check) valves;
- relief valves;
- restrictor valves;
- elector valves (linear and basic
rotary selectors, two and four ports);
- bypass valves;
- shuttle valves;
- fire shut-off valves;
- priority valves;
- fuse valves;
- pressure and return pipes.
14 Explain why many transport aeroplanes x x
have ‘demand’ hydraulic pumps.
15 Explain how redundancy is obtained by x x x x
giving examples.
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16 Interpret the hydraulic system schematic x x x x
appended to these LOs (to be introduced
at a later date).
17 Explain the implication of a high system x x x x
demand.
18 Explain the implication of a system internal x x x x
leakage including hydraulic lock of piston
actuators.
19 List and describe the instruments and alerts x x x x
for monitoring a hydraulic system.
20 State the indications and explain the x x x x
implications of the following malfunctions:
- system leak or low level;
- low pressure;
- high temperature.
021 04 00 00 LANDING GEAR, WHEELS, TYRES, BRAKES
021 04 01 00 Landing gear
021 04 01 01 Types
01 Name, for an aeroplane, the following x x

different landing-gear configurations:
- nose wheel;
- tail wheel.
02 Name, for a helicopter, the following different x x
landing-gear configurations:
- nose wheel;
- tail wheel;
- skids.
021 04 01 02 System components, design, operation,
indications and warnings, on-ground/in-
flight protections, emergency extension
systems the function of the following
01 Explain x x
components of a landing gear:
- oleo leg/shock strut;
- axles;
- bogies and bogie beam;
- drag struts;
- side stays/struts;
- torsion links;
- locks (over centre);
- gear doors and retraction
mechanisms (normal and emergency
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operation).
02 Explain the function of the following x x
components of a landing gear:
- oleo leg/shock strut;
- axles;
- drag struts;
- side stays/struts;
- torsion links;
- locks (over centre);
- gear doors and retraction
mechanisms (normal and emergency
operation).
03 Name the different components of a x x
landing gear, using the diagram appended
to these LOs.
04 Describe the sequence of events of the x x x x
landing gear during normal operation.
05 State how landing-gear position indication and x x x x
alerting is implemented.
06 Describe the various protection devices to x x x x
avoid inadvertent gear retraction on the
ground:
- ground lock (pins);
- protection devices in the gear-
retraction mechanism.
07 Explain the speed limitations for gear x x

operation (VLO and VLE).
08 Describe the sequence for emergency gear x x x x
extension:
- unlocking;
- operating;
- down-locking.
09 Describe some methods for emergency gear x x x x
extension including:
- gravity/free fall;
- air or nitrogen pressure;
- manually/mechanically.
021 04 02 00 Nose-wheel steering: design, operation
01 Explain the operating principle of nose-wheel x x x x
steering.
02 Explain, for a helicopter, the functioning of x x
differential braking with free-castoring nose
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wheel.
03 Describe for an aeroplane the functioning of x x
the following systems:
- differential braking with free-
castoring nose wheel;
- tiller or hand wheel steering;
- rudder pedal nose-wheel steering.
04 Explain the centering mechanism of the x x
nose wheel.
05 Define the term ‘shimmy’ and the x x x x
possible consequences for the nose and
the main-wheel system.
06 Explain the purpose of main-wheel (body) x x
steering.
021 04 03 00 Brakes
021 04 03 01 Types and materials
01 Describe the basic operating principle of a x x x x
disk brake.
02 State the different materials used in a disc x x x x
brake (steel, carbon).
03 Describe their characteristics, advantages x x x x
and disadvantages such as:
- weight;
- temperature limits;
- internal-friction coefficient;
- wear.

indications and warnings
01 State the limitation of brake energy and x x
describe the operational consequences.
02 Explain how brakes are actuated. x x x x
03 Identify the task of an auto-retract or in- x x
flight brake system.
04 State that brakes can be torque- limited. x x
05 Describe the function of a brake accumulator. x x x x
06 Describe the function of the parking x x x x
brake.
07 Explain the function of wear indicators. x x
08 Explain the reason for the brake- x x
temperature indicator.
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09 State that the main power source for x x
brakes in normal operation and for
alternate operation for large transport
aeroplanes is hydraulic.
021 04 03 03 Anti-skid
01 Describe the operating principle of an anti- x x
skid system where the brake performance is
based on maintaining the optimum wheel-
slip value.
02 Explain the purpose of the wheel- speed x x
signal (tachometer) and of the aeroplane
reference speed signal to the anti-skid
computer, considering:
- slip ratio for maximum braking
performance;
- locked-wheel prevention (protection
against deep skid on one wheel);
- touchdown protection (protection
against brake-pressure application
during touchdown);
- hydroplane protection.
03 Give examples of the impact of an anti-skid x x
system on performance.
021 04 03 04 Autobrake
01 Describe the operating principle of an x x

autobrake system.
02 State that the anti-skid system must be x x

available when using autobrakes.
03 Explain the difference between the three x x

possible levels of operation of an autobrake
system:
- OFF (system off or reset);
- Arm/Disarm (arm: the system is
ready to operate under certain
conditions);
- Operative/Inoperative or
Activated/Deactivated (application
of pressure on brakes).
021 04 04 00 Wheels, rims and tyres
021 04 04 01 Types, structural components and materials,
operational limitations, thermal plugs
01 Describe the different types of tyres such x x x x
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as:
tubeless;
- diagonal (cross ply);
- radial (circumferential bias).
- ply rating;
- tyre tread;
- tyre creep;
- retread (cover).
03 Explain the function of thermal/fusible x x
plugs.
04 Explain the implications of tread separation x x
and tyre burst.
05 State that the ground speed of tyres is x x
limited.
06 Describe material and basic construction of x x
the rim of an aeroplane wheel.
021 04 05 00 Helicopter equipment
01 Explain flotation devices and how they are x x
operated.
02 Explain the IAS limitations before, during x x
and after flotation-device deployment.
021 05 00 00 FLIGHT CONTROLS
021 05 01 00 Aeroplane: primary flight controls
Remark: The manual, irreversible and
reversible flight control systems as
discussed in 021 05 01 01, 05 01 02 and
05 01 03 are all considered to be
mechanical flight control systems. Fly- by-
wire flight control systems are discussed in
021 05 04 00.
01 Define a ‘primary flight control’. x x
02 List the following primary flight control x x
surfaces:
- elevator;
- aileron, roll spoilers;
- rudder.
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03 List the various means of control surface x x
actuation including:
- manual;
- fully powered (irreversible);
- partially powered(reversible).
021 05 01 01 Manual controls
01 Explain the basic principle of a fully manual x x
control system.
021 05 01 02 Fully powered controls (irreversible)
01 Explain the basic principles of a fully powered x
control system.
02 Explain the concept of irreversibility in a flight x
control system.
03 Explain the need for a ‘feel system’ in a fully x
powered control system.
04 Explain the operating principle of a stabiliser x
trim system in a fully powered control system.
05 Explain the operating principle of rudder and X
aileron trim in a fully powered control system.
021 05 01 03 Partially powered controls (reversible)
01 Explain the basic principle of a partially x x
powered control system.
02 Explain why a ‘feel system’ is not necessary in x x
a partially powered control system.
indications and warnings, degraded modes
of operation, jamming.
01 List and describe the function of the following x x
components of a flight control system:
- actuators;
- control valves;
- cables or electrical wiring;
- control surface position sensors.
02 Explain how redundancy is obtained in x x

primary flight control systems of large
transport aeroplanes.
03 Explain the danger of control jamming and the x x
means of retaining sufficient control
capability.
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04 Explain the methods of locking the controls on x x
the ground and describe ‘gust or control lock’
warnings.
05 Explain the concept of a rudder deflection x x
limitation (rudder limiter) system and the
various means of implementation (rudder
ratio changer, variable stops, blow-back).
021 05 02 00 Aeroplane: secondary flight controls

and warnings
01 Define a ‘secondary flight control’. x x
02 List the following secondary flight control x x
surfaces:
lift-augmentation devices (flaps and slats);
speed brakes;
flight and ground spoilers;
trimming devices such as trim tabs, trimmable
horizontal stabiliser.
03 Describe secondary flight control actuation x x
methods and sources of actuating power.
04 Explain the function of a mechanical lock x x
when using hydraulic motors driving a screw
jack.
05 Describe the requirement for limiting speeds x x
for the various secondary flight control
surfaces.
06 For lift augmentation devices, explain the x x
load-limiting (relief) protection devices and
the functioning of an autoretraction system.
07 Explain how flap/slat asymmetry protection x x
device functions.
08 Describe the function of an autoslat system. x x
09 Explain the concept of control surface low- x x
back (aerodynamic forces overruling hydraulic
forces).
021 05 03 00 Helicopter: flight controls
01 Explain the methods of locking the controls on x x
the ground.
02 Describe main-rotor droop stops and how x x
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static rotor flapping is restricted.
03 Describe the need for linear and rotary control x x
input/output.
04 Explain the principle of phase lag and advance x x
angle.
05 Describe the following four axes of control x x
operation, their operating principles and their
associated cockpit controls:
- collective control;
- cyclic fore and aft (pitch axis);
- cyclic lateral (roll axis);
- yaw.
06 Describe the swash plate or azimuth star x x
control system including the following:
- swash plate inputs;
- the function of the non-rotating
swash plate;
- the function of the rotating swash
plate;
- how swash plate tilt is achieved;
- swash plate pitch axis;
- swash plate roll axis;
- balancing of pitch/roll/collective
inputs to the swash plate to equalise
torsional loads on the blades.
07 Describe the main-rotor spider control system x x

including the following:
- the collective beam;
- pitch/roll/collective inputs to the
collective beam;
- spider drive.
08 Describe the need for control system x x

interlinks, in particular:
- collective/yaw;
- collective/throttle;
- cyclic/stabilator;
- interaction between cyclic controls
and horizontal/stabilator.
09 State the need for ‘feel systems’ in the x x
hydraulic actuated flight control system.
10 Describe the purpose of a trim system. x x
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11 Describe the purpose of a cyclic beep-trim x x
system the utilises parallel trim actuators to
enable the pilot to control the aircraft.
12 List and describe the different types of trim x x
systems.
13 Explain the basic concepts of a trim system, in x x
particular:
- force-trim switch;
- force gradient;
- parallel trim actuator;
- cyclic 4-way trim switch;
- interaction of trim system with an
SAS/SCAS/ASS stability system;
- trim-motor indicators.
14 Describe the different types of control runs. x x
15 Explain the use of control stops. x x
021 05 04 00 Aeroplane: Fly-by-Wire (FBW) control
systems
01 Explain that a FBW flight control system is x x
composed of the following;
- pilot’s input command (control
stick/column);
- electrical signaling, including:
- pilot input to computer;
- computer to flight control surfaces;
- feedback from aircraft response to
computer;
- flight control computers;
- actuators;
- control surfaces.
02 State the advantages and disadvantages of a x x
FBW system in comparison with a
conventional flight control system including:
- weight;
- pilot workload;
- flight-envelope protection.
03 Explain why a FBW system is always x x
irreversible.
04 State the existence of degraded modes of x x
operation.
021 05 05 00 Helicopter: Fly-by-Wire (FBW) control
systems
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01 To be introduced at a later date. x x
021 06 00 00 PNEUMATICS — PRESSURISATION AND AIR-
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
021 06 01 00 Pneumatic/bleed air supply
021 06 01 01 Piston-engine air supply
01 State the method of supplying air for the x x x x
pneumatic systems for piston engine aircraft.
02 State that air supply is required for the x x x x
following systems:
- instrumentation;
- heating;
- de-icing.
021 06 01 02 Gas turbine engine: bleed air supply
01 State that the possible bleed air sources for x x x x

gas turbine engine aircraft are the following:
- engine;
- APU;
- ground supply.
02 State that for an aeroplane a bleed air supply x x
can be used for the following systems or
components:
- anti-icing;
- engine air starter;
- pressurisation of a hydraulic
reservoir;
- air-driven hydraulic pumps;
- pressurisation and air conditioning.
03 State that for a helicopter a bleed air supply x x
can be used for the following systems or
components:
- anti-icing;
- engine air starter;
- pressurisation of a hydraulic
reservoir.
04 State that the bleed air supply system can x x x x
comprise the following:
- pneumatic ducts;
- isolation valve;
- pressure-regulating valve;
- engine bleed valve (HP/IP valves);
- fan-air pre-cooler;
- temperature and pressure sensors.
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05 Interpret the pneumatic system schematic x x x x
appended to these LOs (to be introduced
at a later date).
06 Describe the cockpit indications for bleed air x x x x
systems.
07 State how the bleed air supply system is x x x x
controlled and monitored.
08 List the following air bleed malfunctions: x x x x
- over-temperature;
- over-pressure;
- low pressure;
- overheat/duct leak.
021 06 02 00 Helicopter: air-conditioning systems
021 06 02 01 Types, system components, design,
operation, degraded modes of operation,
01 Describe the purpose of an air-conditioning x x
system.
02 Explain how an air-conditioning system is x x
controlled.
03 Describe the vapour cycle air-conditioning x x
system including system components, design,
operation, degraded modes of operation, and
system malfunction indications.
04 Identity the following components from a x x
diagram of an air-conditioning system and
describe the operating principle and function:
- air-cycle machine (pack, bootstrap
system);
- pack-cooling fan;
- water separator;
- flow-control valves;
- isolation valves;
- recirculation fans;
- filters for recirculation;
- temperature sensors.
05 List and describe the controls, indications and x x
warnings related to an air-conditioning
system.
021 06 03 00 Aeroplane: pressurisation and air
conditioning system
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and warnings
01 State that a pressurisation and an air- x x
conditioning system of an aeroplane controls:
- ventilation;
- temperature;
- pressure.
02 State that in general humidity is not x x
controlled.
03 Explain that the following components x x
constitute a pressurisation system:
- pneumatic system as the power
source;
- outflow valve;
- outflow valve actuator;
- pressure controller;
- excessive differential pressure-relief
valve;
- negative differential pressure-relief
valve.
04 Explain that the following components x x
constitute an air-conditioning system and
describe their operating principles and
function:
- air-cycle machine (pack, bootstrap
system);
- pack-cooling fan;
- water separator;
- mixing valves;
- flow-control valves (outflow valve);
- isolation valves;
- ram-air valve;
- recirculation fans;
- filters for recirculated air;
- temperature sensors.
- Remark: The bootstrap system is the
only air-conditioning system
considered for Part-FCL aeroplane
examinations.
05 Describe the use of hot trim air. x x
06 Define the following terms: x x
- cabin altitude;
- cabin vertical speed;
- differential pressure;
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- ground pressurisation.
07 Describe the operating principle of a x x
pressurisation system.
08 Describe the emergency operation by x x
manual setting of the outflow valve position.
09 Describe the working principle of an x x
electronic cabin-pressure controller.
10 State how the maximum operating altitude is x x
determined.
11 State: x x
- the maximum allowed value of cabin
altitude;
- a typical value of maximum
differential pressure for large
transport aeroplanes (8 to 9 psi);
- the relation between cabin altitude,
the maximum differential pressure
and maximum aeroplane operating
altitude.
12 Identify the aural warning when cabin x x
altitude exceeds 10 000 ft.
13 List the indications of the pressurisation x x
system.
021 07 00 00 ANTI-ICING AND DE-ICING SYSTEMS
021 07 01 00 Types, design, operation, indications and
warnings, operational limitations
01 Explain the concepts of de-icing and x x x x
anti-icing.
02 Name the components of an aircraft x x x x
which can be protected from ice accretion.
03 State that on some aeroplanes the tail does x x
not have an ice-protection system.
04 State the different types of anti- icing/de- x x x x
icing systems (hot air, electrical, fluid).
05 Describe the operating principle of these x x x x
systems.
06 Describe the operating principle of the x x
inflatable boot de-icing system.
021 07 02 00 Ice-warning systems: types, operation and
indications
01 Describe the different operating principles x x
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of the following ice detectors:
- mechanical systems using air
pressure;
- electromechanical systems using
resonance frequencies.
02 Describe the principle of operation of ice- x x
warning systems.
021 07 03 00 Helicopter blade-heating systems
01 Explain the limitations on blade heating x x
and the fact that on some helicopters the
heating does not heat all the main rotor
blades at the same time.
021 08 00 00 FUEL SYSTEM
021 08 01 00 Piston engine
021 08 01 01 Fuel: types, characteristics, limitations
01 State the types of fuel used by piston x x x x
engine (diesel, AVGAS, MOGAS) and their
associated limitations.
02 State the main characteristics of these fuels x x x x
and give typical values regarding their flash
points, freezing points and density.
021 08 01 02 Design, operation, system components,
indications
01 State the tasks of the fuel system. x x x x
02 Name the following main components of a x x x x
fuel system and state their location and
their function.
- lines;
- boost pump;
- pressure valves;
- filter, strainer;
- tanks (wing, tip, fuselage);
- vent system;
- sump;
- drain;
- fuel-quantity sensor;
- temperature sensor.
03 Describe a gravity fuel feed system and a x x x x
pressure feed fuel system.
04 Describe the construction of the different x x x x
types of fuel tanks and state their
advantages and disadvantages:
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- drum tank;
- bladder tank;
- integral tank.
05 Explain the function of cross-feed. x x x x
06 Define the term ‘unusable fuel’. x x x x
07 List the following parameters that are x x x x
monitored for the fuel system:
- fuel quantity (low-level warning);
- fuel temperature.
021 08 02 00 Turbine engine
021 08 02 01 Fuel: types, characteristics, limitations
01 State the types of fuel used by gas x x x x
turbine engine (JET-A, JET-A1, JET-B).
02 State the main characteristics of these fuels x x x x
and give typical values regarding their flash
points, freezing points and density.
03 State the existence of additives for freezing. x x x x
021 08 02 02 Design, operation, system components,
indications
01 State the tasks of the fuel system. x x x x
02 Name the main components of a fuel x x x x
system, and state their location and their
function:
- lines;
- centrifugal boost pump;
- pressure valves;
- fuel shut-off valve;
- filter, strainer;
- tanks (wing, tip, fuselage, tail);
- bafflers;
- sump;
- vent system;
- drain;
- fuel-quantity sensor;
- temperature sensor;
- refueling/defueling system;
- fuel dump/jettison system.
03 Interpret the fuel-system schematic x x
appended to these LOs.
04 Explain the limitations in the event of loss x x x x
of booster pump fuel pressure.
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05 Describe the construction of the different x x x x
types of fuel tanks and state their
advantages and disadvantages:
- drum tank;
- bladder tank;
- integral tank.
06 Explain the function of cross-feed and x x x x
transfer.
07 Define the term ‘unusable fuel’. x x x x
08 Describe the use and purpose of drip x x x x
sticks (manual magnetic indicators).
09 Explain the considerations for fitting a fuel x x x x
dump/jettison system.
10 List the following parameters that are x x x x
monitored for the fuel system:
- fuel quantity (low-level warning);
- fuel temperature.
021 09 00 00 ELECTRICS
021 09 01 00 General, definitions, basic applications:
circuit breakers, logic circuits.
021 09 01 01 Static electricity
01 Explain static electricity. x x x x
02 Describe a static discharger and explain its x x x x
purpose.
03 Explain why an aircraft must first be x x x x
grounded before refueling/defueling.
04 Explain the reason for electrical bonding. x x x x
021 09 01 02 Direct current
01 State that a current can only flow in a x x x x
closed circuit.
02 Explain the basic principles of conductivity x x x x
and give examples of conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.
03 State the operating principle of mechanical x x x x

(toggle, rocker, push and pull), thermo,
time and proximity switches.
04 Define ‘voltage’, ‘current and resistance’, x x x x
and state their unit of measurement.
05 Explain Ohm’s law in qualitative terms. x x x x
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06 Explain the effect on total resistance x x x x
when resistors are connected in series or in
parallel.
07 State that resistances can have a positive x x x x
or a negative temperature coefficient
(PTC/NTC) and state their use.
08 Define ‘electrical work and power’ in x x x x
qualitative terms and state the unit of
measurement.
09 Define the term ‘electrical field’ and x x x x
‘magnetic field’ in qualitative terms and
explain the difference with the aid of the
Lorentz force (Electromotive Force (EMF)).
10 Explain the term ‘capacitance’ and explain x x x x
the use of a capacitor as a storage device.
021 09 01 03 Alternating current
01 Explain the term ‘alternating current’ (AC). x x x x
02 Define the term ‘phase’. x x x x
03 Explain the principle of single-phase and x x x x
three-phase AC and state its use in the
aircraft.
04 Define ‘frequency’ in qualitative terms and x x x x
state the unit of measurement.
05 Explain the use of a particular frequency in x x x x
aircraft.
06 Define ‘phase shift’ in qualitative terms. x x x x
021 09 01 04 Resistors, capacitors, inductance coil
01 Describe the relation between voltage and x x x x
current of an ohmic resistor in an AC/DC
circuit.
current of a capacitor in an AC/DC circuit.
current of a coil in an AC/DC circuit.
021 09 01 05 Permanent magnets
01 Explain the term ‘magnetic flux’. x x x x
02 State the pattern and direction of the x x x x
magnetic flux outside the magnetic poles
and inside the magnet.
021 09 01 06 Electromagnetism
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01 State that an electrical current produces a x x x x
magnetic field and define the direction of
that field.
02 Describe how the strength of the x x x x
magnetic field changes if supported by a
ferromagnetic core.
03 Explain the purpose and the working x x x x
principle of a solenoid.
04 Explain the purpose and the working x x x x
principle of a relay.
05 Explain the principle of electromagnetic x x x x
induction.
06 List the parameters affecting the inductance x x x x
of a coil.
07 List the parameters affecting the induced x x x x
voltage in a coil.
021 09 01 07 Circuit breakers
01 Explain the operating principle of a fuse and x x x x
a circuit breaker.
02 Explain how a fuse is rated. x x x x
03 State the difference between a ‘trip- x x x x
free’ and ‘non-trip-free’ circuit breaker.
04 List the following different types of circuit x x x x
breakers:
- thermal circuit breaker;
- magnetic circuit breaker.
021 09 01 08 Semiconductors and logic circuits
01 State the differences between x x x x
semiconductor materials and conductors
and explain how the conductivity of
semiconductors can be altered.
02 State the principal function of diodes, x x x x
such as rectification and voltage limiting.
03 State the principal function of transistors, x x x x
such as switching and amplification.
04 Explain the following five basic functions: x x x x
AND, OR, NOT, NOR and NAND.
05 Describe their associated symbols. x x x x
06 Interpret logic diagrams using a combination x x x x
of these functions.
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021 09 02 00 Batteries
021 09 02 01 Types, characteristics and limitations
01 State the function of an aircraft battery. x x x x
02 Name the types of rechargeable batteries x x x x
used in aircraft.
03 Compare lead-acid and nickel- cadmium x x x x
(Ni-Cd) batteries with respect to weight,
voltage, load behavior, self-discharge,
charging characteristics, thermal runaway
and storage life.
04 Explain the term ‘cell voltage’. x x x x
05 State that a battery is composed of several x x x x
cells.
06 Explain the difference between battery x x x x
voltage and charging voltage.
07 State the charging voltage that corresponds x x x x
with different battery voltages.
08 Define the term ‘capacity of batteries’ and x x x x
state the unit of measurement used.
09 State the effect of temperature on battery x x x x
capacity.
10 State the relationship between voltage and x x x x
capacity when batteries are connected in
series or in parallel.
11 State that in the case of loss of all x x x x
generated power (battery power only) the
remaining electrical power is time- limited.
021 09 03 00 Generation
Remark: For standardisation purposes, the x x x x
following standard expressions are used:
- DC generator: produces DC output;
- DC alternator: produces internal AC,
rectified by integrated rectifying unit,
the output is DC;
- AC generator: produces AC output;
- starter generator: integrated
combination of a DC generator with
DC output and a starter motor using
battery DC;
- permanent magnet alternator/
generator: produces AC output
without field excitation using a
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permanent magnet.
021 09 03 01 DC generation
01 Describe the working principle of a simple x x x x
DC alternator and name its main
components.
02 State in qualitative terms how voltage x x x x
depends on the number of windings, field
strength, RPM and load.
03 List the differences between a DC x x x x

generator and a DC alternator with regard
to voltage response at low RPM, power–
weight ratio, and brush sparking.
04 Explain the principle of voltage control. x x x x
05 Explain why reverse current flow from the x x x x
battery to the generator must be
prevented.
06 Describe the operating principle of a x x x x
starter generator and state its purpose.
021 09 03 02 AC generation
01 Describe the components of a three- x x x x
phase AC generator and the operating
principle.
02 State that the generator field current is x x x x
used to control voltage.
03 State in qualitative terms the relation x x x x
between frequency, number of pole pairs
and RPM of a three-phase generator.
04 Explain the term ‘wild-frequency generator’. x x x x
05 Describe how a three-phase AC generator x x x x
can be connected to the electrical system.
06 Describe the purpose and the working x x x x
principle of a permanent magnet
alternator/generator.
07 List the following different power sources x x
that can be used for an aeroplane to
drive an AC generator:
- engine;
- APU;
- RAT;
- hydraulic.
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08 List the following different power sources x x

that can be used for a helicopter to drive
an AC generator:
- engine;
- APU;
- gearbox.
021 09 03 03 Constant Speed Drive (CSD) and Integrated
Drive Generator (IDG) systems.
01 Describe the function and the working x x
principle of a CSD.
02 Explain the parameters of a CSD that are x x
monitored.
03 Describe the function and the working x x
principle of an IDG.
04 Explain the consequences of a mechanical x x
disconnection during flight for a CSD and
an IDG.
021 09 03 04 Transformers, transformer rectifier units,
static inverters
01 State the function of a transformer and its x x x x
operating principle.
02 State the function of a Transformer Rectifier x x x x
Unit (TRU), its operating principle and the
voltage output.
03 State the function of static inverters, their x x x x
operating principle and the voltage output.
021 09 04 00 Distribution
021 09 04 01 General
01 Explain the function of a bus (bus bar). x x x x
02 Describe the function of the following x x x x
buses:
- main bus;
- tie bus;
- essential bus;
- emergency bus;
- ground bus;
- battery bus;
- hot (battery) bus.
03 State that the aircraft structure can be used x x x x
as a part of the electrical circuit (common
earth) and explain the implications for
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electrical bonding.
04 Explain the function of external power. x x x x
05 State that a priority sequence exists x x x x
between the different sources of electrical
power on ground and in flight.
06 Introduce the term ‘load sharing’. x x x x
07 Explain that load sharing is always achieved x x x x
during parallel operations.
08 Introduce the term ‘load shedding’. x x x x
09 Explain that an AC load can be shed in case x x x x
of generator overload.
10 Interpret an electrical-system schematic x x x x
(appended to these LOs).
Remark: The system described is a split
system.
021 09 04 02 DC distribution
01 Describe a simple DC electrical system of a x x x x
single-engine aircraft.
02 Describe a DC electrical system of a x x x x
multi-engine aircraft including the
distribution consequences of loss of
generator(s) or bus failure.
03 Describe the DC part of an electrical x x x x
system of a transport aircraft including
the distribution consequences of loss of DC
supply or bus failure.
04 Give examples of DC consumers. x x x x
021 09 04 03 AC distribution
01 Describe the AC electrical system of a x x x x
transport aircraft for split and parallel
operation.
02 Describe the distribution consequences of: x x x x
- APU electrical supply and external
power priority switching;
- loss of (all) generator(s);
- bus failure.
03 Give examples of AC consumers. x x x x
Explain the conditions to be met for x x x x

04 paralleling AC generators.
05 Explain the terms ‘real and reactive loads’. x x x x
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06 State that real/reactive loads are x x x x
compensated in the case of paralleled AC
generators.
021 09 04 04 Electrical load management and monitoring
systems: automatic generators and bus
switching during normal and failure
operation, indications and warnings
01 Give examples of system control, monitoring x x x x
and annunciators.
02 Describe, for normal (on ground/in flight) x x x x
and degraded modes of operation, the
following functions of an electrical load
management system:
- distribution;
- monitoring;
- protection (overloading, over/under
voltage, incorrect frequency).
03 State which parameters are used to monitor x x x x
an electrical system for parallel and split
system operation.
04 Describe how batteries are monitored. x x x x
05 State that Ni-Cd batteries are monitored x x x x
to avoid damage resulting from excessive
temperature increase (thermal runaway).
06 Interpret various different ammeter x x x x
indications of an ammeter which monitors
the charge current of the battery.
021 09 05 00 Electrical motors
021 09 05 01 General
01 State that the purpose of an electric x x x x
motor is to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
021 09 05 02 Operating principle
01 Explain the operating principle of an x x x x
electric motor as being an electrical current
carrying conductor inside a magnetic field
that experiences a Lorentz/electromotive
(EMF) force.
02 State that electrical motors can be AC or x x x x
DC type.
021 09 05 03 Components
01 Name the following components of an x x x x
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electric motor and explain their function:
rotor (rotating part of an electric motor);
stator (stationary part of an electric motor).
021 10 00 00 PISTON ENGINES
Remark: This topic includes diesel engines
and petrol engines.
021 10 01 00 General
021 10 01 01 Types of internal-combustion engines: basic
principles, definitions
01 Define the following terms and expressions: x x x x
- RPM;
- torque;
- Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP);
- power output;
- specific fuel consumption;
- mechanical efficiency, thermal
efficiency, volumetric efficiency;
- compression ratio, clearance volume,
swept (displaced) volume, total
volume.
02 Describe the influence of compression ratio x x x x
on thermal efficiency.
021 10 01 02 Engine: design, operation, components and
materials
01 Describe the following main engine x x x x
components and state their function.
- crankcase;
- crankshaft;
- connecting rod;
- piston;
- piston pin;
- piston rings;
- cylinder;
- cylinder head;
- valves;
- valve springs;
- push rod;
- camshaft;
- rocker arm;
- camshaft gear;
- bearings.
02 State the materials used for the following x x x x
engine components:
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- crankcase;
- crankshaft;
- connecting rod;
- piston;
- piston pin;
- cylinder;
- cylinder head;
- valves;
- camshaft.
03 Name and identify the various types of x x x x
engine design with regard to cylinder
arrangement, such as:
- horizontal opposed;
- in line;
- radial;
- and working cycle
- (four stroke: petrol and diesel).
04 Describe the gas-state changes, the valve x x x x
positions and the ignition timing during the
four strokes of the theoretical piston-
engine cycle.
05 Explain the main differences between the x x x x
theoretical (Otto cycle) and the practical
four-stroke piston-engine cycles.
06 Describe the differences between petrol x x x x
engines and diesel engines with respect to:
- means of ignition;
- maximum compression ratio;
- air or mixture supply to the cylinder;
- specific power output (kW/kg);
- thermal efficiency;
- pollution from the exhaust.
021 10 02 00 Fuel
021 10 02 01 Types, grades, characteristics, limitations
01 Name the type of fuel used for petrol x x x x
engines including its colour (AVGAS).
02 Name the types of fuel used for diesel x x x
engines (kerosene or diesel).
03 Define the term ‘octane rating’. x x x x
04 Describe the combustion process in a x x x x
piston-engine cylinder for both petrol and
diesel engines.
05 Define the term ‘flame front velocity’ and x x x x
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describe its variations depending on the
fuel-air mixture for petrol engines.
06 Define the term ‘detonation’ and describe x x x x
the causes and effects of detonation for
both petrol and diesel engines.
07 Define the term ‘pre-ignition’ and describe x x x x
the causes and effects of pre- ignition for
both petrol and diesel engines.
08 Identify the conditions and power settings x x x x
that promote detonation for petrol engines.
09 Describe how detonation in petrol engines is x x x x
recognised.
10 Name the anti-detonation petrol fuel x x x x
additive (tetraethyl lead).
11 Describe the method and occasions for x x x x
checking the fuel for water content.
12 State the typical value of fuel density for x x x x
aviation gasoline and diesel fuel.
13 Explain volatility, viscosity and vapour x x x x
locking for petrol and diesel fuels.
021 10 03 00 Engine fuel pumps
01 Describe the need for a separate engine- x x x x
driven fuel pump.
02 List the different types of engine- driven fuel x x x x
pumps:
- — gear type;
- — vane type.
021 10 04 00 Carburettor/injection system
021 10 04 01 Carburettor: design, operation, degraded
modes of operation, indications and
warnings
01 State the purpose of a carburettor. x x x x
02 Describe the operating principle of the simple x x x x
float chamber carburettor.
03 Describe the method of achieving reliable idle x x x x
operation.
04 Describe the methods of obtaining mixture x x x x
control over the whole operating engine
power setting range (compensation jet,
diffuser).
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05 Describe the methods of obtaining mixture x x x x
control over the whole operating altitude
range.
06 Explain the purpose and the operating x x x x
principle of an accelerator pump.
07 Explain the purpose of power enrichment. x x x x
08 Describe the function of the carburettor heat x x x x
system.
09 Explain the effect of carburettor heat on x x x x
mixture ratio and power output.
10 Explain the purpose and the operating x x x x
principle of a primer pump.
11 Discuss other methods for priming an engine x x x x
(acceleration pumps).
12 Explain the danger of carburettor fire, x x x x
including corrective measures.
021 10 04 02 Injection: design, operation, degraded
modes of operation, indications and
warnings
01 Describe the low pressure, continuous flow x x x x
type, fuel injection system used on light
aircraft piston petrol engines with the aid of a
schematic diagram.
02 Explain the advantages of an injection system x x x x
compared with a carburettor system.
03 Explain the requirement for two different x x x x
pumps in the fuel injection system and
describe their operation.
04 Describe the task and explain the operating x x x x
principle of fuel and mixture control valves in
the injection system for petrol engines.
05 Describe the task and explain the operating x x x x
principle of the fuel manifold valve, the
discharge nozzles and the fuel-flow meter in
the fuel injection system for petrol engines.
06 Describe the injection system of a diesel x x x x
engine and explain the function of the
following components:
- high-pressure fuel injection pump;
- common-rail principle;
- fuel lines;
- fuel injectors.
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021 10 04 03 Icing
01 Describe the causes and effects of carburettor x x x x
icing and the action to be taken if carburettor
icing is suspected.
02 Name the meteorological conditions under x x x x
which carburettor icing may occur.
03 Describe the indications of the presence of x x
carburettor icing with both a fixed pitch and a
constant speed propeller.
04 Describe the indications of the presence of x x
carburettor icing with a helicopter.
05 Describe the indications that will occur upon x x x x
selection of carburettor heat depending on
whether ice is present or not.
06 Explain the reason for the use of alternate air x x x x
on fuel injection systems and describe its
operating principle.
07 State the meteorological conditions under x x x x
which induction-system icing may occur.
021 10 05 00 Cooling systems
021 10 05 01 Design, operation, indications and warnings
01 Specify the reasons for cooling a piston x x x x
engine.
02 Describe the design features to enhance x x
cylinder air cooling for aeroplanes.
03 Describe the design features to enhance x x
cylinder air cooling for helicopters (e.g.
engine-driven impeller and scroll assembly,
baffles).
04 Compare the advantages of liquid and air- x x x x
cooling systems.
05 Identify the cylinder head temperature x x x x
indication to monitor engine cooling.
06 Describe the function and the operation of x x
cowl flaps.
021 10 06 00 Lubrication systems
021 10 06 01 Lubricants: characteristics, limitations
01 Describe the term ‘viscosity’ including x x x x
the effect of temperature.
02 Describe the viscosity grade numbering x x x x
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system used in aviation.
021 10 06 02 Design, operation, indications and warnings
01 State the functions of a piston-engine x x x x
lubrication system.
02 Describe the working principle of a dry-sump x x x x
lubrication system and describe the functions
of the following components:
- oil tank (reservoir) and its internal
components: hot well, de-aerator,
vent, expansion space;
- check valve (non-return valve);
- pressure pump and pressure- relief
valve;
- scavenge pump;
- filters (suction, pressure and
scavenge);
- oil cooler;
- oil cooler bypass valve (anti- surge
and thermostatic);
- pressure and temperature sensors;
- lines.
03 Describe a wet-sump lubrication system. x x x x
04 State the differences between a wet and a x x x x
dry-sump lubrication system.
05 State the advantages/disadvantages of each x x x x
system.
06 List the following factors that influence oil x x x x
consumption:
- oil grade;
- cylinder and piston wear;
- condition of piston rings.
07 Describe the interaction between oil pressure, x x x x
oil temperature and oil quantity.
021 10 07 00 Ignition circuits
021 10 07 01 Design, operation
01 Describe the working principle of a magneto- x x x x
ignition system and the functions of the
following components:
- magneto;
- contact-breaker points;
- capacitor (condenser);
- coils or windings;
- ignition switches;
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- distributor;
- spark plug;
- high-tension (HT) cable.
02 State why piston engines are equipped with x x x x
two electrically independent ignition systems.
03 State the function and operating principle of x x
the following methods of spark augmentation:
- starter vibrator (booster coil);
- impulse-start coupling.
04 State the function and operating principle of x x
the following methods of spark augmentation:
- starter vibrator (booster coil);
- both magnetos live.
05 Explain the function of the magneto check. x x x x
06 State the reasons for using the correct x x x x
temperature grade for a spark plug.
07 Explain the function of ignition timing advance x x x x
or retard.
08 Explain how combustion is initiated in diesel x x x x
engines.
021 10 08 00 Mixture
021 10 08 01 Definition, characteristic mixtures, control
instruments, associated control levers,
indications
- mixture;
- chemically correct ratio
(stoichiometric);
- best power ratio;
- lean (weak) mixture (lean or rich side
of the EGT top);
- rich mixture.
02 State the typical fuel-to-air ratio values or x x x x
range of values for the above mixtures.
03 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of x x x x
weak and rich mixtures.
04 Describe the relation between engine- specific x x x x
fuel consumption and mixture ratio.
05 Describe the use of the exhaust gas x x x x
temperature as an aid to mixture- setting.
06 Explain the relation between mixture ratio, x x x x
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cylinder head temperature, detonation and
pre-ignition.
07 Explain the absence of mixture control in x x x x
diesel engines.
021 10 09 00 Aeroplane: propellers
021 10 09 01 Definitions, general
Remark: Definitions and aerodynamic x x
concepts are detailed in subject 081, topic 07
(Propellers) but need to be appreciated for this
subject as well.
021 10 09 02 Constant-speed propeller: design,
operation, system components
01 Describe the operating principle of a constant- x x
speed propeller system under normal flight
operations with the aid of a schematic.
02 Explain the need for a Manifold Absolute x x
Pressure (MAP) indicator to control the power
setting with a constant-speed propeller.
03 State the purpose of a torque-meter. x x
04 State the purpose and describe the operation x x
of a low-pitch stop (centrifugal latch).
05 Describe the operating principle of a single- x x
acting and a double-acting variable pitch
propeller for single and multi-engine
aeroplanes.
06 Describe the function and the basic operating x x
principle of synchronising and synchro-
phasing systems.
07 Explain the purpose and the basic operating x x
principle of an auto-feathering system
including un-feathering.
021 10 09 03 Reduction gearing: design
01 State the purpose of reduction gearing. x x
02 Explain the principles of design for reduction x x
gearing.
021 10 09 04 Propeller handling: associated control
levers, degraded modes of operation,
01 Describe the checks to be carried out on a x x
constant-speed propeller system after engine
start.
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02 Describe the operation of a constant- speed x x
propeller system during flight at different true
airspeeds and RPM including an overspeeding
propeller.
03 Describe the operating principle of a variable x x
pitch propeller when feathering and
unfeathering, including the operation of
cockpit controls.
04 Describe the operating principle of a variable x x
pitch propeller when reverse pitch is selected,
including the operation of cockpit controls.
05 Describe the operation of the propeller levers x x
during different phases of flight.
021 10 10 00 Performance and engine handling
021 10 10 01 Performance
01 Engine performance: define ‘pressure altitude’ x x x x
and ‘density altitude’.
02 Describe the effect on power output of a x x x x
petrol and diesel engine taking into
consideration the following parameters:
- ambient pressure, exhaust back
pressure;
- temperature;
- density altitude;
- humidity.
03 Explain the term ‘normally aspirated engine’. x x x x
04 Power-augmentation devices: explain the x x x x
requirement for power augmentation
(turbocharging) of a piston engine.
05 Describe the function and the principle of x x x x
operation of the following main
components of a turbocharger:
- turbine;
- compressor;
- waste gate;
- waste-gate actuator;
- absolute-pressure controller;
- density controller;
- differential-pressure controller.
06 Explain the difference between an x x x x
altitude-boosted turbocharger and a
ground-boosted turbocharger.
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07 Explain turbo lag. x x x x
08 Define the term ‘critical altitude’. x x x x
09 Explain the function of an intercooler. x x x x
10 Define the terms ‘full-throttle height’ and x x x x
‘rated altitude’.
021 10 10 02 Engine handling
01 State the correct procedures for setting x x x x
the engine controls when increasing or
decreasing power.
- take-off power;
- maximum continuous power.
03 Describe the term ‘hydraulicing’ and the x x x x
precautions to be taken prior to engine start.
04 Describe the start problems associated with x x x x
extreme cold weather.
05 FADEC for a piston engine: To be introduced x x x x
at a later date.
021 11 00 00 TURBINE ENGINES
021 11 01 00 Basic principles
021 11 01 01 Basic generation of thrust and the thrust
formula
01 Describe how thrust is produced by a basic gas x x
turbine engine.
02 Describe the simple form of the thrust x x
formula for a basic, straight turbojet and
perform simple calculations (including
pressure thrust).
03 State that thrust can be considered to remain x x
approximately constant over the whole
aeroplane subsonic speed range.
021 11 01 02 Design, types of turbine engines,
components
01 List the main components of a basic gas x x x x
turbine engine.
- inlet;
- compressor;
- combustion chamber;
- turbine,
- outlet.
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02 Describe the system of station numbering in a x x x x
gas turbine engine.
03 Describe the variation of static pressure, x x x x
temperature and axial velocity in a gas
turbine engine under normal operating
conditions and with the aid of a working
cycle diagram.
04 Describe the differences between x x x x
absolute, circumferential (tangential) and
axial velocity.
05 List the different types of gas turbine x x
engines:
- straight jet;
- turbo fan;
- turbo prop.
06 State that a gas turbine engine can have x x x x
one or more spools.
07 Describe how thrust is produced by turbojet x x
and turbofan engines.
08 Describe how power is produced by x x
turboprop engines.
09 Describe the term ‘equivalent horsepower’ x x
(= thrust horsepower + shaft horsepower).
10 Explain the principle of a free turbine or x x x x
free-power turbine.
11 Define the term ‘bypass ratio’ and x x
perform simple calculations to determine
bypass ratio.
12 Define the terms ‘propulsive power’, x x
‘propulsive efficiency’, ‘thermal efficiency’
and ‘total efficiency’.
13 Describe the influence of compressor- x x x x
pressure ratio on thermal efficiency.
14 Explain the variations of propulsive x x
efficiency with forward speed for turbojet,
turbofan and turboprop engines.
15 Define the team ‘specific fuel consumption’ x x
for turbojets and turboprops.
021 11 01 03 Coupled turbine engine design, operation,
components and materials
01 Name the main assembly parts of a coupled x x
turbine engine and explain the operation of
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the engine.
02 Explain the limitations of the materials used x x
with regard to maximum turbine
temperature, engine and drive train torque
limits.
03 Describe the possible effects on engine x x
components when limits are exceeded.
04 Explain that when engine limits are exceeded, x x
this event must be reported.
021 11 01 04 D4 Free turbine engine: design, components
and materials
01 Describe the design methods to keep the x x
engine’s size small for installation in
helicopters.
02 List the main components of a free turbine x x
engine.
03 Describe how the power is developed by a x x
turboshaft/free turbine engine.
04 Explain how the exhaust gas temperature is x x
used to monitor turbine stress.
021 11 02 00 Main-engine components
021 11 02 01 Aeroplane: air intake
01 State the functions of the engine air inlet/air x x
intake.
02 Describe the geometry of a subsonic (pitot- x x
type) air inlet.
03 Explain the gas-parameter changes in a x x
subsonic air inlet at different flight speeds.
04 Describe the reasons for, and the dangers of, x x
the following operational problems
concerning the engine air inlet:
- airflow separation;
- inlet icing;
- inlet damage;
- Foreign Object Damage (FOD);
- heavy in-flight turbulence.
021 11 02 02 Compressor and diffuser
01 State the purpose of the compressor. x x x x
02 Describe the working principle of a centrifugal x x x x
and an axial flow compressor.
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single stage and describe their function for a
centrifugal compressor:
- impeller;
- diffuser.
single stage and describe their function for an
axial compressor:
- rotor vanes;
- stator vanes.
05 Describe the gas-parameter changes in a x x x x
compressor stage.
06 Define the term ‘pressure ratio’ and state a x x x x
typical value for one stage of a centrifugal and
an axial flow compressor and for the complete
compressor.
increasing the number of stages in a
centrifugal compressor.
08 Explain the difference in sensitivity for Foreign x x x x
Object Damage (FOD) of a centrifugal
compressor compared with an axial flow type.
09 Explain the convergent air annulus through an x x x x
axial flow compressor.
10 Describe the reason for twisting the x x x x
compressor blades.
11 State the tasks of inlet guide vanes (IGVs). x x x x
12 State the reason for the clicking noise whilst x x x x
the compressor slowly rotates on the ground.
13 State the advantages of increasing the x x x x
number of spools.
14 Explain the implications of tip losses and x x x x
describe the design features to minimise the
problem.
15 Explain the problems of blade bending and x x x x
flapping and describe the design features to
minimise the problem.
- compressor stall;
- engine surge.
17 State the conditions that are possible causes x x x x
of stall and surge.
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18 Describe the indications of stall and surge. x x x x
19 Describe the design features used to minimise x x x x
the occurrence of stall and surge.
20 Describe a compressor map (surge envelope) x x x x
with RPM lines, stall limit, steady state line
and acceleration line.
21 Describe the function of the diffuser. x x x x
021 11 02 03 Combustion chamber
01 Define the purpose of the combustion x x x x
chamber.
02 List the requirements for combustion. x x x x
03 Describe the working principle of a x x x x
combustion chamber.
04 Explain the reason for reducing the airflow x x x x
axial velocity at the combustion chamber inlet
(snout).
05 State the function of the swirl vanes (swirler). x x x x
06 State the function of the drain valves. x x x x
07 Define the terms ‘primary airflow’ and x x x x
‘secondary airflow’ and explain their purpose.
08 Explain the following two mixture ratios: x x x x
primary airflow to fuel;
total airflow (within the combustion chamber)
to fuel.
09 Describe the gas-parameter changes in the x x x x
combustion chamber.
10 State a typical maximum value of the outlet x x x x
temperature of the combustion chamber.
11 Describe the following types of combustion x x x x
chamber and state the differences between
them:
can type;
can-annular, cannular or tubo-annular;
annular;
reverse-flow annular.
12 Describe the principle of operation of a x x x x
simplex and a duplex fuel spray nozzle
(atomiser).
021 11 02 04 Turbine
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01 Explain the purpose of a turbine in different x x x x
types of gas turbine engines.
02 Describe the principles of operation of x x x x
impulse, reaction and impulse-reaction axial
flow turbines.
03 Name the main components of a turbine x x x x
stage and their function.
04 Describe the working principle of a turbine. x x x x
05 Describe the gas-parameter changes in a x x x x
turbine stage.
06 Describe the function and the working x x x x
principle of active clearance control.
07 Describe the implications of tip losses and x x x x
the means to minimise them.
08 Explain why the available engine thrust is x x x x
limited by the turbine inlet temperature.
09 Explain the divergent gas-flow annulus x x x x
through an axial-flow turbine.
10 Describe turbine-blade convection, x x x x
impingement and film cooling.
11 Explain the high mechanical-thermal stress x x x x
in the turbine blades and wheels.
12 Explain the term ‘creep’. x x x x
13 Explain the consequences of creep on the x x x x

turbine.
14 Explain the terms ‘low-cycle fatigue’ and x x x x
‘high-cycle fatigue’.
021 11 02 05 Aeroplane: exhaust
01 Name the following main components of x x
the exhaust unit and their function:
- jet pipe;
- propelling nozzle;
- exhaust cone.
02 Describe the working principle of the x x
exhaust unit.
03 Describe the gas-parameter changes in the x x
exhaust unit.
04 Define the term ‘choked exhaust nozzle’ (not x
applicable to turboprops).
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05 Explain how jet exhaust noise can be x x
reduced.
021 11 02 06 Helicopter: air intake
01 Name and explain the main task of the x x
engine air intake.
02 Describe the use of a convergent air- x x
intake ducting on helicopters.
03 Describe the reasons for and the dangers x x
of the following operational problems
concerning engine air intake:
- airflow separations;
- intake icing;
- intake damage;
- foreign object damage;
- heavy in-flight turbulence.
04 Describe the conditions and circumstances x x
during ground operations when foreign
object damage is most likely to occur.
05 Describe and explain the principles of air x x
intake filter systems that can be fitted to
some helicopters for operations in icing
and sand conditions.
06 Describe the function of the heated pads on x x
some helicopter air intakes.
021 11 02 07 Helicopter: exhaust
01 Name the following main components of x x
the exhaust unit and their function.
- jet pipe;
- exhaust cone.
02 Describe the working principle of the x x
exhaust unit.
03 Describe the gas-parameter changes in the x x
exhaust unit.
021 11 03 00 Additional components and systems
021 11 03 01 Engine fuel system
01 Name the main components of the engine x x x x
fuel system and state their function.
02 Name the two types of engine-driven x x x x
high-pressure pumps, such as:
- gear-type;
- swash plate-type.
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03 State the tasks of the fuel control unit. x x x x
04 List the possible input parameters to a fuel x x x x
control unit to achieve a given thrust/power
setting.
021 11 03 02 Engine control system
01 State the tasks of the engine control system. x x x x
02 List the following different types of engine x x x x
control systems and state their respective
engine control (output) parameters:
- hydro mechanical (Main Engine
Control (MEC));
- hydro mechanical with a limited
authority electronic supervisor
(Power Management System/Control
(PMS/PMC));
- single channel full-authority engine
control with hydro- mechanical
backup;
- dual channel full-authority electronic
engine control system with no
backup or any other combination
(FADEC).
03 Describe a FADEC as a full-authority dual- x x x
channel system including functions such as an
electronic engine control unit, wiring, sensors,
variable vanes, active clearance control, bleed
configuration, electrical signaling of TLAand an
EGT protection function and engine
overspeed.
04 Explain how redundancy is achieved by using x x x
more than one channel in a FADEC system.
05 State the consequences of a FADEC single x x x
input data failure.
06 State that all input and output data are x x x
checked by both channels.
07 State that a FADEC system uses its own x x x
sensors and that in some cases also data
from aircraft systems is used.
08 State that a FADEC must have its own x x x
source of electrical power.
021 11 03 03 Engine Lubrication

01 State the tasks of an engine lubrication x x
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system.
02 Name the following main components of a x x
lubrication system and state their function:
- oil tank and centrifugal breather;
- oil pumps (pressure and scavenge
pumps);
- oil filters (including the bypass);
- oil sumps;
- chip detectors;
- coolers.
03 Explain that each spool is fitted with at x x
least one ball bearing two or more roller
bearings.
04 Explain the use of compressor air in oil- x x
sealing systems (e.g. labyrinth seals)
021 11 03 04 Engine auxiliary gearbox
01 State the tasks of the auxiliary gearbox. x x
02 Describe how the gearbox is driven and x x
lubricated.
021 11 03 05 Engine ignition
01 State the task of the ignition system. x x
02 Name the following main components of the x x
ignition system and state their function.
- power sources;
- trembler mechanism (vibrator);
- transformer;
- diodes;
- capacitors;
- discharge gap (high-tension tube);
- igniters.
03 State why jet turbine engines are x x
equipped with two electrically independent
ignition systems.
04 Explain the different modes of operation of x x
the ignition system.
021 11 03 06 Engine Starter
01 Name the main components of the starting x x
system and state their function.
02 Explain the principle of a turbine engine start. x x
03 Describe the following two types of starters: x x
- electric;
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- pneumatic.
04 Describe a typical start sequence (on x x
ground/in flight) for a turbofan.
05 Define ‘self-sustaining RPM’. x x
021 11 03 07 Reverse thrust
reverse-thrust system and state their function:
- reverse-thrust select lever;
- power source (pneumatic or
hydraulic);
- actuators;
- doors;
- annunciators.
02 Explain the principle of a reverse thrust x x
system.
03 Identify the advantages and disadvantages of x x
using reverse thrust.
04 Describe and explain the following different x x
types of thrust reverse systems:
- hot-stream reverser;
- clamshell or bucket-door system;
- cold-stream reverser (only turbofan
engines);
- blocked doors;
- cascade vanes.
05 Explain the implications of reversing the cold x x
stream (fan reverser) only on a high bypass
ration engine.
06 Describe the protection features against x x
inadvertent thrust-reverse deployment in
flight as present on most transport
aeroplanes.
07 Describe the controls and indications provided x x
for thee thrust-reverse system.
021 11 03 08 Helicopter specifics on design, operation
and components for: Additional
components and systems such as
lubrication system, ignition circuit, starter,
accessory gearbox
01 State the task of the lubrication system. x x
02 List and describe the common helicopter x x
lubrication systems.
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helicopter lubrication system:
- reservoir;
- pump assembly;
- external assembly;
- magnetic chip detectors, electronic
chip detectors;
- thermostatic oil coolers;
- breather.
04 Identify and name the components of a x x
helicopter lubrication system from a diagram.
05 Identify the indications used to monitor a x x
lubrication system including warning systems.
06 Explain the differences and appropriate use of x x
straight oil and compound oil and describe the
oil numbering system for aviation use.
07 Explain and describe the ignition circuit for x x
engine start and engine relight facility
when the selection is set for both automatic
and manual functions.
08 Explain and describe the starter motor and x x
the sequence of events when starting,
and that for most helicopters the starter
becomes the generator after the starting
sequence is over.
09 Explain and describe why the engine x x
drives the accessory gearbox.
021 11 04 00 Engine operation and monitoring
021 11 04 01 General
01 Explain the following aeroplane engine x x
limitations:
take-off;
go-around;
maximum continuous thrust/power;
maximum climb thrust/power.
02 Explain spool-up time. x x x x
03 Explain the reason for the difference between x x
ground and approach flight idle values (RPM).
04 State the parameters that can be used for x x x x
setting and monitoring the thrust/power.
05 Describe the terms ‘alpha range’, ‘beta range’ x x
and ‘reverse thrust’ as applied to a turboprop
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power lever.
06 Explain the dangers of inadvertent beta-range x x
selection in flight for a turboprop.
07 Explain the purpose of engine trending. x x x x
08 Explain how the exhaust gas temperature is x x x x
used to monitor turbine stress.
09 Describe the effect of engine acceleration and x x x x
deceleration on the EGT.
10 Describe the possible effects on engine x x x x
components when EGT limits are exceeded.
11 Explain why engine-limit exceedances must be x x x x
reported.
12 Explain the limitations on the use of the x x
thrust-reverser system at low forward speed.
13 Explain the term ‘engine seizure’. x x x x
14 State the possible causes of engine seizure x x x x
and explain their preventative measures.
15 Explain the reason for the difference in the x x x x
pressures of the fuel and oil in the heat
exchanger.
16 Explain oil-filter clogging (blockage) and the x x x x
implications for the lubrication system.
17 Give examples of monitoring instruments of x x x x
an engine.
021 11 04 02 Starting malfunctions
01 Describe the indications and the possible x x

causes of the following aeroplane starting
malfunctions:
- false (dry or wet) start;
- tailpipe fire (torching);
- hot start;
- abortive (hung) start;
- no N1 rotation;
- no FADEC indications.
02 Describe the indications and the possible x x
causes of the following helicopter starting
malfunctions:
- tailpipe fire (torching);
- hot start;
- abortive (hung) start;
- no N1 rotation;
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- freewheel failure.
03 no FADEC indications x x
021 11 04 03 Re-light envelope
01 Explain the re-light envelope. x x
021 11 05 00 Performance aspects
021 11 05 01 Thrust, performance aspects, and
limitations
01 Describe the variation of thrust and specific x x
fuel consumption with altitude at constant
TAS.
02 Describe the variation of thrust and specific x x
fuel consumption with TAS at constant
altitude.
03 Explain the term ‘flat-rated engine’ by x x
describing the change of take-off thrust,
turbine inlet temperature and engine RPM
with OAT.
04 Define the term ‘Engine Pressure Ratio’ (EPR). x x
05 Explain the use of reduced (flexible) and x x
derated thrust for take-off and explain the
advantages and disadvantages when
compared with a full-rated take-off.
04 Define the term ‘Engine Pressure Ratio’ (EPR). x x
05 Explain the use of reduced (flexible) and x x
derated thrust for take-off and explain the
advantages and disadvantages when
compared with a full-rated take-off.
06 Describe the effects of use of bleed air on x x
RPM, EGT, thrust and specific fuel
consumption
021 11 05 02 Helicopter engine ratings, engine

performance and limitations, engine
handling: torque, performance aspects,
engine handling and limitations.
01 Describe engine rating torque limits for x x
take-off, transient and maximum
continuous.
02 Describe turbine outlet temperature (TOT) x x
limits for take-off.
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03 Explain why TOT is a limiting factor for x x
helicopter performance.
04 Describe and explain the relationship between x x
maximum torque available and density
altitude, which leads to decreasing torque
available with the increase of density altitude.
05 LO Explain that hovering downwind on some x x
helicopters will noticeably increase the engine
TOT.
06 Explain the reason why the engine x x
performance is less when aircraft accessories
are switched on, i.e. anti- ice, heating, hoist,
filters.
07 Describe the effects of use of bleed air on x x
engine parameters.
08 Explain that on some helicopter exceeding the x x
TOT limit may cause the main rotor to droop
(slow down).
021 11 06 00 Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
021 11 06 01 Design, operation, functions, operational
limitations
01 State that an APU is a gas turbine engine and x x x
list its tasks.
02 State the difference between the two types of x x x
APU inlets.
03 Define ‘maximum operating and maximum x x x
starting altitude’.
04 Name the typical APU control and monitoring x x x
instruments.
05 Describe the APU’s automatic shutdown x x x
protection.
021 12 00 00 PROTECTION AND DETECTION SYSTEMS
021 12 01 00 Smoke detection
021 12 01 01 Types, design, operation, indications and
warnings
01 Explain the operating principle of the x x
following types of smoke detection sensors:
- optical;
- ionising.
02 Give an example of warnings, indications and x x
function tests.
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021 12 02 00 Fire-protection systems
021 12 02 01 Fire extinguishing (engine and cargo
compartments)
01 Explain the operating principle of a built-in x x x x
fire-extinguishing system and describe its
components.
02 State that two discharges must be provided x x
for each engine.
021 12 02 02 Fire detection
01 Explain the following principles involved in fire x x x x
detection:
- resistance and capacitance;
- gas pressure.
02 Explain fire-detection applications such as: x x x x
- bimetallic;
- continuous loop;
- gaseous loop (gas-filled detectors).
03 Explain why generally double-loop systems x x x x
are used.
04 Give an example of warnings, indications and x x x x
function test of a fire- protection system.
021 12 03 00 Rain-protection system
01 Explain the principle and method of operation x x
of the following windshield rain-protection
systems for an aeroplane:
- wipers;
- liquids (rain repellent);
- coating.
02 Explain the principles and method of x x
operation of wipers for a helicopter.
021 13 00 00 OXYGEN SYSTEMS
01 Describe the basic operating principle of a x x
cockpit oxygen system and describe the
following different modes of operation:
- normal (diluter demand);
- 100%;
- Emergency.
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02 Describe the operating principle and the x x
purpose of the following two portable oxygen
systems:
- Smoke hood;
- Portable bottle.
03 Describe the following two oxygen systems x x
that can be used to supply oxygen to
passenger:
- Fixed system (chemical oxygen
generator or gaseous);
- Portable.
04 Describe the actuation methods (automatic x x
and manual) and the functioning of a
passenger oxygen mask.
05 Compare chemical oxygen generators to x x
gaseous systems with respect to:
- Capacity;
- Flow regulation.
06 State the dangers of grease or oil related to x x
the use of oxygen systems.
021 14 00 00 HELICOPTER: MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS
021 14 01 00 Variable rotor speed
01 Explain the system when pilots can ‘beep’ the x x
NR an additional amount when manoeuvring,
landing and taking off, normally at higher
altitudes to obtain extra tail-rotor thrust,
which makes manoeuvring more positive and
safer.
02 Explain the system for ‘beeping’ the NR to its x x
upper limit to enable safer take-off.
021 14 02 00 Active vibration suppression
Explain and describe how the active vibration x x
01 suppression system works through high-speed
actuators and accelerometer inputs.
021 14 03 00 Night-vision goggles
01 To be introduced at a later date. x x
021 15 00 00 HELICOPTER: ROTOR HEADS
021 15 01 00 Main rotor
021 15 01 01 Types
01 Describe the following rotor-head systems: x x
- teetering;
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- articulated;
- hingeless;
- bearingless.
02 Describe the following configuration of rotor x x
systems and their advantages and
disadvantages:
- tandem;
- coaxial;
- side by side.
03 Explain how flapping, dragging and x x
feathering is achieved in each rotor-
head system.
021 15 01 02 Structural components and materials,
stresses, structural limitations
01 Identify from a diagram the main x x
structural components of the main types
of rotor-head system.
02 List and describe the methods used on how x x
to detect damage and cracks.
03 Explain and describe the structural x x
limitations to respective rotor systems,
including the dangers of negative G inputs
to certain rotor- head systems.
04 Describe the various rotor-head lubrication x x
methods.
01 Describe the material technology used in x x
rotor-head design, including construction
using the following materials or mixture of
materials:
- composites;
- fiberglass;
- alloys;
- elastomers.
021 15 01 04 Adjustment
01 Describe and explain the methods of x x
adjustment which are possible on various
helicopter rotor-head assemblies.
021 15 02 00 Tail rotor
021 15 02 01 Types
01 Describe the following tail-rotor systems: x x
delta 3 hinge;
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multi bladed delta 3 effect;
Fenestron or ducted fan tail-rotor;
No Tail Rotor (NOTR) high velocity air jets
flows from adjustable nozzles (the Coanda
effect).
02 Identify from a diagram the main structural x x
components of the four main types of tail-
rotor systems.
03 Explain and describe the methods to detect x x
damage and cracks on the tail rotor and
assembly.
04 Explain and describe the structural limitations x x
to the respective tail-rotor systems and
possible limitations regarding the turn rate of
the helicopter.
05 Explain and describe the following methods x x
that helicopter designers use to minimise tail-
rotor drift and roll:
- Reducing the couple arm (tail-rotor
on a pylon);
- Offsetting the rotor mast;
- Use of bias in ‘cyclic’ control
mechanism.
06 Explain pitch-input mechanisms. x x
07 Explain the relationship between tail-rotor x x
thrust and engine power.
08 Describe how the vertical fin on some x x
helicopters reduces the power demand of the
Fenestron.
01 List and describe the various tail-rotor x x
designs and construction methods used on
current helicopters in service.
01 Describe the rigging and adjustment of the x x
tail-rotor system to obtain optimum
position of the pilot’s yaw pedals.
021 16 00 00 HELICOPTER: TRANSMISSION
021 16 01 00 Main gearbox
021 16 01 01 Different types, design, operation,
limitations
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01 Describe the following main principles of x x
helicopter transmission systems for single
and twin-engine helicopters:
drive for the main and tail rotor;
accessory drive for the generator(s)
alternator(s), hydraulic and oil pumps, oil
cooler(s) and tachometers.
02 Describe the reason for limitations on x x
multi-engine helicopter transmissions in
various engine-out situations.
03 Describe how the passive vibration control x x
works with gearbox mountings.
021 16 02 00 Rotor brake
01 Describe the main function of the disc type x x
of rotor brake.
02 Describe both hydraulic and cable operated x x
rotor-brake systems.
03 Describe the different options for the x x
location of the rotor brake.
04 List the following operational considerations x x
for the use of rotor brakes:
- rotor speed at engagement of rotor
brake;
- risk of blade sailing in windy
conditions;
- risk of rotor-brake overheating and
possible fire when brake is applied
above the maximum limit,
particularly when spilled hydraulic
fluid is present;
- avoid stopping blades over jet- pipe
exhaust with engine running;
- cockpit annunciation of rotor- brake
operation.
021 16 03 00 Auxiliary systems
01 Explain how the hoist/winch can be driven by x x
an off-take from the auxiliary gearbox.
02 Explain how power for the air- conditioning x x
system is taken from the auxiliary gearbox.
021 16 04 00 Driveshaft and associated installation
01 Describe how power is transmitted from the x x
engine to the main rotor gearbox.
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02 Describe the material and construction of the x x
driveshaft.
03 Explain the need for alignment between the x x
engine and the main rotor gearbox.
04 Identify how temporary misalignment occurs x x
between driving and driven components.
05 Explain the use of: x x
- flexible couplings;
- Thomas couplings;
- Flexible disc packs;
- driveshaft support bearings and
temperature measurement;
- subcritical and supercritical
driveshafts.
06 Explain the relationship between the x x
driveshaft speed and torque.
07 Describe the methods with which power is x x
delivered to the tail rotor.
08 Describe and identify the construction and x x
materials of tail rotor/Fenestron driveshafts.
021 16 05 00 Intermediate and tail gearbox
01 Explain and describe the various x x
arrangements when the drive changes
direction and the need for an intermediate
or tail gearbox.
02 Explain the lubrication requirements for x x
intermediate and tail-rotor gearboxes and
methods of checking levels.
03 Explain how on most helicopters the tail- x x
rotor gearbox contains gearing, etc., for
the tail-rotor pitch-change mechanism.
021 16 06 00 Clutches
01 Explain the purpose of a clutch. x x
02 Describe and explain the operation of a: x x
- centrifugal clutch;
- actuated clutch.
03 List the typical components of the various x x
clutches.
04 Identify the following methods by which x x
clutch serviceability can be ascertained:
- brake shoe dust;
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PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
- vibration;
- main-rotor run down-time;
- engine speed at time of main-rotor
engagement;
- belt tensioning;
- start protection in a belt-drive clutch
system.
021 16 07 00 Freewheels
01 Explain the purpose of a freewheel. x x
02 Describe and explain the operation of a: x x
- cam and roller type freewheel;
- sprag-clutch type freewheel;
03 List the typical components of the various x x
freewheels.
04 Identify the various locations of freewheels in x x
power plant and transmission systems.
05 Explain the implications regarding the x x
engagement and disengagement of the
freewheel.
021 17 00 00 HELICOPTER BLADES
021 17 01 00 Main rotor-blade
021 17 01 01 Design, construction
01 Describe the different types of blade x x
construction and the need for torsional
stiffness.
02 Describe the principles of heating x x
systems/pads on some blades for anti-
icing/de-icing.
01 List the materials used in the construction of x x
main-rotor blades.
02 List the main structural components of a x x
main-rotor blade and their function.
021 17 01 03 Stresses
01 Describe main-rotor blade-loading on the x x
ground and in flight.
02 Describe where the most common stress x x
areas are on rotor-blades.
01 Explain the structural limitations in terms of x x
Page 119 of 494
PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
bending and rotor RPM.
01 Explain the use of trim tabs. x x
021 17 01 06 Tip shape
01 Describe the various blade-tip shapes x x
used by different manufacturers and
compare their advantages and
disadvantages.
02 Describe how on some rotor-blade tips, x x
static and dynamic balancing weights are
attached to threaded rods and screwed into
sockets in the leading edge spar and
others in a support embedded into the
blade tip.
021 17 02 00 Tail-rotor blade
021 17 02 01 Design, construction
01 Describe the most common design of tail- x x
rotor blade construction, consisting of
stainless steel shell reinforced by a
honeycomb filler and stainless steel leading
abrasive strip.
02 Explain that ballast weights are located at x x
the inboard trailing edge and tip of blades,
and that the weights used are determined
when the blades are manufactured.
03 Describe how anti-icing/de-icing systems x x
are designed into the blade construction
of some helicopters.
01 List the materials used in the construction of x x
tail-rotor blades.
02 List the main structural components of a x x
tail-rotor blade and their function.
021 17 02 03 Stresses
01 Describe the tail-rotor blade-loading on the x x
ground and in flight.
01 Describe the structural limitations of tail- x x
rotor blades.
02 Describe the method of checking the x x
strike indicators placed on the tip of
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PLANT AND EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT
some tail-rotor blades.
01 Describe the adjustment of yaw pedals in x x
the cockpit to obtain full control authority
of the tail rotor.
Page 121 of 494
C. SUBJECT 022 - INSTRUMENTATION

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
020 00 00 00 AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
022 00 00 00 AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE -
INSTRUMENTATION
022 01 00 00 SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTS
022 01 01 00 Pressure gauge
01 Define ‘pressure’, ‘absolute pressure’ x x x
and ‘differential pressure’.
02 List the following units used for pressure: x x x
- Pascal;
- bar;
- inches of mercury (in Hg);
- pounds per square inch (PSI).
03 State the relationship between the different x x x
units.
04 List and describe the following different types x x x
of sensors used according to the pressure to
be measured:
- aneroid capsules;
- bellows;
- diaphragms;
- bourdon tube.
05 Solid-state sensors (to be introduced at a later x x x
date)
06 For each type of sensor identify applications x x x
such as:
- liquid-pressure measurement (fuel,
oil, hydraulic);
- air-pressure measurement (bleed-air
systems, air-conditioning systems);
- Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
gauge.
07 Pressure probes for Engine Pressure Ration x
(EPR).
08 Give examples of display for each of the x x x x
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applications above.
09 Explain the need for remote-indicating x x x
systems.
022 01 02 00 Temperature sensing

01 Explain temperature. x x x x
02 List the following units that can be used for x x x x
temperature measurement:
- Kelvin;
- Celsius;
- Fahrenheit.
03 State the relationship between these x x x x
different units.
04 Describe and explain the operating principles x x x x
of the following types of sensors:
- expansion type (bimetallic strip),
- electrical type (resistance,
thermocouple).
05 State the relationship for a thermocouple x x x
between the electromotive force and the
temperature to be measured.
06 For each type, identify applications such as: x x x
- gas-temperature measurement
(ambient air, bleed-air systems, air-
conditioning systems, air inlet,
exhaust gas, gas turbine outlets);
- liquid-temperature measurement
(fuel, oil, hydraulic).
07 Give examples of display for each of the x x x
applications above.
022 01 03 00 Fuel gauge
01 State that the quantity of fuel can be x x x
measured by volume or mass.
02 List the following units used for fuel x x x
quantity when measured by mass:
- kilogramme;
- pound.
03 State the relationship between these x x x
different units.
04 Define ‘capacitance’ and ‘permittivity’ and x x x
state their relationship with density.
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05 List and explain the parameters that can x x x

affect the measurement of the volume
and/or mass of the fuel in a wing fuel
tank:
- temperature;
- aircraft accelerations and attitudes;
and explain how the fuel-gauge
system design compensates for
these changes.
06 Describe and explain the operating x x x
principles of the following types of fuel
gauges:
- float system;
- capacitance type fuel-gauge system;
- ultrasound type of fuel gauge: to be
introduced at a later date.
022 01 04 00 Fuel flowmeters
01 Define ‘fuel flow’ and where it is measured. x x x
02 State that fuel flow may be measured by x x x
volume or mass per unit of time.
flow when measured by mass per hour:
- kilogrammes/hour;
- pounds/hour.
flow when measured by volume per hour:
- litres/hour;
- US gallons/hour.
05 List and describe the following different types x
of fuel flowmeter:
- mechanical;
- electrical (analogue);
- electronic (digital);
- and explain how the signal can be
corrected to measure mass flow.
06 Explain how total fuel consumption is x
obtained.
022 01 05 00 Tachometer
01 List the following types of tachometers: x
- mechanical (rotating magnet);
- electrical (three-phase tacho-
generator);
- electronic (impulse measurement
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with speed probe and phonic wheel);

- and describe the operating principle
of each type.
02 For each type, identify applications such as x
engine-speed measurement (crankshaft speed
for piston engines, spool speed for gas turbine
engines), wheel-speed measurement for anti-
skid systems (anti-skid systems for aeroplane
only), and give examples of display.
03 State that engine speed is most commonly x
displayed as a percentage.
022 01 06 00 Thrust measurement
01 List and describe the following two x
parameters used to represent thrust: N1, EPR.
02 Explain the operating principle of the EPR x

gauge and the consequences for the pilot in
case of a malfunction including blockage and
leakage.
03 Give examples of display for N1 and EPR. x x
022 01 07 00 Engine torquemeter
01 Define ‘torque’. x x x x
02 Explain the relationship between power, x x x x
torque and RPM.
03 List the following units used for torque: x x x x
- Newton meters;
- inch or foot pounds.
04 State that engine torque can be displayed as a x x x x
percentage.
05 List and describe the following different types x x x x
of torquemeters:
- mechanical;
- electronic;
- and explain their operating
principles.
06 Compare the two systems with regard to x x x x
design and weight.
07 Give examples of display. x x x x
022 01 08 00 Synchroscope
01 State the purpose of a synchroscope. x x
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02 Explain the operating principle of a x x

synchroscope.
03 Give examples of display. x x
022 01 09 00 Engine-vibration monitoring
01 State the purpose of a vibration- monitoring x x
system for a jet engine.
02 Describe the operating principle of a vibration- x x
monitoring system using the following two
types of sensors:
- piezoelectric crystal;
- magnet.
03 State that no specific unit is displayed for a x x
vibration-monitoring system.
04 Give examples of display. x x
022 01 10 00 Time measurement
01 Explain the use of time/date measurement x x x x
and recording for engines and system
maintenance.
022 02 00 00 MEASUREMENT OF AIR-DATA PARAMETERS
022 02 01 00 Pressure measurement
01 Define ‘static, total and dynamic pressures’ x x x x
and state the relationship between them.
02 Define ‘impact pressure’ as total pressure x x x x
minus static pressure and discuss the
conditions when dynamic pressure equals
impact pressure.
022 02 01 02 Pitot/static system: design and errors
01 Describe the design and the operating x x x x
principle of a:
- static source;
- pitot tube;
- combined pitot/static probe.
02 For each of these indicate the various x x x x
locations, and describe the following
associated errors:
- position errors;
- instrument errors;
- errors due to a non-longitudinal axial
flow (including maneuver- induced
errors);
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and the means of correction and/or

compensation.
03 Describe a typical pitot/static system and x x x x
list the possible outputs.
04 Explain the redundancy and the x x x x
interconnections of typical pitot/static
systems.
05 Explain the purpose of heating and x x x x
interpret the effect of heating on sensed
pressure.
06 List the affected instruments and explain x x x x
the consequences for the pilot in case of
a malfunction including blockage and
leakage.
07 Describe alternate static sources and their x x x x
effects when used.
08 Solid-state sensors. x x x x
022 02 02 00 Temperature measurement
01 Define ‘OAT’, ‘SAT’, ‘TAT’ and x x x x
‘measured temperature’.
02 Define ‘ram rise’ and ‘recovery factor’. x
03 State the relationship between the x
different temperatures according to Mach
number.
022 02 02 02 Design and operation

01 Describe the following types of air- x x x x
temperature probes and their features:
- expansion type: bimetallic strip,
direct reading;
- electrical type wire resistance,
remote reading.
02 For each of these indicate the various x x x x
locations, and describe the following
associated errors:
- position errors;
- instrument errors.
and the means of correction and/or
compensation.
03 Explain the purpose of heating and x x x x
interpret the effect of heating on sensed
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temperature.
022 02 03 00 Angle-of-attack measurement
01 Describe the following two types of angle-of- x x
attack sensors:
- null-seeking (slotted) probe;
- vane detector.
02 For each type, explain the operating x x
principles.
03 Explain how both types are protected x x
against ice.
04 Give examples of systems that use the angle x x
of attack as an input, such as:
- air-data computer;
- Stall Warning Systems;
- flight-envelope protection systems.
022 02 04 00 Altimeter
01 Define ‘ISA’. x x x x
02 List the following two units used for x x x x
altimeters:
- feet;
- metres;
- height, altitude;
- indicated altitude, true altitude;
- pressure altitude, density altitude.
04 Define the following barometric references: x x x x
‘QNH’, ‘QFE’, ‘1013,25’.
05 Explain the operating principles of an x x x x
altimeter.
06 Describe and compare the following three x x x x

types of altimeters:
- simple altimeter (single capsule);
- sensitive altimeter (multi- capsule);
- servoassisted altimeter.
07 Give examples of associated displays: x x x x
pointer, multi-pointer, drum, vertical
straight scale.
08 Describe the following errors: x x x x
- pitot/static system errors;
- temperature error (air column not at
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ISA conditions);
- time lag (altimeter response to
change of height);
and the means of correction.
09 Give examples of altimeter corrections table x x x x
from an Aircraft Operating Handbook
(AOH).
10 Describe the effects of a blockage or a x x x x
leakage on the static pressure line.
022 02 05 00 Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)
01 List the two units used for VSI: x x x x
- metres per second;
- feet per minute;
02 Explain the operating principles of a VSI. x x x x
03 Describe and compare the following two x x x x
types of vertical speed indicators:
- barometric type;
- inertial type (inertial information
provided by an inertial reference
unit).
04 Describe the following VSI errors: x x x x
- time lag;
and the means of correction.
05 Describe the effects on a VSI of a blockage or a x x x x
leakage on the static pressure line.
06 Give examples of a VSI display. x x x x
022 02 06 00 Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

01 List the following three units used for x x x x
airspeed:
- nautical miles/hour (knots);
- statute miles/hour;
- kilometres/hour;
02 Define ‘IAS’, ‘CAS’, ‘EAS’, ‘TAS’ and state and x x x x
explain the relationship between these
speeds.
03 Describe the following ASI errors and state x x x x
when they must be considered:
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- compressibility error;
- density error.
04 Explain the operating principles of an ASI (as x x x x
appropriate to aeroplanes or helicopters).
05 Give examples of an ASI display: x x x x
pointer, vertical straight scale.
06 Interpret ASI corrections tables as x x x x
used in an Aircraft Operating Handbook
(AOH).
07 Define and explain the following colour codes x x
that can be used on an ASI:
- white arc (flap operating speed
range);
- green arc (normal operating speed
range);
- yellow arc (caution speed range);
- red line (VNE);
- blue line (best rate of climb speed,
one-engine-out for multi- engine
piston light aeroplanes).
08 Describe the effects on an ASI of a x x x x

blockage or a leakage in the static and/or
total pressure line(s).
022 02 07 00 Machmeter
01 Define ‘Mach number’ and ‘Local Speed x
of Sound’ (LSS),and perform simple
calculations that include these terms.
02 Describe the operating principle of a x
Machmeter.
03 Explain why a Machmeter suffers only from x
pitot/static system errors.
04 Give examples of a Machmeter display: x
pointer, drum, vertical straight scale, digital.
05 Describe the effects on a Machmeter of a x
blockage or a leakage in the static and/or
total pressure line(s).
06 State the relationship between Mach x
number, CAS and TAS, and interpret their
variations according to FL and temperature
changes.
07 State the existence of MMO. x
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022 02 08 00 Air-Data Computer (ADC)

01 Explain the operating principle of an ADC. x x
02 List the following possible input data: x x
TAT;
- static pressure;
- total pressure;
- measured temperature;
- angle of attack;
- flaps and landing gear position;
- stored aircraft data.
03 List the following possible output data: x x
- IAS;
- TAS;
- SAT;
- TAT;
- Mach number;
- angle of attack;
- altitude;
- vertical speed;
- VMO/MMO pointer.
04 For each output, list the datum/data x x
sensed and explain the principle of
calculation.
05 Explain how position, instrument, x x
compressibility and density errors can be
compensated/corrected to achieve a TAS
calculation.
06 Explain why accuracy is improved for each x x
output datum when compared to raw
data.
07 Give examples of instruments and/or x x
systems which may use ADC output data.
08 State that an ADC can be a stand- alone x x
system or integrated with the Inertial
Reference Unit (ADIRU).
09 Explain the ADC architecture for air- x x
data measurement including sensors,
processing units and displays, as opposed
to stand-alone air-data measurement
instruments.
10 Explain the advantage of an ADC for air- x x
data information management compared
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to raw data.
022 03 00 00 MAGNETISM — DIRECT-READING
COMPASS AND FLUX VALVE
022 03 01 00 Earth’s magnetic field
01 Describe the magnetic field of the Earth. x x x x
02 Explain the properties of a magnet. x x x x
- magnetic variation;
- magnetic dip (inclination).
022 03 02 00 Aircraft magnetic field
01 Define and explain the following terms: x x x x
- magnetic and non-magnetic material;
- hard and soft iron;
- permanent magnetism and
electromagnetism.
02 Explain the principles and the reasons for: x x x x
- compass swinging (determination of
initial deviations);
- compass compensation (correction of
deviations found);
- compass calibration (determination
of residual deviations).
03 List the causes of the aircraft ’s magnetic x x x x
field and explain how it affects the
accuracy of the compass indications.
04 Describe the purpose and the use of a x x x x
deviation correction card.
022 03 03 00 Direct-reading magnetic compass
01 Define the role of a direct-reading x x x x
magnetic compass.
02 Describe and explain the design of a x x x x
vertical card-type compass.
03 Describe the deviation compensation. x x x x
04 Describe and interpret the effects of the x x x x
following errors:
- acceleration;
- turning;
- attitude;
- deviation.
05 Explain how to use and interpret the x x x x
direct-reading compass indications during a
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turn.
022 03 04 00 Flux valve
01 Explain the purpose of a flux valve. x x x x
02 Explain its operating principle. x x x x
03 Indicate various locations and precautions x x x x
needed.
04 Give the remote-reading compass system as x x x x
example of application.
05 State that because of the electromagnetic x x x x

deviation correction, the flux-valve output
itself does not have a deviation correction
card.
06 Describe and interpret the effects of the x x x x
following errors:
- acceleration;
- turning;
- attitude;
- deviation.
022 04 00 00 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
022 04 01 00 Gyroscope: basic principles
01 Define a ‘gyro’. x x x x
02 Explain the fundamentals of the theory of x x x x
gyroscopic forces.
03 Define the ‘degrees of freedom’ of a x x x x
gyro.
Remark: As a convention, the degrees of
freedom of a gyroscope do not include its
own axis of rotation (the spin axis).
- rigidity;
- precession;
- wander (drift/topple).
05 Distinguish between: x x x x
- real wander and apparent wander;
- apparent wander due to the rotation
of the Earth and transport wander.
06 Describe a free (space) gyro and a tied gyro. x x x x
07 Describe and compare electrically and x x x x
pneumatically-driven gyroscopes.
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08 Explain the construction and operating x x x x

principles of a:
- rate gyro;
- rate-integrating gyro.
022 04 02 00 Rate-of-turn indicator — Turn coordinator
— Balance (slip) indicator
01 Explain the purpose of a rate-of-turn and x x x x
balance (slip) indicator.
02 Define a ‘rate-one turn’. x x x x
03 Describe the construction and principles of x x x x
operation of a rate-of- turn indicator.
04 State the degrees of freedom of a rate-of-turn x x x x
indicator.
05 Explain the relation between bank angle, rate x x x x
of turn and TAS.
06 Explain why the indication of a rate-of- turn x x x x
indicator is only correct for one TAS and when
turn is coordinated.
operation of a balance (slip) indicator.
08 Explain the purpose of a balance (slip) x x x x
indicator.
09 Describe the indications of a rate-of- turn and x x x x
balance (slip) indicator during a balanced, slip
or skid turn.
operation of a turn coordinator (or turn-and-
bank indicator).
11 Compare the rate-of-turn indicator and the x x x x
turn coordinator.
022 04 03 00 Attitude indicator (artificial horizon)
01 Explain the purpose of the attitude indicator. x x x x
02 Describe the different designs and principles x x x x
of operation of attitude indicators (air-driven,
electric).
03 State the degrees of freedom. x x x x
04 Describe the gimbal system. x x x x
05 Describe the effects of the aircraft’s x x x x
acceleration and turns on instrument
indications.
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06 Describe the attitude display and instrument x x x x

markings.
07 Explain the purpose of a vertical gyro unit. x x x x
08 List and describe the following components of x x x x
a vertical gyro unit:
- inputs: pitch and roll sensors;
- transmission and amplification
(synchros and amplifiers);
- outputs: display units such as
Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI),
auto-flight control systems.
a vertical gyro unit compared to an
attitude indicator with regard to:
- design (power source, weight and
volume);
- accuracy of the information
displayed;
- availability of the information for
several systems (ADI, AFCS).
022 04 04 00 Directional gyroscope
01 Explain the purpose of the directional x x x x

gyroscope.
02 Describe the following two types of x x x x
directional gyroscopes:
- air-driven directional gyro;
- electric directional gyro.
03 State the degrees of freedom. x x x x
04 Describe the gimbal system. x x x x
05 Define the following different errors: x x x x
- design and manufacturing
imperfections (random wander);
- apparent wander (rotation of the
Earth);
- transport wander (movement
relative to the Earth’s surface);
- and explain their effects.
06 Calculate the apparent wander (apparent x x x x
drift rate in degrees per hour) of an
uncompensated gyro according to latitude.
022 04 05 00 Remote-reading compass systems
Page 135 of 494
01 Describe the principles of operation of a x x x x

remote-reading compass system.
02 Using a block diagram, list and explain the x x x x
function of the following components of a
remote-reading compass system:
- flux detection unit;
- gyro unit;
- transducers, precession amplifiers,
annunciator;
- display unit (compass card,
synchronising and set-heading knob,
DG/compass switch).
a remote-reading compass system compared
to a direct- reading magnetic compass with
regard to:
- design (power source, weight and
volume);
- deviation due to aircraft magnetism;
- turning and acceleration errors;
- attitude errors;
- accuracy and stability of the
information displayed;
- availability of the information for
several systems (compass card, RMI,
AFCS).
022 04 06 00 Solid-state systems — AHRS (the following
paragraph is to be introduced at a later
date)
01 State that the Micro-Electromechanical x x x x
Sensors (MEMS) technology can be used to
make:
- solid-state accelerometers;
- solid-state rate sensor gyroscopes;
- solid-state magnetometers
(measurement of the Earth’s
magnetic field).
02 Describe the basic principle of a solid- state x x x x
Attitude and Heading Reference System
(AHRS) using a solid-state 3- axis rate
sensor, 3-axis accelerometer and a 3-axis
magnetometer.
03 Compare the solid-state AHRS with the x x x x
mechanical gyroscope and flux-gate system
with regard to:
Page 136 of 494
- size and weight;

- accuracy;
- reliability;
- cost.
022 05 00 00 INERTIAL NAVIGATION AND REFERENCE
SYSTEMS (INS AND IRS)
022 05 01 00 Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) (stabilised
inertial platform)
01 Explain the basic principles of inertial x x
navigation.
022 05 01 02 Design
01 List and describe the main components of a x x
stabilised inertial platform.
02 Explain the different corrections made to x x
stabilise the platform.
03 List the following two effects that must be x x
compensated for:
- Coriolis;
- centrifugal.
04 Explain the alignment of the system, the x x
different phases associated and the conditions
required.
05 Explain the Schuler condition and give the x x
value of the Schuler period.
022 05 01 03 Errors, accuracy
01 State that there are three different types of x x
errors:
- bounded errors;
- unbounded errors;
- other errors.
02 Give average values for bounded and x x
unbounded errors according to time.
03 State that an average value for the position x x
error of the INS according to time is 1,5
NM/hour or more.
022 05 01 04 Operation
01 Give examples of INS control and display x x
panels.
02 Give an average value of alignment time at x x
midlatitudes.
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03 List the outputs given by an INS. x x

04 Describe and explain the consequences x x
concerning the loss of alignment by an INS in
flight.
022 05 02 00 Inertial Reference Systems (IRS) (strapped-
down)
01 Describe the operating principle of a x x
strapped-down IRS.
02 State the differences between a strapped- x x
down inertial system (IRS) and a stabilised
inertial platform (INS).
022 05 02 02 Design
01 List and describe the following main x x
components of an IRS:
rate sensors (laser gyros);
inertial accelerometers;
high-performance processors;
display unit.
02 Explain the construction and operating x x
principles of a Ring Laser Gyroscope
(RLG).
03 Explain the different computations and x x
corrections to be made to achieve data
processing.
04 Explain the alignment of the system, the x x
different phases associated and the
conditions required.
05 Explain why the Schuler condition is still x x
required.
06 Describe the ‘lock-in’ (laser lock) phenomena x x
and the means to overcome it.
07 State that an IRS can be a stand-alone system x x
or integrated with an ADC (ADIRU).
022 05 02 03 Errors, accuracy

01 Compare IRS and INS for errors and accuracy. x x
01 Compare IRS and INS, and give recent x x
examples of control panels.
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02 List the outputs given by an IRS. x x

03 Give the advantages and disadvantages of an x x
IRS compared to an INS.
022 06 00 00 AEROPLANE: AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL
SYSTEMS
022 06 01 00 General: Definitions and control loops
01 State the following purposes of an Automatic x x
Flight Control System (AFCS):
- enhancement of flight controls;
- reduction of pilot workload.
02 Define and explain the following two functions x x
of an AFCS:
- aircraft control: control of the
aeroplane’s movement about its
centre of gravity (CG);
- aircraft guidance: guidance of the
aeroplane’s CG (flight path).
03 Define and explain ‘closed loop’ and open x x
loop.
04 Explain that the inner loop is for aircraft x x
control and outer loop is for aircraft guidance.
05 List the following different elements of a x x
closed loop control system and explain their
function:
- input signal;
- error detector;
- signal processing (computation of
output signal according to control
laws);
- output signal;
- control element;
- feedback signal.
022 06 02 00 Autopilot system: design and operation
01 Define the three basic control channels. x x
02 List the following different types of autopilot x x
systems: 1-axis, 2-axis and 3-axis.
03 List and describe the main components of an x x
autopilot system.
04 Explain and describe the following lateral x x
modes roll, heading, VOR/LOC, NAV or LNAV.
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05 Describe the purpose of control laws for pitch x x

and roll modes.
06 Explain and describe the following longitudinal x x
(or vertical) modes: pitch, vertical speed, level
change, altitude hold (ALT), profile or VNAV,
G/S.
07 Give basic examples for pitch and roll channels x x
of inner loops and outer loops with the help of
a diagram.
08 Explain the influence of gain variation on x x
precision and stability.
09 Explain gain adaption with regard to speed, x x
configuration or flight phase.
10 Explain and describe the following common x x
(or mixed) modes: take-off, go-around and
approach.
Remark: The landing sequence is studied in
022 06 04 00.
11 List the different types of actuation x x
configuration and compare their
advantages/disadvantages.
12 List the inputs and outputs of a 3 axis x x
autopilot system.
13 Describe and explain the sychronisation of x x
function.
14 Give examples of engagement and x x
disengagement systems and conditions.
15 Define the ‘Control Wheel Steering’ (CWS) x x
modes.
16 Describe the CWS mode operation. x x
17 Describe with the help of a control panel of an x x
autopilot system and a flight mode
annunciator/indicator the actions and the
checks performed by a pilot through a
complete sequence:
- from Heading (HDG) selection to
VOR/LOC guidance
(arm/capture/track);
- from Altitude selection (LVL change)
to Altitude (ALT) hold
(arm/intercept/hold).
18 Describe and explain the different phases and x x
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the associated annunciations/indications from

level change to altitude capture and from
heading mode to VOR/LOC capture.
19 Describe and explain the existence of x x

operational limits for lateral modes (LOC
capture) with regard to speed/angle of
interception/distance to threshold, and for
longitudinal modes (ALT or G/S capture) with
regard to V/S.
022 06 03 00 Flight Director: design and operation
01 State the purpose of a Flight Director (FD) x x
system.
FD system.
03 List the different types of display. x x
04 Explain the differences between an FD system x x
and an Autopilot (AP) system.
05 Explain how an FD and an AP can be used x x
together, separately (AP with no FD, or FD
with no AP), or none of them.
06 Give examples of different situations with the x x
respective indications of the command bars.
022 06 04 00 Aeroplane: Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA)
01 Explain the purpose and the importance of the x x
FMA.
02 State that the FMA provides: x x
- AFCS lateral and vertical modes;
- auto-throttle modes;
- FD selection, AP engagement and
automatic landing capacity;
- failure and alert messages.
022 06 05 00 Autoland: design and operation
01 Explain the purpose of an autoland system. x
02 List and describe the main components of an x
autoland system.
03 Define the following terms: x
- ‘fail passive system’;
- ‘fail operational’ (fail active) system;
- alert height.
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04 Describe and explain the Autoland sequence x

and the associated
annunciations/indications from initial
approach to roll-out (AP disengagement) or
go-around.
05 List and explain the operational limitations to x
perform an Autoland.
022 07 00 00 HELICOPTER: Automatic flight control
systems
022 07 01 00 General principles
022 07 01 01 Stabilisation
01 Explain the similarities and differences x x
between SAS and AFCS (the latter can
actually fly the helicopter to perform
certain functions selected by the pilot).
Some AFCSs just have altitude and
heading hold whilst others include a
vertical speed or IAS hold mode, where a
constant rate of climb/decent or IAS is
maintained by the AFCS.
022 07 01 02 Reduction of pilot workload
01 Appreciate how effective the AFCS is in x x
reducing pilot workload by improving
basic aircraft control harmony and
decreasing disturbances
022 07 01 03 Enhancement of helicopter capability
01 Explain how an AFCS improvs helicopter flight x x
safety during:
- search and rescue because of
increased capabilities;
- flight by sole reference to
instruments;
- underslung load operations;
- white out conditions in snow covered
landscapes;
- an approach to land with lack of
visual cues.
02 Explain that the Search and Rescue (SAR) x X
modes of AFCS include the following
functions:
ability to autohover;
- automatically transition down from
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cruise to a predetermined point or

over-flown point;
- ability for the rear crew to move the
helicopter around in the hover;
- the ability to automatically transition
back from the hover to cruise flight;
- the ability to fly various search
patterns.
03 Explain that the earlier autohover systems use x x
Doppler velocity sensors and the later systems
use inertial sensors plus GPS, and normally
include a two-dimensional hover- velocity
indicator for the pilots
04 Explain why some SAR helicopters have both x x
radio-altimeter height hold and barometric
altitude hold.
022 07 01 04 Failures
01 Explain the various redundancies and x x
independent systems that are built into the
AFCSs.
02 Appreciate that the pilot can override the x x
system in the event of a failure.
03 Explain a series actuator ‘hard over’ which x x
equals aircraft attitude runaway.
04 Explain the consequences of a saturation of x x
the series actuators.
022 07 02 00 Components: Operation
022 07 02 01 Basic sensors
01 Explain the basic sensors in the system and x x
their functions.
02 Explain that the number of sensors will be x x
dependent on the number of couple modes of
the system.
022 07 02 02 Specific sensors
01 Explain the function of the microswitches and x x
strain gauges in the system which sense pilot
input to prevent excessive feedback forces
from the system.
022 07 02 03 Actuators
01 Explain the principles of operation of the x x
series and parallel actuators, spring-box
clutches and the autotrim system.
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02 Explain the principle of operation of the x x

electronic hydraulic actuators in the system.
022 07 02 04 Pilot/system interface: control panels,
system indication, warnings
01 Describe the typical layout of the AFCS control x x
panel.
02 Describe the system indications and warnings. x x
01 Explain the functions of the redundant x x
sensors’ simplex and duplex channels
(single/dual channel).
022 07 03 00 Stability Augmentation System (SAS)
022 07 03 01 General principles and operation
01 Explain the general principles and operation of x x
an SAS with regard to:
- rate damping;
- rate damping;
- short-term attitude hold;
- effect on static stability;
- effect on dynamic stability;
- aerodynamic cross-coupling;
- effect on maneuverability;
- control response;
- engagement/disengagement;
- authority.
02 Explain and describe the general working x x
principles and primary use of SAS by damping
pitch, roll and yaw motions.
03 Describe a simple SAS with forced trim system x x
which uses magnetic clutch and springs to
hold cyclic control in the position where it was
last released.
04 Explain the interaction of trim with x x
SAS/Stability and Control Augmentation
System (SCAS).
05 Appreciate that the system can be overridden x x
by the pilot and individual channels
deselected.
06 Describe the operational limits of the system. x x
07 Explain why the system should be turned off x x
in severe turbulence or when extreme flight
attitudes are reached.
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08 Explain the safety design features built into x x

some SASs to limit the authority of the
actuators to 10–20 % of the full-control
throw in order to allow the pilot to
override if actuators demand an unsafe
control input.
09 Explain how cross-coupling produces an x x
adverse effect on roll to yaw coupling,
when the helicopter is subject to gusts.
10 Explain the collective-to-pitch coupling, side- x x
slip-to-pitch coupling and inter-axis coupling.
022 07 04 00 Autopilot – Automatic stability equipment
022 07 04 01 General Principles
01 Explain the general autopilot principles with x x
regard to:
- long-term attitude hold;
- fly-through;
- changing the reference (beep trim,
trim release).
022 07 04 02 Basic modes (3/4 axes)
01 Explain the AFCS operation on cyclic axes x x
(pitch/roll), yaw axis, and on collective
(fourth axis).
022 07 04 03 Automatic guidance (upper modes of
AFCS)
01 Explain the function of the attitude- hold x x
system in an AFCS.
02 Explain the function of the heading- hold x x
system in an AFCS.
03 Explain the function of the vertical- speed x x
hold system in an AFCS.
04 Explain the function of the navigation- x x
coupling system in an AFCS.
05 Explain the function of the VOR/ILS- x x
coupling system in an AFCS.
06 Explain the function of the hover-mode x x
system in an AFCS (including Doppler and
radio altimeter systems).
07 Explain the function of the SAR mode x x
(automatic transition to hover and back to
cruise) in an AFCS.
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022 07 04 04 Flight Director: design and operation

01 Explain the purpose of a Flight Director x x
(FD) system.
02 List the different types of display. x x
03 State the difference between the FD x x
system and the autopilot system. Explain
how each can be used independently.
FD system.
05 Give examples of different situations with
the respective indications of the command
bars.
06 Explain the architecture of the different FDs
fitted to helicopters and the importance to
monitor other instruments as well as the FD,
because on some helicopter types which
have the collective setting on the FD, there
is no protection against a collective
transmission overtorque.
07 Describe the collective setting and yaw
depiction on FD for some helicopters.
022 07 04 05 Automatic Flight Control Panel (AFCP)
01 Explain the purpose and the importance of x x
the AFCP.
02 State that the AFCP provides: x x
- AFCS basic and upper modes;
- FD selection, SAS and AP
engagement;
- failure and alert messages.
022 08 00 00 TRIMS – YAW DAMPER – FLIGHT ENVELOPE
PROTECTION
022 08 01 00 Trim systems: design and operation
01 Explain the purpose of the trim system. x x
02 State the existence of a trim system for each x x
of the three axes.
03 Give examples of trim indicators and their x x
function.
04 Describe and explain an automatic pitch trim x x
system for a conventional aeroplane.
05 Describe and explain an automatic pitch trim x
system for a fly-by-wire aeroplane.
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06 State that for a fly-by-wire aeroplane the x

automatic pitch-trim system operates also
during manual flight.
07 Describe the consequences of manual x x
operation on the trim wheel when the
Automatic pitch-trim system is engaged.
08 Describe and explain the engagement and x x
disengagement conditions of the autopilot
according to trim controls.
09 Define ‘Mach trim’ and state that the Mach- x x
trim system can be independent.
10 State that for a fly-by-wire aeroplane an x x
autotrim system can be available for each of
the three axes.
Remark: For the fly-by-wire LOs, please refer
to reference 21.5.4.0.
022 08 02 00 Yaw damper: design and operation
01 Explain the purpose of the yaw damper x x
system.
02 List and describe the main components of a x x
yaw damper system.
03 Explain the purpose of the Dutch-roll filter x x
(filtering of the yaw input signal).
04 Explain the operation of a yaw-damper system x x
and state the difference between a yaw-
damper system and a 3-axis autopilot
operation on the rudder channel.
022 08 03 00 Flight Envelope Protection (FEP)
01 Explain the purpose of the FEP. x
02 List the input parameters of the FEP. x
03 Explain the following functions of the of the x
FEP:
- stall protection;
- overspeed protection.
04 State that the stall protection function and the x
overspeed protection function apply to both
mechanical/conventional and fly-by-wire
control systems, but other functions (e.g.
pitch or bank limitation) can only apply to fly-
by-wire control systems.
022 09 00 00 AUTO-THROTTLE AUTOMATIC THRUST
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CONTROL SYSTEM
01 State the purpose of the auto-throttle (AT) x
system.
02 Explain the operation of an AT system with x
regard to the following modes:
- take-off/go-around;
- climb or Maximum Continuous
Thrust (MCT): N1 or EPR targeted;
- speed;
- idle thrust;
- landing (‘flare’ or ‘retard’).
03 Describe the control loop of an AT system x
with retard to:
- inputs: mode selection unit and
switches (disengagement and
engagement: TO-GA switches), radio
altitude, air–ground logic switches;
- error detection: comparison between
reference values (N1 or EPR, speed)
and actual values;
- signal processing (control laws of the
thrust-lever displacement according
to error signal);
- outputs: AT servo-actuator;
- feedback: Thrust Lever Angle (TLA),
data from ADC (TAS, Mach number),
engine parameters (N1 or EPR).
04 State the existence of AT systems where x
thrust modes are determined by the lever
position (no thrust mode panel or thrust
rating panel, no TOGA switches).
05 Explain the limitations of an AT system in case x
of turbulence.
022 10 00 00 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
022 10 01 00 Voice communication, data link
transmission
022 10 01 01 Definitions and transmission modes
01 Sate the purpose of a data link transmission x
system.
02 Compare voice communication versus data x
link transmission systems.
03 State that VHF, HF and SATCOM devices can x
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be used for voice communication and data

link transmission.
04 State the advantages and disadvantages of x
each transmission mode with regard to:
- range;
- line-of-sight limitations;
- quality of the signal received;
- interference due to ionospheric
conditions;
- data transmission speed.
05 State that the satellite communication x
networks do not cover extreme polar regions.
06 Define ‘downlink and uplink communications. x
07 State that a D-ATIS is an ATIS message x
received by data link.
022 10 01 02 Systems: Architecture, design and operation
01 Name the two following data link service x
providers:
- SITA;
- ARINC;
and state their function.
02 Describe the ACARS network. x
03 Describe the two following systems using the x
VHF/HF/SATCOM data link transmission:
- Aircraft Communication Addressing
and Reporting System (ACARS);
- Air Traffic Services Unit (ATSU).
04 List and describe the following possible x
onboard components of an ATSU:
- communications management unit
(VHF/HF/SATCOM);
- Data Communication Display Unit
(DCDU);
- Multi-Control Display Unit (MCDU)
for AOC, ATC and messages from the
crew (downlink communication);
- ATC message visual warning;
- printer.
05 Give examples of Airline Operations x
Communications (AOC) data link messages
such as:
- Out of the gate, Off the ground, On
the ground, Into the gate (OOOI);
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- load sheet;
- passenger information (connecting
flights);
- weather reports (METAR, TAF);
- maintenance reports (engine
exceedances);
- free text messages.
06 Give examples of Air Traffic Communications x
(ATC) data link messages such as:
- departure clearance;
- oceanic clearance.
022 10 02 00 Future Air Navigation Systems (FANS)
01 State the existence of the ICAO x
Communication, Navigation, Surveillance/Air
Traffic Management (CNS/ATM) concept.
02 Define and explain the ‘FANS concept’ x
(including FANS A and FANS B).
03 State that FANS A uses the ACARS network. x
04 List and explain the following FANS A x
applications:
ATS Facility Notification (AFN);
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS);
Controller–Pilot Data Link Communications
(CPDLC).
05 Compare the ADS application with the x
secondary surveillance radar function and the
CPDLC application with VHF communication
systems.
06 State that an ATC centre can use the ADS x
application only, or the CPDLC application
only, or both of them (not including AFN).
07 Describe a notification phase (LOG ON) and x
state its purpose.
08 List the different types of messages of the x
CPDLC function and give examples of CPDLC
data link messages.
09 List the different types of ADS contracts: x
- periodic;
- on demand;
- on event;
- emergency mode.
10 State that the controller can modify the x
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‘periodic’, ‘on demand’ and ‘on event’

contracts or the parameters of these contracts
(optional data groups), and that these
modifications do not require crew notification.
11 Describe the ‘emergency mode’. x
022 11 00 00 FLIGHT MANAGEMENT STSTEM (FMS)
01 Remark: The use of an FMS as a navigation
system is detailed in Radio Navigation (062),
reference 062 05 04 00.
022 11 01 00 Design
01 State the purpose of an FMS. x x
02 Describe a typical dual FMS architecture. x x
03 Describe the different possible configurations x x
of this architecture during degraded modes of
operation.
04 List the possible inputs and outputs of an FMS. x x
Remark: No standard of FMS can be given
because the FMS is type specific for aircraft
manufacturers and the FMS standard is
defined by the airline customer.
05 Describe the interfaces of the FMS with AFCS. x x
06 Describe the interfaces of the FMS with the AT x
system.
022 11 02 00 Navigation database, aircraft database
01 Describe the contents and the main features x x
of the navigation database and of the aircraft
database: read-only information, updating
cycle.
02 Define and explain the ‘performance factor’. x x
022 11 03 00 Operations, limitations
01 List and describe data computation and x x
functions including position computations
(multisensors), flight management,
lateral/vertical navigation and guidance.
02 State the difference between computations x x
based on measured data (use of sensors) and
computations based on database information
and give examples.
03 Define and explain the ‘Cost Index’ (CI). x
04 Describe navigation accuracy computations x x
and approach capability, degraded modes of
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operation: back-up navigation, use of raw

data to confirm position/RAIM function for
RNAV procedures.
05 Describe fuel computations with standard x x
and non-standard configurations including
one engine out, landing gear down, flaps,
spoilers, use of the anti-icing system,
increase of consumption due to an
MEL/CDL item, etc.
06 Describe automatic radio navigation and x x
tuning (COMM, NAV).
022 11 04 00 Man–machine interface (Multifunction
Control Display Unit (MCDU))
01 Give examples and describe the basic x x
functions of the man–machine interface
(MCDU).
022 12 00 00 ALERTING SYSTEMS, PROXIMITY SYSTEMS
022 12 01 00 General
01 State definitions, category, criteria and x x x x
characteristics of alerting systems for
aeroplanes and for helicopters as
appropriate.
022 12 02 00 Flight Warning Systems (FWS)
01 State the purpose of an FWS and list the x x x
typical sources (abnormal situations) of a
warning and/or an alert.
02 List the main components of an FWS. x x x
022 12 03 00 Stall Warning Systems (SWS)
01 State the function of a SWS. x x
02 State the characteristics of a SWS. x x
03 List the different types of stall warning x x
systems.
04 List the main components of an SWS. x x
05 List the inputs and outputs of an SWS. x x
022 12 04 00 Stall protection
01 State the function of a stall protection x
system.
02 List the different types of stall protection x
systems including the difference between
mechanical and fly-by-wire controls.
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03 List the main components of a stall protection x

system.
04 List the inputs and outputs of a stall x
protection system.
05 Explain the difference between a stall warning x
system and a stall protection system.
022 12 05 00 Overspeed warning
01 Explain the purpose of an overspeed warning x x
system (VMO/MMO pointer).
02 Explain the design of a mechanical x x
VMO/MMO pointer.
03 State for large aeroplanes, an aural warning x x
must be associated to the overspeed warning
if an electronic display is used.
04 Give examples of VMO/MMO pointer: barber
pole pointer, barber pole vertical scale.
022 12 06 00 Take-off warning

01 State the purpose of a take-off warning x
system and list the typical abnormal
situations which generate a warning.
022 12 07 00 Altitude alert system
01 State the function and describe an altitude x x x x
alert system.
02 List and describe the different types of x x x x
displays and possible alerts.
022 12 08 00 Radio altimeter
01 State the function of a low-altitude radio x x x x
altimeter.
02 Describe the principle of the distance x x x x
(height) measurement.
03 State the bandwidth and frequency range x x x x
used.
04 List the different components of a radio x x x x
altimeter and describe the different types
of displays.
05 List the systems using radio-altimeter x x x x
information.
06 State the range and accuracy of a radio x x x x
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altimeter.
07 Describe and explain the cable-length x x x x
compensation.
022 12 09 00 Ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS)
022 12 09 01 GPWS: design, operation, indications
01 State the purpose of a ground- proximity x x
warning system (GPWS).
02 List the components of a GPWS. x x
03 List the inputs and outputs of a GPWS. x x
04 List and describe the different modes of x x
operation of a GPWS.
022 12 09 02 Terrain-Avoidance Warning System (TAWS),
other name: Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS)
01 State the purpose of a TAWS for x x
aeroplanes and HTAWS for helicopters and
explain the difference from a GPWS.
02 List the components of a TAWS/ HTAWS. x x
03 List the inputs and outputs of a TAWS/ x x
HTAWS.
04 Give examples of terrain displays and list x x
the different possible alerts.
05 Give examples of time response left to the x x
pilot according to look-ahead distance,
speed and aircraft performances.
06 Explain why the TAWS/HTAWS must be x x
coupled to a precise-position sensor.
022 12 09 03 Runway awareness and advisory system
(to be introduced at a later date)
01 Explain that a runway awareness and x
advisory system is a software upgrade of
the existing TAWS (EGPWS) to reduce
runway incursions.
022 12 10 00 ACAS/TCAS principles and operations
01 State that ACAS II is an ICAO standard for x x x x
anti-collision purposes.
02 State that TCAS II version 7 is compliant with x x x x
the ACAS II standard.
03 Explain that ACAS II is an anti- collision system x x x x
and does not guarantee any specific
separation.
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04 Describe the purpose of an ACAS II system as x x x x

an anti-collision system.
05 Define a ‘Resolution Advisory’ (RA) and a x x x x
‘Traffic Advisory’ (TA).
06 State that RAs are calculated in the vertical x x x x
plane only (climb or descent).
07 Explain the difference between a corrective x x x x
RA and a preventive RA (no modification of
vertical speed).
08 Explain that if two aircraft are fitted with ACAS x x x x
II, the RA will be coordinated.
09 State that ACAS II equipment can take into x x x x
account several threats simultaneously.
10 State that a detected aircraft without altitude- x x x x
reporting can only generate a TA.
11 Describe the TCAS II system with regard to: x x x x
antenna used;
computer and links with radio altimeter, air-
data computer and mode-S transponder.
12 Identify the inputs and outputs of TCAS II. x x x x
13 Explain the principle of TCAS II interrogations. x x x x
14 State that the standard detection range is x x x x
approximately 30 NM.
15 State that the normal interrogation period is 1 x x x x
second.
16 Explain the principle of ‘reduced surveillance’. x x x x

17 Explain that in high-density traffic areas x x x x
the period can be extended to 5 seconds
and the transmission power reduction can
reduce the range detection down to 5 NM.
18 Identify the equipment which an intruder x x x x
must be fitted with in order to be detected
by TCAS II.
19 Explain in the anti-collision process: x x x x
- that the criteria used to trigger an
alarm (TA or RA) are the time to
reach the closest point of approach
(called TAU) and the difference of
altitude;
- that an intruder will be classified as
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‘proximate’ when being less than 6

NM and 1 200 ft from the TCAS-
equipped aircraft;
- that the time limit to CPA is different
depending on aircraft altitude, is
linked to a sensitivity level (SL), and
state that the value to trigger an RA
is from 15 to 35 seconds;
- that, in case of an RA, the intended
vertical separation varies from 300
to 600 ft (700 ft above FL420),
depending on the SL;
- that below 1 000 ft above ground,
no RA can be generated;
- that below 1 450 ft (radio- altimeter
value) ‘increase descent’ RA is
inhibited;
- that, in high altitude, performances
of the type of aircraft are taken into
account to inhibit ‘climb’ and
‘increase climb’ RA.
20 List and interpret the following information x x x x
available from TCAS:
- the different possible statuses of a
detected aircraft: other, proximate,
intruder;
- the appropriate graphic symbols and
their position on the horizontal
display;
- different aural warnings.
21 Explain that an RA is presented as a possible x x x x
vertical speed on a TCAS indicator or on the
Primary Flight Display (PFD).
22 Describe the possible presentation of an RA x x x x
on a VSI or on a PFD.
23 Explain that the pilot must not interpret the x x x x

horizontal track of an intruder upon the
display.
022 12 11 00 Rotor/engine overspeed alert system
022 12 11 01 Design, operation, displays, alarms
01 Describe the basic design principles, x x
operation, displays and warning/alarm
systems fitted to different helicopters.
Page 156 of 494
022 13 00 00 INTEGRATED INSTRUMENTS — ELECTRONIC

DISPLAYS
022 13 01 00 Electronic display units
022 13 01 01 Design, limitations
01 List the different technologies used, e.g. CRT x x x x
and LCD, and the associated limitations:
- cockpit temperature,
- glare.
022 13 02 00 Mechanical integrated instruments:
Attitude and Director
Indicator(ADI)/Horizontal Situation
Indicator (HSI)
01 Describe an ADI and an HSI. x x x x
02 List all the information that can be displayed x x x x
for either instruments.
022 13 03 00 Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS)
Remarks:
The use of EFIS as navigation display system is
also detailed in Radio Navigation (062),
reference 062 05 05 02 (EFIS instruments).
022 13 03 01 Design, operation

01 List and describe the different components of x x x x
an EFIS.
02 List the following possible inputs and outputs x x x x
of an EFIS:
- control panel;
- display units;
- symbol generator;
- remote-light sensor.
03 Describe the function of the symbol generator x x x x
unit.
022 13 03 02 Primary Flight Display (PFD), Electronic
Attitude Director Indicator (EADI)
01 State that a PFD (or an EADI) presents a x x x x
dynamic colour display of all the parameters
necessary to control the aircraft.
02 - List and describe the following x
information that can be displayed on
the PFD unit of an aircraft:
- flight mode annunciation;
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- basic T:
• attitude;
• IAS;
• altitude;
• heading/track indications;
- vertical speed;
- maximum-airspeed warning;
- selected airspeed;
- speed-trend vector;
- selected altitude;
- current barometric reference;
- steering indications (FD command
bars);
- selected heading;
- flight path vector (FPV);
- radio altitude;
- decision height;
- ILS indications;
- ACAS (TCAS) indications;
- failure flags and messages.
03 List and describe the following information x
that can also be displayed on the PFD unit of
an aeroplane:
- take-off and landing reference
speeds;
- minimum airspeed;
- lower selectable airspeed;
- Mach number.
022 13 03 03 Navigation Display (ND), Electronic
Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI)
01 State that an ND (or an EHSI) provides a x x x x
mode-selectable colour flight navigation
display.
02 List and describe the following four modes x x x x
displayed on an ND unit:
- MAP (or ARC);
- VOR (or ROSE VOR);
- APP (or ROSE LS);
- PLAN.
03 List and explain the following information that x x x x
can be displayed with the MAP (or ARC) mode
on an ND unit:
- selected and current track;
- selected and current heading
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(magnetic or true-north reference);

- cross-track error;
- origin and destination airport with
runway selected;
- bearings to or from the tuned and
selected stations;
- active and/or secondary flight plan;
- range marks;
- ground speed;
- TAS and ground speed;
- wind direction and speed;
- next-waypoint distance and
estimated time of arrival;
- additional navigation facilities (STA),
waypoint (WPT) and airports (ARPT);
- weather radar information;
- traffic information from the ACAS
(TCAS);
- terrain information from the TAWS or
HTAWS (EGPWS);
04 List and explain the following information that x x x x
can be displayed with the MAP (or ARC) mode
on an ND unit:
- selected and current heading
(magnetic or true-north reference);
- VOR course or ILS localiser course;
- VOR (VOR or ROSE VOR mode) or
LOC course deviation (APP or ROSE
LS);
- glide-slope pointer (APP or ROSE LS);
- frequency or identifier of the tuned
station;
- ground speed;
05 List and explain the following information x x
that can be displayed with the PLAN mode
on an ND unit:
- origin and destination airport with
runway selected;
- active and/or secondary flight plan;
- range marks;
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- ground speed;
- next-waypoint distance and
estimated time of arrival;
- additional navigation facilities (STA),
waypoint (WPT) and airport (ARPT);
06 Give examples of possible transfers between x x x x
units.
07 Give examples of EFIS control panels. x x x x
022 13 04 00 Engine parameters, crew warnings, aircraft
systems, procedure and mission display
systems
01 State the purpose of the following systems: x x
- engine instruments centralized
display unit;
- crew alerting system associated with
an electronic checklist display unit;
- that the aircraft systems display unit
enables the display of normal and
degraded modes of operation of the
aircraft systems.
02 Describe the architecture of each system and x x
give examples of display.
03 Give the following different names by which x
engine parameters, crew warnings, aircraft
systems and procedures display systems are
known:
- Multifunction Display Unit (MFDU);
- Engine Indication and Crew Alerting
Systems (EICAS);
- Engine and Warning Display (EWD);
- Electronic Centralised Aircraft
Monitor (ECAM).
04 Give the names of the following different x
display systems and describe their main
function:
Vehicle Engine Monitoring Display (VEMD);
Integrated Instruments Display System (IIDS).
05 Sate the purpose of a mission display unit. x
06 Describe the architecture of each system and x
give examples of display.
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022 13 05 00 Engine first limit indicator

01 Describe the principles of design and x x
operation and compare the different
indications and displays available.
02 Describe what information can be displayed x x
on the screen, when in the limited screen
composition mode.
022 13 06 00 Electronic Flight Bag (EFB) (to be introduced
at a later date)
022 14 00 00 MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND
RECORDING SYSTEMS
01 State the basic technologies used for this x x x x

equipment and its performances.
Remark: No knowledge of the applicable
operational requirements is necessary.
022 14 01 00 Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR)
01 State the purpose of a CVR. x
02 List the main components of a CVR: x
- a shock-resistant tape recorder
associated with an underwater
locating device;
- an area microphone;
- a control unit with the following
controls: auto/on, test and erase and
a headset jack.
03 List the following main parameters recorded x
on the CVR:
- voice communications transmitted
from or received on the flight deck;
- the aural environment of the flight
deck;
- voice communication of flight crew
members using the aeroplane’s
interphone system;
- voice or audio signals introduced into
a headset or speaker;
- voice communication of flight crew
members using the public address
system, when installed.
022 14 02 00 Flight Data Recorders (FDR)
01 State the purpose of a FDR. x
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02 List the main components of an FDR: x

- a data interface and acquisition unit;
- a recording system (digital flight data
recorder);
- two control units (start sequence,
event mark setting).
03 List the following main parameters recorded x
on the FDR:
- time or relative time count;
- attitude (pitch and roll);
- airspeed;
- pressure altitude;
- heading;
- normal acceleration;
- propulsive/thrust power on each
engine and cockpit thrust/power
lever position, if applicable;
- flaps/slats configuration or cockpit
selection;
- ground spoilers and/or speed brake
selection.
04 State that additional parameters can be x
recorded according to FDR capacity and the
applicable operational requirements.
022 14 03 00 Maintenance and monitoring systems
022 14 03 01 Helicopter Operations Monitoring
Programme (HOMP): design, operation,
performance
01 Describe the HOMP as a helicopter version of x
the aeroplane Flight Data Monitoring (FDM)
programmes.
02 State that the HOMP software consists of x
three integrated modules:
- Flight Data Events (FDE);
- Flight Data Measurements (FDM);
- Flight Data Traces (FDT).
03 Describe and explain the information flow of x
HOMP.
04 Describe HOMP operation and management x
processes.
022 14 03 02 Integrated Health & Usage Monitoring
System (IHUMS): design, operation,
performance
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01 Describe the main features of IHUMS: x

- rotor system health;
- cockpit voice recorder/flight data
recorder;
- gearbox system health;
- engine health;
- exceedance monitoring;
- usage monitoring;
- transparent operation;
- ground station features;
- exceedance monitoring;
- monitoring;
- gearbox health;
- rotor track & balance;
- engine performance trending;
- usage monitoring;
- quality controlled to level 2.
02 Describe the ground station features of x
IHUMS.
03 Summarise the benefits of IHUMS including: x
- reduced risk of catastrophic failure of
rotor or gearbox;
- improved rotor track & balance
giving lower vibration levels;
- accurate recording of flight
exceedances;
- cockpit voice recorder/flight data
recorder allows accurate
accident/incident investigation &
HOMP;
- maintenance cost savings.
04 State the benefits of IHUMS and HOMP. x
022 14 03 03 Aeroplane Condition Monitoring System
(ACMS): general, design, operation
01 State the purpose of an ACMS. x
02 Describe the structure of an ACMS x
including:
- inputs: aircraft systems (such as air
conditioning, autoflight, flight
controls, fuel, landing gear,
navigation, pneumatic, APU, engine),
MCDU;
- data management unit;
- recording unit: digital recorder;
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- outputs: printer, ACARS or ATSU.

03 State that maintenance messages sent by an x
ACMS can be transmitted without crew
notification.
022 15 00 00 DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND COMPUTERS
022 15 01 00 Digital circuits and computers: General,
definitions and design
01 Define a ‘computer’ as a machine for x x
manipulating data according to a list of
instructions.
02 List the following main components of a x x
stored-programme (‘Von Neurmann
architecture’) on a basic computer:
- Central Processing Unit (CPU)
including the Arithmetric Logic Unit
(ALU) and the control unit;
- memory;
- input and output devices
(peripherals);
and state their functions.
03 State the existence of the different buses and x x
their function.
04 Define the terms ‘hardware’ and ‘software’, x x
05 Define and explain the tasks ‘multitasking’ and x x
‘multiprocessing’.
06 With the help of the relevant 022 references, x x
give examples of airborne computers, such as
ADC, FMS, GPWS, etc., and list the possible
peripheral equipment for each system.
07 Describe the principle of the following x x

technologies used for memories:
- chip circuit;
- magnetic disk;
- optical disk.
022 15 02 00 Software: General, definitions and
certification specifications
01 Sate the difference between assembly x x
languages, high-level languages and scripting
languages.
02 Define the term ‘Operating System’ (OS) and x x
give different examples including airborne
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systems such as FMS or ATSU (for aeroplanes

only).
03 State the existence of ‘Software x x
Considerations in Airborne Systems and
Equipment Certification’.
04 List the specific levels of safety criticality. x x
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D. SUBJECT 031 – MASS AND BALANCE
D. SUBJECT 031 - MASS AND BALANCE
(1) MASS DEFINITIONS
Allowed take-off mass

The mass taking into consideration all possible limitations for take-off including restrictions caused by regulated
take-off mass and regulated landing mass.
Area load or floor load

The load (or mass) distributed over a defined area. Units of measurement used:
SI: N/m2, kg/m2;
Non-SI: psi, lb/ft 2
Basic empty mass

The mass of an aircraft plus standard items such as: unusable fuel; full operating fluids; fire extinguishers;
emergency oxygen equipment. (The lowest mass that is used in FCL exams.)
Dry operating mass

The total mass of an aircraft ready for a specific type of operation excluding all usable fuel and traffic load. This
mass includes items such as:
- crew and crew baggage
- catering and removable passenger service equipment (food, beverages, potable water, lavatory chemicals,
etc);
- special operational equipment (e.g. stretchers, rescue hoist, cargo sling).
In-flight mass
The mass of an aircraft in flight at a specified time.
Landing mass
The mass of the aircraft at landing.
Maximum structural in-flight mass with external loads (applicable to helicopters only)
The maximum permissible total mass of the helicopter with external loads.
Maximum structural landing mass

The maximum permissible total mass of the aircraft at landing under normal circumstances.
Maximum structural mass

The maximum permissible total mass of the aircraft at any time. It will be given only if there is no difference
between maximum structural taxi mass, maximum structural take-off mass and maximum structural landing mass.
Maximum structural take-off mass

The maximum permissible total mass of the aircraft at commencement of take-off.
Maximum (structural) taxi mass or maximum (structural) ramp mass

The maximum permissible total mass of the aircraft at commencement of taxiing.
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Operating Mass
The dry operating mass plus fuel but without traffic load.
Performance-limited landing mass

The mass subject to the destination airfield limitations. It must never exceed the maximum structural limit.
Performance-limited take-off mass

The take-off mass subject to departure airfield limitations. It must never exceed the maximum structural limit.
Ramp mass (see taxiing mass)
Regulated landing mass

The lower of performance-limited landing mass and maximum structural landing mass.
Regulated take-off mass

The lower of performance limited take-off mass and maximum structural take-off mass.
Running (or linear) load

The load (or mass) distributed over a defined length of a cargo compartment irrespective of load width. Units of
measurement used:
SI: N/m, kg/m;
Non-SI: lb/in, lb/ft
Take-off fuel
The total amount of usable fuel at take-off.
Take-off mass
The mass of the aircraft including everything and everyone contained in it at the commencement of take-off.
Taxi mass or ramp mass

The mass of the aircraft at the comment of taxiing.
Traffic load
The total mass of passengers, baggage and cargo including any non-revenue load.
Zero-fuel mass
The dry operating mass plus traffic load but excluding fuel.
Page 167 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
030 00 00 00 FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING
031 00 00 00 MASS AND BALANCE AEROPLANES/HELICOPTERS
031 01 00 00 PURPOSE OF MASS AND BALANCE
CONSIDERATIONS
031 01 01 00 Mass limitations
031 01 01 01 Importance with regard to structural limitations
01 Describe the relationship between aircraft mass and x x x x
structural stress.
Remark: See also 021 01 01 00.
02 Describe that mass must be limited to ensure x x x x
adequate margins of strength.
031 01 01 02 Importance with regard to performance
Remark: See also subjects 032/034 and 081/082.
01 Describe the relationship between aircraft mass and x x x x
performance.
02 Describe that aircraft mass must be limited to x x x x
ensure adequate aircraft performance.
03 Describe that the actual aircraft mass must be x x x x
known during flight as the basis for performance-
related decisions.
031 01 02 00 Centre-of-gravity (CG) limitations
031 01 02 01 Importance with regard to stability and
controllability
01 Describe the relationship between CG position and x x x x
stability/controllability of the aircraft.
02 Describe the consequences if CG is in front of the x x x x
forward limit.
03 Describe the consequences if CG is behind the aft x x x x
limit.
031 02 00 00 LOADING
031 02 01 00 Terminology
031 02 01 01 Mass terms
01 Define the following mass terms: x x x x
- basic empty mass;
- dry operating mass;
- operating mass;
- take-off mass;
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Learning Objectives
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- landing mass;
- ramp/taxiing mass;
- in-flight mass (gross mass);
- zero-fuel mass.
031 02 01 02 Load terms (including fuel terms)
Remark: See also subject 033.
01 Define the following load terms: x x x x
- payload/traffic load;
- block fuel;
- taxiing fuel;
- take-off fuel;
- trip fuel;
- reserve fuel (contingency, alternate, final
reserve and additional fuel);
- extra fuel.
02 Explain the relationship between the various load- x x x x
and-mass components listed above.
03 Calculate the mass of particular components from x x x x
other given components.
04 Convert fuel mass, volume and density given in x x x x
different units used in aviation.
031 02 02 00 Mass limits
01 Define the following structural limitations: x x x x
02 - Maximum zero-fuel mass. x
03 - Maximum ramp/taxiing mass. x
04 - Maximum take-off mass. x x x x
05 - Maximum in-flight (gross) mass. x x x x
06 - Maximum in-flight (gross) mass with x x
external load.
07 - Maximum landing mass. x x x x
031 02 02 02 Performance limitations
01 Define the following performance limitations: x x x x
- performance-limited take-off mass;
- performance-limited landing mass;
- regulated take-off mass;
- regulated landing mass.
031 02 02 03 Cargo-compartment limitations
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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01 Define the following cargo- compartment x x x x
limitations:
02 Maximum floor load (maximum load per unit of x x x x
area).
03 Maximum running load (maximum load per unit of x x x x
fuselage length).
031 02 03 00 Mass calculations
031 02 03 01 Maximum masses for take-off and landing
01 Calculate the maximum mass for take-off x x x x

(regulated take-off mass) given mass-and-load
components and structural/performance limits.
02 Calculate the maximum mass for landing x x x x
(regulated landing mass) given mass-and-load
components and structural/performance limits.
03 Calculate the allowed mass for x x x x
take-off.
031 02 03 02 Allowed traffic load and fuel load
01 Calculate the maximum allowed traffic load and x x x x
fuel load in order not to exceed the given
allowed take-off mass.
02 Calculate ‘under load’/’over load’ given allowed x x x x
mass for take-off, operating mass and actual
traffic load.
031 02 03 03 Use of standard masses for passengers, baggage
and crew
01 Extract the appropriate standard masses for x x x x
passengers, baggage and crew from relevant
documents or operator requirements.
02 Calculate the traffic load by using standard masses. x x x x
031 03 00 00 FUNDAMENTALS OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY
CALCULATIONS
031 03 01 00 Definition of Centre of Gravity (CG)
01 Define and explain the meaning of x x x x
‘CG’.
031 03 02 00 Conditions of equilibrium (balance of forces and
balance of moments)
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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01 Define ‘datum’ (reference point), ‘moment arm’ and x x x x
‘moment’.
02 Name the conditions of equilibrium. x x x x
031 03 03 00 Basic calculations of CG
01 Resolve numerical problems using the principle of x x x x
equilibrium of forces and moments.
031 04 00 00 MASS AND BALANCE DETAILS OF AIRCRAFT
031 04 01 00 Contents of mass and balance documentation
031 04 01 01 Datum, moment arm
01 Name where the datum and moment arms for x x x x
aircraft can be found.
02 Extract the appropriate data from given documents. x x x x
031 04 01 02 CG position as distance from datum
01 Name where the CG position for an aircraft at basic x x x x

empty mass can be found.
02 Name where the CG limits for an aircraft can be x x x x
found.
03 Extract the CG limits from given aircraft documents. x x x x
04 State the different forms in presenting CG position x x x x
as distance from datum or other references.
031 04 01 03 CG position as percentage of Mean Aerodynamic
Chord (% MAC)
Remark: Knowledge of the definition of MAC is
covered under reference 081 01 01 05.
01 Extract % MAC information from aircraft x x
documents.
02 Explain the principle of using % MAC for the x x
description of the CG position.
03 Calculate the CG position as % MAC.
031 04 01 04 Longitudinal CG limits
01 Extract the appropriate data from given sample x x x x
documents.
031 04 01 05 Lateral CG limits
01 Extract the appropriate data from given sample x x
documents.
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Learning Objectives
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031 04 01 06 Details of passenger and cargo compartments
01 Extract the appropriate data (e.g. seating schemes, x x x x
compartment dimensions and limitations) from
given sample documents.
031 04 01 07 Details of fuel system relevant to mass-and-
balance considerations
01 Extract the appropriate data (e.g. fuel-tank x x x x
capacities and fuel-tank positions) from given
sample documents.
031 04 02 00 Determination of aircraft empty mass and CG
position by weighing
031 04 02 01 Weighing of aircraft (general aspects)
01 Explain the general procedure and regulations x x x x
for weighing of aircraft (conditions, intervals,
reasons and requirements for reweighing).
Remark: See the applicable operational
requirements.
02 Extract and interpret entries from/in x x x x
‘mass (weight) report’ of an aircraft.
031 04 02 02 Calculation of mass and CG position of an

aircraft using weighing data
01 Calculate the mass and CG position of an aircraft x x x x
from given reaction forces on jacking points.
031 04 03 00 Extraction of basic empty mass and CG data
from aircraft documentation
031 04 03 01 Basic empty mass (BEM) and/or dry operating
mass (DOM)
01 Extract values for BEM and/or DOM from given x x x x
documents.
031 04 03 02 CG position and/or moment at BEM/DOM
01 Extract values for CG position and moment at BEM x x x x
and/or DOM from given documents.
031 04 03 03 Deviations from standard configuration
01 Extract values from given documents for deviation x x x x
from standard configuration as a result of varying
crew, optional equipment, optional fuel tanks, etc.
031 05 00 00 DETERMINATION OF CG POSITION
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
031 05 01 00 Methods
031 05 01 01 Arithmetic method
01 Calculate the CG position of aircraft by using the x x x x
formula:
CG position = sum of moments/total mass.
031 05 01 02 Graphic method
01 Determine the CG position of aircraft by using the x x x x
loading graphs given in sample documents.
031 05 01 03 Index method
01 Explain the principle of the index method. x x x x
02 Define the terms ‘index’, ‘loaded index’ and ‘dry x x x x
operating index’.
03 State the advantage(s) of the index method. x x x x
031 05 02 00 Load and trim sheet
031 05 02 01 General considerations
01 Explain the principle and the purpose of load sheets. x
02 Explain the principle and the purpose of trim sheets. x
031 05 02 02 Load sheet and CG envelope for light aeroplanes
and for helicopters
01 Add loading data and calculate masses in a sample x x x x
load sheet.
02 Calculate moments and CG positions. x x x x
03 Check CG position at zero-fuel mass and take-off x x x x

mass to be within the CG envelope including last-
minute changes, if applicable.
031 05 02 03 Load sheet for large aeroplanes
01 Explain the purpose of load-sheet sections and the x
methods for establishing ‘allowed mass for take-off’,
‘allowed traffic load’ and ‘under load’.
02 Explain the purpose of load-sheet sections and the x
methods for assessing load distribution.
03 Explain the purpose of load-sheet sections and x
methods for cross-checking the actual and limiting
mass values.
04 Calculate and/or complete a sample load sheet. x
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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031 05 02 04 Trim sheet for large aeroplanes
01 Explain the purpose of the trim sheet and the x
methods to determine the CG position.
02 Check that the zero-fuel mass index is within the x
limits.
03 Determine the fuel index by using the ‘fuel index x
correction table’ and determine the CG position as
% MAC.
04 Check that the take-off mass index is within the x
limits.
05 Determine ‘stabiliser trim units’ for take-off. x
06 Explain the difference between certified and x
operational CG limits.
031 05 02 05 Last minute changes
01 Complete a load and trim sheet for last-minute x
changes.
031 05 03 01 Repositioning of CG by shifting the load.
01 Calculate the mass to be moved over a given x x x x
distance, or to/from given compartments, to
establish a defined CG position.
02 Calculate the distance to move a given mass to x x x x
establish a defined CG position.
031 05 03 02 Repositioning of CG by additional load or
ballast
01 Calculate the amount of additional load or ballast x x x x
to be loaded at a given position or compartment
to establish a defined CG position.
02 Calculate the loading position or compartment x x x x
for a given amount of additional load or ballast
to establish a defined CG position.
031 06 00 00 CARGO HANDLING
031 06 01 00 Types of cargo (general aspects)
01 Explain the basic idea of typical types of cargo, e.g. x x x x
containerised cargo, palletised cargo, bulk cargo.
031 06 02 00 Floor-area load and running-load limitations
in cargo compartments
01 Calculate the required floor-contact area for a given x x x x
load to avoid exceeding the maximum permissible
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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floor load of a cargo compartment.
02 Calculate the maximum mass of a container with x x x x
given floor-contact area to avoid exceeding the
maximum permissible floor load of a cargo
compartment.
03 Calculate the linear load distribution of a x x x x
container to avoid exceeding the maximum
permissible running load.
031 06 03 00 Securement of load
01 Explain the reasons for having an adequate tie-down x x x x
of loads.
02 Name the basic methods for securing loads. x x x x
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E. SUBJECT 032 – PERFORMANCE (AEROPLANE)
E. SUBJECT 032 - PERFORMANCE (AEROPLANE)
(1) For theoretical-knowledge examination purposes: ‘Climb angle’ is assumed to be air mass-related. ‘Flight-path
angle’ is assumed to be ground-related.
‘Screen height for take-off’ is the vertical distance between the take-off surface and the
take-off flight path at the end of the take-off distance.
‘Screen height for landing’ is the vertical distance between the landing surface and the landing flight path from
which the landing distance begins.
(2) For mass definitions, please refer to CHAPTER D (SUBJECT 031 — MASS AND BALANCE).
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
032 00 00 00 PERFORMANCE – AEROPLANES
032 01 00 00 GENERAL
032 01 01 00 Performance legislation
032 01 01 02 Operational regulations

01 Interpret the applicable operational x x
requirements related to aeroplane
performance.
02 Name and define the performance classes for x x
commercial air transportation according to
the applicable requirements.
032 01 02 00 General performance theory
032 01 02 01 Stages of flight
01 Describe the following stages of flight: x x
- take-off;
- climbing flight;
- level flight;
- descending flight;
approach and landing.
032 01 02 02 Definitions, terms and concepts
01 Define ‘steady’ flight. x x
02 Resolve the forces during steady climbing and x x
descending flight.
03 Determine the opposing forces during x x
horizontal steady flight.
04 Interpret the ‘thrust/power required and x x
‘thrust/power available’ curves.
05 Describe the meaning of ‘excess thrust and x x
power’ using appropriate graphs.
06 Describe the effect of excess thrust and power x x
on speed and/or climb performance.
07 Calculate the climb gradient from given x x
thrust, drag and aeroplane mass.
08 Explain climb, level flight and descent x x
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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performance in relation to the combination
of thrust/power available and required.
09 Explain the difference between angle and x x
gradient.
10 Define the terms ‘climb angle’ and ‘climb x x
gradient’.
11 Define the terms ‘flight-path angle’ and ‘flight- x x
path gradient’.
12 Define the terms ‘descent angle’ and ‘decent x x
gradient’.
13 Explain the difference between climb/descent x x
angle and flight-path angle.
14 Define ‘service’ and ‘absolute ceiling’. x x
15 Define the terms ‘clearway (CWY)’ and x x
‘stopway (STW)’.
16 Define the terms: x x
- Take-Off Run Available (TORA);
- Take-Off Distance Available (TODA);
- Accelerate-Stop Distance Available
(ASDA);
- according to the applicable
operational requirements.
17 Define ‘screen height’ and list its various x x
values.
18 Define the terms ‘range’ and ‘endurance’. x x
19 Define the aeroplane’s ‘Specific Fuel x x
Consumption (SFC)’.
Remark: Engine specific fuel consumption is
covered in 021.
20 Define the aeroplane’s ‘Specific Range (SR)’. x x
032 01 02 03 Variables influencing performance

01 Name and understand the following factors x x
that affect aeroplane performance,
particularly:
- temperature;
- air density;
- wind;
- aeroplane mass;
- aeroplane configuration;
- aeroplane anti-skid system status;
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Learning Objectives
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- aeroplane centre of gravity;
- aeroplane runway surface;
- aeroplane runway slope.
032 02 00 00 PERFORMANCE CLASS B – SINGLE ENGINE
AEROPLANES
032 02 01 00 Definitions of speeds used
01 Define the following speeds: x x
- stall speeds VS, VS0 and VS1;
- rotation speed VR;
- speed at 50 ft above the take-off
surface level;
- reference speed landing VREF.
032 02 02 00 Effect of variables on single-engine
aeroplane performance
01 Explain the effect of the wind component on x x
the take-off and landing performance.
02 Determine the regulatory factors for take-off x x
and landing according to the applicable
03 Explain the effects of temperature, wind on x x
climb performance.
04 Explain the effects of altitude and x x
temperature on cruise performance.
05 Explain the effects of mass, wind and x x
speed on descent performance.
032 02 03 00 Take-off and landing
01 Interpret the take-off and landing x x
requirements according to the applicable
02 Define the following distances: x x
- take-off distance;
- landing distance;
- ground-roll distance;
- maximum allowed take-off mass;
- maximum allowed landing mass.
03 Explain the effect of flap-setting on the x x
ground-roll distance.
032 02 04 00 Climb, cruise and descent.
01 Explain the effects of the different x x
recommended power settings on range and
endurance.
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Learning Objectives
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02 Explain the effects of wind and altitude on x x
maximum endurance speed.
032 02 05 00 Use of aeroplane performance data
032 02 05 01 Take-off
01 Find the minimum or maximum wind x x
component.
02 Find the take-off distance and ground-roll x x
distance.
03 Find the maximum allowed take-off mass. x x
04 Find the take-off speed. x x
032 02 05 02 Climb
01 Find the maximum rate-of-climb speed. x x
02 Find the time, distance and fuel to climb. x x
03 Find the rate of climb. x x
032 02 05 03 Cruise
01 Find power settings, cruise true airspeed x x
(TAS) and fuel consumption.
02 Find range and endurance. x x
03 Find the difference between still air distance x x
(Nautical Air Mile (NAM)) and ground distance
(Nautical Ground Mile) (NGM)).
032 02 05 04 Landing
01 Find the minimum or maximum wind x x
component.
02 Find the landing distance and ground-roll x x
distance.
032 03 00 00 PERFORMANCE CLASS B – MULTI-ENGINE
AEROPLANES
032 03 01 00 Definitions of terms and speeds
01 Define and explain the following terms; x x
- critical engine;
- speed for best angle of climb (VX);
- speed for best rate of climb (VY).
02 Explain the effect of the critical engine x x
inoperative on the power required and the
total drag.
03 Explain the effect of engine failure on x x
controllability under given conditions.
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Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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032 03 02 00 Effect of variables on multi-engine
aeroplane performance
032 03 02 01 Take-off and landing
01 Explain the effect of flap-setting on the x x
ground-roll distance.
02 For both fixed and constant speed propellers, x x
explain the effect of airspeed on thrust during
the take-off run.
03 Explain the effect of pressure altitude on x x
performance limited take-off mass.
04 Explain the effect of runway conditions on the x x
take-off distance.
05 Determine the regulation factors for take-off x x
according to the applicable operational
requirements.
06 Explain the percentage of accountability for x x
headwind and tailwind components during
take-off and landing calculations.
07 Interpret obstacle clearance at take-off. x x
08 Explain the effect of selected power settings, x x
flap settings and aeroplane mass on the rate
of climb.
09 Describe the effect of engine failure on take- x x
off climb performance.
10 Explain the effect of brake release before x x
take-off power is set on the take-off and
accelerate-stop distance.
032 03 02 02 Climb, cruise and descent
01 Explain the effect of CG on fuel consumption. x x
02 Explain the effect of mass on the speed for x x
best angle and best rate of climb.
03 Explain the effect of mass on the speed for x x
best angle and best rate of decent.
04 Explain the effect of temperature and altitude x x
on fuel flow.
05 Explain the effect of wind on the maximum x x
range speed and speed for maximum climb
angle.
06 Explain the effect of mass, altitude, wind, x x
speed and configuration on glide decent.
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07 Describe the various cruise techniques. x x
08 Describe the effect of loss of engine power on x x

climb and cruise performance.
032 03 02 03 Landing
01 Explain the effect of runway conditions on the x x
landing distance.
02 Determine the regulatory factors for landing x x
according to the applicable operational
requirements.
032 03 03 00 Use of aeroplane performance data
032 03 03 01 Take-off
01 Find take-off field length data. x x
02 Calculate the field-length limited x x
take-off mass.
03 Find the accelerate-go distance as well the x x
accelerate-stop distance data.
04 Find the ground-roll and take-off distance. x x
05 Calculate the maximum effort take-off data. x x
06 Calculate all engine and critical engine out x x
take-off climb data.
07 Calculate obstacle clearance take-off climb x x
data.
032 03 03 02 Climb
01 Find rate of climb and climb gradient. x x
02 Calculate single engine service ceiling. x x
03 Calculate obstacle clearance climb data. x x
032 03 03 03 Cruise and descent
01 Find power settings, cruise true airspeed (TAS) x x
and fuel consumption.
02 Calculate range and endurance data. x x
032 03 03 04 Landing
01 Find landing field-length data. x x
02 Find landing climb data in the event of balked x x
landing.
03 Find landing distance and ground-roll x x
distance.
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Learning Objectives
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04 Find short-field landing distance and ground- x x
roll distance.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A - LARGE
AEROPLANES
032 04 01 00 Take-off
01 Explain the essential forces affecting the x

aeroplane during take-off.
02 State the effects of thrust-to-weight ratio and x
flap-setting on ground roll.
032 04 01 01 Definitions of terms used
01 Define the terms ‘Aircraft Classification x
Number (ACN)’ and ‘Pavement Classification
Number (PCN)’.
02 Define and explain the following speeds. x
Definitions:
- reference stall speed (VSR);
- reference stall speed in the landing
configuration (VSR0);
- reference stall speed in a specific
configuration (VSR1);
- 1-g stall speed at which the
aeroplane can develop a lift force
(normal to the flight path) equal to
its weight (VS1g);
- minimum control speed with critical
engine inoperative (VMC);
- minimum control speed on or near
the ground (VMCG);
- minimum control speed at take-off
climb (VMCA);
- engine failure speed (VEF);
- take-off decision speed (V1);
- rotation speed (VR);
- minimum take-off safety speed
(V2MIN);
- minimum unstick speed (VMU);
- lift-off speed (VLOF);
- max brake energy speed (VMBE );
- max tyre speed (V Max Tyre);
- reference landing speed (VREF);
- minimum control speed, approach
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and landing (VMCL).
03 Explain the interdependence between of the x
above mentioned speeds if there is any.
04 Define the following distances: x
- take-off run with all engines
operating and one engine
inoperative;
- take-off distance with all engines
operating and one engine
inoperative;
- accelerate-stop distance with all
engines operating and one engine
inoperative.
05 Define the term ‘Aeroplane Specific Fuel x
Consumption (ASFC).
Remark: Engine specific fuel consumption is
covered in subject 021.
032 04 01 02 Take-off distances
01 Explain the effects of the following runway x
(RWY) variables on take-off distances:
- RWY slope;
- RWY surface conditions: dry, wet and
contaminated;
- RWY elevation.
02 Explain the effects of the following aeroplane x
variables on take-off distances:
- aeroplane mass;
- take-off configuration;
- bleed-air configurations.
03 Explain the effects of the following x
meteorological variables on take-off distances:
- wind;
- temperature;
- pressure altitude.
04 Explain the influence of errors in rotation x
technique on take-off distances:
- early and late rotation;
- too high and too low rotation angle;
- too high and too low rotation rate.
05 Explain the take-off distances for specified x
conditions and configuration for all engines
operating and one engine inoperative.
06 Explain the effect of using clearway on the x
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take-off distance required.
07 Explain the influence of V1 and V2MIN on x
take-off distance.
08 Explain the time interval allowed for between x
engine failure and recognition when assessing
the TOD.
09 Explain the effect of a miscalculation of V1 on x
the take-off distance required.
032 04 01 03 Accelerate-stop distance
01 Explain the accelerate-stop distance for x
specified conditions and configuration for all
engines operating and one engine inoperative.
02 Explain the effect of using a stopway on the x
accelerate-stop distance required.
03 Explain the effect of miscalculation of V1 on x
the accelerate-stop distance required.
04 Explain the effect of runway slope on the x
accelerate-stop distance.
05 Explain the additional time allowance for x
accelerate-stop distance determination and
discuss the deceleration procedure.
06 Explain the use of brakes, anti-skid, use of x
reverse thrust, ground spoilers of lift dumpers,
brake energy adsorption limits, delayed
temperature rise and tyre limitations.
032 04 01 04 Balanced field length concept
01 Define the term’ balanced field length’. x
02 Understand the relationship between take-off x
distance, accelerate-stop distance and V1
when using a balanced field.
03 Describe the applicability of a balanced field x
length.
032 04 01 05 Unbalanced field length concept
01 Define the term ‘unbalanced field length’. x
02 Describe the applicability of an unbalanced x
field length.
03 Explain the effect of a stopway on the allowed x
take-off mass and appropriate V1 when using
an unbalanced field.
04 Explain the effect of a clearway on the allowed x
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take-off mass and appropriate V1 when using
an unbalanced field.
032 04 01 06 Runway Length Limited Take-Off Mass
(RLTOM)
01 Define RLTOM for balanced and unbalanced x
field length.
032 04 01 07 Take-off climb
01 Define the segments of the actual take-off x
flight path.
02 Explain the difference between the flat rated x
and non-flat part in performance charts.
03 Determine the changes in the configuration, x
power, thrust and speed in the take-off flight-
path segments.
04 Determine the differences in climb-gradient x
requirements for two, three and four engine
aeroplanes.
05 State the maximum bank angle when flying at x

V2.
06 Explain the effects of aeroplane and x
meteorological variables on the take-off climb.
07 Describe the influence of airspeed selection, x
acceleration and turns on the climb gradients,
best rate-of-climb speed and best angle-of-
climb speed.
08 Determine the climb-limited take-off mass. x
032 04 01 08 Obstacle limited take-off
01 Describe the operational regulations for x
obstacles clearance in the net take-off flight
path.
02 Define ‘actual and net take-off flight path with x
one engine inoperative’.
03 Determine the effects of aeroplane and x
meteorological variables on the determination
of obstacles-limited take-off mass.
04 Determine the obstacles limited take-off x
mass.
032 04 01 09 Performance-limited take-off mass
01 Define performance limited take-off mass. x
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032 04 01 10 Take-off performance on wet and
contaminated runways
01 Explain the differences between the take-off x
performance determination on a wet or
contaminated runway and on a dry runway.
032 04 01 11 Use of reduced and derated thrust
01 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of x
using reduced and derated thrust.
02 Explain the difference between reduced and x
derated thrust.
03 Explain when reduced and derated thrust may x
and may not be used.
04 Explain the effect of using reduced and x
derated thrust on take-off performance
including take-off speeds, take-off distance,
climb performance and obstacle clearance.
05 Explain the assumed temperature method for x
determining reduced thrust performance.
032 04 01 12 Take-off performance using different take-
off flap settings

using different take-off flap settings to
optimise the performance limited take-off
mass.
032 04 01 13 Take-off performance using increased V2
speeds (‘improved climb performance’)
using increased V2 speeds.
02 Explain under what circumstances this x
procedure can be used.
032 04 01 14 Brake-energy and tyre speed limit
01 Explain the effects on take-off performance of x
brake-energy and tyre speed limits.
02 Explain under which conditions this becomes x
limiting.
032 04 01 15 Use of aeroplane flight data
01 Determine the maximum masses that satisfy x
all the regulations for take-off from the
aeroplane performance data sheets.
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02 Determine the relevant speeds for specified x
conditions and configuration from the
aeroplane performance data sheets.
032 04 02 00 Climb
032 04 02 01 Climb techniques
01 Explain the effect of climbing with constant x
IAS.
02 Explain the effect of climbing with constant x
Mach number.
03 Explain the correct sequence of climb speeds x
for jet transport aeroplanes.
04 Determine the effect on TAS when climbing x
in and above the troposphere at constant
Mach number.
032 04 02 02 Influence of variables on climb performance
01 Explain the effect of aeroplane mass on the x
rate of climb (ROC).
02 Explain the effect of meteorological variables x
on ROC.
03 Explain the effect of aeroplane acceleration x
during a climb with constant IAS or Mach
number.
04 Explain the effect on the operational speed x
limit when climbing at constant IAS.
01 Explain the term ‘cross over altitude’ which x
occurs during the climb speed schedule (IAS-
Mach number).
02 Calculate the time to climb. x
032 04 03 00 Cruise
032 04 03 01 Cruise techniques
01 Define the cruise procedures ‘maximum x
endurance’ and ‘maximum range’.
032 04 03 02 Maximum endurance
01 Explain fuel flow in relation to TAS and thrust. x
02 Find the speed for maximum endurance. x
032 04 03 03 Maximum range
01 Define the term ‘maximum range’. x
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032 04 03 04 Long-range cruise
01 Define the term ‘long-range cruise’. x
02 Explain differences between flying the speed x
for long range and maximum range with
regard to fuel low and speed stability.
032 04 03 05 Influence of variables on cruise performance
01 Explain the effect and CG position and actual x
mass of aircraft on range and endurance.
02 Explain the effect of altitude on range and x
endurance.
03 Explain the effect of meteorological variables x
on range and endurance.
032 04 03 06 Cruise altitudes
01 Define the term ‘optimum altitude’. x
02 Explain the factors which affect the choice of x
optimum altitude.
03 Explain the factors which might affect or limit x
the maximum operating altitude.
04 Explain the necessity for step climbs. x
05 Describe the buffet onset boundary (BOB). x
06 Analyse the influence of bank angle, mass x
and 1.3G buffet onset factor on a step
climb.
032 04 03 07 Cost Index (CI)
01 Define the term ‘cost index’. x
02 Understand the reason for economical cruise x
speed.
01 Understand the all-engines operating power x
settings and speeds from the aeroplane
performance data sheets for:
- maximum range;
- maximum endurance;
- high-speed and normal cruise;
- high and low speed buffet
(speed/Mach number only).
02 Determine the selection of cruise technique x
considering cost indexing and passenger
requirements against company requirements.
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03 Determine the fuel consumption from the x

aeroplane performance data sheets for
various cruise configurations, holding,
approach and transit to an alternate in normal
conditions and after an engine failure.
032 04 04 00 En route one engine inoperative
032 04 04 01 Drift down
01 Describe the determination of en route flight x
path data with one engine inoperative.
02 Determine the minimum obstacle clearance x
height prescribed in the applicable operational
requirements.
03 Define the speed during drift down. x
04 Explain the influence of deceleration on the x
drift-down profiles.
032 04 04 02 Influence of variables on the en route
one engine inoperative performance
01 Identify the factors which affect the en route x
net flight path.
01 Find one engine out service ceiling, range and x
endurance from given engine inoperative
charts.
02 Find the maximum continuous power/thrust x
settings from given engine inoperative charts.
032 04 05 00 Descent
032 04 05 01 Decent techniques
01 Explain the effect of descending at constant x
Mach number.
02 Explain the effect of descending at with x
constant IAS.
03 Explain the correct sequence of descent x
speeds for jet transport aeroplanes.
04 Determine the effect on TAS when descending x
in and above the troposphere at constant
Mach number.
05 Describe the following limiting speeds for x
descent.
maximum operating speed (VMO);
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maximum Mach number (MMO).
06 Explain the effect of a descent at constant x
Mach number on the margin at low and high-
speed buffet.
032 04 05 02 Influence of variables on descent
performance
01 Explain the influence of mass configuration x
and altitude on rate of descent and glide
angle.
01 Determine the following information for all- x
engines operating and one engine
inoperative from the aeroplane
performance data sheets:
- descent rates;
- time and distance for descent;
- fuel used during descent.
032 04 06 00 Approach and landing
032 04 06 01 Approach requirements
01 Describe the requirements for the approach x
climb.
02 Describe the requirements for the landing x
climb.
03 Explain the effect of temperature and x
pressure altitude on approach and landing-
climb performance.
032 04 06 02 Landing field-length requirement
01 Describe the landing distance (‘demonstrated’ x
landing distance).
02 Recall the landing field-length requirements x
for dry, wet and contaminated runways in the
03 Define the ‘Landing Distance Available (LDA)’. x
032 04 06 03 Influence of variables on landing
performance
01 Explain the effect of runway slope, surface x
conditions and wind on the maximum landing
mass for a given runway length in accordance
with the applicable operational requirements.
02 Explain the effect on landing distance and x
maximum allowable landing mass of the
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following devices affecting:
- deceleration;
- reverse;
- anti-skid;
- ground spoilers or lift dumpers;
- autobrakes.
03 Explain the effect of temperature and x
pressure altitude on the maximum landing
mass for a given runway length.
04 Explain the effect of hydroplaning on landing x
distance required.
032 04 06 04 Quick turnaround limit
01 Define the ‘quick turnaround limits’ and x
explain their purpose.
01 Determine the field length required for x
landing with a given landing mass from the
aeroplane performance data sheets in
accordance with the applicable operational
requirements.
02 Determine the landing and approach climb- x
limited landing mass from the aeroplane
performance data sheets.
03 Determine the landing field length limited x
landing mass from the aeroplane performance
data sheets.
04 Find the structural limited landing mass from x
the aeroplane performance data sheets.
05 Calculate the maximum allowable landing x
mass as the lowest of:
- approach climb and landing climb-
limited landing mass;
- landing-field length-limited landing
mass;
- structural-limited landing mass.
06 Determine the maximum quick turnaround x
mass and time under given conditions from
the aeroplane performance data sheet.
07 Determine the limiting landing mass in respect x
of PCN.
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F. SUBJECT 033 – FLIGHT PLANNING & MONITORING
F. SUBJECT 033 - FLIGHT PLANNING & MONITORING
(1) For mass definitions, please refer to Chapter D.
Syllabus Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter

reference Learning Objectives
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033 00 00 00 FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITORING
033 01 00 00 FLIGHT PLANNING AND MONITORING
Remark: Using training route manual VFR
charts or the question annexes.
033 01 01 00 VFR navigation plan
033 01 01 01 Routes, airfields, heights and altitudes from
VFR charts
01 Select routes and altitudes taking the x x x x
following criteria into account:
- classification of airspace;
- controlled airspace;
- uncontrolled airspace;
- restricted areas;
- minimum safe altitude;
- VFR semicircular rules;
- conspicuous points;
- navigation aids.
02 Calculate the minimum pressure or true x x x x
altitude from minimum grid-area altitude
using OAT and QNH.
03 Calculate the vertical and/or horizontal x x x x
distance and time to climb to a given level or
altitude.
04 Calculate the vertical and/or horizontal x x x x
distance and time to descend from a given
level or altitude.
05 Find the frequency and/or identifiers of radio- x x x x
navigation aids from charts.
033 01 01 02 Courses and distances from VFR charts
01 Choose waypoints in accordance with x x x x
specified criteria.
02 Calculate, or obtain from a chart, courses x x x x
and distances.
03 Find the highest obstacle within a given x x x x
distance on either side of the course.
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04 Find the following data from the chart x x x x
and transfer them to the navigation plan:
- waypoints and/or turning points;
- distances;
- true/magnetic courses.
033 01 01 03 Aerodrome charts and aerodrome directory
01 Explain the reasons for studying the visual x x x x
departure procedures and the available
approach procedures.
02 Find all visual procedures which can be x x x x
expected at the departure, destination and
alternate airfields.
03 Find the following data from the charts or x x x x
directory:
- aerodrome regulations and opening
hours;
- terrain high points
- man-made structures;
- altitudes;
- courses and radials;
- helipads (for helicopters only);
- any other relevant information.
033 01 01 04 Communications and radio- navigation
planning data
01 Find the communication frequencies and call x x x x
signs for the following:
- control agencies and service
facilities;
- Flight Information Services (FIS);
- weather information stations;
- Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS).
02 Find the frequency and/or identifier of the x x x x
appropriate radio-navigation aids.
033 01 01 05 Completion of navigation plan
01 Complete the navigation plan with the x x x x
courses and distances as taken from charts.
02 Find the departure and arrival routes. x x x x
03 Determine the position of Top of Climb x x x x
(TOC) and Top of Descend (TOD), given
appropriate data.
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04 Determine variation and calculate magnetic x x x x
courses.
05 Calculate the True Airspeed (TAS), g i v e n x x x x
aircraft performance data, altitude and
Outside Air Temperature (OAT).
06 Calculate Wind Correction Angle (WCA), x x x x
Drift angle, and Ground Speed (GS).
07 Calculate individual and accumulated times x x x x
for each leg to destination and alternate
airfields.
033 02 00 00 FLIGHT PLANNING FOR IFR FLIGHTS
Remark: Using training route manual IFR
charts or the CQB annexes.
033 02 01 00 IFR navigation plan
033 02 01 01 Airways and routes
01 Select the preferred airway(s) route(s) x x
considering:
- altitude and flight levels;
- standard routes;
- ATC restrictions;
- shortest distance;
- obstacles;
- any other relevant data.
033 02 01 02 Courses and distance from en route charts
01 Determine courses and distances. x x
02 Determine bearings and distances of x x
waypoints from radio-navigation aids.
033 02 01 03 Altitudes
01 Define the following altitudes: x x
- Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA);
- Minimum Obstacle Clearance
Altitude (MOCA);
- Minimum Off-Route Altitude
(MORA);
- Grid Minimum Off-Route Altitude
(Grid MORA);
- Maximum Authorised Altitude
(MAA);
- Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA);
- Minimum Holding Altitude (MHA).
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02 Extract the following altitudes from the x x
chart(s):
- Minimum Enroute Altitude (MEA);
- Minimum Obstacle Clearance
Altitude (MOCA);
- Minimum Off-Route Altitude
(MORA);
- Grid Minimum Off-Route Altitude
(Grid MORA);
- Maximum Authorised Altitude
(MAA);
- Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA);
- Minimum Holding Altitude (MHA).
033 02 01 04 Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) and
Standard Arrival Routes (STARs)
01 Explain the reasons for studying SID and STAR x x
charts.
02 State the reasons why SID and STAR charts x x
only show procedures in a pictorial
presentation style which is not to scale.
03 Interpret all data and information represented x x
on SID and STAR charts, particularly:
- routeings;
- distances;
- courses;
- radials;
- altitude/levels;
- frequencies;
- restrictions.
04 Identify SIDs and STARs which might be x x
relevant to a planned flight.
033 02 01 05 Instrument approach charts
01 State the reasons for being familiar with x x
instrument approach procedures and
appropriate data for departure, destination
and alternate airfields.
02 Select appropriate instrument approach x x
procedures f o r departure, destination and
alternate airfields.
03 Interpret all procedures, data and x x
information represented on instrument
approach charts, particularly:
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- courses and radials;
- distances;
- altitudes/levels/heights;
- restrictions;
- obstructions;
- frequencies;
- speeds and times;
- Decision Altitudes/Heights (DA/H);
- Minimum Descent Altitudes/Heights
(MDA/H);
- visibility and Runway Visual Range
(RVR);
- approach light systems.
033 02 01 06 Communications and radio navigation
planning data
01 Find the communication frequencies and x x
callsigns for the following:
- control agencies and service facilities;
- Flight Information Services (FIS);
- weather information stations;
- Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS).
-
02 Find the frequencies and/or identifiers of x x
radio navigation aids.
033 02 01 07 Completing of navigation plan
01 Complete the navigation plan with x x
courses, distances and frequencies taken
from charts.
02 Find the Standard Instrument Departure x x
and Arrival Routes to be flown and/or to
be expected.
03 Determine the position of Top of Climb x x
(TOC) and Top of Descent (TOD), given
appropriate data.
04 Determine variation and calculate x x
magnetic/true courses.
05 Calculate True Airspeed (TAS), given x x
aircraft performance data, altitude and
Outside Air Temperature (OAT).
06 Calculate Wind Correction Angles (WCA) / x x
Drift angles, and Ground Speeds (GS).
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07 Determine all relevant altitudes/levels, and x x
particularly MEA, MOCA, MORA, MAA, MCA,
MRA
and MSA.
08 Calculate individual and accumulated times x x
for each leg to destination and alternate
airfields.
033 03 00 00 FUEL PLANNING
033 03 01 00 General
01 Convert between volume, mass and x x x x
density given in different units which are
commonly used in aviation.
02 Determine relevant data from the Flight x x x x
Manual, such as fuel capacity, fuel
flow/consumption at different power/thrust
settings, altitudes and atmospheric
conditions.
03 Calculate the attainable flight time/range, x x x x
given fuel flow/consumption and available
amount of fuel.
04 Calculate the required fuel, given fuel x x x x
flow/consumption and required time/range
to be flown.
05 Calculate the required fuel for a VFR flight, x x x x
given expected meteorological conditions
and expected delays under defined
conditions.
06 Calculate the required fuel for an IFR flight, x x
given expected meteorological conditions
and expected delays under defined
conditions.
033 03 02 00 Pre-flight fuel planning for commercial
flights
033 03 02 01 Taxi fuel
01 Determine the fuel required for A P U , x x x x
engine start, and taxi t o t a k e - o f f ,
by consulting the fuel usage tables and/or
graphs from the Flight Manual, taking
into account all the relevant conditions.
033 03 02 02 Trip fuel
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01 Define ‘trip fuel’ and name the segments x x x x
of flight for which the trip fuel is relevant.
02 Determine the trip fuel for the flight using x x x x
data from the navigation plan and fuel
tables and/or graphs from the Flight
Manual.
033 03 02 03 Reserve fuel and its components
Contingency fuel
01 Explain the reasons for having contingency x x x x
fuel.
02 State and explain the requirements for x x
contingency fuel according to the applicable
03 Calculate the contingency fuel according to x x
the applicable operational requirements.
04 State and explain the requirements for x x
contingency fuel according to the applicable
05 Calculate the contingency fuel according to x
the applicable operational requirements for
IFR flights.
VFR flights in a hostile environment.
VFR flights in a non-hostile environment.
Alternate fuel
08 Explain the reasons and regulations for x x x x
having alternate fuel and name the
segments of flight for which the fuel is
relevant.
09 Calculate the alternate fuel in accordance x x
with the applicable operational
requirements and relevant data from the
navigation plan and the Flight Manual.
10 Calculate the alternate fuel in accordance x x
with the applicable operational
requirements and relevant data from the
navigation plan and the Flight Manual.
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Final reserve fuel
having final reserve fuel.
12 Calculate the final reserve fuel for an x x
aeroplane with reciprocating engines and
for an aeroplane with turbine power units
in accordance with the applicable
operational requirements and by using
relevant data from the Flight Manual.
13 Calculate the final reserve fuel for a VFR x x
flight (by day with reference to visual
landmarks) in accordance with the applicable
operational requirements and by using
relevant data from the Flight Manual.
14 Calculate the final reserve fuel for a IFR x
flight in accordance with the applicable
operational requirements and relevant data
from the Flight Manual.
Additional fuel
having additional fuel.
16 Calculate the additional fuel for an IFR x
flight without a destination alternate in
accordance with the applicable operational
requirements for an isolated aerodrome.
17 Calculate the additional fuel for a flight to x x
an isolated heliport in accordance with
the applicable operational requirements.
033 03 02 04 Extra fuel
01 Explain the reasons and regulations for x x
having extra fuel in accordance with the
02 Explain the reasons and regulations for x x
having extra fuel in accordance with the
03 Calculate the possible extra fuel under given x x x x
conditions.
033 03 02 05 Calculation of total fuel and completion of

the fuel section of the navigation plan
(fuel log)
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01 Calculate the total fuel required for a x x x x
flight.
02 Complete the fuel log. x x x x
033 03 03 00 Specific fuel calculation procedures
033 03 03 01 Decision Point procedure
01 Explain the reason and regulations for the x
decision point procedure as stated in the
02 Calculate the contingency fuel and trip fuel x
required in accordance with the decision point
procedure.
033 03 03 02 Isolated aerodrome procedure
01 Explain the basic procedures for an isolated x
aerodrome as stated in the applicable
02 Calculate the additional fuel for aeroplanes x
with reciprocating engines according to the
isolated aerodrome procedures.
with turbine engines according to the isolated
aerodrome procedures.
033 03 03 03 Predetermined Point procedure
01 Explain the basic idea of the predetermined x
point (PDP) procedure as stated in the
with reciprocating engines according to the
predetermined point procedures.
with turbine engines according to the
predetermined point procedures.
033 03 03 04 Fuel tankering
01 Explain the basic idea of fuel tankering x
procedures.
02 Explain that there is an optimum fuel x
quantity to be tankered (as a function of
the fuel-price ratio between departure
and destination airports and air distance to
fly).
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03 Calculate tankered fuel given appropriate x
graphs, tables and/or data.
033 03 03 05 Isolated heliport procedure

01 Explain isolated heliport procedures as x
stated in the applicable operational
requirements.
02 Calculate the additional fuel according to x
the isolated heliport procedures as stated
in the applicable operational requirements
for flying IFR.
03 Calculate the additional fuel according to x
the isolated heliport procedures as stated
in the applicable operational requirements
for flying VFR and navigating by means
other than by reference to visual
landmarks.
033 04 00 00 PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
033 04 01 00 NOTAM briefing
033 04 01 01 Ground facilities and services
01 Check that the ground facilities and services x x x x
required for the planned flight are available
and adequate.
033 04 01 02 Departure, destination and alternate
aerodromes
01 Find and a nalyse the latest state of the x x x x
departure, destination and alternate
aerodromes, in particular for:
- opening hours;
- Work in Progress (WIP);
- special procedures due to Work in
Progress (WIP);
- obstructions;
- changes of frequencies for
communications, navigation aids and
facilities.
033 04 01 03 Airway routings and airspace structure
01 Find and analyse the latest en route state x x x x
for:
airway(s) or route(s);
- restricted, danger and prohibited
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areas;
- changes of frequencies for
communications, navigation aids and
facilities.
033 04 02 00 Meteorological briefing
033 04 02 01 Extraction and analysis of relevant data
from meteorological documents
Remark: This item is taught and examined
in subject 050.
033 04 02 02 Update of navigation plan using the
latest meteorological information
01 Confirm the optimum altitude/FL given x x x x
wind, temperature and aircraft data.
02 Confirm true altitudes given atmospheric x x x x
data to ensure that statutory minimum
t e r r a i n clearance is maintained.
03 Confirm magnetic headings and ground x x x x
speeds.
04 Confirm the individual leg times and the total x x x x
time en route.
05 Confirm the total time en route for the trip to x x x x
the destination.
06 Confirm the total time from destination to the x x x x
alternate airfield.
033 04 02 03 Update of mass and balance
Remark: This item is taught and examined in
subject 031.
033 04 02 04 Update of performance data
subject 032 for aeroplanes and subject 034
for helicopters.
033 04 02 05 Update of fuel log
01 Calculate the revised fuel data in accordance x x x x
with the changed conditions.
033 04 03 00 Point of Equal Time (PET) and Point of Safe
Return (PSR)
033 04 03 01 Point of Equal Time (PET)
01 Define ‘PET’. x x
02 Explain the concept of determining PET. x x
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03 Calculate the position of a PET and the ETA at x x
the PET given relevant data.
033 04 03 02 Point of Safe Return (PSR)
01 Define ‘PSR’. x x
02 Explain the concept of determining PSR. x x
03 Calculate the position of a PSR and the ETA at x x
the PSR given relevant data.
033 05 00 00 ICAO FLIGHT PLAN (ATS Flight Plan)
033 05 01 00 Individual Flight Plan
033 05 01 01 Format of Flight Plan
01 State the reasons for a fixed format of an x x x x
ICAO ATS Flight Plan (FPL).
02 Determine the correct entries to complete x x X x
an FPL, plus decode and interpret the
entries in a completed FPL, particularly for
the following:
- aircraft identification (Item 7);
- flight rules and type of flight (Item
8);
- number and type of aircraft and
wake-turbulence category (Item 9);
- equipment (Item 10);
- departure aerodrome and time (Item
13);
- route (Item 15);
- destination aerodrome, total
estimated elapsed time and alternate
aerodrome
- (Item 16);
- other information (Item 18);
- supplementary information (Item
19).
033 05 01 02 Completion of an ATS Flight Plan (FPL)
01 Complete the FPL by using the information x x x x
from the following:
- navigation plan;
- fuel plan;
- operator’s records for basic
- aircraft information.
033 05 02 00 Repetitive Flight Plan
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01 Explain the difference between an Individual x x
Flight Plan (FPL) and a Repetitive Flight Plan
(RPL).
02 Explain the concept of an RPL and state the x x
general requirements for its use.
033 05 03 00 Submission of an ATS Flight Plan (FPL)
subject 010.
033 06 00 00 FLIGHT MONITORING AND IN- FLIGHT
REPLANNING
033 06 01 00 Flight monitoring
033 06 01 01 Monitoring of track and time
01 Assess deviations from the planned course, x x x x
headings (by maintaining desired courses)
and times.
02 State the reasons for possible deviations. x x x x
03 Calculate the ground speed by using actual x x x x
in-flight parameters.
04 Calculate the expected leg times by using x x x x
actual flight parameters.
033 06 01 02 In-flight fuel management
01 Explain why fuel checks must be carried x x x x
out in flight at regular intervals, and why
relevant fuel data must be recorded.
02 Assess deviations of actual fuel x x x x
consumption from planned consumption.
03 State the reasons for possible deviations. x x x x
04 Calculate the fuel quantity used, fuel x x x x
consumption and fuel remaining at
navigation checkpoints
/waypoints.
05 Compare the actual with the planned fuel x x x x
consumption by means of calculation or
flight-progress chart.
06 Assess the remaining range and endurance x x x x
by means of calculation or flight-progress
chart.
033 06 01 03 Monitoring of primary flight parameters
01 Explain the methodology for monitoring x x x x
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primary flight parameters during the
application of procedures requiring a high
flight crew workload within a short time
frame (including monitoring of primary
flight parameters, in particular pitch, thrust
and speed).
033 06 02 00 In-flight replanning in case of deviation from
planned data
01 State that the commander is responsible for x x x x
ensuring that even in case of diversion the
remaining fuel is not less than the fuel
required to proceed to an aerodrome where a
safe landing can be made, with final reserve
fuel remaining.
02 Perform in-flight updates, if necessary, x x x x
based on the results of in-flight monitoring,
specifically by:
- selecting a new
destination/alternate aerodrome;
- adjusting flight parameters and
power settings.
03 Explain that, in the case of an in- flight x x x x
update, the commander has to check the
following:
- the suitability of the new destination
and/or alternate aerodrome;
- meteorological conditions on revised
routing and at revised destination
and/or alternate aerodrome(s);
- the aircraft must be able to land
with the prescribed final reserve fuel
04 Assess the revised destination/ alternate x x x x
aerodrome landing mass from updated data.
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G. SUBJECT 034 – PERFORMANCE (HELICOPTER)
G. SUBJECT 034 - PERFORMANCE (HELICOPTER)
1) For mass definitions, please refer to Chapter D.

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034 00 00 00 PERFORMANCE - HELICOPTER
034 01 00 00 GENERAL
034 01 01 00 Performance legislation
034 01 01 01 Airworthiness requirements
01 Interpret the airworthiness requirements as x x
related to helicopter performance.
02 Name the general differences between x x
helicopters as certified.
034 01 01 02 Operational regulation
01 State the responsibility to comply with the x x
operational procedures.
02 Interpret the Air Operations Regulations. x x
03 Use and interpret diagrams and tables x
associated with CAT A and CAT B procedures
in order to select and develop class 1,2 and 3
performance profiles according to available
heliport size and location (surface or
elevated).
04 Use and interpret diagrams and tables x
associated with CAT A and CAT B procedures
in order to select and develop class 3 single-
engine helicopter performance profiles
according to available heliport size and
location (surface or elevated).
05 Interpret the charts showing minimum x
clearances associated with Category A & B
procedures.
034 01 02 00 General performance theory
034 01 02 01 Stages of flight
01 Explain the following stages of flight: x x
take-off;
climb;
level flight;
descent;
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02 Describe the necessity for different take-off x x
and landing procedures.
034 01 02 02 Definitions and terms
01 Define the following terms:
- Category A;
- Category B;
- Performance Class 1, 2, and 3;
- congested area;
- elevated heliport;
- helideck;
- heliport;
- hostile environment;
- maximum approved passenger
seating configuration;
- non-hostile environment;
- obstacle;
- rotor Radius (R);
- take-off mass;
- Touchdown and Lift-Off Area (TLOF);
- safe forced landing;
- speed for best rate of climb (Vy);
- never exceed speed (VNE);
- velocity landing gear extended (VLE);
- velocity landing gear operation (VLO);
- cruising speed and maximum cruising
speed.
03 Understand the meaning and significance x
of the acronyms AEO and OEI.
04 Define the terms ‘climb angle’ and ‘climb- x
gradient’.
05 Define the terms ‘flight-path angle’ and x
‘flight-path gradient’.
06 Define VmaxRange (speed for maximum x x
range) and VmaxEnd (speed for maximum
endurance).
07 Define and calculate the gradient by using x
power, wind and helicopter mass.
08 Explain the terms ‘operational ceiling’ and x x
‘absolute ceiling’.
09 Explain the term ‘service ceiling OEI’. x
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10 Understand the difference between Hovering x x
In Ground Effect (HIGE) and Hovering Out of
Ground Effect (HOGE).
034 01 02 03 Power required/power available curves
01 Understand and interpret the graph power x x
required/power available versus TAS.
034 01 02 04 Critical height velocity graphs
01 Understand and interpret the critical height- x x
velocity graphs.
034 01 02 05 Influencing variables on performance
01 Explain how the following factors effect
helicopter performance:
- pressure altitude;
- humidity;
- temperature;
- wind;
- helicopter mass;
- helicopter configuration;
- helicopter CG.
034 02 00 00 PERFORMANCE CLASS 3 – SINGLE ENGINE
HELICOPTERS ONLY
034 02 01 00 Effect of variables on single-engine
helicopter performance
01 Determine wind component, altitude and x x
temperature for hovering, take- off and
landing.
02 Explain that operations are only from/to x x
heliports and over such routes, areas and
diversions contained in a non-hostile
environment where a safe forced landing can
be carried out. (Consider the exception:
Operations may be conducted in a hostile
environment when approved).
03 Explain the effect of temperature, wind and x x
altitude on climb, cruise and descent
performance.
034 02 02 00 Take-off and landing (including hover)
01 Explain the take-off and landing requirements. x x
02 Explain the maximum allowed take- off and x x
landing mass.
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03 Explain that mass has to be restricted to HIGE. x x
034 02 03 00 Climb, cruise and descent
01 State that the helicopter must be capable of x x
flying its intended track without flying below
the appropriate minimum flight altitude and
be able to perform a safe forced landing.
02 Explain the effect of altitude on the maximum x x
endurance speed.
034 02 04 00 Use of helicopter performance data
034 02 04 01 Take-off (including hover)
01 Find the maximum wind component. x x
02 Find the maximum allowed take-off mass for x x
certain conditions.
03 Find the critical height-velocity parameters. x x
034 02 04 02 Climb
01 Find the time, distance and fuel to climb for x x
certain conditions
02 Find the rate of climb under given conditions x x
and the best rate-of- climb speed VY
034 02 04 03 Cruise
01 Find the cruising speed and fuel consumption x x
for certain conditions.
02 Calculate the range and endurance under x x
given conditions.
034 02 04 04 Landing (including hover)
01 Find the maximum wind component x x
02 Find the maximum allowed landing mass for x x
certain conditions.
03 Find the critical height-velocity parameters. x x
034 03 00 00 PERFORMANCE CLASS 2
General remark:
The Learning Objectives for Performance
Class 2 are principally identical with those of
Performance Class 1. (See 034 04 00 00)
Additional Learning Objectives are shown
below.
034 03 01 00 Operations without an assured safe forced
landing capability
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01 State the responsibility of the operator in x
order to assure a safe forced landing.
034 03 02 00 Take-off
01 State the climb and other requirements for x
take-off.
034 03 03 00 Take-off Flight Path
01 State the height above the take-off surface at x
which at least the requirements for the take-
off flight path for Performance Class 1 are to
be met.
034 03 04 00 Landing
01 State the requirements for the climb capability x
for OEI.
02 State the options for a Performance Class 2 x
operation in case of critical power-unit failure
at any point in the approach path.
03 State the limitations for operations to/from a x
helideck.
034 04 00 00 PERFORMANCE CLASS 1 HELICOPTERS AS
CERTIFIED
034 04 01 00 Take-off
034 04 01 01 Take-off distances
01 Explain the effects of the following variables x
on the flight path and take-off distances:
- take-off with HIGE or HOGE;
- take-off procedure;
- obstacle clearances both laterally
and vertically;
- take-off from non-elevated heliports;
- take-off from elevated heliports or
helidecks;
- take-off from a Touchdown and Lift-
Off Area (TLOF).
02 Explain the effects of the following variables x
on take-off distances:
mass;
take-off configuration;
bleed-air configurations.
03 Explain the effects of the following x
meteorological variables on take-off distances:
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- wind;
- temperature;
- pressure altitude.
04 Explain the take-off distances for specified x
conditions and configuration for AEO and OEI.
05 Explain the effect of obstacles on the take-off x
distance required.
06 Explain the influence of V1 and VTOSS x
sspeeds on the take-off distance.
07 State the assumed reaction time between x
engine failure and recognition.
08 Explain the effect of calculation of TDP x
and V1 on the take-off distance required.
09 Explain that the flight must be carried out x
visually up to TDP.
034 04 01 02 Rejected take-off distance required
01 Explain the rejected take-off distance required x
for specified conditions and configurations for
AEO and OEI.
02 Explain the effect of calculation of V1 on the x
rejected take-off distance required.
03 Explain the time-to-decide allowance (decision x
time) and deceleration procedure.
034 04 01 03 Landing distance from TDP with V1 to a
complete stop on the ground
01 Understand the relationship of take-off x
distance and landing distance from TDP with
V1 to a complete ground stop.
034 04 01 04 Take -off climb
01 Define the segment of the take-off flight path. x
02 Explain the effect of changes in the x
configuration on power and speed in the
segment.
03 Explain the climb-gradient requirements for x
OEI.
04 State the minimum altitude over the take-off x
path when flying at V1 to VTOSS.
05 Describe the influence of airspeed selection, x
acceleration and turns on the climb gradient
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and best rate-of-climb speed.
034 04 01 05 Obstacle limited take-off
01 Describe the operational regulations for x
obstacle clearance of the take-off flight path in
the departure sector with OEI.
034 04 01 06 Use of helicopter flight data
01 Determine from the helicopter performance x
data sheets the maximum masses that satisfy
all the regulations for take-off.
034 04 02 00 Climb
034 04 02 01 Climb techniques
01 Explain the effect of climbing with best rate- x
of-climb speed (Vy).
02 Explain the influence of altitude on Vy. x
01 Find the rate of climb and calculate the time x
to climb to a given altitude.
034 04 03 00 Cruise
034 04 03 01 Cruise techniques
01 Explain the cruise procedures for ‘maximum x
endurance’ and ‘maximum range’.
034 04 03 02 Maximum endurance
01 Explain fuel flow in relation to TAS. x
02 Explain the speed for maximum endurance. x
034 04 03 03 Maximum range
01 Explain the speed for maximum range. x
034 04 03 04 Maximum cruise
01 Explain the speed for maximum cruise. x
034 04 03 05 Cruise altitudes
01 Explain the factors which might affect or limit x
the operating altitude.
02 Understand the relation between power x
settings, fuel consumption, cruising speed and
altitude.
01 Determine the fuel consumption from the x
helicopter performance data sheets in
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accordance with altitude and helicopter mass.
034 04 04 00 En route one engine inoperative
034 04 04 01 Requirements for en route flights for OEI.
01 State the flight-path clearance requirements. x
02 Explain the drift-down techniques. x
03 State the reduction in the flight-path width x
when navigational accuracy can be achieved.
01 Find the single-engine service ceiling, range x
and endurance from given engine-inoperative
charts.
02 Find the maximum continuous power settings x
from given engine-inoperative charts.
03 Find the amount of fuel to be jettisoned to x
reduce helicopter mass.
04 Calculate the relevant parameters for drift- x
down procedures.
034 04 05 00 Descent
01 Find the rate of descent and calculate the time x
to decent to a given level.
034 04 06 00 Landing
034 04 06 01 Landing requirements
01 State the requirements for landing. x
034 04 06 02 Landing procedures
01 Explain the procedure for critical power-unit x
failure prior to and after the landing decision
point.
02 Explain that the portion of flight after the x
landing decision point must be carried out
visually.
03 Explain the procedures and required x
obstacle clearances for landings on
different heliports/helidecks.
01 Determine from the helicopter performance x
data sheets the maximum masses that
satisfy all the regulations for landing.
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H. SUBJECT 040 – HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS
H. SUBJECT 040 - HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

Learning Objectives
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040 00 00 00 HUMAN PERFORMANCE
040 01 00 00 HUMAN FACTORS: BASIC CONCEPTS
040 01 01 00 Human factors in aviation
040 01 01 01 Becoming a competent pilot
01 State that competency is based on the x x x x
knowledge, skill and ability of the
individual pilot.
02 Outline the factors in training that will x x x x
ensure the future competency of the
individual pilot.
040 01 02 00 Accident statistics
01 Give an estimate of the accident rate in x x x x
commercial aviation in comparison to
other means of transport.
02 State in general terms the percentage of x x x x
aircraft accidents which are caused by
human factors.
03 Summarise the accident trend in modern x x x x
aviation.
04 Identify the role of accident statistics in x x x x
developing a strategy for future
improvements to flight safety.
040 01 03 00 Flight safety concepts
01 Explain the three components of the x x x x
Treat and error Management (TEM)
model.
02 Explain and give examples of latent x x x x
threats.
03 Explain and give examples of x x x x
environmental threats.
04 Explain and give examples of x x x x
organizational threats.
05 Explain and give a definition of ‘error’ x x x x
according to the TEM model of ICAO
Annex 1.
06 Give examples of different x x x x
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countermeasures which may be used in
order to manage threats, errors and
undesired aircraft states.
07 Explain and give examples of procedural x x x x
error.
08 Explain and give examples of ‘undesired x x x x
aircraft states’.
09 Describe and compare the elements of x x x x
the SHELL model.
10 Summarise the relevance of the SHELL x x x x
model to the work in the cockpit.
11 Analyse the interaction between the x x x x
various components of the SHELL model.
12 Explain how the interaction between x x x x
individual crew members can affect
flight safety.
13 Identify and explain the interaction x x x x
between flight crew and management as
a factor in flight safety.
040 01 04 00 Safety culture
01 Distinguish between ‘open cultures’ and x x x x
‘closed cultures’.
02 Illustrate how safety culture is reflected x x x x
in national culture.
03 Question the established expression x x x x
‘safety first’ in a commercial entity.
04 Explain James Reason’s ‘Swiss Cheese x x x x
Model’.
05 State the important factors that promote x x x x
a good safety culture.
06 Distinguish between ‘just culture’ and x x x x
‘non-punitive culture’.
07 Name the five components which form x x x x
safety culture (according to James
Reason).
040 02 01 00 Basics of flight physiology
040 02 01 01 The atmosphere
01 State the units used in measuring total x x x x
and partial pressures of the gases in the
atmosphere.
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Learning Objectives
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02 State in terms of % and mm Hg the x x x x
values of oxygen, nitrogen and other
gases present in the atmosphere.
03 State that the volume percentage of the x x x x
gases in ambient air will remain constant
for all altitudes at which conventional
aircraft operate.
04 State the physiological significance of the x x x x
following laws:
- Boyle’s Law;
- Dalton’s Law;
- Henry’s Laws;
- the General Gas Law.
05 State the ICAO standard temperature at x x x x
Mean Sea Level and the Standard
Temperature Lapse Rate.
06 State at what approximate altitudes in x x x x
the standard atmosphere the
atmospheric pressure will be ¼, ½ and ¾
of MSL pressure.
07 State the effects of increasing altitude x x x x
on the overall pressure and partial
pressures of the various gases in the
atmosphere.
08 Explain the differences in gas x x x x
expansion between alveolar and
ambient air when climbing.
09 State the condition required for x x x x
human beings to be able to survive at
any given altitude.
10 State and explain the importance of x x x x
partial pressure.
040 02 01 02 Respiratory and circulatory system
01 List the main components of the x x x x
respiratory system and their function.
02 Identify the different volumes of air x x x x
in the lungs and state the normal
respiratory rate.
03 State how oxygen and carbon dioxide x x x x
are transported throughout the body.
04 Explain the process by which oxygen x x x x
is transferred to the tissues and
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carbon dioxide is eliminated from the
body and the oxygen requirement of
tissues.
05 Explain the role of carbon dioxide in x x x x
the control and regulation of
respiration.
06 Describe the basic processes of x x x x
external respiration and internal
respiration.
07 List the factors determining pulse rate. x x x x
08 Name the major components of the x x x x
circulatory system and describe their
function.
09 State the values for a normal pulse rate x x x x
and the average cardiac output (heart
rate × stroke volume) of an adult at rest.
10 Name the four chambers of the heart x x x x
and state the function of the individual
chambers.
11 Differentiate between arteries, veins and x x x x
capillaries in their structure and
function.
12 State the functions of the coronary x x x x
arteries and veins.
13 Define ‘systolic’ and ‘diastolic’ blood x x x x
pressure.
14 State the normal blood pressure ranges x x x x
and units of measurement.
15 State that in an average pilot blood x x x x
pressure will rise slightly with age as the
arteries lose their elasticity.
16 List the main constituents of the blood x x x x
and describe their functions.
17 Stress the function of haemoglobin in x x x x
the circulatory system.
18 Define ‘anaemia’ and state its common x x x x
causes.
19 Indicate the effect of increasing altitude x x x x
on haemoglobin oxygen saturation.
Hypertension and hypotension
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20 Define ‘hypertension’ and ‘hypotension’. x x x x
21 List the effects that high and low blood x x x x
pressure will have on some normal
functions of the human body.
22 State that both hypotension and x x x x
hypertension may disqualify the pilot
from obtaining a medical clearance to
fly.
23 List the factors which can lead to x x x x
hypertension in an individual.
24 State the corrective actions that may be x x x x
taken to reduce high blood pressure.
25 Stress that hypertension is the major x x x x
factor of ‘strokes’ in the general
population.
Coronary artery disease

26 Differentiate between ‘angina’ and x x x x
‘heart attack’.
27 Explain the major risk factors for x x x x
coronary disease.
28 State the role played by physical exercise x x x x
in reducing the chances of developing
coronary disease.
Hypoxia
29 Define the two major forms of hypoxia x x x x
(hypoxic and anaemic), and the common
causes of both.
30 State the symptoms of hypoxia. x x x x
31 State why living tissues require oxygen. x x x x
32 State that healthy people are able to x x x x
compensate for altitudes up to
approximately 10 000–12 000 ft.
33 Name the three physiological x x x x
thresholds and allocate the
corresponding altitudes for each of
them.
34 State the altitude at which short-term x x x x
memory begins to be affected by
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hypoxia.
35 Define the term ‘Time of Useful x x x x
Consciousness’ (TUC).
36 State that TUC varies between x x x x
individuals, but the approximate
values are:
a) for a person seated (at rest)
b) for a person moderately active
20 000 ft a) 30 min
b) 5 min
30 000 ft a) 1–2 min
b) not required
35 000 ft a) 30–90 sec
b) not required
40 000 ft a) 15–20 sec
b) not required
37 Explain the dangers of flying above x x x x
10 000 ft without using additional
oxygen or being in a pressurised
cabin.
38 List the factors determining the x x x x
severity of hypoxia.
39 State the precautions to be taken when x x x x
giving blood.
40 State the equivalent altitudes when x x x x
breathing ambient air and 100 %
oxygen for MSL and approximately 10
000, 30 000 and 40 000 ft.
Hyperventilation
41 Describe the role of carbon dioxide in x x x x
hyperventilation.
42 Define the term ‘hyperventilation’. x x x x
43 List the factors causing hyperventilation. x x x x
44 State that hyperventilation may be x x x x
caused by psychological or physiological
reasons.
45 List the signs and symptoms of x x x x
hyperventilation.
46 Describe the effects of hyperventilation x x x x
on muscular coordination.
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47 List the measures which may be taken to x x x x
counteract hyperventilation.
Decompression sickness/illness x x x x
48 State the normal range of cabin pressure x x x x
altitude in pressurised commercial
aircraft and describe its protective
function for aircrew and passengers.
49 Identify the causes of decompression x x x x
sickness in flight operation.
50 State how decompression sickness can x x x x
be prevented.
51 State the threshold for the onset of x x x x
decompression sickness in terms of
altitude.
52 State the approximate altitude above x x x x
which decompression sickness is likely to
occur.
53 List the symptoms of decompression x x x x
sickness.
54 Indicate how decompression sickness x x x x
may be treated.
55 List the vital actions the crew has to x x x x
perform when cabin pressurisation is
lost.
56 Define the hazards of diving and flying, x x x x
and give recommendations associated
with these activities.
Acceleration
57 Define ‘linear’, ‘angular’ and 'radial x x x x
acceleration'.
58 Describe the effects of acceleration on x x x x
the circulation and blood volume
distribution.
59 List the factors determining the effects x x x x
of acceleration on the human body.
60 Describe the measures which may be x x x x
taken to increase tolerance to positive
acceleration.
61 List the effects of positive acceleration x x x x
with respect to type, sequence and the
corresponding G-load.
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Carbon monoxide
62 State how carbon monoxide may be x x x x
produced.
63 State how the presence of carbon x x x x
monoxide in the blood affects the
distribution of oxygen.
64 List the signs and symptoms of carbon- x x x x
monoxide poisoning.
65 Indicate how carbon-monoxide x x x x
poisoning can be treated and
countermeasures that can be adopted.
040 02 01 03 High altitude environment
Ozone
01 State how an increase in altitude may x x
change the proportion of ozone in the
atmosphere.
02 List the possible harmful effects of x x
ozone.
Radiation
03 State the sources of radiation at high x x
altitude.
04 List the effects of excessive exposure to x x
radiation.
05 State the effect of sun storms on the x x
amount of radiation at high altitude.
06 List the harmful effects that may result x x
from the extra radiation that may be
generated as the result of a sun storm
(solar flares).
07 List the methods of reducing the effects x x
of extra radiation that may be generated
as the result of a sun storm (solar flares).
Humidity
08 Define the terms ‘humidity’ and ‘relative x x
humidity’.
09 List the factors which affect the relative x x
humidity of both the atmosphere and
cabin air.
10 State the methods of reducing the x x
effects of insufficient humidity.
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11 List the physiological effects of dry cabin x x
air on the human body and indicate
measures to diminish these effects.
Stress the effects that low humidity can
have on the efficient functioning of the
eye.
Extreme temperature
12 Explain the change in the need for x x
oxygen of the human body when
exposed to extreme environmental
temperatures.
040 02 02 00 Man and environment: the sensory
system
01 List the different senses. x x x x
02 State the multisensory nature of human x x x x
perception.
040 02 02 01 Central, peripheral and autonomic
nervous systems
01 Name the main parts of the central x x x x
nervous system.
02 State the basic functions of the Central x x x x
Nervous System (CNS), the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS) and the
Autonomic (vegetative) Nervous
System (ANS).
03 Discuss broadly how information is x x x x
processed by the nervous systems and
the role of reflexes.
04 Define the division of the peripheral x x x x
nerves into sensory and motor
nerves.
05 State that a nerve impulse is an x x x x
electrochemical phenomenon.
06 Define the term ‘sensory threshold’. x x x x
07 Define the term ‘sensitivity’, x x x x
especially in the context of vision.
08 Give examples of sensory adaptation. x x x x
09 Define the term ‘habituation’ and x x x x
state its implication for flight safety.
10 Define the biological control systems x x x x
as neurohormonal processes that are
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highly self-regulated in the normal
environment.
040 02 02 02 Vision
Functional anatomy
01 Name the most important parts of the x x x x
eye and the pathway to the visual
cortex.
02 State the basic functions of the parts x x x x
of the eye.
03 Define ‘accommodation’. x x x x
04 Distinguish between the functions of x x x x
the rod and cone cells.
05 Describe the distribution of rod and x x x x
cone cells in the retina and explain
their relevance on vision.
Visual foveal and peripheral vision
06 Explain the terms ‘visual acuity’, ‘visual x x x x
field’, ‘central vision’, ‘peripheral
vision’ and ‘fovea’ and explain their
function in the process of vision.
07 List the factors which may degrade x x x x
visual acuity and the importance of
‘lookout’.
08 State the limitations of night vision x x x x
and the different scanning techniques
by both night and day (regularly
spaced eye movements each covering
an overlapping sector of about 10°).
09 Explain the adaptation mechanism in x x x x
vision to cater for reduced and
increased levels of illumination.
10 State the time necessary for the eye x x x x
to adapt both to dark and bright
light.
11 State the effect of hypoxia and smoking x x x x
on night vision.
12 Explain the nature of colour blindness x x x x

and the significance of the ‘blind spot’
on the retina in detecting other traffic
in flight.
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Binocular and monocular vision
13 Distinguish between monocular and x x x x
binocular vision.
14 Explain the basis of depth perception x x x x
and its relevance to flight
performance.
15 List the possible monocular cues for x x x x
depth perception.
16 State the problems of vision x x x x
associated with higher energy blue
light and ultraviolet rays.
Defective vision
17 Explain long sightedness, short x x x x
sightedness and astigmatism.
18 List the causes of and the x x x x
precautions that may be taken to
reduce the probability of vision loss
due to:
- presbyopia;
- cataracts;
- glaucoma.
19 List the types of sunglasses which x x x x
could cause perceptional problems in
flight.
20 List the measures which may be x x x x
taken to protect oneself from flash
blindness.
21 State the possible problems associated x x x x
with contact lenses.
22 State the current rules/regulations x x x x
governing the wearing of corrective
spectacles and contact lenses when
operating as a pilot.
040 02 02 03 Hearing
Descriptive and functional anatomy
01 State the audible range of the human x x x x
ear.
02 State the unit of measure for the x x x x
intensity of sound.
03 Name the most important parts of the x x x x
ear and the associated neural pathway.
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04 State the basic functions of the different x x x x
parts of the auditory system.
05 Differentiate between the functions of x x x x
the vestibular apparatus and the cochlea
in the inner ear.
06 State the role of the Eustachian tube in x x x x
equalising pressure between the middle
ear and the environment.
07 Indicate the effects of colds or flu on the x x x x
ability to equalise pressure in the above.
Hearing loss
08 Define the main causes of the following x x x x
hearing defects/loss:
‘conductive deafness’;
‘Noise-Induced Hearing Loss’ (NIHL);
‘presbycusis’.
09 Summarise the effects of environmental x x x x
noise on hearing.
10 State the decibel level of received noise x x x x
that will cause NIHL.
11 Indicate the factors, other than noise x x x x
level, which may lead to NIHL.
12 Identify the potential occupational risks x x x x
which may cause hearing loss.
13 List the main sources of hearing loss in x x x x
the flying environment.
14 List the precautions that may be taken to x x x x
reduce the probability of onset of
hearing loss.
040 02 02 04 Equilibrium
Functional anatomy
01 List the main elements of the vestibular x x x x
apparatus.
02 State the functions of the vestibular x x x x
apparatus on the ground and in flight.
03 Distinguish between the component x x x x
parts of the vestibular apparatus in the
detection of linear and angular
acceleration as well as on gravity.
04 Explain how the semicircular canals are x x x x
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stimulated.
Motion sickness
05 Describe airsickness and its x x x x
accompanying symptoms.
06 Indicate that vibration can cause x x x x
undesirable human responses because
of the resonance of the skull and the
eyeballs.
07 List the causes of motion sickness. x x x x
08 Describe the necessary actions to be x x x x
taken to counteract the symptoms of
motion sickness.
040 02 02 05 Integration of sensory inputs
01 State the interaction between vision, x x x x
equilibrium, proprioception and hearing
to obtain spatial orientation in flight.
02 Define the term ‘illusion’. x x x x
03 Give examples of visual illusions based x x x x
on shape constancy, size constancy,
aerial perspective, atmospheric
perspective, the absence of focal or
ambient cues, autokinesis, vectional
false horizons and surface planes.
04 Relate these illusions to problems that x x x x
may be experienced in flight and identify
the danger attached to them.
05 State the conditions which cause the x x x x
‘black-hole’ effect and ‘empty-field
myopia’.
06 Give examples of approach and landing x x x x
illusions, state the danger involved and
give recommendations to avoid or
counteract these problems.
07 State the problems associated with x x x x
flickering lights (strobe lights, anti-
collision lights, etc.).
08 Give examples of vestibular illusions x x x x
such as somatogyral (the Leans),
Coriolis, somatogravic and G-effect
illusions.
09 Relate the above-mentioned vestibular x x x x
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illusions to problems encountered in
flight and state the dangers involved.
10 List and describe the function of the x x x x
proprioceptive senses
(‘seat-of-the-pants’ sense).
11 Relate illusions of the proprioceptive x x x x
senses to the problems encountered
during flight.
12 State that the ‘seat-of-the-pants’ x x x x

sense is completely unreliable when
visual contact with the ground is lost
or when flying in IMC or poor visual
horizon.
13 Differentiate between vertigo, Coriolis x x x x
effect and spatial disorientation.
14 Explain the flicker effect (stroboscopic x x x x
effect) and discuss the
countermeasures.
15 Explain how spatial disorientation can x x x x
result from a mismatch in sensory
input and information processing.
16 List the measures to prevent and/or x x x x
overcome spatial disorientation.
040 02 03 00 Health and hygiene
040 02 03 01 Personal hygiene
01 Summarise the role of personal x x x x
hygiene as a factor in human
performance.
040 02 03 02 Body rhythm and sleep
01 Name some internal body rhythms and x x
their relevance to sleep.
02 Explain the term ‘circadian rhythm’. x x
03 State the approximate duration of a x x
‘free-running’ rhythm.
04 Explain the significance of the ‘internal x x
clock’ in regulating the normal circadian
rhythm.
05 State the effect of the circadian rhythm x x
of body temperature on an individual’s
performance standard and the effect on
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an individual’s sleep patterns.
06 List and describe the stages of a sleep x x
cycle.
07 Differentiate between REM and non- x x
REM sleep.
08 Explain the function of sleep and x x
describe the effects of insufficient sleep
on performance.
09 Explain the simple calculations for the x x
sleep/wake credit/debit situation.
10 Explain how sleep debit can become x x
cumulative.
11 State the time formula for the x x
adjustment of body rhythms to the new
local time scale after crossing time
zones.
12 State the problems caused by x x
circadian disrhythmia (jet lag) with
regard to an individual’s performance
and sleep.
13 Differentiate between the effects of x x
westbound and eastbound travel.
14 Explain the interactive effects of x x
circadian rhythm and vigilance on a
pilot’s performance during flight as
the duty day elapses.
15 Describe the main effects of lack of x x
sleep on an individual’s performance.
16 List the possible coping strategies for x x
jet lag.
040 02 03 03 Problem areas for pilots
Common minor ailments
01 State the role of the Eustachian tube in x x x x
equalising pressure between the middle
ear and the environment.
02 State that the in-flight environment may x x x x
increase the severity of symptoms which
may be minor while on the ground.
03 List the negative effects of suffering from x x x x
colds or flu on flight operations
especially with regard to the middle ear,
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the sinuses, and the teeth.
04 Indicate the effects of colds or flu on the x x x x
ability to equalise pressure between the
middle ear and the environment.
05 State when a pilot should seek medical x x x x
advice from an AME, and when the
aeromedical section of an authority
should be informed.
06 Describe the measures to prevent x x x x
and/or clear problems due to pressure
changes during flight.
Entrapped gases and barotrauma
07 Define ‘barotrauma’. x x x x
08 Differentiate between otic, sinus, x x x x
gastrointestinal and aerodontalgia (of
the teeth) barotraumas and explain
avoidance strategies.
09 Explain why the effects of otic x x x x
barotrauma can be worse in the descent.
Gastrointestinal upsets
10 State the effects of gastrointestinal x x x x
upsets that may occur during flight.
11 List the precautions that should be x x x x
observed to reduce the occurrence of
gastrointestinal upsets.
12 Indicate the major sources of x x x x
gastrointestinal upsets.
Obesity
13 Define ‘obesity’. x x x x
14 State the cause of obesity. x x x x
15 State the harmful effects of obesity on x x x x
the following:
- possibility of developing
coronary problems;
- increased chances of
developing diabetes;
- ability to withstand G forces;
- the development of problems
with the joints of the limbs;
- general circulatory problems;
- ability to cope with hypoxia
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and/or decompression sickness.
16 State the relationship between obesity x x x x
and Body Mass Index (BMI).
17 Calculate the BMI of an individual (given x x x x
weight in kilograms and height in
metres) and state whether this BMI
indicates that the individual is
underweight, overweight, obese or
within the normal range of body weight.
18 Describe the problems associated with x x x x
Type 2 (mostly adult) diabetes
- risk factors;
- insulin resistance;
- complications (vascular,
neurological) and the
consequences for the medical
License;
- pilots are not protected from
Type 2 diabetes more than
other people.
Back pain
19 Describe the typical back problems x x x x
(unspecific back pain, slipped disc) that
pilots have. Explain also the ways of
preventing and treating these
problems:
- good sitting posture;
- lumbar support;
- good physical condition;
- in-flight exercise, if possible;
- physiotherapy.
Food hygiene
20 Explain the significance of food hygiene x x x x
with regard to general health.
21 Stress the importance of and methods x x x x
to be adopted by aircrew especially
when travelling abroad to avoid
contaminated food and liquids.
22 List the major contaminating sources in x x x x
foodstuffs.
23 State the major constituents of a healthy x x x x
diet.
24 State the measure to avoid x x x x
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hypoglycaemia.
25 State the role vitamins and trace x x x x
elements are playing in a healthy diet.
26 State the importance of adequate x x x x
hydration.
Tropical climates
27 List the problems associated with x x x x
operating in tropical climates.
28 State the possible causes/sources of x x
incapacitation in tropical or poorly
developed countries with reference to:
- standards of hygiene;
- quality of water supply;
- insect borne diseases;
- parasitic worms;
- rabies or other diseases that
may be spread by contact with
animals;
- sexually transmitted diseases.
29 State the precautions to be taken to x x
reduce the risks of developing problems
in tropical areas.
Infectious diseases
30 State the major infectious diseases that x x x x

may kill or severely incapacitate
individuals.
31 State which preventative hygienic x x x x
measures, vaccinations, drugs and other
measures reduce the chances of
catching these diseases.
32 State the precautions which must be x x x x
taken to ensure that disease-carrying
insects are not transported between
areas.
040 02 03 04 Intoxication
Tobacco
01 State the harmful effects of tobacco on: x x x x
- the respiratory system;
- the cardiovascular system;
- the ability to resist hypoxia;
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- the ability to tolerate G forces;
- night vision.
Caffeine
02 Indicate the level of caffeine dosage at x x x x
which performance is degraded.
03 Besides coffee, indicate other beverages x x x x
containing caffeine.
Alcohol
04 State the maximum acceptable limit of x x x x
alcohol for flight crew according to the
applicable regulations.
05 State the effects of alcohol consumption x x x x
on:
the ability to reason;
- inhibitions and self-control;
- vision;
- the sense of balance and
sensory illusions;
- sleep patterns;
- hypoxia.
06 State the effects alcohol may have if x x x x
consumed together with other drugs.
07 List the signs and symptoms of x x x x
alcoholism.
08 List the factors which may be associated x x x x
with the development of alcoholism.
09 Define the ‘unit’ of alcohol and state the x x x x
approximate elimination rate from the
blood.
10 State the maximum daily and weekly x x x x
intake of units of alcohol which may be
consumed without causing damage to
organs and systems in the body.
11 Discuss the actions that might be taken if x x
a crew member is suspected of being an
alcoholic.
12 State the reasons why aviation x x
professions are particularly vulnerable to
the excessive use of alcohol.
Drugs and self-medication
13 State the dangers associated with the x x x x
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use of non-prescription drugs.
14 State the side effects of common non- x x x x
prescription drugs used to treat colds,
flu, hay fever and other allergies,
especially medicines containing
antihistamine preparations.
15 Interpret the rules relevant to using x x x x
(prescription or non-prescription) drugs
that the pilot has not used before.
16 Interpret the general rule that ‘if a pilot x x x x
is so unwell that they require any
medication, then they should consider
themselves unfit to fly’.
Toxic materials
17 List those materials present in an aircraft x x x x
which may, when uncontained, cause
severe health problems.
18 List those aircraft-component parts x x x x
which if burnt may give off toxic fumes.
040 02 03 05 Incapacitation in flight
01 State that incapacitation is most x x x x
dangerous when its onset is insidious.
02 List the major causes of in-flight x x x x
incapacitation.
03 State the importance of crew to be able x x
to recognise and promptly react upon
incapacitation of other crew members,
should it occur in flight.
04 Explain coping methods and procedures. x x x x
040 03 00 00 BASIC AVIATION PSYCHOLOGY
040 03 01 00 Human information processing
040 03 01 01 Attention and vigilance
01 Differentiate between ‘attention’ and x x x x
‘vigilance’.
02 Differentiate between ‘selected’ and x x x x
‘divided’ attention.
03 Define ‘hypovigilance’. x x x x
04 Identify the factors which may affect the x x x x
state of vigilance.
05 List the factors that may forestall x x x x
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hypovigilance during flight.
06 Indicate the signs of reduced vigilance. x x x x
07 Name the factors that affect a person’s x x x x
level of attention.
040 03 01 02 Perception
01 Name the basis of the perceptual x x x x
process.
02 Describe the mechanism of perception x x x x
(‘bottom-up’/‘top-down’ process).
03 Illustrate why perception is subjective x x x x
and state the relevant factors which
influence interpretation of perceived
information.
04 Describe some basic perceptual illusions. x x x x
05 Illustrate some basic perceptual x x x x
concepts.
06 Give examples where perception plays a x x x x
decisive role in flight safety.
07 Stress how persuasive and believable x x x x
mistaken perception can manifest itself
both on an individual and a group.
040 03 01 03 Memory
01 Explain the link between the types of x x x x
memory (to include sensory,
working/short-term and long-term
memories).
02 Describe the differences between the x x x x
types of memory in terms of capacity
and retention time.
03 Justify the importance of sensory- store x x x x
memories in processing information.
04 State the average maximum number of x x x x
separate items that may be held in
working memory.
05 Stress how interruption can affect short- x x x x

term/working memory.
06 Give examples of items that are x x x x
important for pilots to hold in working
memory during flight.
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07 Describe how the capacity of the x x x x
working-memory store may be
increased.
08 State the subdivisions of long-term x x x x
memory and give examples of their
content.
09 Explain that skills are kept primarily x x x x
in the long-term memory.
10 Explain amnesia and how it effects x x x x
memory.
11 Name the common problems with x x x x
both the long and short-term
memories and the best methods to try
to counteract them.
040 03 01 04 Response selection
Learning principles and techniques
01 Explain and distinguish between the x x x x
following basic forms of learning:
- classical and operant
conditioning (behaviouristic
approach);
- learning by insight (cognitive
approach);
- learning by imitating
(modelling).
02 Find pilot-related examples for each of x x x x
these learning forms.
03 State the factors which are necessary for x x x x
and promote the quality of learning.
04 - Explain ways to facilitate the x x x x
memorisation of information
with the following learning
techniques:
- mnemonics;
- mental training.
05 Describe the advantage of planning and x x x x
anticipation of future actions:
- define the term ‘skills’;
- state the three phases of
learning a skill (Anderson).
-
06 Explain the term ‘motor programme’ or x x x x
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‘mental schema’.
07 Describe the advantages and x x x x
disadvantages of mental schemata.
08 Explain the Rasmussen model which x x x x
describes the guidance of a pilot’s
behaviour in different situations.
09 State the possible problems or risks x x x x
associated with skill-based, rule-based
and knowledge-based behaviour.
10 Explain the following phases in x x x x
connection with the acquisition of
automated behaviour:
- cognitive phase;
- associative phase;
- automatic phase.
Motivation
11 Define ‘motivation’. x x x x
12 Explain the influences of different levels x x x x
of motivation on performance taking
into consideration task difficulty.
13 Explain the ‘Model of human needs’ x x x x
(Maslow) and relate this to aviation.
14 Explain the relationship between x x x x
motivation and learning.
15 Explain the problems of overmotivation, x x x x
especially in the context of extreme
need of achievement.
040 03 02 00 Human error and reliability
040 03 02 01 Reliability of human behaviour
01 Name and explain the factors which x x x x
influence human reliability.
040 03 02 02 Mental models and situation
awareness
01 Define the term ‘situation awareness’. x x x x
02 List the cues which indicate loss of x x x x
situation awareness and name the steps
to regain it.
03 List the factors which influence one’s x x x x
situation awareness both positively and
negatively and stress the importance of
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situation awareness in the context of
flight safety.
04 Define the term ‘mental model’ in x x x x
relation to a surrounding complex
situation.
05 Describe the advantages/ disadvantages x x x x
of mental models.
06 Explain the relationship between
personal ‘mental models’ and the
creation of cognitive illusions.
040 03 02 03 Theory and model of human error
01 Define the term ‘error’. x x x x
02 Explain the concept of the ‘error chain’. x x x x
03 Differentiate between an isolated error x x x x
and an error chain.
04 Distinguish between the main x x x x
forms/types of errors (i.e. slips, faults,
omissions and violations).
05 Discuss the above errors and their x x x x
relevance in flight.
06 Distinguish between an active and a x x x x
latent error and give examples.
040 03 02 04 Error generation
01 Define the term ‘error’. x x x x
02 Explain the concept of the ‘error chain’. x x x x
03 Differentiate between an isolated error x x x x
and an error chain.
04 Distinguish between the main x x x x
forms/types of errors (i.e. slips, faults,
omissions and violations).
05 Discuss the above errors and their x x x x
relevance in flight.
06 Distinguish between an active and a x x x x
latent error and give examples.
07 Define the term ‘error tolerance’. x x x x
08 List (and describe) strategies which are x x x x
used to reduce human error.
040 03 03 00 Decision-making
040 03 03 01 Decision-making concepts
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01 Define the terms ‘deciding’ and x x x x
‘decision-making’.
02 Describe the major factors on which x x x x
decision-making should be based during
the course of a flight.
03 Describe the main human attributes with x x x x
regard to decision-making.
04 Discuss the nature of bias and its x x x x
influence on the decision-making
process.
05 Describe the main error sources and x x x x
limits in an individual’s decision- making
mechanism.
06 State the factors upon which an x x x x
individual’s risk assessment is based.
07 Explain the relationship between risk x x x x
assessment, commitment and pressure
of time on decision-making strategies.
08 Explain the risks associated with x x x x
dispersion and/or channelised attention
during the application of procedures
requiring a high workload within a short
time frame (e.g. a go-around).
09 Describe the positive and negative x x x x
influences exerted by other group
members on an individual’s decision-
making process.
10 Explain the general idea behind the x x x x
creation of a model for decision-
making based upon:
- definition of the aim;
- collection of information;
- risk assessment;
- development of options;
- evaluation of options;
- decision;
- implementation;
- consequences;
- review and feedback.
040 03 04 00 Avoiding and managing errors: cockpit
management
040 03 04 01 Safety awareness
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01 Justify the need for being aware of x x x x
not only one’s own performance but
that of others before and during a flight
and the possible consequences
and/or risks.
02 Stress the overall importance of x x x x
constantly and positively striving to
monitor for errors and thereby
maintaining situation awareness.
Coordination
040 03 04 02 (multi-crew concepts)
01 Name the objectives of the multi- crew x x

concept.
02 State and explain the elements of multi- x x
crew concepts.
03 Explain the concept ‘Standard Operating x x
Procedures’ (SOPs).
04 Illustrate the purpose and procedure x x
of crew briefings.
05 Illustrate the purpose and procedure x x
of checklists.
06 Describe the function of communication x x
in a coordinated team.
040 03 04 03 Cooperation
01 Distinguish between cooperation and x x
coaction.
02 Define the term ‘group’. x x
03 Illustrate the influence of x x
interdependence in a group.
04 List the advantages and disadvantages of x x
team work.
05 Explain the term ‘synergy’. x x
06 Define the term ‘cohesion’. x x
07 Define the term ‘groupthink’. x x
08 State the essential condition for good x x
teamwork.
09 Explain the function of role and norm in x x
a group.
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10 Name the different role patterns which x x
occur in a group situation.
11 Explain how behaviour can be affected x x
by the following factors:
- persuasion;
- conformity;
- compliance;
- obedience.
12 Distinguish between status and role. x x
13 Stress the inherent dangers of a situation x x
where there is a mix of role and status
within the cockpit.
14 Explain the terms ‘leadership’ and x x
‘fellowship’.
15 Describe the trans-cockpit authority x x
gradient and its affiliated leadership
styles (i.e. autocratic, laissez-faire and
synergistic).
16 Name the most important attributes of a x x
positive leadership style.
040 03 04 04 Communication
01 Explain the function of ‘information’. x x x x
02 Define the term ‘communication’. x x x x
03 List the most basic components of x x x x
interpersonal communication.
04 Explain the advantages of two-way x x x x
communication as opposed to one- way
communication.
05 Explain Watzlawick’s statement ‘One x x x x
cannot not communicate’.
06 Distinguish between verbal and non- x x x x
verbal communication.
07 Name the functions of non-verbal x x x x
communication.
08 Describe the general aspects of non- x x x x
verbal communication.
09 Describe the advantages/ disadvantages x x x x
of implicit and explicit communication.
10 State the attributes and possible x x x x
problems of using ‘professional’
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language.
11 Name and explain the major obstacles to x x x x
effective communication.
12 Give examples of aircraft accidents x x x x
arising from poor communication.
13 Explain the difference between x x x x
intrapersonal and interpersonal conflict.
14 Describe the escalation process in x x x x
human conflict.
15 List the typical consequences of x x x x
conflicts between crew members.
16 Explain the following terms as part of x x x x
the communication practice with
regard to preventing or resolving
conflicts:
- inquiry;
- active listening;
- advocacy;
- feedback,
- metacommunication;
- negotiation.
040 03 05 00 Human behaviour
040 03 05 01 Personality, attitude and behaviour
01 Describe the factors which determine x x x x
an individual’s behaviour.
02 Define and distinguish between x x x x
‘personality’, ‘attitude’ and ‘behaviour’.
03 State the origin of personality and x x x x
attitudes.
04 State that with behaviours good and x x x x
bad habits can be formed.
05 Explain how behaviour is generally a x x x x
product of personality and attitude.
06 Discuss some effects that personality x x x x
and attitudes may have on flight crew
performance.
040 03 05 02 Individual differences in personality
and motivation
01 Describe the individual differences in x x x x
personality by means of a common trait
model (e.g. Eysenck’s personality
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factors) and use it to describe today’s
ideal pilot.
Self-concept
02 Define the term ‘self-concept’ and the x x x x
role it plays in any change of personality.
03 Explain how a self-concept of x x x x
underconfidence may lead to an
outward show of aggression and self-
assertiveness.
Self-discipline
04 Define ‘self-discipline’ and justify its x x x x
importance for flight safety.
040 03 05 03 Identification of hazardous attitudes
(error proneness)
01 Summarise examples of attitudes and x x
behaviour (including their signs) which, if
prevalent in a crew member, might
represent a hazard to flight safety.
02 Describe the personality attitude and x x
behaviour patterns of an ideal crew
member.
03 Summarise how a person’s attitude x x
influences their work in the cockpit.
040 03 06 00 Human overload and underload
040 03 06 01 Arousal
01 Explain the term ‘arousal’. x x x x
02 Describe the relationship between x x x x
arousal and performance.
03 Explain the circumstances under which x x x x
underload may occur and its possible
dangers.
040 03 06 02 Stress
01 Explain the term ‘homeostasis’. x x x x
02 Explain the term ‘stress’ and why stress x x x x
is a natural human reaction.
03 State that the physiological response to x x x x
stress is generated by the ‘fight or flight’
response.
04 Describe the function of the Autonomic x x x x
Nervous System (ANS) in stress
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response.
05 Explain the biological reaction to stress x x x x
by means of the ‘General Adaptation
Syndrome’ (GAS).
06 Explain the relationship between arousal x x x x
and stress.
07 State the relationship between stress x x x x
and performance.
08 State the basic categories of stressors. x x x x
09 List and discuss the major environmental x x x x
sources of stress in the cockpit.
10 Discuss the concept of ‘break point’ with x x x x
regard to stress, overload and
performance.
11 Name the principal causes of domestic x x x x
stress.
12 State that the stress experienced as a x x x x
result of particular demands varies
between individuals.
13 Explain the factors which lead to x x x x
differences in the levels of stress
experienced by individuals.
14 List the factors influencing the tolerance x x x x
of stressors.
15 Explain a simple model of stress. x x x x
16 Explain the relationship between stress x x x x
and anxiety.
17 Describe the effects of anxiety on human x x x x

performance.
18 State the general effect of acute stress x x x x
on the human system.
19 Name the three phases of GAS. x x x x
20 Name the symptoms of stress relating to x x x x
the different phases of GAS.
stress, arousal and vigilance.
22 State the general effect of chronic stress x x x x
on the human system.
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23 Explain the differences between x x x x
psychological, psychosomatic and
somatic stress reactions.
24 Name the typical common physiological x x x x
and psychological symptoms of human
overload.
25 Describe the effects of stress on human x x x x
behaviour.
26 Explain how stress is cumulative and x x x x
how stress from one situation can be
transferred to a different situation.
27 Explain how successful completion of a x x x x
stressful task will reduce the amount of
stress experienced when a similar
situation arises in the future.
28 Describe the effect of human x x x x
underload/overload on effectiveness in
the cockpit.
29 List sources and symptoms of human x x x x
underload.
040 03 06 03 Intentionally left blank
040 03 06 05 Fatigue and stress management
01 Explain the term ‘fatigue’ and x x x x
differentiate between the two types
of fatigue.
02 Name the causes for both types. x x x x
03 Identify the symptoms and describe x x x x
the effects of fatigue.
04 List the strategies which prevent or x x x x
delay the onset of fatigue and
hypovigilance.
05 List and describe coping strategies for x x x x

dealing with stress factors and stress
reactions.
06 Distinguish between short-term and x x x x
long-term methods of stress
management.
07 Give examples of short-term methods x x x x
of stress management.
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08 Give examples of long-term methods x x x x
of coping with stress.
040 03 07 00 Advanced cockpit automation
040 03 07 01 Advantages and disadvantages
01 Define and explain the basic concept x x x x
of automation.
02 List the advantages/disadvantages of x x x x
automation in the cockpit in respect of
level of vigilance, attention, workload,
situation awareness and crew
coordination.
03 State the advantages and disadvantages x x x x
of the two components of the man–
machine system with regard to
information input and processing,
decision-making and output activities.
04 Explain the ‘ironies of automation’. x x x x
05 Give examples of methods to overcome x x x x
the disadvantages of automation.
040 03 07 02 Automation complacency
01 State the main weaknesses in the x x x x
monitoring of automatic systems.
02 Explain the following terms in x x x x
connection with automatic systems:
- passive monitoring;
- blinkered concentration;
- confusion;
- mode awareness.
03 Give examples of actions which may be x x x x
taken to counteract ineffective
monitoring of automatic systems.
04 Define ‘complacency’. x x x x
040 03 07 03 Working concepts
01 Analyse the influence of automation on x x
crew communication and describe the
potential disadvantages.
02 Summarise how the negative effects of x x x x

automation on pilots may be alleviated.
03 Interpret the role of automation with x x x x
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respect to flight safety.
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I. SUBJECT 050 – METEOROLOGY
I. SUBJECT 050 - METEOROLOGY
The operation of an aircraft is affected by the weather conditions within the atmosphere. The pilot must prove
that they fulfil the following objectives in order to complete a safe flight in given meteorological conditions.
(1) Training aims
(i) Knowledge. After completion of the training, the pilot must be able to:
— understand the physical processes in the atmosphere;
— interpret the actual and forecast weather conditions in the atmosphere;
— show understanding of the meteorological hazards and their effects on an aircraft.
(ii) Skills. After completion of the training, the pilot must be able to:
— collect all the weather information which may affect a given flight;
— analyse and evaluate available weather information before flight as well as that collected in
flight;
— apply a solution to any problems presented by weather conditions.

Learning Objectives
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050 00 00 00 METEOROLOGY
050 01 00 00 THE ATMOSPHERE
050 01 01 00 Composition, extent, vertical division
050 01 01 01 Structure of the atmosphere
01 Describe the vertical division of the x x x x
atmosphere, based on the temperature
variations with height.
02 List the different layers and their main x x x x
qualitative characteristics.
050 01 01 02 Troposphere
01 Describe the troposphere. x x x x
02 Describe the main characteristics of the x x x x
tropopause.
03 Describe the proportions of the most x x x x
important gases in the air in the troposphere.
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04 Describe the variations of the flight level and x x x x
temperature of the tropopause from the poles
to the equator.
05 Describe the breaks in the tropopause along x x x x
the boundaries of the main air masses.
06 Indicate the variations of the flight level of the x x
tropopause with the seasons and the variations
of atmospheric pressure.
050 01 01 03 Stratosphere
01 Describe the stratosphere. x x

02 Describe the main differences of the x x
composition of the air in the stratosphere
compared to the troposphere.
03 Describe the vertical extent of the x x
stratosphere up to the stratopause.
04 Describe the reason for the temperature x x
increase in the ozone layer.
050 01 02 00 Air temperature
050 01 02 01 Definition and units
01 Define ‘air temperature’. x x x x
02 List the units of measurement of air x x x x

temperature used in aviation meteorology
(Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin).
(Refer to 050 10 01 01)
050 01 02 02 Vertical distribution of temperature
01 Describe the mean vertical distribution of x x x x

temperature up to 20 km.
02 Mention the general causes of the x x x x

cooling of the air in the troposphere with
increasing altitude.
03 Calculate the temperature and temperature x x x x
deviations at specified levels.
050 01 02 03 Transfer of heat
01 Explain how local cooling or warming x x x x
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processes result in transfer of heat.
02 Describe radiation. x x x x
03 Describe solar radiation reaching the Earth. x x x x
04 Describe the filtering effect of the x x x x
atmosphere on solar radiation.
05 Describe terrestrial radiation. x x x x
06 Explain how terrestrial radiation is absorbed x x x x
by some components of the atmosphere.
07 Explain the greenhouse effect due to x x x x
water vapour and some other gases in the
atmosphere.
08 Explain the effect of absorption and radiation x x x x
in connection with clouds.
09 Explain the process of conduction. x x x x
10 Explain the role of conduction in the x x x x
cooling and warming of the atmosphere.
11 Explain the process of convection. x x x x
12 Name the situations in which convection x x x x
occurs.
13 Explain the process of advection. x x x x
14 Name the situations in which advection occurs. x x x x
15 Describe the transfer of heat by turbulence. x x x x
16 Describe the transfer of latent heat. x x x x
050 01 02 04 Lapse rates
01 Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the x x x x
temperature lapse rates of the troposphere
(mean value 0.65 °C/100 m or 2 °C/1 000 ft and
actual values).
050 01 02 05 Development of inversions, types of
inversions
01 Describe the development and types of x x x x
inversions.
02 Explain the characteristics of inversions and of x x x x
an isothermal layer.
03 Explain the reasons for the formation of the
following inversions:
– ground inversion (nocturnal x x x x
radiation/advection), subsidence
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inversion, frontal inversion, inversion
above friction layer, valley inversion,
tropopause inversion.
050 01 02 06 Temperature near the Earth’s surface,
surface effects, diurnal and seasonal
variation, effect of clouds, effect of wind
01 Describe how the temperature near the Earth’s x x x x
surface is influenced by seasonal variations.
02 Explain the cooling and warming of the air on x x x x
the Earth or Sea surfaces.
03 Sketch the diurnal variation of the temperature x x x x
of the air in relation to the radiation of the un
and of the Earth.
04 Describe qualitatively the influence of the x x x x
clouds on the cooling and warming of the
surface and the air near the surface.
05 Distinguish between the influence of low or x x x x
high clouds and thick or thin clouds.
06 Explain the influence of the wind on the x x x x
cooling and warming of the air near the
surfaces.
050 01 03 00 Atmospheric pressure
050 01 03 01 Barometric pressure, isobars
01 Define ‘atmospheric pressure’. x x x x
02 List the units of measurement of the x x x x
atmospheric pressure used in aviation (hPa,
inches).
(Refer to 050 10 01 01)
03 Describe the principle of the barometers x x x x
(mercury barometer, aneroid barometer).
04 Describe isobars on surface weather charts. x x x x
05 Define ‘high’, ‘low’, ‘trough’, ‘ridge’, x x x x
‘wedge’, ‘col’.
050 01 03 02 Pressure variation with height, contours
(isohypses)
01 Explain the pressure variation with height. x x x x
02 Describe qualitatively the variation of the x x x x
barometric lapse rate.
Note: The average value for the barometric
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lapse rate near mean sea level is 27 ft (8
m) per 1 hPa, at about 5 500 m/AMSL is 50
ft (15 m) per 1 hPa.
03 Describe and interpret contour lines x x x x
(isohypses) on a constant pressure chart.
(Refer to 050 10 02 03)
050 01 03 03 Reduction of pressure to mean sea level,
QFF
01 Define ‘QFF’. x x x x
02 Explain the reduction of measured pressure to x x x x
mean sea level, QFF.
03 Mention the use of QFF for surface weather x x x x
charts.
050 01 03 04 Relationship between surface pressure
centres and pressure centres aloft
01 Illustrate with a vertical cross section of x x x x
isobaric surfaces the relationship between
surface pressure systems and upper-air
pressure systems.
050 01 04 00 Air density
050 01 04 01 Relationship between pressure, temperature
and density
01 Describe the relationship between pressure, x x x x
temperature and density.
02 Describe the vertical variation of the air x x x x
density in the atmosphere.
03 Describe the effect of humidity changes on x x x x
the density of air.
050 01 05 00 ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
050 01 05 01 ICAO Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
01 Explain the use of standardised values for x x x x
the atmosphere.
02 List the main values of the ISA (mean sea- x x x x
level pressure, mean sea-level temperature,
the vertical temperature lapse rate up to 20
km, height and temperature of the
tropopause).
03 Calculate the standard temperature in x x x x
Celsius for a given flight level.
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04 Determine a standard temperature deviation x x x x
by the difference between the given outside-
air temperature and the standard
temperature.
050 01 06 00 Altimetry
050 01 06 01 Terminology and definitions
01 Define the following terms and explain how x x x x
they are related to each other: height,
altitude, pressure altitude, flight level, level,
true altitude, true height, elevation, QNH,
QFE, and standard altimeter setting.
02 Describe the terms ‘transition altitude’, x x x x
‘transition level’, ‘transition layer’, ‘terrain
clearance’, ‘lowest usable flight level’.
050 01 06 02 Altimeter settings
01 Name the altimeter settings associated to x x x x
height, altitude, pressure altitude and flight
level.
02 Describe the altimeter-setting procedures. x x x x
050 01 06 03 Calculations
01 Calculate the different readings on the x x x x
altimeter when the pilot changes the
altimeter setting.
02 Illustrate with a numbered example the x x x x
changes of altimeter setting and the associated
changes in reading when the pilot climbs
through the transition altitude or descends
through the transition level.
03 Derive the reading of the altimeter of an x x x x
aircraft on the ground when the pilot uses the
different settings.
04 Explain the influence of the air temperature on x x x x
the distance between the ground and the level
read on the altimeter and between two flight
levels.
05 Explain the influence of pressure areas on true x x x x
altitude.
06 Determine the true altitude/height for a given x x x x
altitude/height and a given ISA temperature
deviation.
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07 Calculate the terrain clearance and the lowest x x x x
usable flight level for given atmospheric
temperature and pressure conditions.
Note: The following rules shall be considered
for altimetry calculations:
a) All calculations are based on rounded
pressure values to the nearest lower
hPa;
b) The value for the barometric lapse
rate near mean sea level is 27 ft (8
m) per 1 hPa, unless otherwise stated;
c) To determine the true
altitude/height, the following rule of
thumb, called the ‘4 %-rule’, shall be
used: the altitude/height changes by
4 % for each 10 °C temperature
deviation from ISA;
d) If no further information is given, the
deviation of outside-air temperature
from ISA is considered to be
constantly the same given value in
the whole layer;
e) The elevation of the airport has to be
taken into account. The temperature
correction has to be considered for
the layer between ground and the
position of the aircraft.
050 01 06 04 Effect of accelerated airflow due to
topography
01 Describe qualitatively how the effect of x x x x
accelerated airflow due to topography
(Bernoulli effect) affects altimetry.
050 02 00 00 WIND
050 02 01 00 Definition and measurement of wind
050 02 01 01 Definition and measurement
01 Define ‘wind’. x x x x
02 State the units of wind direction and x x x x
speed (kt, m/s, km/h).
(Refer to 050 10 01 01)
03 Explain how wind is measured in meteorology. x x x x
050 02 02 00 Primary cause of wind
050 02 02 01 Primary cause of wind, pressure gradient,
Coriolis force, gradient wind
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01 Define the term ‘horizontal pressure gradient’. x x x x
02 Explain how the pressure gradient force acts x x x x
in relation to the pressure gradient.
03 Explain how the Coriolis force acts in x x x x
relation to the wind.
04 Explain the development of the geostrophic x x x x
wind.
05 Indicate how the geostrophic wind flows in x x x x
relation to the isobars/isohypses in the
northern and in the southern hemisphere.
06 Analyse the effect of changing latitude on x x
the geostrophic-wind speed.
07 Explain the gradient wind effect and indicate x x x x
how the gradient wind differs from the
geostrophic wind in cyclonic and
anticyclonic circulation.
050 02 02 02 Variation of wind in the friction layer
01 Describe why and how the wind changes x x x x
direction and speed with height in the
friction layer in the northern and in the
southern hemisphere (rule of thumb).
02 State the surface and air-mass conditions x x x x
that influence the wind in the friction layer
(diurnal variation).
03 Name the factors that influence the vertical x x x x
extent of the friction layer.
04 Explain the relationship between isobars and x x x x
wind (direction and speed).
Note: Approximate value for variation of
wind in the friction layer (values to be used
in examinations):
Type of Wind speed in The
landscape friction layer in % wind in
of the the
geostrophic wind friction
layer
blows
across
the
isobars
towards
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the low
pressure
. Angle
between
wind
direction
and
isobars.
over water ca 70 % ca 10°
over land ca 50 % ca 30°
WMO-NO. 266
050 02 02 03 Effects of convergence and divergence
01 Describe atmospheric convergence and x x x x
divergence.
02 Explain the effect of convergence and x x x x
divergence on the following: pressure
systems at the surface and aloft; wind
speed; vertical motion and cloud formation
(relationship between upper- air conditions
and surface pressure systems).
050 02 03 00 General global circulation
050 02 03 01 General circulation around the globe
01 Describe and explain the general global x x x x
circulation.
(Refer to 050 08 01 01)
02 Explain the effect of convergence and x x x x
divergence on the following: pressure
systems at the surface and aloft; wind
speed; vertical motion and cloud formation
(relationship between upper- air conditions
and surface pressure systems).
050 02 03 00 General global circulation
050 02 03 01 General circulation around the globe
01 Describe and explain the general global x x x x
circulation.
(Refer to 050 08 01 01)
02 Name and sketch or indicate on a map the x x
global distribution of the surface pressure and
the resulting wind pattern for all latitudes at
low level in January and July.
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03 Sketch or indicate on a map the westerly and x x
easterly tropospheric winds at high level in
January and July.
050 02 04 00 Local winds
050 02 04 01 Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain
and valley winds, Venturi effects, land and
sea breezes
01 Describe and explain anabatic and katabatic x x x x
winds.
02 Describe and explain mountain and valley x x x x
winds.
03 Describe and explain the Venturi effect, x x x x
convergence in valleys and mountain areas.
04 Describe and explain land and sea breezes, sea- x x x x
breeze front.
050 02 05 00 Mountain waves (standing waves, lee
waves)
050 02 05 01 Origin and characteristics
01 Describe and explain the origin and formation x x x x
of mountain waves.
02 State the conditions necessary for the x x x x
formation of mountain waves.
03 Describe the structure and properties of x x x x
mountain waves.
04 Explain how mountain waves may be x x x x
identified by their associated meteorological
phenomena.
050 02 06 00 Turbulence
050 02 06 01 Description and types of turbulence
01 Describe turbulence and gustiness. x x x x
02 List the common types of turbulence x x x x
(convective, mechanical, orographic, frontal,
clear-air turbulence).
050 02 06 02 Formation and location of turbulence
01 Explain the formation of convective x x x x
turbulence, mechanical and orographic
turbulence, frontal turbulence, clear-air
turbulence.
(Refer to 050 02 06 03)
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02 State where turbulence will normally be x x x x
found (rough-ground surfaces, relief,
inversion layers, CB, TS zones, unstable
layers).
050 02 06 03 Clear-Air Turbulence (CAT): Description,
cause and location
01 Describe the term CAT. x x x x
02 Explain the formation of CAT. x x x x
(Refer to 050 02 06 02)
03 State where CAT is found in association with x x
jet streams, in high-level troughs and in
other disturbed high-level air flows.
(Refer to 050 09 02 02)
050 02 07 00 Jet streams
050 02 07 01 Description
01 Describe jet streams. x x x x
02 State the defined minimum speed of a jet x x x x
stream.
03 State the typical figures for the dimensions of x x x x
jet streams.
050 02 07 02 Formation and properties of jet streams
01 Explain the formation and state the heights, x x
the speeds, the seasonal variations of
speeds, the geographical positions, the
seasonal occurrence and the seasonal
movements of the arctic (front) jet stream,
the polar front jet stream, the subtropical
jet stream, and the tropical
(easterly/equatorial) jet stream.
050 02 07 03 Location of jet streams and associated CAT
areas
01 Sketch or describe where polar front and x x
arctic jet streams are found in the
troposphere in relation to the tropopause
and to fronts.
02 Sketch or describe the isotherms, the x x
isotachs, the pressure surfaces and the
movements of air in a cross section of a
polar front jet stream.
03 Describe and indicate the areas of worst wind x x
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shear and CAT.
050 02 07 04 Jet stream recognition
01 State how jet streams may be recognised x x
from their associated meteorological
phenomena.
050 03 00 00 THERMODYNAMICS
050 03 01 00 Humidity
050 03 01 01 Water vapour in the atmosphere
01 Describe humid air. x x x x
02 Describe the significance for meteorology of x x x x
water vapour in the atmosphere.
03 Indicate the sources of atmospheric humidity. x x x x
050 03 01 02 Mixing ratio
01 Define ‘mixing ratio’ and ‘saturation mixing x x x x
ratio’.
02 Name the unit used in meteorology to x x x x
express the mixing ratio (g/kg).
03 Explain the factors influencing the mixing x x x x
ratio.
04 Recognise the lines of equal mixing ratio on a x x x x
simplified diagram (T, P).
05 Define ‘saturation of air by water vapour’. x x x x
06 Illustrate with a diagram (T, mixing ratio) the x x x x
influence of the temperature on the
saturation mixing ratio, at constant pressure.
07 Explain the influence of the pressure on the x x x x
saturation mixing ratio.
Note: A simplified diagram (T,P) contains:
on the x-axis: temperature (T);
on the y-axis: height corresponding to pressure
(P).
The degree of saturation/mixing ratio and
stability/instability are shown as functions of
temperature change with height (as lines or
curves in the diagram).
050 03 01 03 Temperature/dew point, relative humidity
01 Define ‘dew point’. x x x x
02 Recognise the dew-point curve on a simplified x x x x
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diagram (T, P).
03 Define ‘relative humidity’. x x x x
04 Explain the factors influencing the relative x x x x
humidity at constant pressure.
05 Explain the diurnal variation of the relative x x x x
humidity.
06 Describe the relationship between relative x x x x
humidity, the amount of water vapour and the
temperature.
temperature and dew point.
08 Estimate the relative humidity of the air from x x x x
the difference between dew point and
temperature.
050 03 02 00 Change of state of aggregation
050 03 02 01 Condensation, evaporation, sublimation,
freezing and melting, latent heat
01 Define ‘condensation’, ‘evaporation’, x x x x
‘sublimation’, ‘freezing and melting’ and
‘latent heat’.
02 List the conditions for condensation/ x x x x
evaporation.
03 Explain the condensation process. x x x x
04 Explain the nature of and the need for x x x x
condensation nuclei.
05 Explain the effects of condensation on the x x x x
weather.
06 List the conditions for freezing/ melting. x x x x
07 Explain the process of freezing. x x x x
freezing nuclei.
09 Define ‘supercooled water’. x x x x
(Refer to 050 09 01 01)
10 List the conditions for sublimation. x x x x
11 Explain the sublimation process. x x x x
sublimation nuclei.
13 Describe the absorption or release of x x x x
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latent heat in each change of state of
aggregation.
14 Explain the influence of atmospheric x x x x
pressure, the temperature of the air and of
the water or ice on the changes of state of
aggregation.
15 Illustrate all the changes of state of x x x x
aggregation with practical examples.
050 03 03 00 Adiabatic processes
050 03 03 01 Adiabatic processes, stability of the
atmosphere
01 Describe the adiabatic processes. x x x x
02 Describe the adiabatic process in an x x x x
unsaturated rising or descending air particle.
03 Explain the variation of temperature with x x x x
changing altitude.
04 Explain the changes which take place in x x x x
mixing ratio with changing altitude.
05 Explain the changes which take place in relative x x x x
humidity with changing altitude.
06 Use the dry-adiabatic and mixing-ratio lines on x x x x
a simplified diagram (T, P) for a climbing or
descending air particle.
07 Describe the adiabatic process in a saturated x x x x
rising or descending air particle.
08 Explain the variation of temperature with x x x x
changing altitude.
09 Explain the difference in temperature lapse x x x x
rate between saturated and unsaturated air.
10 Explain the influence of different air x x x x
temperatures on the temperature lapse rate in
saturated air.
11 Use the saturated adiabatic lines on a x x x x
simplified diagram (T, P) for a climbing or
descending air particle.
12 Find the condensation level, or base of the x x x x
clouds, on a simplified diagram (T, P).
13 Explain the static stability of the atmosphere x x x x
with reference to the adiabatic lapse rates.
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14 Define qualitatively and quantitatively the x x x x
terms ‘stability’, ‘conditional instability’,
‘instability’ and ‘indifferent (neutral)’.
15 Explain with a sketch on a simplified diagram x x x x
(T, P) the different possibilities of atmospheric
stability: absolute stability, absolute instability,
conditional instability and indifferent (neutral).
16 Illustrate with a sketch of the adiabatic lapse x x x x
rates and the vertical temperature profile of
the atmosphere the effect of an inversion on
the vertical motion of air.
17 Illustrate with a schematic sketch of the x x x x
saturated adiabatic lapse rate and the vertical
temperature profile the instability inside a
cumuliform cloud.
18 Illustrate with a schematic sketch the x x x x
formation of the subsidence inversion.
19 Illustrate with a schematic sketch the x x x x
formation of Foehn.
20 Explain the effect on the stability of the air x x x x
caused by advection of air (warm or cold).
Note: Dry adiabatic lapse rate = 1 °C/100 m or
3 °C/1 000 ft; average value at lower levels for
saturated adiabatic lapse rate = 0.6 °C/100 m
or 1.8 °C/1 000 ft (values to be used in
examinations).
050 04 00 00 CLOUDS AND FOG
050 04 01 00 Cloud formation and description

050 04 01 01 Cloud formation
01 Explain cloud formation by adiabatic cooling, x x x x
conduction, advection and radiation.
02 Describe cloud formation based on the x x x x
following lifting processes: unorganised lifting
in thin layers and turbulent mixing; forced
lifting at fronts or over mountains; free
convection.
03 Determine cloud base and top in a simplified x x x x
diagram (temperature, pressure, humidity).
04 Explain the influence of relative humidity on x x x x
the height of the cloud base.
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05 Illustrate in a thermodynamic diagram the x x x x
meaning of convective temperature
(temperature at which formation of cumulus
starts).
06 List cloud types typical for stable and unstable x x x x
air conditions.
07 Summarise the conditions for the dissipation of x x x x
clouds.
050 04 01 02 Cloud types and cloud classification
01 Describe cloud types and cloud classification. x x x x
02 Identify by shape cirriform, cumuliform and x x x x
stratiform clouds.
03 Identify by shape and typical level the 10 x x x x
cloud types (genera).
04 Describe and identify by shape the x x x x
following species and supplementary
feature: castellanus, lenticularis, fractus,
humilis, mediocris, congestus, calvus,
capillatus and virga.
05 Distinguish between low, medium and
high-level clouds according to the WMO
‘cloud etage’ (including heights):
– for mid latitudes. x x x x
06 Distinguish between low, medium and high- x x
level clouds according to the WMO ‘cloud
etage’ (including heights):
for all latitudes.
07 Distinguish between ice clouds, mixed x x x x
clouds and pure-water clouds.
050 04 01 03 Influence of inversions on cloud
development
01 Explain the influence of inversions on x x x x
vertical movements in the atmosphere.
02 Explain the influence of an inversion on the x x x x
formation of stratus clouds.
03 Explain the influence of ground inversion on x x x x
the formation of fog.
04 Determine on a simplified diagram the top x x x x
of a cumulus cloud caused by an
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inversion.
05 Describe the role of the tropopause x x
inversion with regard to the formation of
clouds.
050 04 01 04 Flying conditions in each cloud type
01 Assess the 10 cloud types for icing and x x x x
turbulence.
050 04 02 00 Fog, mist, haze
050 04 02 01 General aspects
01 Define ‘fog’, ‘mist’ and ‘haze’ with x x x x
reference to the WMO standards of visibility
range.
02 Explain the formation of fog, mist and haze x x x x
in general.
03 Name the factors contributing in general x x x x
to the formation of fog and mist.
04 Name the factors contributing to the x x x x
formation of haze.
05 Describe freezing fog and ice fog. x x x x
050 04 02 02 Radiation fog
01 Explain the formation of radiation fog. x x x x
02 Explain the conditions for the development of x x x x
radiation fog.
03 Describe the significant characteristics of x x x x
radiation fog, and its vertical extent.
04 Summarise the conditions for the dissipation x x x x
of radiation fog.
050 04 02 03 Advection fog
01 Explain the formation of advection fog. x x x x
advection fog.
03 Describe the different possibilities of x x x x
advection-fog formation (over land, sea and
coastal regions).
advection fog.
05 Summarise the conditions for the dissipation x x x x
of advection fog.
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050 04 02 04 Steam fog
01 Explain the formation of steam fog. x x x x
steam fog.
steam fog.
steam fog.
050 04 02 05 Frontal fog
01 Explain the formation of frontal fog. x x x x
frontal fog.
frontal fog.
frontal fog.
050 04 02 06 Orographic fog (hill fog)
01 Summarise the features of orographic fog. x x x x
orographic fog.
orographic fog.
orographic fog.
050 05 00 00 PRECIPITATION
050 05 01 00 Development of precipitation
050 05 01 01 Process of development of precipitation
01 Distinguish between the two following x x x x
processes by which precipitation is
formed.
02 Summarise the outlines of the ice- crystal x x x x
process (Wegener-Bergeron-Findeisen).
03 Summarise the outlines of the coalescence x x x x
process.
04 Describe the atmospheric conditions that x x x x
favor either process.
05 Explain the development of snow, rain, x x x x
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drizzle and hail.
050 05 02 00 Types of precipitation
050 05 02 01 Types of precipitation, relationship with
cloud types
01 List and describe the types of precipitation x x x x
given in the TAF and METAR codes
(drizzle, rain, snow, snow grains, ice pellets,
hail, small hail, snow pellets, ice crystals,
freezing drizzle, freezing rain).
02 State the ICAO/WMO approximate x x x x
diameters for cloud, drizzle and raindrops.
03 State the approximate weights and diameters x x x x
for hailstones.
04 Explain the mechanism for the formation of x x x x
freezing precipitation.
05 Describe the weather conditions that give rise x x x x
to freezing precipitation.
06 Distinguish between the types of x x x x
precipitation generated in convective and
stratiform cloud.
07 Assign typical precipitation types and x x x x
intensities to different clouds.
050 06 00 00 AIR MASSES AND FRONTS
050 06 01 00 Air masses
050 06 01 01 Description, classification and source regions
of air masses
01 Define the term ‘air mass’. x x x x
02 Describe the properties of the source regions. x x x x
03 Summarise the classification of air masses by x x x x
source regions.
04 State the classifications of air masses by x x x x
temperature and humidity at source.
05 State the characteristic weather in each of the x x x x
air masses.
06 Name the three main air masses that affect x x x x
Europe.
07 Classify air masses on a surface weather chart. x x x x
Note: Names and abbreviations of air masses
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used in examinations:
– first letter: humidity
– continental (c);
– maritime (m);
– second letter: type of air mass
– Artic (A);
– Polar (P);
– Tropical (T);
– Equatorial (E);
– third letter: temperature
– cold (c);
– warm (w)
050 06 01 02 Modifications of air masses
01 List the environmental factors that affect x x x x
the final properties of an air mass.
02 Explain how maritime and continental tracks x x x x
modify air masses.
03 Explain the effect of passage over cold or warm x x x x
surfaces.
04 Explain how air-mass weather is affected by x x x x
the season, the air-mass track and by
orographic and thermal effects over land.
05 Assess the tendencies of the stability for an air x x x x
mass and describe the typical resulting air-
mass weather including the hazards for
aviation.
050 06 02 00 Fronts
050 06 02 01 General aspects
01 Describe the boundaries between air masses x x x x
(fronts).
02 Define ‘front and frontal surface (frontal x x x x
zone)’.
03 Name the global frontal systems (polar front, x x x x
arctic front).
04 State the approximate seasonal latitudes and x x x x
geographic positions of the polar front and the
arctic front.
050 06 02 02 Warm front, associated clouds and
weather
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01 Define a ‘warm front’. x x x x
02 Describe the cloud, weather, ground visibility x x x x
and aviation hazards at a warm front
depending on the stability of the warm air.
03 Explain the seasonal differences in the weather x x x x
at warm fronts.
04 Describe the structure, slope and dimensions x x x x
of a warm front.
05 Sketch a cross section of a warm front x x x x
showing weather, cloud and aviation hazards.
050 06 02 03 Cold front, associated clouds and weather
01 Define a ‘cold front’. x x x x
and aviation hazards at a cold front depending
on the stability of the warm air.
at cold fronts.
04 Describe the structure, slope and dimensions x x x x
of a cold front.
05 Sketch a cross section of a cold front showing x x x x
weather, cloud and aviation hazards.
050 06 02 04 Warm sector, associated clouds and
weather
01 Define ‘fronts and air masses associated with x x x x
the warm sector’.
and aviation hazards in a warm sector.
in the warm sector.
04 Sketch a cross section of a warm sector x x x x
showing weather, cloud and aviation hazards.
050 06 02 05 Weather behind the cold front
and aviation hazards behind the cold front.
behind the cold front.
050 06 02 06 Occlusions, associated clouds and weather
01 Define the term ‘occlusion’. x x x x
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02 Define a ‘cold occlusion’. x x x x
03 Define a ‘warm occlusion’. x x x x
and aviation hazards in a cold occlusion.
and aviation hazards in a warm occlusion.
at occlusions.
07 Sketch a cross section of cold and warm x x x x
occlusions showing weather, cloud and
aviation hazards.
08 On a sketch illustrate the development of an x x x x
occlusion and the movement of the occlusion
point.
050 06 02 07 Stationary front, associated clouds and
weather
01 Define a ‘stationary or quasi-stationary front’. x x x x
and aviation hazards in a stationary or quasi-
stationary front.
050 06 02 08 Movement of fronts and pressure systems,
life cycle
01 Describe the movements of fronts and x x x x
pressure systems and the life cycle of a mid-
latitude depression.
02 State the rules for predicting the direction and x x x x
the speed of movement of fronts.
03 Explain the difference between the speed of x x x x
movement of cold and warm fronts.
04 State the rules for predicting the direction and x x x x
the speed of movement of frontal depressions.
05 Describe, with a sketch if required, the genesis, x x x x
development and life cycle of a frontal
depression with associated cloud and rain
belts.
050 06 02 09 Changes of meteorological elements at a
frontal wave
01 Sketch a plan and a cross section of a frontal x x x x
wave (warm front, warm sector and cold front)
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and illustrate the changes of pressure,
temperature, surface wind and wind in the
vertical axis.
050 07 00 00 PRESSURE SYSTEMS
050 07 01 00 The principal pressure areas
050 07 01 01 Location of the principal pressure areas
01 Identify or indicate on a map the principal x x
global high-pressure and low- pressure areas in
January and July.
02 Explain how these pressure areas are formed. x x
03 Explain how the pressure areas move with the x x
seasons.
050 07 02 00 Anticyclone
050 07 02 01 Anticyclones, types, general properties,
cold and warm anticyclones, ridges and
wedges, subsidence
01 List the different types of anticyclones. x x x x
02 Describe the effect of high-level x x x x
convergence in producing areas of high
pressure at ground level.
03 Describe air-mass subsidence, its effect on x x x x
the environmental lapse rate, and the
associated weather.
04 Describe the formation of warm and cold x x x x
anticyclones.
05 Describe the formation of ridges and x x x x
wedges.
(Refer to 050 08 03 02)
06 Describe the properties of and the x x x x
weather associated with warm and cold
anticyclones.
07 Describe the properties of and the x x x x
weather associated with ridges and
wedges.
08 Describe the blocking anticyclone and its x x x x
effects.
050 07 03 00 Non-frontal depressions
050 07 03 01 Thermal, orographic, polar and secondary
depressions; troughs
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01 Describe the effect of high-level divergence x x x x
in producing areas of low pressure at
ground level.
02 Describe the formation and properties of x x x x
thermal, orographic (lee lows), polar and
secondary depressions.
03 Describe the formation, the properties and x x x x
the associated weather of troughs.
050 07 04 00 Tropical revolving storms
050 07 04 01 Characteristics of tropical revolving storms
01 State the conditions necessary for the x x
formation of tropical revolving storms.
02 Explain how a tropical revolving storm x x
moves during its life cycle.
03 Name the stages of the development of x x
tropical revolving storms (tropical
disturbance, tropical depression, tropical
storm, severe tropical storm, tropical
revolving storm).
04 Describe the meteorological conditions in x x
and near a tropical revolving storm.
05 State the approximate dimensions of a x x
tropical revolving storm.
050 07 04 02 Origin and local names, location and period
of occurrence
01 List the areas of origin and occurrence of x x
tropical revolving storms, and their
specified names (hurricane, typhoon, tropical
cyclone).
02 State the expected times of occurrence of x x
tropical revolving storms in each of the
source areas, and their approximate
frequency.
050 08 00 00 CLIMATOLOGY
050 08 01 00 Climatic zones
050 08 01 01 General circulation in the troposphere and
lower stratosphere
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01 Describe the general tropospheric and low x x
stratospheric circulation.
(Refer to 050 02 03 01)
050 08 01 02 Climatic classification
01 Name the world climate groups x x
according to Koeppen’s classification.
02 Describe the characteristics of the tropical rain x x
climate, the dry climate, the mid-latitude
climate (warm temperate rain climate), the
subarctic climate (cold snow-forest climate)
and the snow climate (polar climate).
03 Explain how the seasonal movement of the sun x x
generates the transitional climate zones.
04 Describe the typical weather in the tropical x x
transitional climate (savannah climate) and in
the temperate transitional climate
(Mediterranean climate).
05 State the typical locations of each major x x
climatic zone.
050 08 02 00 Tropical climatology
050 08 02 01 Cause and development of tropical
showers and thunderstorms: humidity,
temperature, tropopause
01 State the conditions necessary for the x x
formation of tropical rain showers and
thunderstorms (mesoscale convective
complex, cloud clusters).
02 Describe the characteristics of tropical squall x x
lines.
03 Explain the formation of convective cloud x x
structures caused by convergence at the
boundary of the NE and SE trade winds
(Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)).
04 State the typical figures for tropical surface air x x
temperatures and humidities, and heights of
the zero- degree isotherm.
050 08 02 02 Seasonal variations of weather and wind,
typical synoptic situations
01 Describe the seasonal variations of weather x x
and winds and describe the typical synoptic
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situations.
02 Indicate on a map the trade winds (tropical x x
easterlies) and describe the associated
weather.
03 Indicate on a map the doldrums and x x
describe the associated weather.
04 Indicate on a sketch the latitudes of x x
subtropical high (horse latitudes) and
describe the associated weather.
05 Indicate on a map the major monsoon x x
winds.
(Refer to 050 08 02 04 for a description of the
weather)
050 08 02 03 Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ),
weather in the ITCZ, general seasonal
movement
01 Identify or indicate on a map the positions x x
of the ITCZ in January and July.
02 Explain the seasonal movement of the ITCZ. x x
03 Describe the weather and winds at the ITCZ. x x
04 Explain the variations in weather that are x x
found at the ITCZ.
05 Explain the flight hazards associated with the x x
ITCZ.
050 08 02 04 Monsoon, sandstorms, cold-air outbreaks
01 Define in general the term ‘monsoon’. x x
02 Describe the major monsoon conditions. x x
(Refer to 050 08 02 02)
03 Explain how trade winds change character x x
after a long track and become monsoon winds.
04 Explain the formation of the SW/NE monsoon x x
over West Africa and describe the weather,
stressing the seasonal differences.
05 Explain the formation of the SW/NE monsoon x x
over India and describe the weather, stressing
the seasonal differences.
06 Explain the formation of the monsoon over the x x
Far East and northern Australia and describe
the weather, stressing the seasonal
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differences.
07 Describe the formation and properties of x x
sandstorms.
08 Indicate when and where outbreaks of cold x x
polar air can enter subtropical weather
systems.
09 Name well-known examples of polar-air x x
outbreaks (Blizzard, Pampero).
050 08 02 05 Easterly waves
01 Describe and explain the formation of easterly x x
waves, the associated weather and the
duration of the weather activity.
02 Describe and explain the global distribution of x x
easterly waves.
03 Explain the effect of easterly waves on tropical x x
weather systems.
050 08 03 00 Typical weather situations in the mid-
latitudes
050 08 03 01 Westerly situation (westerlies)
01 Identify on a weather chart the typical x x x x
westerly situation with travelling polar front
waves.
02 Describe the typical weather in the region x x x x
of the travelling polar front waves
including the seasonal variations.
03 State the differences between the northern x x
and the southern hemisphere (roaring
forties).
050 08 03 02 High-pressure area
01 Describe the high-pressure zones with the x x x x
associated weather.
02 Identify on a weather chart the high- x x x x
pressure regions.
03 Describe the weather associated with x x x x
wedges in the polar air.
(Refer to 050 07 02 01)
050 08 03 03 Flat-pressure pattern
01 Identify on a surface weather chart the x x x x
typical flat-pressure pattern.
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02 Describe the weather associated with a flat- x x x x
pressure pattern.
050 08 03 04 Cold-air pool (cold-air drop)
01 Define ‘cold-air pool’. x x x x
02 Describe the formation of a cold-air pool. x x x x
03 Describe the characteristics of a cold- air x x x x
pool with regard to dimensions, duration of
life, geographical position, seasons,
movements, weather activities and dissipation.
04 Identify cold-air pools on weather charts. x x x x
05 Explain the problems and dangers of cold- x x x x
air pools for aviation.
050 08 04 00 Local winds and associated weather
050 08 04 01 Foehn, Mistral, Bora, Scirocco, Ghibli and
Khamsin
01 Describe the classical mechanism for the x x x x
development of Foehn winds (including
Chinook).
02 Describe the weather associated with Foehn x x x x
winds.
03 Describe the formation of, the characteristics x x x x
of, and the weather associated with the
Mistral, the Bora, the Scirocco, the Ghibli and
the Khamsin.
050 08 04 02 Harmattan
01 Describe the Harmattan wind and the x x
associated visibility problems.
050 09 00 00 FLIGHT HAZARDS
050 09 01 00 Icing
050 09 01 01 Conditions for ice accretion
01 Summarise the general conditions under which x x x x
ice accretion occurs on aircraft (temperatures
of outside air; temperature of the airframe;
presence of supercooled water in clouds, fog,
rain and drizzle; possibility of sublimation).
02 Indicate the general weather conditions under x x x x
which ice accretion in Venturi carburettor
occurs.
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03 Explain the general weather conditions under x x x x
which ice accretion on airframe occurs.
04 Explain the formation of supercooled water in x x x x
clouds, rain and drizzle.
(Refer to 050 03 02 01)
05 Explain qualitatively the relationship x x x x
between the air temperature and the
amount of supercooled water.
06 Explain qualitatively the relationship x x x x
between the type of cloud and the size and
number of the droplets in cumuliform and
stratiform clouds.
07 Indicate in which circumstances ice can form x x x x
on an aircraft on the ground: air
temperature, humidity, precipitation.
08 Explain in which circumstances ice can form x x x x
on an aircraft in flight: inside clouds, in
precipitation, outside clouds and
precipitation.
09 Describe the different factors influencing the x x x x
intensity of icing: air temperature, amount of
supercooled water in a cloud or in
precipitation, amount of ice crystals in the
air, speed of the aircraft, shape (thickness) of
the airframe parts (wings, antennas, etc.).
10 Explain the effects of topography on icing. x x x x
11 Explain the higher concentration of water x x x x
drops in stratiform orographic clouds.
050 09 01 02 Types of ice accretion
01 Define ‘clear ice’. x x x x
02 Describe the conditions for the formation of x x x x
clear ice.
03 Explain the formation of the structure of clear x x x x
ice with the release of latent heat during the
freezing process.
04 Describe the aspect of clear ice: appearance, x x x x
weight, solidity.
05 Define ‘rime ice’. x x x x
rime ice.
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07 Describe the aspects of rime ice: appearance, x x x x
weight, solidity.
08 Define ‘mixed ice’. x x x x
mixed ice.
10 Describe the aspects of mixed ice: appearance, x x x x
weight, solidity.
11 Describe the possible process of ice formation x x x x
in snow conditions.
12 Define ‘hoar frost’. x x x x
hoar frost.
14 Describe the aspects of hoar frost: appearance, x x x x
solidity.
050 09 01 03 Hazards of ice accretion, avoidance
01 State the ICAO qualifying terms for the x x x x
intensity of icing.
(See ICAO ATM Doc 4444)
02 Describe, in general, the hazards of icing. x x x x
03 Assess the dangers of the different types of ice x x x x
accretion.
04 Describe the position of the dangerous x x x x
zones of icing in fronts, in stratiform and
cumuliform clouds, and in the different
precipitation types.
05 Indicate the possibilities of avoidance: x x x x
– in the flight planning: weather
briefing, choice of track and altitude;
– during flight: recognition of the
dangerous zones, choice of
appropriate track and altitude.
050 09 02 00 Turbulence
050 09 02 01 Effects on flight, avoidance
01 State the ICAO qualifying terms for the x x x x
intensity of turbulence.
(See ICAO ATM Doc 4444)
02 Describe the effects of turbulence on an x x x x
aircraft in flight.
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– during flight: choice of appropriate
track and altitude.
050 09 02 02 Clear-Air Turbulence (CAT): effects on
flight, avoidance
01 Describe the effects on flight caused by CAT. x x
(Refer to 050 02 06 03)
02 Indicate the possibilities of avoidance: x x
– during flight: choice of appropriate
track and altitude.
050 09 03 00 Wind shear
050 09 03 01 Definition of wind shear
01 Define ‘wind shear’ (vertical and horizontal). x x x x
02 Define ‘low-level wind shear’. x x x x
050 09 03 02 Weather conditions for wind shear
01 Describe the conditions, where and how x x x x
wind shear can form (e.g. thunderstorms,
squall lines, fronts, inversions, land and sea
breeze, friction layer, relief).
050 09 03 03 Effects on flight, avoidance
01 Describe the effects on flight caused by wind x x x x
shear.
– in the flight planning;
– during flight.
050 09 04 00 Thunderstorms
050 09 04 01 Conditions for and process of
development, forecast, location, type
specification
01 Name the cloud types which indicate the x x x x
development of thunderstorms.
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02 Describe the different types of x x x x
thunderstorms, their location, the
conditions for and the process of
development, and list their properties (air
mass thunderstorms, frontal thunderstorms,
squall lines, supercell storms, orographic
thunderstorms).
050 09 04 02 Structure of thunderstorms, life history
01 Describe and sketch the stages of the life x x x x
history of a thunderstorm: initial, mature
and dissipating stage.
02 Assess the average duration of x x x x
thunderstorms and their different stages.
03 Describe supercell storm: initial, supercell, x x x x
tornado and dissipating stage.
04 Summarise the flight hazards of a fully x x x x
developed thunderstorm.
05 Indicate on a sketch the most dangerous zones x x x x
in and around a thunderstorm.
050 09 04 03 Electrical discharges
01 Describe the basic outline of the electric field in x x x x
the atmosphere.
02 Describe the electrical potential differences in x x x x
and around a thunderstorm.
03 Describe and assess the ‘St. Elmo’s fire’ x x x x
weather phenomenon.
04 Describe the development of lightning x x x x
discharges.
05 Describe the effect of lightning strike on x x x x
aircraft and flight execution.
050 09 04 04 Development and effects of downbursts
01 Define the term ‘downburst’. x x x x
02 Distinguish between macroburst and x x x x
microburst.
03 State the weather situations leading to the x x x x
formation of downbursts.
04 Describe the process of development of a x x x x
downburst.
05 Give the typical duration of a downburst. x x x x
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06 Describe the effects of downbursts. x x x x
050 09 04 05 Thunderstorm avoidance
01 Explain how the pilot can anticipate each type x x x x
of thunderstorms: pre-flight weather briefing,
observation in flight, use of specific
meteorological information, use of information
given by ground weather radar and by airborne
weather radar (Refer to 050 10 01 04), use of
the stormscope (lightning detector).
02 Describe practical examples of flight x x x x
techniques used to avoid the hazards of
thunderstorms.
050 09 05 00 Tornadoes
050 09 05 01 Properties and occurrence
01 Define the ‘tornado’. x x x x
02 Describe the formation of a tornado. x x
03 Describe the typical features of a tornado such x x
as appearance, season, time of day, stage of
development, speed of movement and wind
speed (including Fujita scale).
04 Compare the occurrence of tornadoes in x x
Europe with the occurrence in other locations,
especially in the United States of America.
05 Compare the dimensions and properties of x x
tornadoes and dust devils.
050 09 06 00 Inversions
050 09 06 01 Influence on aircraft performance
01 Explain the influence of inversions on the x x x x
aircraft performance.
02 Compare the flight hazards during take-off x x x x
and approach associated to a strong
inversion alone and to a strong inversion
combined with marked wind shear.
050 09 07 00 Stratospheric conditions
050 09 07 01 Influence on aircraft performance
01 Summarise the advantages of stratospheric x x
flights.
02 List the influences of the phenomena x x
associated with the lower stratosphere (wind,
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temperature, air density, turbulence).
050 09 08 00 Hazards in mountainous areas
050 09 08 01 Influence of terrain on clouds and
precipitation, frontal passage
01 Describe the influence of a mountainous x x x x
terrain on cloud and precipitation.
02 Describe the effects of the Foehn. x x x x
03 Describe the influence of a mountainous area x x x x
on a frontal passage.
050 09 08 02 Vertical movements, mountain waves,
wind shear, turbulence, ice accretion
01 Describe the vertical movements, wind shear x x x x
and turbulence typical of mountain areas.
02 Indicate in a sketch of a chain of mountains the x x x x
turbulent zones (mountain waves, rotors).
03 Explain the influence of relief on ice accretion. x x x x
050 09 08 03 Development and effect of valley inversions
01 Describe the formation of valley inversion due x x x x
to katabatic winds.
02 Describe the valley inversion formed by warm x x x x
winds aloft.
03 Describe the effects of a valley inversion for x x x x
an aircraft in flight.
050 09 09 00 Visibility-reducing phenomena
050 09 09 01 Reduction of visibility caused by
precipitation and obscurations
01 Describe the reduction of visibility caused by x x x x
precipitation: drizzle, rain, snow.
02 Describe the reduction of visibility caused by x x x x
obscurations:
– fog, mist, haze, smoke, volcanic ash.
03 Describe the reduction of visibility caused by x x
obscurations:
– sand (SA), dust (DU).
04 Describe the differences between ground x x x x
visibility, flight visibility, slant visibility and
vertical visibility when an aircraft is above
or within a layer of haze or fog.
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050 09 09 02 Reduction of visibility caused by other
phenomena
01 Describe the reduction of visibility caused by: x x x x
– low drifting and blowing snow.
02 Describe the reduction of visibility caused by: x x
– low drifting and blowing dust and
sand.
03 Describe the reduction of visibility caused by: x x
– dust storm (DS) and sandstorm (SS).
– icing (windshield).
– the position of the sun relative to the
visual direction.
– the reflection of sun’s rays from the
top of the layers of haze, fog and
clouds.
050 10 00 00 METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
050 10 01 00 Observation
050 10 01 01 Surface observations
01 Define ‘surface wind’. x x x x
02 Describe the meteorological measurement of x x x x
surface wind.
03 List the ICAO units for the wind direction x x x x
and speed used in METARs (kt, m/s, km/h).
(Refer to 050 02 01 01)
04 Define ‘gusts’, as given in METARs. x x x x
05 Distinguish wind given in METARs and wind x x x x
given by the control tower for take-off and
landing.
06 Define ‘visibility’. x x x x
visibility.
08 Define ‘prevailing visibility’. x x x x
09 Define ‘ground visibility’. x x x x
10 List the units used for visibility (m, km). x x x x
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11 Define ‘runway visual range’. x x x x
runway visual range.
13 Indicate where the transmissometers/ x x x x
forward-scatter meters are placed on the
airport.
14 List the units used for runway visual x x x x
range (m).
15 List the different possibilities to transmit x x x x
information to pilots about runway visual
range.
16 Compare visibility and runway visual range. x x x x
17 Indicate the means of observation of x x x x
present weather.
18 Indicate the means of observing clouds: x x x x
type, amount, height of base (ceilometers)
and top.
19 List the clouds considered in meteorological x x x x
reports, and how they are indicated in
METARs (TCU, CB).
20 Define ‘oktas’. x x x x
21 Define ‘cloud base’. x x x x
22 Define ‘ceiling’. x x x x
23 Name the unit and the reference level used x x x x
for information about cloud base (ft).
24 Define ‘vertical visibility’. x x x x
25 Explain briefly how and when vertical x x x x
visibility is measured.
26 Name the unit used for vertical visibility (ft). x x x x
27 Indicate the means of observation of air x x x x
temperature (thermometer).
28 List the units used for air temperature x x x x
(Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin).
(Refer to 050 01 02 01)
relative humidity (hygrometer and
psychrometer) and dew-point temperature
(calculation).
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30 Name the units of relative humidity (%) and x x x x
dew-point temperature (Celsius, Fahrenheit).

atmospheric pressure (mercury and aneroid
barometer).
32 List the units of atmospheric pressure (hPa, x x x x
inches).
(Refer to 050 01 03 01)
050 10 01 02 Radiosonde observations
01 Describe the principle of radiosondes. x x x x
02 Describe and interpret the sounding by x x x x
radiosonde given on a simplified T-P diagram.
050 10 01 03 Satellite observations
01 Describe the basic outlines of satellite x x x x
observations.
02 Name the main uses of satellite pictures in x x x x
aviation meteorology.
03 Describe the different types of satellite x x x x
imagery.
04 Interpret qualitatively the satellite pictures
in order to get useful information for the
flights:
– location of clouds (distinguish x x x x
between stratiform and cumuliform
clouds).
05 Interpret qualitatively the satellite pictures in x x x x
order to get useful information for the flights:
location of fronts.
06 Interpret qualitatively the satellite pictures in x x
order to get useful information for the flights:
– location of jet streams.
050 10 01 04 Weather-radar observations
(Refer to 050 09 04 05)
01 Describe the basic principle and the type of x x x x
information given by a ground weather
radar.
02 Interpret ground weather radar images. x x x x
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03 Describe the basic principle and the type of x x x x
information given by airborne weather
radar.
04 Describe the limits and the errors of x x x x
airborne weather radar information.
05 Interpret typical airborne weather radar x x x x
images.
050 10 01 05 Aircraft observations and reporting
01 Describe routine air report and special air x x x x
report.
02 State the obligation of a pilot to prepare air x x x x
reports.
03 Name the weather phenomena to be stated x x x x
in a special air report.
050 10 02 00 Weather charts
050 10 02 01 Significant weather charts
01 Decode and interpret significant weather x x x x
charts (low, medium and high level).
02 Describe from a significant weather chart x x x x
the flight conditions at designated locations
and/or along a defined flight route at a
given flight level.
050 10 02 02 Surface charts
01 Recognise the following weather systems on x x x x
a surface weather chart (analysed and
forecast): ridges, cols and troughs; fronts;
frontal side, warm sector and rear side of
mid-latitude frontal lows; high and low-
pressure areas.
02 Determine from surface weather charts the x x x x
wind direction and speed.
050 10 02 03 Upper-air charts
01 Define ‘constant-pressure chart’. x x x x
02 Define ‘isohypse (contour line)’. x x x x
(Refer to 050 01 03 02)
03 Define ‘isotherm’. x x x x
04 Define ‘isotach’. x x x x
05 Describe forecast upper-wind and x x x x
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temperature charts.
06 For designated locations and/or routes x x x x
determine from forecast upper-wind and
temperature charts, if necessary, by
interpolation, the spot/average values for
outside-air temperature, temperature
deviation from ISA, wind direction and wind
speed.
07 Name the most common flight levels x x x x
corresponding to the constant pressure
charts.
050 10 03 00 Information for flight planning
050 10 03 01 Aviation weather messages
01 Describe, decode and interpret the x x x x
following aviation weather messages (given
in written and/or graphical format): METAR,
SPECI, TREND, TAF,
SIGMET, AIRMET, GAMET, special air report,
volcanic ash advisory information.
02 Describe, decode and interpret the tropical x x
cyclone advisory information in written and
graphical form.
03 Describe the general meaning of MET REPORT x x x x
and SPECIAL REPORT.
04 List, in general, the cases when a SIGMET and x x x x
an AIRMET are issued.
05 Describe, decode (by using a code table) and x x x x
interpret the following messages: Runway
State Message (as written in a METAR), GAFOR.
Note: For Runway State Message and
GAFOR, refer to the Air Navigation Plan
European Region Doc 7754.
050 10 03 02 Meteorological broadcasts for aviation
01 Describe the meteorological content of
broadcasts for aviation:
– VOLMET, ATIS; x x x x
HF-VOLMET. x x
050 10 03 03 Use of meteorological documents
01 Describe meteorological briefing and advice. x x x x
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02 List the information that a flight crew can x x x x
receive from meteorological services for pre-
flight planning and apply the content of this
information on a designated flight route.
03 List the meteorological information that a flight x x x x
crew can receive from flight information
services during flight and apply the content of
this information for the continuation of the
flight.
050 10 03 04 Meteorological warnings
01 Describe and interpret aerodrome warnings x x x x
and wind-shear warnings and alerts.
050 10 04 00 Meteorological services
050 10 04 01 World area forecast system and
meteorological offices
01 Name the main objectives of the world area x x x x
forecast system:
– world area forecast centres (upper-air
forecasts).
forecast system:
– meteorological offices (aerodrome
forecasts, briefing documents).
forecast system:
– meteorological watch offices (SIGMET,
AIRMET).
forecast system:
– aeronautical meteorological stations
(METAR, MET reports).
forecast system:
– volcanic ash advisory centres.
06 Name the main objectives of the world area x x
forecast system:
– tropical cyclone advisory centres.
050 10 04 02 International organizations
01 Describe briefly the following organizations x x x x
and their chief activities:
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– International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) (Refer to subject
010);
– World Meteorological Organization
(WMO).
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J. SUBJECT 061 – GENERAL NAVIGATION
J. SUBJECT 061 - GENERAL NAVIGATION
For the purposes of theoretical-knowledge examinations, orthomorphic and conformal charts are taken as being the
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060 00 00 00 NAVIGATION
061 00 00 00 GENERAL NAVIGATION
061 01 00 00 BASICS OF NAVIGATION
061 01 01 00 The solar system
061 01 01 01 Earth’s orbit, seasons and apparent
movement of the sun
01 State that the solar system consists of x x x x
the Sun, a number of planets of which
the Earth is one, and a large number
of asteroids and comets.
02 State that Kepler’s First Law explains that x x x x
the planets revolve in elliptical orbits
with the Sun at one focus. Each planet
has its orbital period.
03 State that Kepler’s Second Law explains x x x x
the variation of the speed of a planet in
its orbit. Each planet revolves so that its
radius vector sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals of time.
04 State that the highest speed of the x x x x
Earth in its orbit is when the Earth is
closest to the Sun (perihelion).
05 State that the lowest speed of the Earth in x x x x
its orbit is when the Earth is furthest
away from the Sun (aphelion).
06 Explain in which direction the Earth x x x x
rotates on its axis.
07 Explain that the axis of rotation of the Earth x x x x
is inclined to its orbital path around the Sun
at an angle of about 66,5 degrees.
08 Define the term ‘ecliptic’ and ‘plane of the x x x x
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ecliptic’. Ecliptic is the apparent path of the
Sun around the Earth. The plane of the
ecliptic is inclined to the plane of the
equator at an angle of approximately 23,5
degrees. The inclination of the polar axis to
the plane of the ecliptic is the reason for the
seasons.
09 Explain that the Earth completes one x x x x
orbit around the Sun in approximately
365,25 days.
10 Describe the effect of the inclination of the x x x x
Earth’s rotation axis to the plane of its orbit
around the Sun being the seasons and
variation of sunrise and sunset with latitude
and time of the year.
11 Define the terms ‘apparent Sun’ and ‘mean x x x x
Sun’ and state their relationship.
12 Define the ‘celestial equator’. It is the x x x x
projection of the Earth’s equator onto the
celestial sphere.
13 Define the term ‘declination’. Declination is x x x x
the angular distance of a celestial body
north or south of the celestial equator.
14 State that the mean Sun is conceived to x x x x
move eastward along the celestial equator
at a rate that provides a uniform measure of
time equal to the average time reckoned
from the true Sun.
15 Define the ‘polar circles’, the ‘Tropic of x x x x
Cancer’ and the ‘Tropic of Capricorn’.
16 Explain summer and winter solstices. x x x x
17 Explain the terms ‘spring equinox’ and x x x x
‘autumn equinox.’
18 Explain at which time of the year the x x x x
duration of daylight changes at the highest
rate.
19 Explain the relationship between the x x x x
declination of the Sun, latitude and the
period of daylight.
20 State that the perihelion occurs early x x x x
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January and aphelion occurs early July.
21 Illustrate the position of the Earth relative to x x x x
the Sun with respect to the seasons and
months of the year.
22 Define ‘zenith.’ The point on the sky x x x x
vertically overhead an observer.
061 01 02 00 The Earth
061 01 02 01 Great circle, small circle, rhumb line
01 State that the Earth is not a true sphere. It is x x x x
flattened slightly at the poles. The value for
flattening is 1/298.
02 Given the Earth flattening and either the x x x x
semimajor or semiminor axis in NM/km,
calculate the distance of the other axis.
03 State that the Earth may be described as an x x x x
‘ellipsoid’ or ‘oblate spheroid’.
04 Explain that the Equator has its plane x x x x
perpendicular to the Earth’s axis and divides
the Earth into the northern and southern
hemisphere.
05 Given that the circumference of the Earth is x x x x
40 000 km or approximately 21 600 NM,
calculate the approximate Earth diameter or
Earth radius.
06 Define a ‘great circle’ in relation to the x x x x
surface of a sphere.
07 Describe the ‘geometric properties’ of a x x x x
great circle, including vertex.
08 Define a ‘small circle’ in relation to the x x x x
surface of a sphere.
09 Define a ‘rhumb line.’ A line which cuts all x x x x
meridians at the same angle.
061 01 02 02 Convergency, conversion angle
01 Explain the term ‘convergency of meridians’ x x x x
between two positions.
02 Explain how the value of convergency can x x x x
be determined using calculation.
03 The formula to calculate convergency x x x x
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between two positions relatively close to
each other is:
convergency = difference of longitude
× sin (mean latitude).
04 Calculate the value of convergency x x x x
between two stated positions.
05 Explain that the difference between x x x x
great-circle track and rhumb-line track at
a specified position is called conversion
angle.
06 State that over short distances and out-of- x x x x
polar regions the average great-circle true
track is approximately equal to the rhumb-
line true track between two positions.
07 Explain how the value of conversion angle x x x x
can be calculated as half the value of
convergency.
08 Calculate the great circle track and rhumb x x x x
line track angle at a specified position
involving calculations of convergency and
conversion angle.
061 01 02 03 Latitude, difference of latitude
01 Define ‘geographic latitude’ as the angle x x x x
between the plane of the equator and the
local plumb line on the ellipsoid.
02 Define ‘geocentric latitude’ as the angle x x x x
between the plane of the equator and a line
from the position to the centre of the Earth.
03 State that the maximum difference between x x x x
geographic and geocentric latitude occurs at
a latitude of 45 degrees.
04 Describe a parallel of latitude as a small x x x x
circle connecting all positions on the Earth
with the same latitude.
05 Calculate the difference of latitude between x x x x
two given lat/long positions.
06 State that 1-degree difference of latitude x x x x
equals 60 nautical miles.
07 Convert the difference of latitude between x x x x
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two positions to distance.
08 Calculate the mean latitude between two x x x x
positions.
061 01 02 04 Longitude, difference of longitude
01 Describe a meridian as a semigreat circle, x x x x
which runs north and south from pole to
pole.
02 Explain that a meridian and its anti-meridian x x x x
complete a great circle.
03 State that the Greenwich meridian is also x x x x
known as the prime meridian.
04 Define ‘longitude’ as the angle measured at x x x x
the polar axis between the plane of the
prime meridian and the local meridian.
05 Explain that the Greenwich anti- meridian is x x x x
the maximum longitude possible, namely
180° east–west.
06 Calculate the difference of longitude x x x x
between two given lat/long positions.
07 Name examples of great circles on the x x x x
surface of the Earth.
08 Name examples of small circles on the x x x x
surface of the Earth.
09 Define a ‘rhumb line’. A line intersecting all x x x x
meridians at the same angle.
10 Explain the geometrical properties of a x x x x
rhumb line. Parallels and meridians are
special cases of rhumb lines.
061 01 02 05 Use of latitude and longitude
coordinates to locate any specific
position
01 Explain that along the equator a x x x x
difference of longitude of 1° equals a
distance of 60 NM.
02 Explain that because the meridians x x x x
converge towards the poles, the distance
between meridians will decrease with
increase in latitude.
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03 State that t h e Earth distance along a x x x x
parallel of latitude is also known as
‘ departure.’
04 Calculate the Earth distance between two x x x x
meridians along a parallel of latitude
(departure) using the following formula:
distance = difference of longitude × 60 ×
cosine latitude.
05 Given a lat/long position, distances x x x x
travelled north–south in NM/km a n d
distances travelled east–west in NM/km
along a parallel of latitude, calculate the
new position.
06 Given two positions on same meridian x x x x
(or one on the anti- meridian), calculate
the distance between them.
061 01 03 00 Time and time conversions
061 01 03 01 Apparent time
01 Explain the principles of zone time. x x x x
02 Explain that, because the Earth rotates x x x x
on its axis from west to east, celestial
bodies appear to revolve around the Earth
from east to west.
03 Define and explain the term ‘transit’. x x x x
Explain that transit means that a celestial
body crosses the observer’s meridian.
04 Explain that the time period of a ‘day’ is x x x x
the elapsed time between two
successive transits of a heavenly body.
05 Explain that the term ‘sidereal day’ is the x x x x
time between two consecutive transits of
the First Point of Aries.
06 State that if a day was measured by the x x x x
apparent passage of the Sun, the length of a
day would vary.
07 Explain the reasons for the variation in the x x x x
length of an apparent day, being a
combination of the variation in the Earth’s
orbital speed around the Sun and the
inclination of the Earth’s rotation axis to the
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plane of the ecliptic.
08 Explain that, since both the direction of x x x x
rotation of the Earth around its axis and its
orbital rotation around the Sun are the
same, the Earth must rotate through more
than 360° to produce successive transits.
09 State that the period between two x x x x
successive transits of the Sun is called an
‘apparent solar day,’ and that the time
based on this is called ‘apparent time.’
10 State that in order to have a constant x x x x
measurement of time which would still has
the solar day as a basis, the average length
of an apparent solar day is taken. This
average day is called ‘mean solar day.’ It is
divided into 24 hours of ‘mean time.’
11 State that the mean Sun is a fictitious Sun x x x x
orbiting along the plane of the equator at a
constant angular velocity that provides a
uniform measure of time.
12 State that the time between two successive x x x x
transits of the mean Sun over a meridian is
constant.
13 Explain that the difference between x x x x
apparent time and mean time is
defined as the ‘equation of time’.
14 State that the time of one orbital x x x x
revolution of the Earth around the Sun is
approximately 365 ¼ calendar days (or 1
year)
15 State that the calendar year is 365 days x x x x
and every 4th year a leap year with
366 days, and 3 leap years are
suppressed every 4 centuries.
16 State that time can also be measured in x x x x
arc since, in one day of mean solar time,
the mean Sun is imagined to travel in
a complete circle round the Earth, a
motion of 360° in 24 hours.
17 Illustrate the relationship between time x x x x
and arc along the equator.
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18 Deduce conversion values for arc to x x x x
time and visa versa.
061 01 03 02 Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
01 State that the Greenwich meridian is x x x x
selected as the standard meridian, and that
Local mean time (LMT) at the Greenwich
meridian is equal to Greenwich mean time
(GMT).
02 State that UTC is based on atomic time x x x x
and GMT on the Earth’s rotation, but in
practice they are considered as the same.
03 State that the conversion factor between x x x x
LMT and UTC is arc (change of longitude)
converted to time.
04 Convert arc to time. x x x x
05 Convert time to arc. x x x x
06 Convert between UTC and LMT. x x x x
061 01 03 03 Local Mean Time (LMT)
01 State that the beginning of the local mean x x x x
day at any location is when the mean Sun is
in transit with the anti- meridian. This is
known as midnight or 0000 hours LMT.
02 State that when the mean Sun is in transit x x x x
with the location’s meridian, it is noon or
1200 hours LMT.
03 State that the LMT at locations at different x x x x
longitudes varies by an amount
corresponding to the change in longitude.
061 01 03 04 Standard time (ST)
01 State that standard time is the time used by x x x x
a particular country (or part of a country)
determined by the government of that
particular country.
02 State that some countries use summertime x x x x
(daylight saving time).
03 State that conversion from UTC to standard x x x x
time and vice versa is usually done using
extracts from the Air Almanac published in
appropriate documents.
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04 Given appropriate documents, convert from x x x x
UTC to ST of a specific country, and from ST
of a specific country to UTC.
061 01 03 05 Dateline
01 Explain the effect on the LMT when x x x x
approaching the 180° meridian line from
either side.
02 State that the dateline does not follow x x x x
exactly the 180° east–west meridian.
03 Explain that when crossing the anti - x x x x
meridian of Greenwich, one day is lost or
gained depending on the direction of travel.
04 State that the dateline is the actual place x x x x
where the change is made and, although
mainly at the 180° meridian, there are some
slight divergences in order to avoid
countries being divided by the dateline.
05 State that when calculating times, the x x x x
dateline is automatically taken into account
by doing all conversions via UTC.
06 Calculate conversions of LMT and GMT/UTC x x x x
and ST for cases involving the dateline.
061 01 03 06 Determination of sunrise (SR), sunset
(SS) and civil twilight
01 State that SR or SS is when the Sun’s upper x x x x
edge is at the observer’s horizon. State how
atmospheric refraction affects this apparent
sighting.
02 Explain that, for a given day, SR and SS occur x x x x
at different times on the same meridian,
depending on the latitude.
03 Explain that SR will occur earlier, and SS x x x x
will occur later, with an increase in
altitude.
04 State that the times for SR and SS x x x x
given in the Air Almanac are calculated for
the Greenwich meridian.
05 Explain that at the spring and autumn x x x x
equinoxes, SR and SS occur approximately
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at the same time at all latitudes.
06 State that, except in high latitudes, the x x x x
times of SR and SS at any place change
only a little each day. So, for all places
of the same latitude, SR or SS will occur
at approximately the same LMT.
07 State that the reason for the variation x x x x
of the duration of daylight and night
throughout the year is the inclination of
the Earth’s rotation axis to the ecliptic.
08 State that SR and SS times are x x x x
tabulated against specified dates and
latitudes.
09 State that at the equator SR is close to x x x x
0600 LMT and SS close to 1800 LMT
(within 15 minutes).
10 Calculate examples of SR and SS at x x x x
mean sea level in LMT, ST or UTC,
given SR and SS tables, latitude and
longitude of the place in question, and the
date.
11 Given SR or SS time in UTC or ST for a x x x x
given position, calculate SR or SS for
another position on the same latitude in
UTC or ST.
12 Explain the meaning of the term x x x x
‘twilight’.
13 Define the ‘duration of evening civil x x x x
twilight’. The time from sunset to the
time when the centre of the Sun is 6°
below the horizon.
14 Define the ‘duration of morning civil x x x x
twilight’. The time from the point when the
centre of the Sun is 6° below the horizon to
the time of sunrise.
15 State that the beginning of morning civil x x x x
twilight and the end of evening civil twilight
have been tabulated in UTC, valid for the
prime meridian, with latitude and date as
the entering arguments. It may be taken to
be LMT for any other meridian.
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16 Calculate examples of twilight in UTC and ST x x x x
given a twilight table, latitude and longitude
of the place in question and the date.
17 Determine the duration of morning and x x x x
evening civil twilight.
18 Explain the effect of declination and latitude x x x x
on the duration of twilight.
061 01 04 00 Directions
061 01 04 01 True north (TN)
01 State that all meridians run in north– south x x x x
direction, and that the true- north direction
is along any meridian towards the
geographic north pole.
02 State that true directions are measured x x x x
clockwise as an angle in degrees from true
north (TN).
061 01 04 02 Terrestrial magnetism: magnetic north,
inclination and variation
01 State that a freely suspended compass x x x x
needle will turn to the direction of the local
magnetic field. The direction of the
horizontal component of this field is the
direction of magnetic north (MN).
02 State that the magnetic poles do not x x x x
coincide with the geographic poles.
03 State that magnetic variation varies as a x x x x
function of time due to the movement of
the northern magnetic pole.
04 Define ‘magnetic dip’ or ‘inclination’. The x x x x
angle between the horizontal and the total
component of the Earth’s magnetic field.
05 State that the angle of inclination at the x x x x
magnetic poles is 90°.
06 Explain that the accuracy of the compass x x x x
depends on the strength of the horizontal
component of the Earth’s magnetic field.
07 State that, in the polar areas, the horizontal x x x x
component of the Earth’s magnetic field is
too weak to permit the use of a magnetic
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compass.
061 01 04 03 Compass deviation, compass north
01 State that, in a direct-reading compass, the x x x x
magnetic element will align along a
magnetic field. This direction is called
compass north (CN) and is the direction 000°
on the compass rose. The field is the
resultant of the Earth’s magnetic field and
the magnetic field of the aircraft.
02 State that the effect of an aircraft’s x x x x
magnetism on its compass changes with
different headings, as well as with different
latitudes.
03 State that the angle between magnetic x x x x
north and compass north is called
deviation (DEV) and is given in degrees
east (+ or E) or west (– or W) of the
magnetic north.
04 State that deviation is kept to a minimum x x x x
by compass swinging.
061 01 04 04 Isogonals, relationship between true and
magnetic north
01 State that the angle between the true x x x x
north and magnetic north is called
variation (VAR) being measured in
degrees east (+ or E) or west (– or W) of
the true north.
02 Define an ‘isogonal line’. A line joining x x x x
positions of equal variation.
03 Convert between compass, magnetic and x x x x
true directions.
061 01 04 05 Intentionally Blank
061 01 05 00 Distance
061 01 05 01 Units of distance and height used in
navigation: nautical miles, statute miles,
kilometres, metres, feet
01 Define the ‘nautical mile’ (NM). A x x x x
distance being equal to 1.852 km.
02 On map/charts, distance between two x x x x
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positions is measured along a meridian at
mean latitude, where 1 minute of latitude
represents 1 NM.
03 State that when dealing with heights and x x x x
altitudes the units used are metres or
feet, subject to the choice of individual
States.
061 01 05 02 Conversion from one unit to another
01 Convert between the following units: x x x x
nautical miles (NM), statute miles (SM),
kilometres (km), metres (m) and feet (ft).
061 01 05 03 Relationship between nautical miles and
minutes of latitude and minutes of
longitude
01 State that horizontal distances are x x x x
calculated in metres, kilometres and
nautical miles.
02 Given two positions or a x x x x
latitude/longitude difference, calculate the
distance
03 Given two positions on the same latitude x x x x
and distance between the two positions in
km or NM, calculate the difference of
longitude between the two positions.
04 Flying a rhumb-line true track of 090, 180, x x x x
270 and 360 degrees, given an initial
geographical position, flight time and
ground speed, calculate the new geographic
position.
061 02 00 00 MAGNETISM AND COMPASSES
061 02 01 00 Knowledge of the principles of the
direct-reading (standby) compass
061 02 01 01 The use of this compass
01 Direct-reading compass (DRC). x x x x
02 Interpret the indications on a DRC, given an x x x x
indication on the compass, deviation or
deviation table and variation.
061 02 01 02 Serviceability tests
01 State the pre-flight serviceability check of x x x x
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the DRC, such as:
– general condition;
– check indication is within the limits.
02 State that the serviceability test consists x x x x
of comparing the DRC indication to
another reference (e.g. other compass
system or runway direction).
03 State that the compass should be x x x x
checked when carrying magnetic freight
or freight with a large ferrous metal
content.
061 02 01 03 Situations requiring a compass swing
01 State the occurrences when a compass x x x x
swing may be required:
– if transferred to another base
involving a large change in latitude;
– major changes in aircraft
equipment;
– aircraft hit by lightning;
– aircraft parked in the same
direction for a long period of time;
– when a new compass is fitted;
– at any time when the compass or
recorded deviation is suspect;
– when specified in the aircraft
maintenance schedule.
061 03 00 00 CHARTS
061 03 01 00 General properties of miscellaneous types
of projections
01 Define the term ‘conformal’. At any x x x x
given point on the chart, distortions (as
a result of the projection) in a n east–
west direction must be the same as in a
north–south direction. The meridians and
parallels must cut each other at right
angles.
02 State that on a conformal chart the angles x x x x
measured on the chart are the same as on
the Earth.
03 State that different chart projections are x x x x
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used, depending on the application and area
of use involved.
04 State that all charts, although they have x x x x
been developed mathematically, are
designated as projections.
05 State that the following projection x x x x
surfaces are used when projecting charts:
– plane;
– cylindrical;
– conical.
06 Define the ‘scale’ of a chart. The ratio of x x x x
the chart length compared to the Earth
distance that it represents.
07 Use the scale of a chart to calculate x x x x
particular distances.
08 Calculate scale given chart length and x x x x
Earth distance.
09 Define the term ‘chart convergency’. x x x x
The angle between two given meridians
on the chart.
10 Define ‘parallel of origin’. The parallel x x x x
where the projection surface touches the
surface of the reduced Earth.
061 03 01 01 Direct Mercator
01 State that the direct Mercator is a x x x x
cylindrical projection. The parallel of
origin is the equator.
02 State that the convergency on the chart is x x x x
0°.
03 State that the scale increases with x x x x
increasing distance from the equator.
04 State that on a direct Mercator: scale at x x x x
any latitude = scale at the equator
× secant latitude (1/cosine latitude).
05 Given the scale at one latitude, calculate x x x x
the scale at different latitudes.
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06 Given a chart length at one latitude, x x x x
show that it represents a different Earth
distance at other latitudes.
061 03 01 02 Lambert conformal conic
01 State that the Lambert conformal chart is x x x x
based on a conical projection. Only Lambert
conformal charts mathematically produced
with two standard parallels will be
considered.
02 Define the term ‘standard parallel’. The x x x x
latitudes where the cone cuts the reduced
Earth.
03 State that at the parallel of origin, Earth x x x x
convergency is equal to chart convergency.
04 State that the parallel of origin is close to x x x x
the mean latitude between the standard
parallels.
05 Explain the scale variation throughout the x x x x
charts as follows:
– the scale indicated on the chart will
be correct at the standard parallels;
– the scale will increase away from
the parallel of origin;
– the scale within the standard
parallels differs by less than 1 %
from the scale stated on the chart.
06 Define the term ‘constant of x x x x
cone/convergency factor’. The ratio
between the top angle of the unfolded
cone and 360°, or sine of the parallel
of origin.
07 Chart convergency = difference of longitude x x x x
× constant of cone.
08 Given appropriate data, calculate initial, x x x x
final or rhumb-line tracks between two
positions (lat/long).
09 Given two positions (lat/long) and x x x x
information to determine convergency
between the two positions, calculate the
parallel of origin.
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10 Given a Lambert chart, determine the x x x x
parallel of origin, or constant of cone.
11 Given the constant of cone or parallel of x x x x
origin, plus the great-circle track at one
position and great-circle track at another
position, calculate the difference of
longitude between the two positions.
061 03 01 03 Polar stereographic
01 State that the polar stereographic projection x x
is based on a plane projection, and state
that the parallel of the origin is the pole.
02 State that chart convergency = difference of x x
longitude.
03 State that the scale increases with x x
increasing distance from the pole.
04 Given two positions (lat/long), rhumb-line x x
true track or initial/final great-circle true
track, calculate the missing track angles.
05 Calculate the chart scale at a specific x x
latitude when difference of longitude and
chart distance along the parallel of latitude
are given.
061 03 02 00 The representation of meridians,
parallels, great circles and rhumb lines
061 03 02 01 Direct Mercator
01 State that meridians are straight parallel x x x x
lines, which cut parallels of latitudes at
right angles.
02 State that parallels of latitude are straight x x x x
lines parallel to the equator.
03 State that a straight line on the chart is a x x x x
rhumb line.
04 State that the great circle is a line convex to x x x x
the nearest pole.
05 For great-circle track angle calculations x x x x
over short distances, the conversion
angle may be calculated by the formula:
– conversion angle = ½ × difference of
longitude × sin mean latitude.
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06 Given rhumb-line true track between x x x x
two positions (lat/long), calculate initial or
final great-circle true track.
061 03 02 02 Lambert conformal conic
01 State that meridians are straight lines, x x x x
which cut parallels of latitudes at right
angles.
02 State that parallels of latitude are arcs of x x x x
concentric circles.
03 State that great circles are curved lines x x x x
concave towards the parallels of origin.
04 State that for short distances the great x x x x
circle is approximately a straight line.
061 03 02 03 Polar stereographic
01 State that meridians are straight lines x x
radiating from the pole, which cut
parallels of latitudes at right angles.
02 State that parallels of latitude are x x
concentric circles, and their distance
apart increases away from the pole.
03 State that great circles are approximately x x
straight lines close to the pole. The exact
great circle being concave to the pole.
061 03 03 00 The use of current aeronautical charts
061 03 03 01 Plotting positions
01 Enter the position on a chart using range x x x x
and bearing from a VOR DME station and
derive geographical coordinates.
02 Enter the positions on a chart using x x x x
geographical coordinates and derive tracks
and distances.
03 Plot DME ranges on an aeronautical chart x x x x
and derive geographical coordinates.
04 Describe the methods used to provide x x x x
information on chart scale. Use the chart
scales stated and be aware of the limitations
of the stated scale for each projection.
061 03 03 02 Methods of indicating scale and relief
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01 Describe the methods of representing x x x x
relief and demonstrate the ability to
interpret data.
061 03 03 03 Conventional signs
01 Interpret conventional signs and symbols x x x x
on ICAO and other most frequently used
charts.
061 03 03 04 Measuring tracks and distances
01 Given two positions, measure the track x x x x
and the distance between them.
061 03 03 05 Plotting bearings
01 Resolve bearings of an NDB station for x x x x
plotting on an aeronautical chart.
02 Resolve radials from VOR stations for x x x x
plotting on an aeronautical chart.
061 04 00 00 DEAD RECKONING (DR) NAVIGATION
061 04 01 00 Basis of dead reckoning
01 Explain the triangle of velocities, e.g. true x x x x
heading/TAS, W/V, and true track/GS.
061 04 01 01 Track
01 Explain the concept of vectors including x x x x
adding together or splitting in two
directions.
061 04 01 02 Heading (compass, magnetic, true)
01 Calculate (compass, magnetic, true) x x x x
heading g i v e n appropriate data.
061 04 01 03 Wind velocity
01 Calculate wind velocity given appropriate x x x x
data.
061 04 01 04 Airspeed (IAS, CAS, TAS, Mach number)
01 Calculate TAS from IAS/CAS and Mach x x x x
number given appropriate data.
061 04 01 05 Ground speed
01 Calculate ground speed given appropriate x x x x
data.
061 04 01 06 ETA
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01 Calculate ETA / flying time from distance x x x x
and GS.
02 Calculate revised directional data for x x x x
heading, track, course and W/V, e.g. true,
magnetic, compass and given appropriate
data.
061 04 01 07 Drift, wind correction angle (WCA)
01 Calculate drift and wind correction angle x x x x
(WCA) given appropriate data.
061 04 02 00 Use of the navigational computer
061 04 02 01 Speed
01 Given appropriate data, determine speed. x x x x
061 04 02 02 Time
01 Given appropriate data, determine time. x x x x
061 04 02 03 Distance
01 Given appropriate data, determine x x x x
distance.
061 04 02 04 Fuel consumption
01 Calculation of fuel used/fuel flow/flying time. x x x x
061 04 02 05 Conversions
01 Conversion between kilograms/ pounds/lit x x x x
res/U.S. gallons/imperial gallons.
02 Conversion of distances. x x x x
Kilometres/nautical miles/statute miles.
03 Conversion of distances. Feet/metres. x x x x
04 Conversion of volumes and weight of fuel x x x x
using density in mass per unit volume.
061 04 02 06 Airspeed
01 Calculation of airspeed problems including x x x x
IAS/EAS/CAS/TAS/ and Mach number given
appropriate data.
061 04 02 07 Wind velocity
01 Given appropriate data, determine wind x x x x
velocity.
061 04 02 08 True altitude
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01 Given appropriate data, determine true x x x x
altitude/indicated altitude/ density
altitude.
061 04 03 00 The triangle of velocities
01 Solve problems to determine: x x x x
– heading;
– ground speed;
– wind direction and speed;
– track/course;
– drift angle/wind correction angle;
– head/tail/crosswind components.
061 04 04 00 Determination of DR position
061 04 04 01 Confirmation of flight progress (DR)
01 Describe the role and purpose of DR x x x x
navigation.
02 Demonstrate mental DR techniques. x x x x
03 Define ‘speed factor’. Speed divided by x x x x
60, used for mental flight-path
calculations.
04 Calculate head/tailwind component. x x x x
05 Calculate wind correction angle (WCA) using x x x x
the formula:
WCA = XWC (crosswind component)/SF
(speed factor).
06 Distance, speed and time calculations. x x x x
07 Demonstrate DR position graphically and by x x x x
means of a DR computer.
08 Given any four of the parts of the triangle of x x x x
velocities, calculate the other two.
09 Apply the validity of wind triangle symbols x x x x
correctly. Heading vector one arrow,
track/course vector two arrows, and W/V
vector three arrows.
061 04 04 02 Lost procedures
01 Describe course of action when lost. x x x x
061 04 05 00 Measurement of DR elements
061 04 05 01 Calculation of altitude, adjustments,
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corrections, errors
Note: For questions involving height
calculation, 30 ft/hpa is to be used unless
another figure is specified in the
question.
01 Calculate True Altitude (T ALT) from given x x x x
indicated altitude, airfield elevation, static
air temperature (SAT)/outside air
temperature (OAT) and QNH/QFE.
02 Calculate indicated altitude from given T x x x x
ALT, airfield elevation, SAT/OAT and
QNH/QFE.
03 Calculate density altitude from given x x x x
pressure altitude and SAT/OAT.
04 Calculate density altitude from given airfield x x x x
elevation, SAT/OAT and QNH/QFE.
061 04 05 02 Determination of temperature
01 Define ‘OAT/SAT’. The temperature of the x x x x
surrounding air.
02 Define ‘Ram Air Temperature (RAT)/ Total x x x x
Air Temperature (TAT)/ Indicated Outside
Air Temperature (IOAT)’. The temperature
measured by the temperature probe
affected by friction and compressibility.
03 Define ‘ram rise’. The increase of x x x x
temperature at the temperature probe due
to friction and compressibility.
04 RAT (TAT, IOAT) = OAT (SAT) + ram rise. x x x x
05 Explain the difference in using OAT/SAT x x x x
compared to RAT/TAT/IOAT in airspeed
calculations.
061 04 05 03 Determination of appropriate speed
01 Explain the relationship between: x x x x
– IAS;
– CAS;
– EAS;
– TAS.
02 Calculate TAS from given IAS/CAS, OAT/SAT x x x x
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and pressure inputs.
03 Calculate CAS from given TAS, OAT/SAT and x x x x
pressure inputs.
061 04 05 04 Determination of Mach number
01 Calculate Mach number from given TAS and x x x x
OAT/SAT.
061 05 00 00 IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION
061 05 01 00 Use of visual observations and application
to in-flight navigation
01 Describe what is meant by the term x x x x
‘map reading’.
02 Define the term ‘visual checkpoint’. x x x x
03 Discuss the general features of a visual x x x x
checkpoint and give examples.
04 State that the evaluation of the difference x x x x
between DR position and actual position can
refine flight performance and navigation.
05 Establish fixes on navigational charts by x x x x
plotting visually derived intersecting lines of
position.
06 Describe the use of a single observed x x x x
position line to check flight progress.
07 Describe how to prepare and align a x x x x
map/chart for use in visual navigation.
08 Describe visual-navigation techniques x x x x
including:
– use of DR position to locate
identifiable landmarks;
– identification of charted
features/landmarks;
– factors affecting the selection of
landmarks;
– an understanding of seasonal and
meteorological effects on the
appearance and visibility of
landmarks;
– selection of suitable landmarks;
– estimation of distance from
landmarks from successive
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bearings;
– estimation of the distance from a
landmark using an approximation of
the sighting angle and the flight
altitude.
09 Describe the action to be taken if there is x x x x
no visual checkpoint available at a
scheduled turning point.
10 Describe the difficulties and limitations that x x x x
may be encountered in map reading in some
geographical areas due to the nature of
terrain, lack of distinctive landmarks or lack
of detailed and accurate charted data.
11 State the function of contour lines on a x x x x
topographical chart.
12 Indicate the role of ‘layer tinting’ (colour x x x x
gradient) in relation to the depiction of
topography on a chart.
13 Using the contours shown on a chart, x x x x
describe the appearance of a significant
feature.
14 Explain that in areas of snow and ice from x x x x
horizon to horizon, and where the sky is
covered with a uniform layer of clouds so
that no shadows are cast, the horizon
disappears causing earth and sky to blend.
061 05 02 00 Navigation in climb and descent
061 05 02 01 Average airspeed
01 Average TAS used for climb problems is x x x x
calculated at the altitude 2/3 between initial
and final altitude.
02 Average TAS used for descent problems is x x x x
calculated at the altitude halfway between
initial and final altitude.
061 05 02 02 Average wind velocity (W/V)
01 W/V used for climb problems is the W/V at x x x x
the altitude 2/3 between initial and final
altitude.
02 W/V used for descent problems is the W/V x x x x
at the altitude halfway between initial and
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final altitude.
03 Calculate the average climb/descent GS x x x x
from given TAS at various altitudes, W/V
at various altitudes and true track.
04 Calculate the flying time and distance x x x x
during climb/descent from given average
rate of climb/descent and using average
GS.
05 Calculate the rate of descent on a given x x x x
glide path angle using the following
formulae:
valid for 3° glide path:
rate of descent = (GS (ground speed)
× 10) / 2
rate of descent = SF (speed factor) ×
glide path angle × 100
06 Given distance, speed and present x x x x
altitude, calculate the rate of
climb/descent in order to reach a certain
position at a given altitude.
07 Given speed, rate of climb/descent and x x x x
altitude, calculate the distance required in
order to reach a position at a given
altitude.
08 Given speed, distance and altitude to x x x x
climb/descend to, calculate the required
rate of climb/descent.
09 State the effect on TAS and Mach x x x x
number when climbing/descending with a
constant CAS.
061 05 02 03 Ground speed/distance covered during
climb or descent
01 State that most Aircraft Operating Manuals x x x x
supply graphical material to calculate climb
and descent problems.
02 Given distance, speed and present altitude, x x x x
calculate the required rate of climb/descent
in order to reach a certain position at a
given altitude.
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03 Given speed, rate of climb/descent and x x x x
altitude, calculate the distance required in
order to reach a certain position at a given
altitude.
061 05 02 04 Gradients versus rate of climb/descent
01 Calculate climb/descent gradient (ft/NM, % x x x x
and degrees), GS or vertical speed
according to the following formulae:
Vertical speed (feet/min) = {GS (kt) ×
gradient (feet/NM)} / 60
02 Gradient in % = altitude difference x x x x
(feet) × 100 / ground difference (feet).
03 Gradient in degrees = Arctg { Altitude x x x x
difference (feet) / ground distance (feet)}.
04 Rate of climb/descent (feet/min) = gradient x x x x
(%) × GS (kt).
05 State that it is necessary to determine the x x x x
position of the aircraft accurately before
commencing descent in order to ensure
safe ground clearance.
061 05 03 00 Navigation in cruising flight, use of fixes
to revise navigation data
061 05 03 01 Ground speed (GS) revision
01 Calculate revised required GS to reach a x x x x
waypoint at a specific time.
02 Calculate the average ground speed based x x x x
on two observed fixes.
03 Calculate the distance to the position x x x x
passing abeam an NDB station by timing
from a position with a relative bearing of
045/315 to the position abeam (relative
bearing 090/270).
061 05 03 02 Off-track corrections
01 Calculate the track-error angle at a given x x x x
course from A to B and an off- course fix,
using the one-in-sixty rule.
02 Calculate the heading change at an off- x x x x
course fix to directly reach the next
waypoint using the one-in-sixty rule.
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03 Calculate the average drift angle based upon x x x x
an off-course fix observation.
061 05 03 03 Calculation of wind speed and direction
01 Calculate the average wind speed and x x x x
direction based on two observed fixes.
061 05 03 04 Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) revisions
01 Calculate ETA revisions based upon x x x x
observed fixes and revised ground speed.
061 05 04 00 Flight log
01 Given relevant flight-plan data, calculate the x x x x
missing data.
02 Enter revised navigational en route data, for x x x x
the legs concerned, into the flight log (e.g.
updated wind and ground speed, and
correspondingly losses or gains in time and
fuel consumption).
03 Enter, at a checkpoint or turning point, the x x x x
‘actual time over’ and the ‘estimated time
over’ for the next checkpoint into the flight
log.
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K. SUBJECT 062 – RADIO NAVIGATION
K. SUBJECT 062 - RADIO NAVIGATION

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060 00 00 00 NAVIGATION
062 00 00 00 RADIO NAVIGATION
062 01 00 00 BASIC RADIO PROPAGATION THEORY
062 01 01 01 Electromagnetic waves
01 State that radio waves travel at the speed of light, being x x x x
approximately 300 000 km/s or 162 000 NM/s.
02 Define a ‘cycle’. A complete series of values of a x x x x
periodical process.
03 Define ‘Hertz (Hz)’. 1 Hertz is 1 cycle per second. x x x x
062 01 01 02 Frequency, wavelength, amplitude, phase angle
01 Define ‘frequency’. The number of cycles occurring in 1 x x x x
second in a radio wave expressed in Hertz (Hz).
02 Define ‘wavelength’. The physical distance travelled by a x x x x
radio wave during one cycle of transmission.
03 Define ‘amplitude’. The maximum deflection in an x x x x
oscillation or wave.
04 State that the relationship between wavelength and x x x x
frequency is:
– wavelength (λ) = speed of light (c) / frequency
(f);
– or λ (meters) = 300 000 / kHz.
05 Define ‘phase’. The fraction of one wavelength x x x x
expressed in degrees from 000° to 360°.
06 Define ‘phase difference/shift’. The angular difference x x x x
between the corresponding points of two cycles of equal
wavelength, which is measurable in degrees.
062 01 01 03 Frequency bands, sidebands, single sideband
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01 List the bands of the frequency spectrum for x x x x

electromagnetic waves:
– Very Low Frequency (VLF): 3–30 kHz;
– Low Frequency (LF): 30–300 kHz;
– Medium Frequency (MF): 300–3 000 kHz;
– High Frequency (HF): 3–30 MHz;
– Very High Frequency (VHF): 30–300 MHz
– Ultra-High Frequency (UHF): 300– 3 000 MHz;
– Super High Frequency (SHF): 3– 30 GHz;
– Extremely High Frequency (EHF): 30-300 GHz

Learning Objectives
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02 State that when a carrier wave is modulated, the x x x x
resultant radiation consists of the carrier
frequency plus additional upper and lower
sidebands.
03 State that HF VOLMET and HF two-way x x x x
communication use a single sideband.
04 State that a radio signal may be classified by three x x x x
symbols in accordance with the ITU Radio
Regulation, Volume 1: e.g. A1A.
– The first symbol indicates the type of
modulation of the main carrier;
– The second symbol indicates the nature of
the signal modulating the main carrier;
– The third symbol indicates the nature of the
information to be transmitted.
062 01 01 04 Pulse characteristics
01 Define the following terms as associated with a x x x x
pulse string:
– pulse length;
– pulse power;
– continuous power.
062 01 01 05 Carrier, modulation
01 Define ‘carrier wave’. The radio wave acting as the x x x x
carrier or transporter.
02 Define ‘keying’. Interrupting the carrier wave to x x x x
break it into dots and dashes.
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03 Define ‘modulation’. The technical term for the x x x x
process of impressing and transporting
information by radio waves.
062 01 01 06 Kinds of modulation (amplitude, frequency,
pulse, phase)
01 Define ‘amplitude modulation’. The information x x x x
that is impressed onto the carrier wave by altering
the amplitude of the carrier.
02 Define ‘frequency modulation’. The information x x x x
that is impressed onto the carrier wave by altering
the frequency of the carrier.
03 Describe ‘pulse modulation’. A modulation form x x x x
used in radar by transmitting short pulses
followed by larger interruptions.
04 Describe ‘phase modulation’. A modulation form x x x x
used in GPS where the phase of the carrier wave
is reversed.
062 01 02 00 Antennas
062 01 02 01 Characteristics
01 Define ‘antenna’. A wave-type transducer for the x x x x
process of converting a line AC into a free
electromagnetic wave.
02 State that the simplest type of antenna is a dipole x x x x
which is a wire of length equal to one-half of the
wavelength.
03 State that in a wire which is fed with an AC x x x x
(alternating current), some of the power will radiate
into space.
04 State that in a wire parallel to the wire fed with an x x x x
AC but remote from it, an AC will be induced.
05 State that an electromagnetic wave always consists x x x x
of an oscillating electric (E) and an oscillating
magnetic (H) field which propagates at the speed of
light.
06 State that the (E) and (H) fields are perpendicular to x x x x
each other. The oscillations are perpendicular to the
propagation direction and are in-phase.
07 State that the electric field is parallel to the wire and x x x x
the magnetic field is perpendicular to it.
062 01 02 02 Polarisation
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01 State that the polarisation of an electromagnetic x x x x
wave describes the orientation of the plane of
oscillation of the electrical component of the wave
regarding its direction of propagation.
02 State that in linear polarisation the plane of x x x x
oscillation is fixed in space, whereas in circular
(elliptical) polarisation the plane is rotating.
03 Explain the difference between horizontal and x x x x
vertical polarisation in the dependence of the
alignment of the dipole.
062 01 02 03 Types of antennas
01 List and describe the common different kinds x x x x
of directional antennas:
– loop antenna used in old ADF receivers;
– parabolic antenna used in weather radars;
– slotted planar array used in more modern
weather radars;
– helical antenna used in GPS transmitters.
062 01 03 00 Wave propagation
062 01 03 01 Structure of the ionosphere
01 State that the ionosphere is the ionised x x x x
component of the Earth’s upper atmosphere
from 60 to 400 km above the surface, which is
vertically structured in three regions or layers.
02 State that the layers in the ionosphere are x x x x
named D, E and F layers, and their depth varies
with time.
03 State that electromagnetic waves refracted from x x x x
the E and F layers of the ionosphere are called
sky waves.
062 01 03 02 Ground waves
01 Define ‘ground or surface waves’. The x x x x
electromagnetic waves travelling along the surface
of the Earth.
062 01 03 03 Space waves
01 Define ‘space waves’. The electromagnetic waves x x x x
travelling through the air directly from the
transmitter to the receiver.
062 01 03 04 Propagation with the frequency bands
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01 State that radio waves in VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF x x x x
propagate as space waves.
02 State that radio waves in VLF, LF, MF and HF x x x x
propagate as surface/ground waves and sky waves.
062 01 03 05 Doppler principle
01 State that Doppler effect is the phenomenon that x x x x
the frequency of an electromagnetic wave will
increase or decrease if there is relative motion
between the transmitter and the receiver.
02 State that the frequency will increase if the x x x x
transmitter and receiver are converging and will
decrease if they are diverging.
062 01 03 06 Factors affecting propagation
01 Define ‘skip distance’. The distance between the x x x x
transmitter and the point on the surface of the Earth
where the first sky return arrives.
02 State that skip zone/dead space is the distance x x x x
between the limit of the surface wave and the sky
wave.
03 Describe ‘fading’. When a receiver picks up the sky x x x x
signal and the surface signal, the signals will interfere
with each other causing the signals to be cancelled
out.
04 State that radio waves in the VHF band and above x x x x
are limited in range as they are not reflected by the
ionosphere and do not have a surface wave.
05 Describe the physical phenomena reflection, x x x x
refraction, diffraction, absorption and interference.
062 02 00 00 RADIO AIDS
062 02 01 00 Ground D/F
062 02 01 01 Principles
01 Describe the use of a Ground Direction Finder. x x x x
02 Explain why the service provided is subdivided as: x x x x
– VHF direction finding (VDF);
– UHF direction finding (UDF).
03 Explain the limitation of range because of the path of x x x x
the VHF signal.
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04 Describe the operation of the VDF in the following x x x x
general terms:
– radio waves emitted by the radio-
telephony (R/T) equipment of the aircraft;
– special directional antenna;
– determination of the direction of the
incoming signal;
– ATC display.
062 02 01 02 Presentation and interpretation
01 Define the term ‘QDM’. The magnetic bearing to the x x x x
station.
02 Define the term ‘QDR’. The magnetic bearing from x x x x
the station.
03 Define the term ‘QUJ’. The true bearing to the x x x x
station.
04 Define the term ‘QTE’. The true bearing from the x x x x
station.
05 Explain that by using more than one ground station, x x x x
the position of an aircraft can be determined and
transmitted to the pilot.
062 02 01 03 Coverage and range
01 Use the formula: x x x x
1.23 × √transmitter height in feet + 1.23
× √receiver height in feet,
to calculate the range in NM.
062 02 01 04 Errors and accuracy
01 Explain why synchronous transmissions will cause x x x x
errors.
02 Describe the effect of multipath signals. x x x x
03 Explain that VDF information is divided into the x x x x
following classes according to ICAO Annex 10:
– class A: accurate to a range within ± 2°;
– class B: accurate to a range within ± 5°;
– class C: accurate to a range within ± 10°;
– class D: accurate to less than class C.
062 02 02 00 Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)/ Automatic
Direction Finder (ADF)
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01 Define the acronym ‘NDB’. Non- Directional Beacon. x x x x
02 Define the acronym ‘ADF’. Automatic Direction x x x x
Finder.
03 State that the NDB is the ground part of the x x x x
system.
04 State that the ADF is the airborne part of the x x x x
system.
05 State that the NDB operates in the LF and MF x x x x
frequency bands.
06 The frequency band assigned to aeronautical x x x x
NDBs according to ICAO Annex 10 is 190–1 750
kHz.
07 Define a ‘locator beacon’. An LF/MF NDB used as x x x x
an aid to final approach usually with a range,
according to ICAO Annex 10, of 10–25 NM.
08 Explain the difference between NDBs and locator x x x x
beacons.
09 Explain which beacons transmit signals suitable for x x x x
use by an ADF.
10 State that certain commercial radio stations transmit x x x x
within the frequency band of the NDB.
11 Explain why it is necessary to use a directionally x x x x
sensitive receiver antenna system in order to obtain
the direction of the incoming radio wave.
12 Describe the use of NDBs for navigation. x x x x
13 Describe the procedure to identify an NDB station. x x x x
14 Interpret the term ‘cone of silence’ in respect of an x x x x
NDB.
15 State that an NDB station emits a NON/A1A or a x x x x
NON/A2A signal.
16 State the function of the Beat Frequency Oscillator x x x x
(BFO).
17 State that in order to identify a NON/A1A NDB, the x x x x
BFO circuit of the receiver has to be activated.
18 State that the NDB emitting NON/A1A gives rise to x x x x
erratic indications of the bearing while the station is
identifying.
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19 Explain that on modern aircraft the BFO is activated x x x x
automatically.
01 Name the types of indicators in common use: x x x x
– electronic navigation display;
– Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI);
– fixed card ADF (radio compass);
– moving card ADF.
02 Describe the indications given on RMI, fixed card x x x x
and moving card ADF displays.
03 Given a display, interpret the relevant ADF x x x x
information.
04 Calculate the true bearing from the compass heading x x x x
and relative bearing.
05 Convert the compass bearing into magnetic bearing x x x x
and true bearing.
06 Describe how to fly the following in-flight ADF x x x x
procedures according to ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1:
– homing and tracking, and explain the
influence of wind;
– interceptions;
– procedural turns;
holding patterns.
01 State that the power limits the range of an NDB. x x x x
02 Explain the relationship between power and x x x x
range.
03 State that the range of an NDB over sea is better x x x x
than over land due to better ground wave
propagation over seawater than over land.
04 Describe the propagation path of NDB radio waves x x x x
with respect to the ionosphere and the Earth’s
surface.
05 Explain that interference between sky and ground x x x x
waves at night leads to ‘fading’.
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06 Define the accuracy the pilot has to fly the x x x x
required bearing in order to be considered
established during approach according to ICAO Doc
8168 as within
± 5°.
07 State that there is no warning indication of NDB x x x x
failure.
01 Define ‘quadrantal error’. The distortion of the x x x x
incoming signal from the NDB station by reradiation
from the airframe. This is corrected for during
installation of the antenna.
02 Explain ‘coastal refraction’. As a radio wave travelling x x x x
over land crosses the coast, the wave speeds up over
water and the wave front bends.
03 Define ‘night/twilight effect’. The influence of sky x x x x
waves and ground waves arriving at the ADF receiver
with a difference of phase and polarisation which
introduce bearing errors.
04 State that interference from other NDB stations on x x x x
the same frequency may occur at night due to sky-
wave contamination.
062 02 02 05 Factors affecting range and accuracy
01 State that there is no coastal refraction error x x x x
when:
– the propagation direction of the wave is 90°
to the coastline;
– the NDB station is sited on the coastline.
02 State that coastal refraction error increases with x x x x
increased incidence.
03 State that night effect predominates around dusk x x x x
and dawn.
04 Define ‘multipath propagation of the radio wave x x x x
(mountain effect)’.
05 State that static emission energy from a x x x x
cumulonimbus cloud may interfere with the
radio wave and influence the ADF bearing
indication.
062 02 03 00 VOR and Doppler VOR
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01 Explain the operation of VOR using the x x x x
following general terms:
– reference phase;
– variable phase;
– phase difference.
02 State that the frequency band allocated to VOR x x x x
according to ICAO Annex 10 is VHF and the
frequencies used are 108.0– 117.975 MHz.
03 State that frequencies within the allocated VOR x x x x
range which have an odd number in the first
decimal place, are used by ILS.
04 State that the following types of VOR are in x x x x
operation:
– Conventional VOR (CVOR): a first-
generation VOR station emitting signals by
means of a rotating antenna;
– Doppler VOR (DVOR): a second- generation
VOR station emitting signals by means of a
combination of fixed antennas utilising the
Doppler principle;
– en route VOR for use by IFR traffic;
– Terminal VOR (TVOR): a station with a
shorter range used as part of the approach
and departure structure at major airports;
– Test VOR (VOT): a VOR station emitting a
signal to test VOR indicators in an aircraft.
05 Describe how ATIS information is transmitted on VOR x x x x
frequencies.
06 List the three main components of VOR x x x x
airborne equipment:
– the antenna;
– the receiver;
the indicator.
07 Describe the identification of a VOR in terms of x x x x
Morse-code letters, continuous tone or dots (VOT),
tone pitch, repetition rate and additional plain text.
08 State that according to ICAO Annex 10, a VOR station x x x x
has an automatic ground monitoring system.
09 State that the VOR monitoring system monitors x x x x
change in measured radial and reduction in signal
strength.
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10 State that failure of the VOR station to stay within x x x x
the required limits can cause the removal of
identification and navigation components from the
carrier or radiation to cease.
01 Read off the radial on a Radio Magnetic Indicator x x x x
(RMI).
02 Read off the angular displacement in relation to a x x x x
preselected radial on an HSI or CDI.
03 Explain the use of the TO/FROM indicator in x x x x
order to determine aircraft position relative to
the VOR considering also the heading of the
aircraft.
04 Interpret VOR information as displayed on HSI, CDI x x x x
and RMI.
05 Describe the following in-flight VOR procedures x x x x
as in ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1:
– tracking, and explain the influence of wind
when tracking;
– interceptions;
– procedural turns;
– holding patterns.
06 State that when converting a radial into a true x x x x
bearing, the variation at the VOR station has to be
taken into account.
01 Describe the range with respect to the transmitting x x x x
power and radio signal.
02 Calculate the range using the formula: 1.23 × x x x x
√transmitter height in feet + 1.23
× √receiver height in feet.
01 Define the accuracy the pilot has to fly the x x x x
required bearing in order to be considered
established on a VOR track when flying approach
procedures according to ICAO Doc 8168 as within
half-full-scale deflection of the required track.
02 State that due to reflections from terrain, radials can x x x x
be bent and lead to wrong or fluctuating indications,
which is called ‘scalloping’.
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03 State that DVOR is less sensitive to site error than x x x x
CVOR.
062 02 04 00 DME
01 State that DME operates in the UHF band between x x x x
960–1215 MHz according to ICAO Annex 10.
02 State that the system comprises two basic x x x x
components:
– the aircraft component, the interrogator;
– the ground component, the transponder.
03 Describe the principle of distance measurement x x x x
using DME in terms of:
– pulse pairs;
– fixed frequency division of 63 MHz;
– propagation delay;
– 50-microsecond delay time;
– irregular transmission sequence;
– search mode;
– tracking mode;
– memory mode.
04 State that the distance measured by DME is slant x x x x
range.
05 Illustrate that a position line using DME is a circle x x x x
with the station at its centre.
06 Describe how the pairing of VHF and UHF x x x x
frequencies (VOR/DME) enables the selection of two
items of navigation information from one frequency
setting.
07 Describe, in the case of co-location, the frequency x x x x
pairing and identification procedure.
08 Explain that depending on the configuration, the x x x x
combination of a DME distance with a VOR radial
can determine the position of the aircraft.
09 Explain that military TACAN stations may be used for x x x x
DME information.
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01 Explain that when identifying a DME station co- x x x x
located with a VOR station, the identification signal
with the higher-tone frequency is the DME which
idents approximately every 40seconds.
02 Calculate ground distance from given slant range and x x x x
altitude.
03 Describe the use of DME to fly a DME arc in x x x x
accordance with ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1.
04 State that a DME system may have a ground speed x x x x
read-out combined with the DME read-out.
01 Explain why a ground station can generally respond x x x x
to a maximum of 100 aircraft.
02 Explain which aircraft will be denied a DME range x x x x
first when more than 100 interrogations are being
made.
01 State that the error of the DME ‘N’ according to ICAO x x x x
Annex 10 should not exceed + 0.25 NM + 1.25 % of
the distance measured.
For installations installed after 1 January 1989, the
total system error should not exceed 0.2 NM DME
‘P’.
01 State that the ground speed read-out combined x x x x
with DME is only correct when tracking directly
to or from the DME station.
02 State that, close to the station, the ground x x x x
speed read-out combined with DME is less than
the actual ground speed.
062 02 05 00 ILS
01 Name the three main components of an ILS: x x
– the localiser (LLZ);
– the glide path (GP);
– range information (markers or DME).
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02 State the site locations of the ILS components: x x
– the localiser antenna should be located on
the extension of the runway centre line at
the stop-end;
– The glide-path antenna should be located
300 metres beyond the runway threshold,
laterally displaced approximately 120
metres to the side of the runway centre
line.
03 Explain that marker beacons produce radiation x x
patterns to indicate predetermined distances from
the threshold along the ILS glide path.
04 Explain that marker beacons are sometimes x x
replaced by a DME paired with the LLZ frequency.
05 State that in the ILS frequency assigned band x x
108.0–111.975 MHz, only frequencies which have
an odd number in the first decimal, are ILS
frequencies.
06 State that the LLZ operates in the 108,0– 111.975 x x
MHz VHF band, according to ICAO Annex 10.
07 State that the GP operates in the UHF band. x x
08 Describe the use of the 90-Hz and the 150-Hz x x
signals in the LLZ and GP transmitters/receivers,
stating how the signals at the receivers vary with
angular deviation.
09 Draw the radiation pattern with respect to the x x
90-Hz and 150-Hz signals.
10 Describe how the UHF glide-path frequency is x x
selected automatically by being paired with the LLZ
frequency.
11 Explain the term ‘Difference of Depth of Modulation x x
(DDM)’.
12 State that the difference in the modulation depth x x
increases with displacement from the centre line.
13 State that both the LLZ and the GP antenna radiate x x
side lobes (false beams) which could give rise to false
centre-line and false glide-path indication.
14 Explain that the back beam from the LLZ antenna x x
may be used as a published ‘non-precision
approach’.
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15 State that according to ICAO Annex 10 the nominal x x
glide path is 3°.
16 Name the frequency, modulation and x x
identification assigned to all marker beacons
according to ICAO Annex 10:
all marker beacons operate on 75-MHz carrier
frequency.
The modulation frequencies are:
– outer marker: 400 Hz;
– middle marker: 1 300 Hz;
– inner marker: 3000 Hz.
The audio frequency modulation (for identification)
is the continuous modulation of the audio
frequency and is keyed as follows:
– outer marker: 2 dashes per second
continuously;
– middle marker: a continuous series of
alternate dots and dashes;
– inner marker: 6 dots per second
continuously.
17 State that according to ICAO Doc 8168, the x x
final-approach area contains a fix or facility that
permits verification of the ILS glide path–altimeter
relationship. The outer marker or DME is usually
used for this purpose.
01 Describe the ILS identification regarding x x
frequency and Morse code and/or plain text.
02 Calculate the rate of descent for a 3°- glide- x x
path angle given the ground speed of the aircraft
and using the formula:
Rate of Descent (ROD) in ft/min = (ground speed
in kt × 10) / 2.
03 Calculate the rate of descent using the following x x
formula when flying any glide- path angle:
ROD ft/min = Speed Factor (SF) × glide- path angle ×
100.
04 Interpret the markers by sound, modulation, and x x
frequency.
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05 State that the outer-marker cockpit indicator is x x
coloured blue, the middle marker amber, and the
inner marker white.
06 State that in accordance with ICAO Annex 10, an ILS x x
installation has an automatic ground monitoring
system.
07 State that the LLZ and GP monitoring system x x
monitors any shift in the LLZ and GP mean course
line or reduction in signal strength.
08 State that a failure of either the LLZ or the GP x x
to stay within the predetermined limits will
cause:
– removal of identification and navigation
components from the carrier;
– radiation to cease;
– a warning to be displayed at the designated
control point.
09 State that an ILS receiver has an automatic x x
monitoring function.
10 Describe the circumstances in which warning flags x x
will appear for both the LLZ and the GP:
– absence of the carrier frequency;
– absence of the 90 and 150-Hz modulation
simultaneously;
– the percentage modulation of either the 90
or 150-Hz signal reduced to 0.
11 Interpret the indications on a Course Deviation x x
Indicator (CDI) and a Horizontal Situation Indicator
(HSI):
– full-scale deflection of the CDI needle
corresponds to approximately 2,5°
displacement from the ILS centre line;
– full-scale deflection on the GP corresponds
to approximately 0,7° from the ILS GP
centre line.
12 Interpret the aircraft’s position in relation to the x x
extended runway centre line on a back-beam
approach.
13 Explain the setting of the course pointer of an x x
HSI for front-beam and back-beam approaches.
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01 Sketch the standard coverage area of the LLZ and x x
GP with angular sector limits in degrees and
distance limits from the transmitter in accordance
with ICAO Annex 10:
– LLZ coverage area is 10° on either side of
the centre line to a distance of 25 NM from
the runway, and 35° on either side of the
centre line to a distance of 17 NM from the
runway;
– GP coverage area is 8° on either side of the
centre line to a distance of minimum 10 NM
from the runway.
01 Explain that ILS approaches are divided into facility x x
performance categories defined in ICAO Annex 10.
02 Define the following ILS operation categories: x x
– Category I;
– Category II;
– Category IIIA;
– Category IIIB;
– Category IIIC.
03 Explain that all Category-III ILS operations x x
guidance information is provided from the
coverage limits of the facility to, and along, the
surface of the runway.
04 Explain why the accuracy requirements are x x
progressively higher for CAT I, CAT II and CAT III
ILS.
05 State the vertical-accuracy requirements above x x
the threshold for CAT I, II and III for the signals
of the ILS ground installation.
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06 Explain the following in accordance with ICAO x x
Doc 8168:
– the accuracy the pilot has to fly the ILS
localiser to be considered established on an
ILS track is within the half-full-scale
deflection of the required track;
– the aircraft has to be established within the
half-scale deflection of the LLZ before
starting descent on the GP;
– the pilot has to fly the ILS GP to a maximum
of half-scale fly-up deflection of the GP in
order to stay in protected airspace.
07 State that if a pilot deviates by more than half- x x
scale deflection on the LLZ or by more than
half-course fly-up deflection on the GP, an
immediate missed approach should be
executed because obstacle clearance may no
longer be guaranteed.
09 Describe ILS beam bends. Deviations from the x x
nominal position of the LLZ and GP respectively.
They are ascertained by flight test.
10 Explain multipath interference. Reflections from x x
large objects within the ILS coverage area.
01 Define the ‘ILS-critical area’. An area of defined x x
dimensions about the LLZ and GP antennas where
vehicles, including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS
operations.
02 Define the ‘ILS-sensitive area’. An area extending x x
beyond the critical area where the parking and/or
movement of vehicles, including aircraft, is
controlled to prevent the possibility of unacceptable
interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations.
03 Describe the effect of FM broadcast stations that x x
transmit on frequencies just below 108 MHz.
062 02 06 00 Microwave Landing System (MLS)
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01 Explain the principle of operation: x x
– horizontal course guidance during the
approach;
– vertical guidance during the approach;
– horizontal guidance for departure and
missed approach;
– DME (DME/P) distance;
– transmission of special information
regarding the system and the approach
conditions.
02 State that MLS operates in the S band on 200 x x
channels.
03 Explain the reason why MLS can be installed at x x
airports on which, as a result of the effects of
surrounding buildings and/or terrain, ILS siting is
difficult.
01 Interpret the display of airborne equipment x x
designed to continuously show the position of the
aircraft in relation to a preselected course and glide
path along with distance information, during
approach and departure.
02 Explain that segmented approaches can be carried x x
out with a presentation with two cross bars directed
by a computer which has been programmed with
the approach to be flown.
03 Illustrate that segmented and curved approaches x x
can only be executed with DME-P installed.
04 Explain why aircraft are equipped with a Multimode x x
Receiver (MMR) in order to be able to receive ILS,
MLS and GPS.
05 Explain why MLS without DME-P gives an ILS x x
lookalike straight-line approach.
01 Describe the coverage area for the approach x x
direction as being within a sector of ± 40° of the
centre line out to a range of 20 NM from the
threshold (according to ICAO Annex 10).
062 02 06 04 Error and accuracy
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01 State the 95 % lateral and vertical accuracy x x
within 20 NM (37 km) of the MLS approach
reference datum and 60 ft above the MLS datum
point (according to ICAO Annex 10).
062 03 00 00 RADAR
062 03 01 00 Pulse techniques and associated terms
01 Name the different applications of radar with x x x x
respect to ATC, MET observations and airborne
weather radar.
02 Describe the pulse technique and echo principle on x x x x
which primary radar systems are based.
03 Explain the relationship between the maximum x x x x
theoretical range and the Pulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF).
04 Calculate the maximum theoretical unambiguous x x x x
range if the PRF is given using the formula:
Range in km = 300 000
PRF x 2
05 Calculate the PRF if the maximum theoretical x x x x
unambiguous range of the radar is given using the
formula:
PRF = 300 000
range (km) x 2
06 Explain that pulse length defines the minimum x x x x
theoretical range of a radar.
07 Explain the need to harmonise the rotation speed of x x x x
the antenna, the pulse length and the pulse
repetition frequency for range.
08 Describe, in general terms, the effects of the x x x x
following factors with respect to the quality of
the target depiction on the radar display:
– atmospheric conditions:
– super refraction and sub refraction;
– attenuation with distance;
– condition and size of the reflecting surface.
062 03 02 00 Ground radar
01 Explain that primary radar provides bearing and x x
distance of targets.
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02 Explain that primary ground radar is used to detect x x
aircraft that are not equipped with a secondary
radar transponder.
03 Explain why Moving Target Indicator (MTI) is used. x x
01 State that modern ATC systems use computer- x x
generated display.
02 Explain that the radar display enables the ATS x x
controller to provide information, surveillance or
guidance service.
062 03 03 00 Airborne weather radar
01 List the two main tasks of the weather radar in x x
respect of weather and navigation.
02 State the wavelength (approx. 3 cm) and frequency x x
of most AWRs (approx. 9 GHz).
03 Explain how the antenna is attitude- stabilised in x x
relation to the horizontal plane using the aircraft’s
attitude reference system.
04 Explain that older AWRs have two different radiation x x
patterns which can be produced by a single antenna,
one for mapping (cosecant-squared) and the other
for weather (pencil/cone-shaped).
05 Describe the cone-shaped pencil beam of about 3° to x x
5° beam width used for weather depiction.
06 Explain that in modern AWRs a single radiation x x
pattern is used for both mapping and weather
with the scanning angle being changed between
them.
01 Explain the functions of the following different x x
modes on the radar control panel:
– off/on switch;
– function switch, with WX, WX+T and MAP
modes;
– gain-control setting (auto/manual);
– tilt/auto tilt switch.
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02 Name, for areas of differing reflection intensity, the x x
colour gradations (green, yellow, red and magenta)
indicating the increasing intensity of precipitation.
03 Illustrate the use of azimuth-marker lines and range x x
lines in respect of the relative bearing and the
distance to a thunderstorm or to a landmark on the
screen.
01 Explain how the radar is used for weather detection x x
and for mapping (range, tilt and gain, if available).
062 03 03 04 Errors, accuracy, limitations
01 Explain why AWR should be used with extreme x x
caution when on the ground.
01 Explain the danger of the area behind heavy rain x x
(shadow area) where no radar waves will penetrate.
02 Explain why the tilt setting should be higher when x x
the aircraft descends to a lower altitude.
03 Explain why the tilt setting should be lower when the x x
aircraft climbs to a higher altitude.
04 Explain why a thunderstorm may not be detected x x
when the tilt is set too high.
062 03 03 06 Application for navigation
01 Describe the navigation function of the radar in the x x
mapping mode.
02 Describe the use of the weather radar to avoid a x x
thunderstorm (Cb).
03 Explain how turbulence (not CAT) can be detected by x x
a modern weather radar.
04 Explain how windshear can be detected by a modern x x
weather radar.
062 03 04 00 Secondary surveillance radar and transponder
01 Explain that the Air Traffic Control (ATC) system is x x x x
based on the replies provided by the airborne
transponders in response to interrogations from the
ATC secondary radar.
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02 Explain that the ground ATC secondary radar uses x x x x
techniques which provide the ATC with information
that cannot be acquired by the primary radar.
03 Explain that an airborne transponder provides x x x x
coded-reply signals in response to interrogation
signals from the ground secondary radar and from
aircraft equipped with TCAS.
04 Explain the advantages of SSR over a primary radar. x x x x
062 03 04 02 Modes and codes
01 Explain that the interrogator transmits its x x x x
interrogations in the form of a series of pulses.
02 Name and explain the interrogation modes: x x x x
– Mode A and C;
– Intermode:
• Mode A/C/S all call;
• Made A/C only all call;
– Mode S:
• Mode S only all call;
• broadcast (no reply elicited);
• selective.
03 State that the interrogation frequency is 1 030 x x x x
MHz and the reply frequency is 1 090 MHz.
04 Explain that the decoding of the time between x x x x
the interrogation pulses determines the operating
mode of the transponder:
– Mode A: transmission of aircraft
transponder code;
– Mode C: transmission of aircraft pressure
altitude;
– Mode S: aircraft selection and transmission
of flight data for the ground surveillance.
05 State that the ground interrogation signal is x x x x
transmitted in the form of pairs of pulses P1 and
P3 for Mode A and C, and that a control pulse
P2 is transmitted following the first interrogation
pulse P1.
06 Explain that the interval between P1 and P3 x x x x
determines the mode of interrogation, Mode A or C.
07 State that the radiated amplitude of P2 from the side x x x x
lobes and from the main lobe is different.
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08 State that Mode-A designation is a sequence of four x x x x
digits which can be manually selected from 4 096
available codes.
09 State that in Mode-C reply the pressure altitude is x x x x
reported in 100-ft increments.
10 State that in addition to the information pulses x x x x
provided, a Special Position Identification (SPI) pulse
can be transmitted but only as a result of a manual
selection (IDENT).
11 Explain the need for compatibility of Mode S with x x x x
Mode A and C.
12 Explain that Mode-S transponders receive x x x x
interrogations from other Mode-S transponders and
SSR ground stations.
13 State that Mode-S surveillance protocols implicitly x x x x
use the principle of selective addressing.
14 Explain that every aircraft will have been allocated x x x x
an ICAO Aircraft Address which is hard-coded into
the airframe (Mode-S address).
15 Explain that the ICAO Aircraft Address consists of 24 x x x x
bits (therefore more than 16 000 000 possible codes)
allocated by the registering authority of the State in
which the aircraft is registered.
16 Explain that this (24-bit) address is included in all x x x x
Mode-S transmissions, so that every interrogation
can be directed to a specific aircraft, preventing
multiple replies.
17 State that the ground interrogation signal is x x x x
transmitted in the form of P1, P3 and P4 pulses for
Mode S.
18 Interpret the following Mode-S terms: x x x x
– selective addressing;
– mode ‘all call’;
– selective call.
19 State that Mode-S interrogation contains either: x x x x
– aircraft address;
– all call address;
– broadcast address.
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20 Mode A/C/S all-call consists of 3 pulses: P1, P3 and x x x x
the long P4. A control pulse P2 is transmitted
following P1 to suppress responses from aircraft in
the side lobes of the interrogation antenna.
21 Mode A/C only all-call consists of 3 pulses: P1, P3 x x x x
and the short P4.
22 State that there are 25 possible Mode-S reply x x x x
forms.
23 State that the reply message consists of a preamble x x x x
and a data block.
24 State that the Aircraft Address shall be x x x x
transmitted in any reply except in Mode-S only all-
call reply.
25 Explain that Mode S can provide enhanced x x x x
vertical tracking, using a 25-feet altitude
increment.
26 Explain how SSR can be used for ADS B. x x x x
01 Explain how an aircraft can be identified by a x x x x
unique code.
02 Illustrate how the following information is x x x x
presented on the radar screen:
– pressure altitude;
– flight level;
– flight number or aircraft registration;
– ground speed.
03 Name and interpret the codes 7700, 7600 and 7500. x x x x
04 Interpret the selector modes: OFF, Standby, ON x x x x
(mode A), ALT (mode A and C), and TEST.
05 Explain the function of the emission of a Special x x x x
Position Identification (SPI) pulse after pushing the
IDENT button in the aircraft.
ELEMENTARY SURVEILLANCE
06 Explain that the elementary surveillance provides x x x x
the ATC controller with the aircraft’s position,
altitude and identification.
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07 State that the elementary surveillance needs Mode-S x x x x
transponders with Surveillance Identifier (SI) code
capacity and the automatic reporting of aircraft
identification, known as ICAO Level 2s.
08 State that the SI code must correspond to the x x x x
aircraft identification specified in item 7 of the ICAO
flight plan or to the registration marking.
09 State that only the ICAO identification format is x x x x
compatible with the ATS ground system.
10 State that Mode-S-equipped aircraft with a x x x x
maximum mass in excess of 5 700 kg or a maximum
cruising true airspeed capability in excess of 250 kt
must operate with transponder antenna diversity.
11 Describe the different types of communication x x x x
protocols (A, B, C and D).
12 Explain that elementary surveillance is based on x x x x
Ground-Initiated Comm-B protocols.
ENHANCED SURVEILLANCE
13 State that enhanced surveillance consists of the x x x x
extraction of additional aircraft parameters known
as Downlink Aircraft Parameters (DAP) consisting of:
– magnetic heading;
– indicated airspeed;
– Mach number;
– vertical rate;
– roll angle;
– track angle rate;
– true track angle;
– ground speed;
– selected altitude.
14 Explain that the controller’s information is improved x x x x
by providing actual aircraft - derived data such as
magnetic heading, indicated airspeed, vertical rate
and selected altitude.
15 Explain that the automatic extraction of an aircraft’s x x x x
parameters, and their presentation to the controller,
will reduce their R/T workload and will free them to
concentrate on ensuring the safe and efficient
passage of air traffic.
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16 Explain that the reduction in radiotelephony x x x x
between the air traffic controllers and the pilots will
reduce pilot workload and remove a potential source
of error.
01 Explain the following disadvantages of SSR (Mode x x x x
A/C):
– code garbling of aircraft less than
– 1.7 NM apart measured in the vertical plane
perpendicular to and from the antenna;
– ‘fruiting’ which results from the reception
of replies caused by interrogations from
other radar stations.
062 04 00 00 INTENTONALLY LEFT BLANK
062 05 00 00 AREA NAVIGATION SYSTEMS, RNAV/FMS
062 05 04 00 Flight Management System (FMS) and general
terms
062 05 04 01 Navigation and flight management
01 Explain that the development of computers which x x
combine reliable liquid crystal displays offer the
means of accessing more data and displaying them
to the flight crew.
02 Explain that a flight management system has the x x
ability to monitor and direct both navigation and
performance of the flight.
03 Explain the two functions common to all FMS x x
systems:
– automatic navigation Lateral Navigation
(LNAV);
– flight path management Vertical Navigation
(VNAV).
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04 Name the main components of the FMS system as x x
being:
– Flight Management Computer (FMC);
– Control and Display Unit (CDU);
– symbol generator;
– Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS)
consisting of the NAV display, including
mode selector and attitude display;
– Auto-throttle (A/T) and Flight Control
Computer (FCC).
062 05 04 02 Flight management computer
01 State that the centre of the flight management x x
system is the FMC with its stored navigation and
performance data.
062 05 04 03 Navigation database
01 State that the navigation database of the FMC may x x
contain the following data:
– reference data for airports (4-letter ICAO
identifier);
– VOR/DME station data (3-letter ICAO
identifier);
– waypoint data (5-letter ICAO identifier);
– STAR data;
– SID data;
– holding patterns;
– airport runway data;
– NDB stations (alphabetic ICAO identifier);
– company flight-plan routes.
02 State that the navigation database is updated every x x
28 days.
03 State that the navigational database is write- x x
protected, but additional space exists so that crew-
created navigational data may be saved in the
computer’s memory. Such additional data will also
be deleted at the 28-day navigational update of the
database.
062 05 04 04 Performance database
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01 State that the performance database stores all x x
the data relating to the specific aircraft/engine
configuration and is updated by ground staff when
necessary.
02 State that the performance database of the x x
FMC contains the following data:
– V1, VR and V2 speeds;
– aircraft drag;
– engine-thrust characteristics;
– maximum and optimum operating altitudes;
– speeds for maximum and optimum climb;
– speeds for long-range cruise, maximum
endurance and holding;
– maximum Zero-Fuel Mass (ZFM), maximum
Take-Off Mass (TOM) and maximum Landing
Mass (LM);
– fuel-flow parameters;
– aircraft flight envelope.
062 05 04 05 Typical input/output data from the FMC
01 State the following are typical input data to the x x
FMC:
– time;
– fuel flow;
– total fuel;
– TAS, altitude, vertical speed, Mach number
and outside- air temperature from the Air-
Data Computer (ADC);
– DME and radial information from the
VHF/NAV receivers;
– air/ground position;
– flaps/slat position;
– IRS and GPS positions;
– Control and Display Unit (CDU) entries.
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02 State that the following are typical output data from x x
the FMC:
– command signals to the flight directors and
autopilot;
– command signals to the auto-throttle;
– information to the EFIS displays through the
symbol generator;
– data to the CDU and various annunciators.
062 05 04 06 Determination of the FMS position of the aircraft
01 State that modern FMS may use a range of sensors x x
for calculating the position of the aircraft including
VOR, DME, GPS, IRS and ILS.
02 State that the information from the sensors used x x
may be blended into a single position by using the
Kalman-filter method.
03 State that the Kalman filter is an algorithm for x x
filtering incomplete and noisy measurements of
dynamical processes so that errors of measurements
from different sensors are minimised, thus leading to
the calculated position being more accurate than
that produced by any single sensor.
062 05 05 00 Typical flight-deck equipment fitted on FMS
aircraft
062 05 05 01 Control and Display Unit (CDU)
01 State that the communication link between the flight x x
crew and the FMC is the CDU.
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02 Explain the main components of the CDU as x x
follows:
– CDU display including the following terms:
• page title;
• data field;
• scratch pad;
– line-select keys;
– numeric keys;
– alpha keys;
– function and mode keys used to select
specific data pages on the CDU display, to
execute orders or to navigate to pages
through the data presented;
– warning lights, message light and offset
light.
062 05 05 02 EFIS instruments (attitude display, navigation
display)
01 State that FMS-equipped aircraft typically has two x x
displays on the instrument panel in front of each
pilot.
02 State that the following data are typically displayed x x
on the attitude display:
– attitude information;
– flight director command bars;
– radio height and barometric altitude;
– course deviation indication;
– glide-path information (when an ILS is
tuned);
– speed information.
062 05 05 03 Typical modes of the navigation display
01 State that the following typical modes of the x x
navigation display:
– full VOR/ILS mode showing the whole
compass rose;
– expanded (arc) VOR/ILS mode showing the
forward 90º sector;
– map mode;
– plan mode.
062 05 05 04 Typical information on the navigation display
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01 List and interpret the following information typically x x
shown on a navigation display in ‘Full VOR/ILS’
mode:
– the map display will be in full VOR mode
when a VOR frequency is selected, and full
ILS mode when an ILS frequency is selected
on the VHF NAV frequency selector;
– DME distance to selected DME station;
– a full 360° compass rose.
At the top of the compass rose, present heading is
indicated and shown as digital numbers in a heading
box. Next to the heading box it is indicated whether
the heading is true or magnetic. True heading is
available on aircraft with IRS.
A triangle (different symbols are used on different
aircraft) on the compass rose indicates present track.
Track indication is only available when the FMC
navigation computer is able to compute the aircraft’s
position. A square symbol on the outside of the
compass rose indicates the selected heading for the
autopilot, and if ‘heading select’ mode is activated
on the autopilot, this is the heading the aircraft will
turn to.
Within the compass rose, a CDI is shown. On the CDI,
the course pointer points to the selected VOR/ILS
course SET on the OBS. On the CDI, the course
deviation bar will indicate angular deflection from
the selected VOR/ILS track. Full-scale deflection side
to side in VOR mode is 20°, and 5° in ILS mode. In
VOR mode, a TO/FROM indication is shown on the
display.
The selected ILS/VOR frequency is shown.
ILS or VOR mode is shown according to the selected
frequency.
If an ILS frequency is selected, a glide- path deviation
scale is shown.
02 A wind arrow indicating wind direction according to x x
the compass rose, and velocity in numbers next to
the arrow.
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03 Given an EFIS navigation display in full VOR/ILS x x
mode, read off the following information:
– heading (magnetic/true);
– track (magnetic/true);
– drift;
– wind correction angle;
– selected course;
– actual radial;
– left or right of selected track;
– above or below the glide path;
– distance to the DME station;
– selected heading for the autopilot heading
select bug;
– determine whether the display is in VOR or
ILS rose mode.
04 Given an EFIS navigation display in expanded x x
VOR/ILS mode, read off the following information:
– drift;
– tailwind/headwind;
– wind velocity;
– selected course;
– actual radial;
– left or right of selected track;
– above or below the glide path;
– distance to the DME station;
select bug;
– state whether the display is in VOR or ILS
rose mode.
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05 Given an EFIS navigation display in map mode, x x
read off the following information:
– drift;
– tailwind/headwind;
– wind velocity;
– left or right of the FMS track;
– distance to active waypoint;
– ETO next waypoint;
select bug;
– determine whether a depicted symbol is a
VOR/DME station or an airport;
– determine whether a specific waypoint is
part of the FMS route.
06 Given an EFIS navigation display in plan mode, read x x
off the following information:
– heading (magnetic/true)
– track (magnetic/true)
– drift;
– distance to active waypoint;
– ETO active waypoint;
– state the selected heading for the autopilot
heading select bug;
– measure and state true track of specific
FMS route track.
062 06 00 00 GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS
062 06 01 00 GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO
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01 State that there are two main Global Navigation x x x x
Satellite Systems (GNSS) currently in existence with
a third one which is planned to be fully
operational by 2011. These are:
– USA Navigation System with Timing and
Ranging Global Positioning System
(NAVSTAR GPS);
– Russian Global Navigation Satellite System
(GLONASS);
– European GALILEO.
02 State that all three systems (will) consist of a x x x x
constellation of satellites which can be used by
a suitably equipped receiver to determine
position.
NAVSTAR GPS
01 State that there are currently two modes of x x x x
operation: Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for
civilian users, and Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
for authorised users.
02 SPS was originally designed to provide civilian users x x x x
with a less accurate positioning capability than PPS.
03 Name the three segments as follows: x x x x
– space segment;
– control segment;
– user segment.
Space segment
04 State that the space segment consists of a notional x x x x
constellation of 24 operational satellites.
05 State that the satellites are orbiting the Earth in x x x x
orbits inclined 55° to the plane of the equator.
06 State that the satellites are in a nearly circular orbit x x x x
of the Earth at an altitude of 20 200 km (10 900 NM).
07 State that the satellites are distributed in 6 orbital x x x x
planes with at least 4 satellites in each.
08 State that a satellite completes an orbit in x x x x
approximately 12 hours.
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09 State that each satellite broadcasts ranging signals x x x x
on two UHF frequencies: L1 1575.42 MHz and L2
1227.6 MHz.
10 State that SPS is a positioning and timing service x x x x
provided on frequency L1.
11 State that PPS uses both frequencies L1 and L2. x x x x
12 In 2005, the first replacement satellite was launched x x x x
with a new military M code on the L1 frequency, and
a second signal for civilian use L2C on the L2
frequency.
13 State that the ranging signal contains a Coarse x x x x
Acquisition (C/A) code and a navigational data
message.
14 State that the navigation message contains: x x x x
– almanac data;
– ephemeris;
– satellite clock correction parameters;
– UTC parameters;
– ionospheric model;
– satellite health data.
15 State that it takes 12,5 minutes for a GPS receiver to x x x x
receive all the data frames in the navigation
message.
16 State that the almanac contains the orbital data x x x x
about all the satellites in the GPS constellation.
17 State that the ephemeris contains data used to x x x x
correct the orbital data of the satellites due to small
disturbances.
18 State that the clock correction parameters are data x x x x
for the correction of the satellite time.
19 State that UTC parameters are factors determining x x x x
the difference between GPS time and UTC.
20 State that an ionospheric model is currently used to x x x x
calculate the time delay of the signal travelling
through the ionosphere.
21 State that the GPS health message is used to exclude x x x x
unhealthy satellites from the position solution.
Satellite health is determined by the validity of the
navigation data.
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22 State that GPS uses the WGS-84 model. x x x x
23 State that two codes are transmitted on the L1 x x x x
frequency, namely a C/A code and a Precision (P)
code. The P code is not used for SPS.
24 State that the C/A code is a Pseudo Random Noise x x x x
(PRN) code sequence, repeating every millisecond.
Each C/A code is unique and provides the
mechanism to identify each satellite.
25 State that satellites broadcast the PRN codes with x x x x
reference to the satellite vehicle time which are
subsequently changed by the receiver to UTC.
26 State that satellites are equipped with atomic clocks, x x x x
which allow the system to keep very accurate time
reference.
Control segment
27 State that the control segment comprises: x x x x
– a master control station;
– ground antenna;
– monitoring stations.
28 State that the master control station is responsible x x x x
for all aspects of the constellation command and
control.
29 State that the main tasks of the control x x x x
segment are:
– managing SPS performance;
– navigation data upload;
– monitoring satellites.
User segment
30 State that GPS supplies three- dimensional position x x x x
fixes and speed data, plus a precise time reference.
31 State that the GPS receiver used in aviation is a x x x x
multichannel type.
32 State that a GPS receiver is able to determine the x x x x
distance to a satellite by determining the difference
between the time of transmission by the satellite
and the time of reception.
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33 State that the initial distance calculated to the x x x x
satellites is called pseudo-range because the
difference between the GPS receiver and the
satellite time references initially creates an
erroneous range.
34 State that each range defines a sphere with its x x x x
centre at the satellite.
35 State that three satellites are needed to determine a x x x x
two-dimensional position.
36 State that four spheres are needed to calculate a x x x x
three-dimensional position, hence four satellites are
required.
37 State that the GPS receiver is able to synchronise to x x x x
the correct time base when receiving four satellites.
38 State that the receiver can calculate aircraft ground x x x x
speed using the SV Doppler frequency shift and/or
the change in receiver position over time.
NAVSTAR GPS integrity
39 Define ‘Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring x x x x
(RAIM)’. A technique whereby a receiver processor
determines the integrity of the navigation signals.
40 State that RAIM is achieved by consistency check x x x x
among pseudo-range measurements.
41 State that basic RAIM requires five satellites. A sixth x x x x
is for isolating a faulty satellite from the navigation
solution.
42 State that when a GPS receiver uses barometric x x x x
altitude as an augmentation to RAIM, the number of
satellites needed for the receiver to perform the
RAIM function may be reduced by one.
GLONASS
43 List the three components of GLONASS: x x x x
– space segment, which contains the
constellation of satellites;
– control segment, which contains the
ground-based facilities;
– user segment, which contains the user
equipment.
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44 State the composition of the constellation in the x x x x
‘space segment’:
– 24 satellites in 3 orbital planes with 8
equally displaced by 45° of latitude;
– a near-circular orbit at 19 100 km at an
inclination of 64.8° to the equator;
– each orbit is completed in 11 hours and 15
minutes.
45 State that the control segment provides: x x x x
– monitoring of the constellation status;
– correction to orbital parameters;
– navigation data uploading.
46 State that the user equipment consists of receivers x x x x
and processors for the navigation signals for the
calculation of the coordinates, velocity and time.
47 State that the time reference is UTC. x x x x
48 State that the datum used is PZ-90 Earth-centred x x x x
Earth-fixed.
49 State that each satellite transmits navigation signals x x x x
on two frequencies of L-band, L1 1.6 GHz and L2 1.2
GHz.
50 State that L1 is a standard-accuracy signal designed x x x x
for civilian users worldwide and L2 is a high-accuracy
signal modulated by a special code for authorised
users only.
51 State that the navigation message has a duration of x x x x
2 seconds and contains ‘immediate’ data which
relates to the actual satellite transmitting the given
navigation signal and ‘non-immediate’ data which
relates to all other satellites within the constellation.
52 State that ‘immediate data’ consists of: x x x x
– enumeration of the satellite time marks;
– difference between onboard time scale of
the satellite and GLONASS time;
– relative differences between carrier
frequency of the satellite and its nominal
value;
– ephemeris parameters.
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53 State that ‘non-immediate’ data consist of: x x x x
– data on the status of all satellites within the
space segment;
– coarse corrections to onboard time scales
of each satellite relative to GLONASS time;
– orbital parameters of all satellites within
the space segment;
– correction to GLONASS time relative to UTC
(must remain within 1 microsecond).
54 State that integrity monitoring includes checking the x x x x
quality of the characteristics of the navigation signal
and the data within the navigation message.
55 State that integrity monitoring is implemented in x x x x
two ways:
– Continuous automatic operability
monitoring of principal systems in each
satellite. If a malfunction occurs, an
‘unhealthy’ flag appears within the
‘immediate data’ of the navigation
message.
Special tracking stations within the ground-based
control segment are used to monitor the space-
segment performance. If a malfunction occurs, an
‘unhealthy’ flag appears within the ‘immediate data’
of the navigation message.
56 State that agreements have been concluded x x x x
between the appropriate agencies for the
interoperability by any approved user of NAVSTAR
and GLONASS systems.
GALILEO
57 State that the core of the Galileo constellation x x x x
will consist of 30 satellites with 9 plus a spare
replacement in each of the 3 planes in near-
circular orbit at an altitude of 23 222 km
inclined at 56° to the plane of the equator.
58 State that the signals will be transmitted in 3 x x x x
frequency bands: 1 164–1 215 MHz, 1 260–1 300
MHz and 1 559–1 591 MHz (1 559–1 591 MHz will
be shared with GPS on a non-interference basis).
59 State that each orbit will take 14 hours. x x x x
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60 State that each satellite has three sections: x x x x
timing, signal generation and transmit.
61 State that in the ‘timing section’ two clocks have x x x x
been developed, a Rubidium Frequency Standard
clock and a more precise Passive Hydrogen Maser
clock.
62 State that the signal generation contains the x x x x
navigation signals.
63 State that the navigation signals consist of a ranging- x x x x
code identifier and the navigation message.
64 State that the navigation message basically contains x x x x
information concerning the satellite orbit
(ephemeris) and the clock references.
65 State that the navigation message is ‘up- converted’ x x x x
on four navigation signal carriers and the outputs are
combined in a multiplexer before transmission in the
transmit section.
66 State that the navigation antenna has been designed x x x x
to minimise interference between satellites by
having equal power level propagation paths
independent of elevation angle.
67 State that the system is monitored in a similar way x x x x
for both GPS NAVSTAR and GLONASS, but also by a
new method based on spread-spectrum signals.
68 State that tracking, telemetry and command x x x x
operations are controlled by sophisticated data
encryption and authentication procedures.
69 GPS, EGNOS and GALILEO are compatible, will not x x x x
interfere with each other, and the performance of
the receiver will be enhanced by the interoperability
of the systems.
GALILEO future developments
Info: Further Learning Objectives will be written as
details are released.
062 06 01 03 Errors and factors affecting accuracy
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01 List the most significant factors affecting x x x x
accuracy:
– ionospheric propagation delay;
– dilution of position;
– satellite clock error;
– satellite orbital variations;
– multipath.
02 State that Ionospheric Propagation Delay (IPD) can x x x x
almost be eliminated by using two frequencies.
03 State that in SPS receivers, IPD is currently x x x x
corrected by using the ionospheric model from
the navigation message, but the error is only
reduced by 50 %.
04 State that ionospheric delay is the most x x x x
significant error.
05 State that dilution of position arises from the x x x x
geometry and number of satellites in view. It is
called Position Dilution of Precision (PDOP).
06 State that errors in the satellite orbits are due x x x x
to:
– solar wind;
– gravitation of the Sun, Moon and planets.
07 State that multipath is when the signal arrives at the x x x x
receiver via more than one path (the signal being
reflected from surfaces near the receiver).
062 06 02 00 Ground, satellite and airborne-based
augmentation systems
062 06 02 01 Ground-Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS)
01 Explain the principle of a GBAS: to measure on x x x x
ground the signal errors transmitted by GNSS
satellites and relay the measured errors to the user
for correction.
02 State that the ICAO GBAS standard is based on x x x x
this technique through the use of a data link in
the VHF band of ILS– VOR systems (108–118
MHz).
03 State that for a GBAS station the coverage is about x x x x
30 km.
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04 Explain that ICAO Standards provide the x x x x
possibility to interconnect GBAS stations to form
a network broadcasting large- scale differential
corrections. Such a system is identified as
Ground Regional Augmentation System (GRAS).
05 Explain that GBAS ground subsystems provide two x x x x
services: precision approach service and GBAS
positioning service.
The precision approach service provides deviation
guidance for final-approach Segments, while the
GBAS positioning service provides horizontal position
information to support RNAV operations in terminal
areas.
06 Explain that one ground station can support all the x x x x
aircraft subsystems within its coverage providing the
aircraft with approach data, corrections and integrity
information for GNSS satellites in view via a VHF
Data Broadcast (VDB).
07 State that the minimum GBAS plan coverage is 15 x x x x
NM from the landing threshold point within 35°
apart the final approach path and 10° apart between
15 and 20 NM.
08 State that GBAS based on GPS is sometimes called x x x x
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS).
09 Describe the characteristics of a Local Area x x x x
Augmentation System (LAAS) with respect to:
– differential corrections applied to a satellite
signal by a ground-based reference station;
– regional service providers to compute the
integrity of the satellite signals over their
region;
– extra accuracy for extended coverage
around airports, railways, seaports and
urban areas as required by the user.
062 06 02 02 Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)
01 Explain the principle of a SBAS: to measure on the x x x x
ground the signal errors transmitted by GNSS
satellites and transmit differential corrections and
integrity messages for navigation satellites.
02 State that the frequency band of the data link is x x x x
identical to that of the GPS signals.
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03 Explain that the use of geostationary satellites x x x x
enables messages to be broadcast over very wide
areas.
04 Explain that pseudo-range measurements to these x x x x
geostationary satellites can also be made, as if they
were GPS satellites.
05 State that SBAS consists of three elements: x x x x
– the ground infrastructure (monitoring and
processing stations);
– the SBAS satellites;
– the SBAS airborne receivers.
06 Explain that the SBAS station network measures the x x x x
pseudo-range between the ranging source and an
SBAS receiver at the known locations and provides
separate corrections for ranging source ephemeris
errors, clock errors and ionospheric errors. The user
applies corrections for tropospheric delay.
07 Explain that SBAS can provide approach and landing x x x x
operations with vertical guidance (APV) and
precision approach service.
08 Explain the difference between ‘coverage area’ and x x x x
‘service area’.
09 State that Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems x x x x
include:
– EGNOS in western Europe and the
Mediterranean;
– WAAS in the USA;
– MSAS in Japan;
– GAGAN in India.
10 Explain that SBAS systems regionally augment GPS x x x x
and GLONASS by making them suitable for safety-
critical applications such as landing aircraft.
062 06 02 03 European Geostationary Navigation Overlay
Service (EGNOS)
01 State that EGNOS consists of three geostationary x x x x
Inmarsat satellites which broadcast GPS lookalike
signals.
02 State that EGNOS is designed to improve accuracy to x x x x
1–2 m horizontally and 3– 5 m vertically.
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03 Explain that integrity and safety are improved by x x x x
alerting users within 6 seconds if a GPS malfunction
occurs (up to 3 hours GPS alone).
062 06 02 04 Airborne-Based Augmentation Systems (ABAS)
01 Explain the principle of ABAS: to use redundant x x x x
elements within the GPS constellation (e.g.:
multiplicity of distance measurements to various
satellites) or the combination of GNSS
measurements with those of other navigation
sensors (such as inertial systems) in order to develop
integrity control.
02 State that the type of ABAS using only GNSS x x x x
information is named Receiver Autonomous
Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).
03 State that a system using information from x x x x
additional onboard sensors is named Aircraft
Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (AAIM).
04 Explain that the typical sensors used are barometric x x x x
altimeter, clock and inertial navigation system.
05 Explain that unlike GBAS and SBAS, ABAS do not x x x x
improve positioning accuracy.
062.07.00.00 PBN
062.07.01.00 PBN concept (as described in ICAO Doc 9613)
062.07.01.01 PBN principle
01 List the factors used to define RNAV or PBN system x x
performance requirement (accuracy, integrity,
continuity and functionality).
02 Explain the concept of continuity. x x
03 Explain the concept of integrity x x
04 State that, unlike conventional navigation, x x
performance-based navigation is not sensor-specific.
05 Explain the difference between raw data and x x
computed data.
062.07.01.02 PBN components
01 List the components of PBN as NAVAID x x
infrastructure, navigation specification and
navigation application.
02 Identify the components from an example. x x
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062 07 01 03 PBN scope
01 State in oceanic/remote, en-route and terminal x x
phase of flight PBN is limited to operations with
linear lateral performance requirements and time
constraints.
02 State that in the approach phase of flight PBN x x
accommodates both linear and angular laterally
guided operations.
062 07 02 00 Navigational specifications
062 07 02 01 RNAV and RNP
01 State the difference between RNAV and RNP in x x
terms of the requirements for on-board
performance monitoring and alerting.
062 07 02 02 Navigational functional requirements
01 List the basic functional requirements of RNAV and x x
RNP specifications (continuous indication of lateral
deviation, distance/bearing to active waypoint, g/s
or time to active waypoint, navigation data storage
and failure indications).
062 07 02 03 Designation of RNP and RNAV specifications
01 Interpret “X” in RNAV X or RNP X as the lateral x x
navigation accuracy (total system error) in nautical
miles, which is expected to be achieved at least 95
per cent of the flight time by the population of
aircraft operating within the airspace, route or
procedure.
02 State that aircraft approved to the more stringent x x
accuracy requirements may not necessarily meet
some of the functional requirements of the
navigation specification having a less stringent
accuracy requirement.
03 State that RNAV10 and RNP4 are used in the x x
oceanic/remote phase of flight.
04 State that RNAV5 is used in the en route and arrival x x
phase of flight.
05 State that RNAV2 and RNP2 are also used as x x
navigation specifications.
06 State that RNP2 is used in the en route and x x
oceanic/remote phases of flight.
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Learning Objectives
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07 State that RNAV1 and RNP1 are used in the arrival x x
and departure phases of flight.
08 State that RNP APCH is used in the approach phase x x
of flight.
09 State that RNP AR APCH is used in the approach x x
phase of flight.
10 State that RNP 0.3 navigation specification is used in x x
all phases of flight, except for oceanic/remote and
final approach, primarily for helicopters.
062 07 03 00 Use of PBN
062 07 03 01 Airspace planning
01 State that navigation performance is one factor used x x
to determine minimum route spacing.
062 07 03 02 Approval
01 State that the airworthiness approval process x x
assures that each item of the area navigation
equipment installed is of a type and design
appropriate to its intended function and that the
installation functions properly under foreseeable
operating conditions.
02 State that some PBN specifications require x x
operational approval.
062 07 03 03 Specific RNAV and RNP system functions
01 Recognise the definition of an RF leg. x x
02 Recognise the definition of a fixed radius transition. x x
03 Recognise the definition of a fly-by-turn and a fly- x x
over
04 Recognise the definition of a holding pattern. x x
05 Recognise the definition of an “ARINC 424 path x x
terminator”
06 Recognise the definition of the following path x x
terminators:
IF, TF, CF, DF, FA, CA.
07 Recognise the definition of an offset flight path. x x
062 07 03 04 Data processes
01 State that the safety of the application is contingent x x
upon the accuracy, resolution and integrity of the
data
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02 State that the accuracy of the data depends upon x x
the processes applied during data origination.
062 07 04 00 PBN operations
062 07 04 01 PBN principles
01 Recognise the definition of path definition error. x x
02 Recognise the definition of flight technical error. x x
03 Recognise the definition of navigation system error. x x
04 Recognise the definition of total system error. x x
062 07 04 02 On-board performance monitoring and alerting
01 State that on-board performance monitoring and x x
alerting of flight technical error is managed by on-
board systems or crew procedures.
alerting of navigation system error is a requirement
of on-board equipment for RNP.
alerting of path definition error are managed by
gross reasonableness checks of navigation data.
062 07 04 03 Abnormal situation
01 State that abnormal and contingency procedures are x x
to be used in case of loss of the PBN capability.
062 07 04 04 Database management
01 State that, unless otherwise specified in operations x x
documentation or AMC, the navigational database
must be valid for the current AIRAC cycle.
062 07 05 00 Requirements of specific RNAV and RNP
specifications
062 07 05 01 RNAV10
01 State that RNAV10 requires that aircraft operating in x x
oceanic and remote areas be equipped with at least
two independent and serviceable LRNSs comprising
an INS, an IRS FMS or a GNSS.
02 State that aircraft incorporating dual inertial x x
navigation systems (INS) or inertial reference units
(IRU) have a standard time limitation.
03 State that operators may extend their RNAV10 x x
navigation capability time by updating.
062 07 05 02 RNAV5
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Learning Objectives
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01 State that manual data entry is acceptable for x x
RNAV5.
062 07 05 03 RNAV/RNP1/2
01 State that pilots must not fly an RNAV/RNP1/2 SID or x x
STAR unless it is retrievable by route name from the
onboard navigation database and conforms to the
charted route.
02 State that the route may subsequently be modified x x
through the insertion (from the database) or
deletion of specific waypoints in response to ATC
clearances.
03 State that the manual entry, or creation of new x x
waypoints by manual entry, of latitude and longitude
or place/bearing/ distance values is not permitted.
062 07 05 04 RNP4
01 State that at least two LRNSs, capable of navigating x x
to RNP4 and listed in the flight manual, must be
operational at the entry point of the RNP airspace
062 07 05 05 RNP APCH
01 State that pilots must not fly an RNP APCH unless it is x x
retrievable by procedure name from the on-board
navigation database and conforms to the charted
procedure.
02 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV minima is a non- x x
precision instrument approach procedure designed
for 2D approach operations.
03 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima has x x
lateral guidance based on GNSS and vertical
guidance based on either SBAS or BaroVNAV.
04 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima may x x
only be conducted with vertical guidance certified
for the purpose.
05 Explain why an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima x x
based on BaroVNAV may only be conducted when
the aerodrome temperature is within a promulgated
range.
06 State that the correct altimeter setting is critical for x x
the safe conduct of an RNP APCH using BaroVNAV.
07 State that an RNP APCH to LNAV/VNAV minima is a x x
3D operation.
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08 State that an RNP APCH to LPV minima is a 3D x x
operation.
09 State that RNP APCH to LPV minima requires an FAS x x
data-block.
062 07 05 06 RNP AR APCH
01 State that RNP AR APCH requires authorisation. x x
062 07 05 07 A-RNP
01 State that Advanced RNP incorporates the x x
navigation specifications RNAV5, RNAV2, RNAV1,
RNP2, RNP1 and RNP APCH.
02 State that Advanced RNP may be associated with x x
other functional elements.
062 07 05 08 PBN Point in Space (PinS) departure
01 State that a PinS departure is a departure procedure x
designed for helicopters only.
02 State that a PinS departure procedure includes x
either a “proceed VFR” or a “proceed visually”
instruction from landing location to IDF.
03 Recognise the differences between “proceed VFR” x
and “proceed visually” instruction
062 07 05 09 PBN Point in Space (PinS) approach
01 State that a PinS approach is an instrument RNP x
APCH procedure designed for helicopters only, and
that may be published with LNAV minima or LPV
minima.
02 State that a PinS approach procedure includes either x
a “proceed VFR” or a “proceed visually” instruction
from the MAPt to a landing location.
03 Recognise the differences between “proceed VFR” x
and “proceed visually” instruction.
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L. SUBJECT 070 – OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
L. SUBJECT 070 - OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
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070 00 00 00 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
071 01 00 00 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
071 01 01 00 ICAO Annex 6
01 Alternate aerodrome: take-off alternate, en x x
route alternate, ETOPS en route alternate,
destination alternate (ICAO Annex 6, Part I,
Chapter 1).
02 Alternate heliport (ICAO Annex 6, Part III, x x
Section 1, Chapter 1).
03 Flight time — aeroplanes (ICAO Annex 6, Part I, x x
Chapter 1).
04 Flight time — helicopters (ICAO Annex 6, Part x x
III, Section 1, Chapter 1).
071 01 01 02 Applicability
01 State that Part I shall be applicable to the x x
operation of aeroplanes by operators
authorised to conduct international
commercial air transport operations (ICAO
Annex 6, Part I, Chapter 2).
02 State that Part III shall be applicable to all x x
helicopters engaged in international
commercial air transport operations or in
international general aviation operations,
except it is not applicable to helicopters
engaged in aerial work (ICAO Annex 6, Part III,
Section 1, Chapter 2).
071 01 01 03 General
01 State compliance with laws, regulations and x x x x
procedures (ICAO Annex 6, Part I, Chapter
3.1/Part III, Section 2, Chapter 1.1).
02 State accident prevention and flight safety x x
programme (ICAO Annex 6, Part I, Chapter 3.2).
03 State flight safety documents system (ICAO x x
Annex 6, Part I, Chapter 3.3).
04 State maintenance release (ICAO Annex 6, Part x x x x
I, Chapter 8.8/Part III, Section 2, Chapter 6.7).
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Learning Objectives
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05 List and describe the lights to be displayed by x x
aircraft (ICAO Annex 6 , Part I, Appendix 1).
071 01 02 00 Operational requirements
071 01 02 01 Applicability
01 State the operational regulations applicable to x x x x
commercial air transportation.
02 Nature of operations and exceptions. x x x x
071 01 02 02 General
01 State that a commercial air transportation x x x x
flight must meet the applicable operational
requirements.
02 Flight Manual limitations — Flight through x x
the Height Velocity (HV) envelope.
03 Define ‘Helicopter Emergency Medical x x
Service’.
04 Operations over a hostile environment x x
— Applicability.
05 Local area operations — Approval. x x
06 State the requirements about language used x x x x
for crew communication and operations
manual.
07 Explain the relation between MMEL and x x x x
MEL.
08 State the operator’s requirements x x x x
regarding a management system.
09 State the operator’s requirements regarding x x x x
accident prevention and flight safety
programme.
10 State the operator’s responsibility regarding x x
the distinction between cabin crew
members and additional crew members.
11 State the operations limitations regarding x x
ditching requirements.
12 State the regulations concerning the carriage x x x x
of persons on an aircraft.
13 State the crew members’ responsibilities in x x x x
the execution of their duties and define the
commander’s authority.
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14 State the operator’s and commander’s x x x x
responsibilities regarding admission to the
flight deck and carriage of unauthorised
persons or cargo.
15 State the operator’s responsibility x x x x
concerning portable electronic devices.
16 State the operator’s responsibilities regarding x x x x
admission in an aircraft of a person under the
influence of drug or alcohol.
17 State the regulations concerning endangering x x x x
safety.
18 List the documents to be carried on each flight. x x x x
regarding manuals to be carried.
20 List the additional information and forms to be x x x x
carried on board.
21 List the items of information to be retained x x x x
on the ground by the operator.
regarding inspections.
23 State the responsibility of the operator and x x x x
of the commander regarding the
production of and access to records and
documents.
24 State the operator’s responsibility regarding x x x x
the preservation of documentation and
recordings, including recorders recordings.
25 Define the terms used in leasing and state x x x x
the responsibility and requirements of each
party in various cases.
071 01 02 03 Operator certification and supervision
01 State the requirement to be satisfied for the x x x x
issue of an Air Operator’s Certificate (AOC).
02 State the rules applicable to air operator x x x x
certification.
03 State the conditions to be met for the issue or x x x x
revalidation of an AOC.
04 Explain the contents and conditions of the x x x x
AOC.
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Learning Objectives
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071 01 02 04 Operational procedures (except long-range
flight preparation)
01 Define the terms used for operational x x
procedures.
Operations Manual.
competence of operations personnel.
establishment of procedures.
use of air traffic services.
authorisation of aerodromes/ heliports by
the operator.
07 Explain which elements must be considered by x x x x
the operator when specifying
aerodrome/heliport operating minima.
departure and approach procedures.
09 State the parameters to be considered in x x
noise-abatement procedures.
10 State the elements to be considered regarding x x x x
routes and areas of operation.
11 State the additional specific navigation- x x x x
performance requirements.
12 State the maximum distance from an adequate x x
aerodrome for two-engine aeroplanes without
an ETOPS approval.
13 State the requirement for alternate- airport x x
accessibility check for ETOPS operations.
14 List the factors to be considered when x x x x
establishing minimum flight altitude.
15 Describe the components of the fuel policy. x x x x
16 State the requirements for carrying persons x x x x
with reduced mobility.
17 State the operator’s responsibilities for the x x x x
carriage of inadmissible passengers, deportees
or persons in custody.
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18 State the requirements for the stowage of x x x x
baggage and cargo in the passenger cabin.
19 State the requirements regarding passenger x x x x
seating and emergency evacuation.
20 Detail the procedures for a passenger briefing x x x x
in respect of emergency equipment and exits.
21 State the flight preparation forms to be x x x x
completed before flight.
22 State the commander’s responsibilities during x x x x
flight preparation.
23 State the rules for aerodromes/heliports x x x x
selection (including ETOPS configuration).
24 Explain the planning minima for IFR flights. x x
25 State the rules for refueling/defueling. x x x x
26 State ‘crew members at station’ policy. x x x x
27 State the use of seats, safety belts and x x x x
harnesses.
28 State securing of passenger cabin and galley x x x x
requirements.
29 State the commander’s responsibility regarding x x x x
smoking on board.
30 State under which conditions a commander x x x x
can commence or continue a flight regarding
meteorological conditions.
ice and other contaminants.
fuel to be carried and in-flight fuel
management.
33 State the requirements regarding the use of x x x x
supplemental oxygen.
34 State the ground-proximity detection x x x x
reactions.
35 Explain the requirements for use of ACAS. x x x x
37 State the circumstances under which a report x x x x
shall be submitted.
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Learning Objectives
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071 01 02 05 All-weather operations
01 State the operator’s responsibility regarding x x
aerodrome/heliport operating minima.
02 List the parameters to be considered in x x
establishing the aerodrome operating minima.
03 Define the criteria to be taken into x
consideration for the classification of
aeroplanes.
04 Define the following terms: ‘circling’, ‘low- x x
visibility procedures’, ‘low- visibility take-off’,
‘visual approach’.
05 Define the following terms: ‘flight control x
system’, ‘fail-passive flight control system’,
‘fail-operational flight control system’, ‘fail-
operational hybrid landing system’.
06 Define the following terms: ‘final approach and x
take-off area’.
07 State the general operating rules for low- x x
visibility operations.
08 Low-visibility operations — x x
aerodrome/heliport considerations.
09 State the training and qualification x x
requirements for flight crew to conduct low-
10 State the operating procedures for low- x x
11 State the operator’s and commander’s x x
responsibilities regarding minimum equipment
for low-visibility operations.
12 VFR operating minima. x x
13 Aerodrome operating minima: state under x x
which conditions the commander can
commence take-off.
14 Aerodrome operating minima: state that take- x x
off minima are expressed as visibility or RVR.
15 Aerodrome operating minima: state the take- x x
off RVR value depending on the facilities.
16 Aerodrome operating minima: state the x x
system minima for non-precision approach.
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17 Aerodrome operating minima: state under x x
which conditions a pilot can continue the
approach below MDA/H or DA/H.
18 Aerodrome operating minima: state the lowest x x
minima for precision approach category 1
(including single-pilot operations).
operations.
20 Aerodrome operating minima: state the lowest x
operations.
minima for circling and visual approach.
22 Aerodrome operating minima: state the RVR x
value and cloud ceiling depending on the
facilities (class 1, 2 and 3).
23 Aerodrome operating minima: state under x
which conditions an airborne radar approach
can be performed and state the relevant
minima.
071 01 02 06 Instruments and equipment
01 State which items do not require an equipment x x x x
approval.
02 State the requirements regarding spare-fuses x x
availability.
03 State the requirements regarding operating x x x x
lights.
04 State the requirements regarding windshield x x
wipers.
05 List the equipment for operations requiring a x x
radio communication.
06 List the equipment for operations requiring a x x
radio-navigation system.
07 List the minimum equipment required for day x x x x
and night VFR flights.
08 List the minimum equipment required for IFR x x
flights.
09 State the required equipment for single-pilot x x
operation under IFR.
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10 State the requirements for an altitude alert x x
system.
11 State the requirements for radio altimeters. x x
12 State the requirements for GPWS/TAWS. x x
13 State the requirements for ACAS. x x
14 State the conditions under which an aircraft x x x x
must be fitted with a weather radar.
15 State the requirements for operations in icing x x x x
conditions.
16 State the conditions under which a crew x x x x
member interphone system and public address
system are mandatory.
17 State the circumstances under which a cockpit x x x x
voice recorder is compulsory.
18 State the rules regarding the location, x x x x
construction, installation and operation of
cockpit voice recorders.
19 State the circumstances under which a flight x x x x
data recorder is compulsory.
20 State the rules regarding the location, x x x x
construction, installation and operation of
flight data recorders.
21 State the requirements about seats, seat safety x x x x
belts, harnesses and child- restraint devices.
22 State the requirements about ‘Fasten seat belt’ x x x x
and ‘No smoking’ signs.
23 State the requirements regarding internal x x
doors and curtains.
24 State the requirements regarding first- aid kits. x x x x
25 State the requirements regarding emergency x x
medical kits and first-aid oxygen.
26 Detail the rules regarding the carriage and use x x x x
of supplemental oxygen for passengers and
crew.
27 Detail the rules regarding crew- protective x x
breathing equipment.
28 Describe the minimum number, type and x x x x
location of handheld fire extinguishers.
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29 Describe the minimum number and location of x x
crash axes and crowbars.
30 Specify the colours and markings used to x x x x
indicate break-in points.
31 State the requirements for means of x x
emergency evacuation.
32 State the requirements for megaphones. x x x x
33 State the requirements for emergency lighting. x x x x
34 State the requirements for an emergency x x x x
locator transmitter.
35 State the requirements for life jackets, life x x x x
rafts, survival kits and ELTs.
36 State the requirements for crew survival suit. x x
37 State the requirements for survival equipment. x x x x
38 State the additional requirements for x x
helicopters operating to or from helidecks
located in a hostile sea area.
39 State the requirements for an emergency x x
flotation equipment.
071 01 02 07 Communication and navigation equipment
01 Explain the general requirements for x x x x
communication and navigation equipment.
02 State that the radio-communication x x x x
equipment must provide communications on
121.5 MHz.
03 State the requirements regarding the x x x x
provision of an audio selector panel.
04 List the requirements for radio equipment x x x x
when flying under VFR by reference to
visual landmarks.
05 List the requirements for communications x x x x
and navigation equipment when operating
under IFR or under VFR over routes not
navigated by reference to visual landmarks.
06 State the equipment required to operate x x
within RVSM airspace.
071 01 02 09 Flight crew
01 State the requirement regarding crew x x x x
composition and in-flight relief.
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02 State the requirement for conversion training x x x x
and checking.
03 State the requirement for differences training x x x x
and familiarisation training.
04 State the conditions for upgrade from co-pilot x x x x
to commander.
05 State the minimum qualification requirements x x x x
to operate as a commander.
06 State the requirement for recurrent training x x x x
and checking.
07 State the requirement for a pilot to operate on x x x x
either pilot’s seat.
08 State the minimum recent experience for the x x x x
commander and the co-pilot.
09 Specify the route and aerodrome/ heliport x x x x
qualification required for a commander or a
pilot flying.
10 State the requirement to operate on more x x x x
than one type or variant.
11 State that when a flight crew member operates x x
both helicopters and aeroplanes, the
operations are limited to one type of each.
12 State the training records requirement. x x x x
071 01 02 10 Cabin crew/crew members other than flight
crew
01 State who is regarded as a cabin crew member. x x x x
02 Detail the requirements regarding cabin crew x x x x
members.
03 State the acceptability criteria. x x x x
04 State the requirements regarding senior cabin x x x x
crew members.
05 State the conditions to operate on more than x x x x
one type or variant.
071 01 02 11 Manuals, logs and records
01 Explain the general rules for the operations x x x x
manual.
02 Explain the structure and subject headings of x x x x
the operations manual.
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03 State the requirements for a journey logbook. x x x x
04 Describe the requirements regarding the x x x x
operational flight plan.
05 State the requirements for document- storage x x x x
periods.
071 01 02 12 Flight and duty-time limitations and rest
requirements
01 Explain the definitions used for flight- time x x
regulation.
02 State the flight and duty limitations. x x
03 State the requirements regarding the x x
maximum daily flight-duty period.
04 State the requirements regarding rest periods. x x
05 Explain the possible extension of flight- duty x x
period due to in-flight rest.
06 Explain the captain’s discretion in case of x x
unforeseen circumstances in actual flight
operations.
07 Explain the regulation regarding standby. x x
08 State the requirements regarding flight-duty, x x
duty and rest-period records.
071 01 02 13 Transport of dangerous goods by air
01 Explain the terminology relevant to dangerous x x x x
goods.
02 Explain the scope of the regulation. x x x x
03 Explain the limitations on the transport of x x x x
dangerous goods.
04 State the requirements for the acceptance of x x x x
dangerous goods.
05 State the requirements regarding inspection x x x x
for damage, leakage or contamination.
06 Explain the loading restrictions. x x x x
07 State the requirement for provision of x x x x
information to the crew.
08 Explain the requirements for dangerous goods x x x x
incident and accident reports.
071 01 03 00 Long-range flights
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071 01 03 01 Flight management
01 Navigation-planning procedures: x
– describe the operator’s
responsibilities concerning ETOPS
routes;
– list the factors to be considered by the
commander before commencing the
flight.
02 Selection of a route: x
– describe the meaning of the term
‘adequate aerodrome’;
– describe the limitations on extended-
range operations with two-engine
aeroplanes with and without ETOPS
approval.
03 Selection of cruising altitude (MNPSA Manual x
Chapter 4):
– specify the appropriate cruising levels
for normal long-range IFR flights and
for those operating on the North
Atlantic Operational Track Structure.
04 Selection of alternate aerodrome: x
– state the circumstances in which a
take-off alternate must be selected;
– state the maximum flight distance of a
take-off alternate for: two- engine
aeroplane, ETOPS- approved
aeroplane, three or four-engine
aeroplane;
– state the factors to be considered in
the selection of a take-off alternate;
– state when a destination alternate
need not be selected;
– state when two destination alternates
must be selected;
the selection of a destination
alternate aerodrome;
the selection of an en route alternate
aerodrome.
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05 Minimum time routes: x
– define, construct and interpret
minimum time route (route giving the
shortest flight time from departure to
destination adhering to all ATC and
airspace restrictions).
071 01 03 02 Transoceanic and polar flight
01 (ICAO Doc 7030) (ICAO NAT Doc 007 (EN) x
– Describe the possible indications of
navigation-system degradation;
– Describe by what emergency means
course and INS can be cross-checked
in the case of: three navigation
systems, two navigation systems;
– Interpret VOR, NDB, VOR/DME
information to calculate aircraft
position and aircraft course;
– Describe the general ICAO procedures
applicable in North Atlantic airspace
(NAT) if the aircraft is unable to
continue the flight in accordance with
its air traffic control clearance;
– Describe the ICAO procedures
applicable in North Atlantic Airspace
(NAT) in case of radio-communication
failure;
– Describe the recommended initial
action if an aircraft is unable to obtain
a revised air traffic control clearance;
– Describe the subsequent action for:
aircraft able to maintain assigned
flight level, and aircraft unable to
maintain assigned flight level;
– Describe determination of tracks and
courses for random routes in NAT;
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– Specify the method by which x
planned tracks are defined (by
latitude and longitude) in the NAT
region: when operating
predominately in an east–west
direction south of 70°N, when
operating predominately in an east–
west direction north of 70°N;
– State the maximum flight time
recommended between significant
points;
– Specify the method by which
planned tracks are defined for flights
operating predominantly in a north–
south direction;
– Describe how the desired route
must be specified in the air traffic
control flight plan.
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02 Polar navigation x
Terrestrial magnetism characteristics in
polar zones
– Explain why magnetic compasses
become unreliable or useless in polar
zones;
– State in which area VORs are
referenced to the true north.
Specific problems of polar navigation
– Describe the general problems of polar
navigation;
– Describe what precautions can be
taken when operating in the area
of compass unreliability as a
contingency against INS failure;
– Use INS information to solve polar
navigation problems;
– Define, calculate: transport
precession, Earth-rate (astronomic)
precession, convergence factor;
– Describe the effect of using a free
gyro to follow a given course;
– Describe the effect of using a gyro
compass with hourly rate corrector
unit to follow a given course;
– Justify the selection of a different
‘north’ reference at a given
position
– Calculate the effects of gyro drift due
to the Earth’s rotation (15 degrees / h
× sin Lm).
071 01 03 03 NAT HLA
01 Geographical limits: x
– state the lateral dimensions (in
general terms) and vertical limits of
MNPS airspace (ICAO Doc 7030
NAT/RAC-2 3.2.1) NAT Doc 007 (EN));
– state that operators must ensure that
crew follow NAT H L A procedures
(ICAO Doc 7030 NAT/RAC-2 3.2.3)
(NAT Doc 007 (EN)).
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02 Define the following acronyms: MNPS, OCA, x
OTS, PRM, RVSM, LRNS, MASPS, SLOP,
WATRS (NAT Doc 007 (EN).
03 Aircraft system requirements (NAT Doc 007 x
(EN)):
– navigation requirements for
unrestricted MNPS airspace
operations;
– routes for use by aircraft not equipped
with two LRNSs: routes for aircraft
with only one LRNS, routes for aircraft
with short-range navigation
equipment only;
– performance monitoring.
04 Organised Track System (NAT Doc 007 (EN)): x
– construction of the Organised Track
System (OTS);
– NAT track message;
– OTS changeover periods.
05 Other routes and route structures within or x
adjacent to NAT MNPS airspace (NAT Doc
007 (EN)):
– other routes within NAT MNPS
airspace;
– route structures adjacent to NAT
MNPS airspace: North American
routes (NARs), Canadian domestic
track systems, routes between North
America and the Caribbean area.
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06 Flight planning (NAT Doc 007 (EN)): x
– all flights should plan to operate on
great- circle tracks joining successive
significant waypoints;
– during the hours of validity of the
OTS, operators are encouraged to
flight plan as follows: in accordance
with the OTS or along a route to
join or leave an outer track of the
OTS or on a random route to remain
clear of the OTS;
– flight levels available on OTS tracks
during OTS periods;
– flight levels on random tracks or
outside OTS periods (appropriate
direction levels).
07 Oceanic ATC Clearances (NAT Doc 007 (EN)): x
– it is recommended that pilots should
request their Oceanic Clearance at
least 40 minutes prior to the oceanic
entry point ETA;
– pilots should notify the Oceanic Area
control Centre (OAC) of the maximum
acceptable flight level possible at
the boundary;
– at some airports, which are situated
close to oceanic boundaries, the
Oceanic Clearance must be obtained
before departure;
– if an aircraft, which would normally
be RVSM and/or MNPS approved,
encounters, whilst en route to the
NAT Oceanic Airspace, a critical in-
flight equipment failure, or at
dispatch is unable to meet the MEL
requirements for RVSM or MNPS
approval on the flight, then the pilot
must advise ATC at initial contact
when requesting Oceanic Clearance;
– After obtaining and reading back
the clearance, the pilot should
monitor the forward estimate for
oceanic entry, and if this changes by
3 minutes or more, should pass a
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revised estimate to ATC;
– the pilot should pay particular
attention when the issued clearance
differs from the flight plan, as a
significant proportion of navigation
errors investigated in the NAT involve
an aircraft which has followed its
flight plan rather than its differing
clearance;
– if the entry point of the oceanic route
on which the flight is cleared differs
from that originally requested and/or
the oceanic flight level differs from
the current flight level, the pilot is
responsible for requesting and
obtaining the necessary domestic re-
clearance;
– there are three elements to an
Oceanic Clearance: route, Mach
number and flight level. These
elements serve to provide for the
three basic elements of separation:
lateral, longitudinal and vertical.
08 Communications and position-reporting x
procedures HF voice communications
– Pilots communicate with OACs via
aeradio stations staffed by
communicators who have no
executive ATC authority. Messages are
relayed, from the ground station to the
air traffic controllers in the relevant OAC
for action;
– Frequencies from the lower HF bands
tend to be used for communications
during night-time and those from the
higher bands during daytime;
– When initiating contact with an
aeradio station, the pilot should
state the HF frequency in use.
SATCOM voice communications
Since oceanic traffic typically communicates
with ATC through aeradio facilities, a
SATCOM call made due to unforeseen inability
to communicate by other means should be
made to such a facility rather than the ATC
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centre, unless the urgency of the
communication dictates otherwise.
An air-to-air VHF frequency has been
established for worldwide use when aircraft
are out of range of VHF ground stations which
utilise the same or adjacent frequencies. This
frequency (123.45 MHz) is intended for
pilot-to-pilot exchanges of operationally
significant information.
Standard position report message type.
Some aircraft flying in the NAT are required
to report MET observations of wind speed
and direction plus outside-air temperature.
Any turbulence encountered should be
included in these
General guidance for aircraft operating in, or
proposing to operate in, the NAT region, which
experience a communications failure: general
provisions, onboard HF equipment failure, poor
HF propagation conditions, loss of HF
communications after entering the NAT.
All turbine=engine aeroplanes having a
maximum certified take-off mass exceeding
5,700 kg or authorised to carry more than 19
passengers are required to carry and operate
ACAS II in the NAT region.
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09 Application of Mach number technique: x
– practical experience has shown that
when two or more turbojet aircraft,
operating along the same route at the
same flight level, maintain the same
Mach number, they are more likely to
maintain a constant time interval
between each other than when using
other methods;
– pilots must ensure that any required
corrections to the indicated Mach
number are taken into account when
complying with the true Mach number
specified in the ATC clearance;
– after leaving oceanic airspace, pilots
must maintain their assigned Mach
number in domestic controlled
airspace unless and until the
appropriate ATC unit authorises a
change.
10 MNPS flight operation & navigation x
procedures:
the pre-flight procedures for any NAT MNPS
flight must include a UTC time check and
resynchronisation of the aircraft master clock;
– state the use of the Master Document;
– state the requirements for position
plotting;
– PRE-FLIGHT PROCEDURES: alignment
of IRS, Satellite Navigation Availability
Prediction Programme for flights using
GNSS LRNS, loading of initial
waypoints, flight plan check;
– IN-FLIGHT PROCEDURES: ATC Oceanic
Clearance, entering the MNPS airspace and
reaching an oceanic waypoint, routine
monitoring;
– Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure
(SLOP): state that along a route or
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11 RVSM flight in MNPS airspace: x
– state the altimeter cross-check to be
performed before MNPS airspace
entry;
– state the altimeter cross-check to be
performed into the MNPS airspace;
– in NAT MNPS airspace, pilots always
have to report to ATC immediately on
reaching any new cruising level;
– crews should report when a 300 ft or
more deviation occurs.
12 Navigation system degradation or failure x
For this part, consider aircraft equipped
with only two operational LRNSs. State
the requirements for the following situations:
– one system fails before take-off;
– one system fails before the OCA
boundary is reached;
– one system fails after the OCA
boundary is crossed;
– the remaining system fails after
entering MNPS airspace.
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13 Special procedures for in-flight x
contingencies
General
– Until a revised clearance is obtained,
the specified NAT in-flight
contingency procedures should be
carefully followed;
– The general concept of these NAT in-
flight contingency procedures is,
whenever operationally feasible, to
offset from the assigned route by 15
NM and climb or descend to a level
which differs from those normally
used by 500 ft if below FL410 or by
1 000 ft if above FL410;
– State the factors which may affect the
direction of turn: direction to an
alternate airport, terrain clearance,
levels allocated on adjacent routes or
tracks and any known SLOP offsets
adopted by other nearby traffic.
Deviations around severe weather
– State that if the deviation is to be
greater than 10 NM, the assigned
flight level must be changed by ±
300 ft depending on the followed
track and the direction of the
deviation (Table 1).
071 01 03 04 ETOPS
01 State that ETOPS approval is part of an AOC. x
02 State that prior to conducting an ETOPS flight, x
an operator shall ensure that a suitable ETOPS
en route alternate is available, within either the
approved diversion time or a diversion time
based on the MEL-generated serviceability
status of the aeroplane, whichever is shorter.
03 State the requirements for take-off alternate. x
04 State the planning minima for ETOPS en route x
alternate.
071 02 00 00 SPECIAL OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES AND
HAZARDS (GENERAL ASPECTS)
071 02 01 00 Operating Manual
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071 02 01 01 Operating procedures
01 State that all non-type-related operational x x x x
policies, instructions and procedures needed
for a safe operation are included in Part A of
the Operations Manual.
02 State that the following items are included into x x x x
Part A: de-icing and anti-icing on the ground,
adverse and potentially hazardous atmospheric
conditions, wake turbulence, incapacitation of
crew members, use of the minimum
equipment and configuration deviation list(s),
security, handling of accidents and
occurrences.
03 State that the following items are included into x x
Part A: altitude alerting system procedures,
ground proximity warning system procedures,
policy and procedures for the use of
TCAS/ACAS.
Part A: rotor downwash.
05 Define the following terms: ‘commencement of x x x x
flight’, ‘inoperative’, ‘MEL’, ‘MMEL’,
rectification interval.
06 Define the ‘limits of MEL applicability’. x x x x
07 Identify the responsibilities of the operator and x x x x
the authority with regard to MEL and MMEL.
08 State the responsibilities of the crew members x x x x
with regard to MEL.
09 State the responsibilities of the commander x x x x
with regard to MEL.
071 02 01 02 Aeroplane/helicopter operating matters —
type-related
01 State that all type-related instructions and x x x x
procedures needed for a safe operation are
included in Part B of the Operations Manual.
They will take account of any differences
between types, variants or individual aircraft
used by the operator.
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Part B: abnormal and emergency procedures,
configuration deviation list, minimum
equipment list, emergency evacuation
procedures.
Part B: emergency procedures, configuration
deviation list, minimum equipment list,
emergency evacuation procedures.
071 02 02 00 Icing conditions
071 02 02 01 On ground de-icing/anti-icing procedures,
types of de-icing/anti-icing fluids
01 Define the following terms: ‘anti-icing’, ‘de- x x
icing’, ‘one-step de-icing/anti-icing’, ‘two-step
de- icing/anti-icing’, ‘holdover time’. (ICAO Doc
9640 Glossary).
02 Define the following weather conditions: x x x x
‘drizzle’, ‘fog’, ‘freezing fog’, ‘freezing drizzle’,
‘freezing rain’, ‘frost’, ‘rain’, ‘rime’, ‘slush’,
‘snow’, ‘dry snow’, ‘wet snow’. (ICAO Doc 9640
Glossary).
03 Describe ‘The clean aircraft concept’ as x x
presented in the relevant chapter of ICAO Doc
9640. (ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 2).
04 List the types of de-icing/anti-icing fluids x x x x
available. (ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 4).
05 State the procedure to be followed when an x x
aeroplane has exceeded the holdover time.
(ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 4).
06 Interpret the fluid holdover timetables and list x x
the factors which can reduce the fluid
protection time. (ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 5 +
Attachment tables).
07 State that the pre-take-off check, which is the x x
responsibility of the pilot-in-command, ensures
that the critical surfaces of the aeroplane are
free of ice, snow, slush or frost just prior to
take- off. This check shall be accomplished as
close to the time of take-off as possible and is
normally made from within the aeroplane by
visually checking the wings. (ICAO Doc 9640,
Chapter 6).
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08 State that an aircraft has to be treated x x
symmetrically. (ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 11).
09 State that an operator shall establish x x x x
procedures to be followed when ground de-
icing and anti- icing and related inspections of
the aeroplane(s) are necessary.
10 State that a commander shall not commence x x x x
take-off unless the external surfaces are clear
of any deposit which might adversely affect the
performance and/or controllability of the
aircraft except as permitted in the Flight
Manual.
071 02 02 02 Procedure to apply in case of performance
deterioration, on ground/in flight
01 State that the effects of icing are wide-ranging, x x x x
unpredictable and dependent upon individual
aeroplane design. The magnitude of these
effects is dependent upon many variables, but
the effects can be both significant and
dangerous. (ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 1).
02 State that in icing conditions, for a given speed x x x x
and a given angle of attack, wing lift can be
reduced by as much as 30 % and drag
increased by up to 40 %. State that these
changes in lift and drag will significantly
increase stall speed, reduce controllability and
alter flight characteristics. (ICAO Doc 9640,
Chapter 1).
03 State that ice on critical surfaces and on the x x x x
airframe may also break away during take-off
and be ingested into engines, possibly
damaging fan and compressor blades. (ICAO
Doc 9640, Chapter 1.
04 State that ice forming on pitot tubes and static x x x x
ports or on angle-of-attack vanes may give
false altitude, airspeed, angle-of-attack and
engine- power information for air-data
systems. (ICAO Doc 9640, Chapter 1).
05 State that ice, frost and snow formed on the x x x x
critical surfaces on the ground can have a
totally different effect on aircraft flight
characteristics than ice formed in flight. (ICAO
Doc 9640, Chapter 1).
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06 State where procedures and performances x x x x
regarding flight in expected or actual icing
conditions are located.
071 02 03 00 Bird-strike risk and avoidance
01 State that presence of birds constituting a x x x x
potential hazard to aircraft operations is part of
the pre-flight information. (ICAO Annex 15,
Chapter 8).
02 State that information concerning the presence x x x x
of birds observed by aircrews is made available
to the Aeronautical Information Service for
such distribution as the circumstances
necessitate. (ICAO Annex 15, Chapter 8).
03 State that AIP ENR 5.6 contains information x x x x
regarding bird migrations. (ICAO Annex 15,
Appendix 1).
04 State significant data regarding bird strikes x x x x
contained in ICAO Doc 9137. (ICAO Doc 9137,
Part 3, 1.1.6).
05 List incompatible land use around airports. x x x x
(ICAO Doc 9137, Part 3, 10.4).
06 Define the commander’s responsibilities x x x x
regarding the reporting of bird hazards and
bird strikes.
071 02 04 00 Noise abatement
071 02 04 01 Noise-abatement procedures
01 Define the operator responsibilities regarding x x x x
establishment of noise-abatement procedures.
02 State the main purpose of NADP 1 and NADP 2. x x x x
(ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1, Part V, 3.1.1).
03 State that the pilot-in-command has the x x x x
authority to decide not to execute a noise-
abatement departure procedure if conditions
preclude the safe execution of the procedure.
(ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1, Part V, 3.2.1.3).
071 02 04 02 Influence of the flight procedure (departure,
cruise, approach)
01 List the main parameters for NADP 1 and NADP x x
2 (i.e. speeds, heights, etc.). (ICAO Doc 8168,
Volume 1, Part V, Appendix to Chapter 3).
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02 State that a runway lead-in lighting system x x x x
should be provided where it is desired to
provide visual guidance along a specific
approach path for purposes of noise
abatement. (ICAO Annex 14 - Volume 1,
5.3.7.1/Vol 2, 5.3.4.1).
03 State the rule regarding the use of reverse x x x x
thrust on landing. (ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1,
Part V, 3.5).
071 02 04 03 Influence by the pilot (power setting, low
drag)
01 List the adverse operating conditions under x x
which noise-abatement procedures in the form
of reduced-power take-off should not be
required. (ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1, Part V,
3.2.2).
which noise-abatement procedures during
approach should not be required. (ICAO Doc
8168, Volume 1, Part V, 3.4.4).
03 State the rule regarding the use of reverse x x
thrust on landing. (ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1,
Part V, 3.5.
071 02 04 04 Influence by the pilot (power setting, track
of helicopter)
which noise-abatement procedures in the form
of reduced-power take-off should not be
required. (ICAO Doc 8168, Volume 1, Part V,
3.2.2).
071 02 05 00 Fire and smoke
071 02 05 01 Carburettor fire
01 List the actions to be taken in the event of a x x
carburettor fire.
071 02 05 02 Engine fire
01 List the actions to be taken in the event of an x x
engine fire.
071 02 05 03 Fire in the cabin, cockpit, cargo
compartment
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01 Identify the different types of extinguishants x x
and the type of fire on which each one may be
used.
02 Describe the precautions to be considered in x x
the application of fire extinguishant.
03 Identify the appropriate handheld x x
extinguishers to be used in the cockpit, the
passenger cabin and toilets, and in the cargo
compartments.
071 02 05 04 Smoke in the cockpit and cabin
01 List the actions to be taken in the event of x x
smoke in the cockpit or in the cabin.
071 02 05 05 Actions in case of overheated brakes
01 Describe the problems and safety precautions x x
following overheated brakes after landing or a
rejected take-off.
071 02 06 00 Decompression of pressurised cabin
071 02 06 01 Slow decompression
01 Indicate how to detect a slow decompression x x
or an automatic pressurisation system failure.
02 Describe the actions required following a slow x x
decompression.
071 02 06 02 Rapid and explosive decompression
01 Indicate how to detect a rapid or an explosive x x
decompression.
071 02 06 03 Dangers and action to be taken
01 Describe the actions required following a rapid x x
or explosive decompression.
02 Describe the effects on aircraft occupants of a x x
slow decompression and a rapid or explosive
decompression.
071 02 07 00 Wind shear and microburst
071 02 07 01 Effects and recognition during departure and
approach
01 Define the meaning of the term ‘low-level x x x x
windshear’. (ICAO Circular 186, Chapter 1).
02 Define: ‘vertical wind shear, horizontal wind x x x x
shear, updraft and downdraft wind shear’.
(ICAO Circular 186, Chapter 2).
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03 Identify the meteorological phenomena x x x x
associated with wind shear. (ICAO Circular 186,
Chapter 3).
04 Explain recognition of wind shear. (ICAO x x x x
Circular 186, Chapter 4).
071 02 07 02 Actions to avoid and actions to take during
encounter
01 Describe the effects of and actions required x x x x
when encountering wind shear, at take-off and
approach. (ICAO Circular 186, Chapter 4).
02 Describe the precautions to be taken when x x x x
wind shear is suspected, at take-off and
approach. (ICAO Circular 186, Chapter 4).
03 Describe the effects of and actions required x x x x
following entry into a strong downdraft wind
shear. (ICAO Circular 186, Chapter 4).
04 Describe a microburst and its effects. (ICAO x x x x
Circular 186, Chapter 4).
071 02 08 00 Wake turbulence
071 02 08 01 Cause
01 Define the term ‘wake turbulence’. (ICAO Doc x x x x
4444, 4.9).
02 Describe tip vortices circulation. (ICAO Doc x x x x
9426, Part II).
03 Explain when vortex generation begins and x x x x
ends. (ICAO Doc 9426, Part II).
04 Describe vortex circulation on the ground with x x x x
and without crosswind. (ICAO Doc 9426, Part
II).
071 02 08 02 List of relevant parameters
01 List the three main factors which, when x x x x
combined, give the strongest vortices (heavy,
clean, slow). (ICAO Doc 9426, Part II).
02 Describe the wind conditions which are worst x x x x
for wake turbulence near the ground. (ICAO
Doc 9426, Part II).
071 02 08 03 Actions to be taken when crossing traffic,
during take-off and landing
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01 Describe the actions to be taken to avoid wake x x x x
turbulence, specially separations. (ICAO Doc
4444, 5).
071 02 09 00 Security (unlawful events)
071 02 09 01 ICAO Annex 17
01 Give the following definitions: aircraft security x x x x
check, screening, security, security-restricted
area, unidentified baggage. (ICAO Annex 17, 1).
02 Give the objectives of security (ICAO Annex 17, x x x x
2.1).
071 02 09 02 Use of Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
01 Describe the commander’s responsibilities x x x x
concerning notifying the appropriate ATS unit.
(ICAO Annex 17 Attachment).
concerning operation of SSR. (ICAO Annex 17
Attachment).
concerning departing from assigned track
and/or cruising level. (ICAO Annex 17
Attachment).
concerning the action required or being
requested by an ATS unit to confirm SSR code
and ATS interpretation response. (ICAO Annex
17 Attachment).
071 02 09 03 Security
01 State the requirements regarding training x x x x
programmes.
02 State the requirements regarding reporting x x x x
acts of unlawful interference.
071 02 10 00 Emergency and precautionary landings
071 02 10 01 Definition
01 Define ‘ditching’, ‘precautionary landing’, x x x x
‘emergency landing’.
02 Describe a ditching procedure. x x x x
03 Describe a precautionary landing. x x x x
Page 396 of 494

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04 Explain the factors to be considered when x x x x
deciding to make a precautionary/emergency
landing or ditching.
071 02 10 02 Cause
01 List some reasons that may require a ditching, x x x x
a precautionary landing or an emergency
landing.
071 02 10 03 Passenger information
01 Describe the passenger briefing to be given x x x x
before conducting a precautionary/emergency
landing or ditching (including evacuation).
071 02 10 04 Action after landing
01 Describe the actions and responsibilities of x x x x
crew members after landing.
071 02 10 05 Evacuation
01 State that the aircraft must be stopped and the x x x x
engine shut down before launching an
emergency evacuation.
02 State that evacuation procedures are to be x x x x
found in Part B of the Operations Manual.
03 State the requirements regarding evacuation x x
procedures.
071 02 11 00 Fuel jettisoning
071 02 11 01 Safety aspects
01 State that an aircraft may need to jettison fuel x x
so as to reduce its landing mass in order to
effect a safe landing. (ICAO Doc 4444, 15.5.3).
02 State that when an aircraft operating within x x
controlled airspace needs to jettison fuel, the
flight crew shall coordinate with ATC the
following: route to be flown which, if possible,
should be clear of cities and towns, preferably
over water and away from areas where
thunderstorms have been reported or are
expected; the level to be used, which should be
not less than 1 800 m (6 000 ft); and the
duration of fuel jettisoning. (ICAO Doc 4444,
15.5.3).
03 State that flaps and slats may adversely affect x x
fuel jettisoning.
Page 397 of 494

Learning Objectives
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071 02 11 02 Requirements
01 State that a fuel-jettisoning system must be x x
installed on each aeroplane unless it is shown
that the aeroplane meets applicable climb
requirements.
02 State that a fuel-jettisoning system must be x x
capable of jettisoning enough fuel within 15
minutes.
071 02 12 00 Transport of dangerous goods
071 02 12 01 ICAO Annex 18
01 Give the following definitions: dangerous x x x x
goods, dangerous goods accident, dangerous
goods incident, exemption, incompatible,
packaging, UN number. (ICAO Annex 18,
Chapter 1).
02 State that detailed provisions for dangerous x x x x
goods transportation are contained in the
Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284). (ICAO
Annex 18, Chapter 2, 2.2.1).
03 State that in case of an in-flight emergency, the x x x x
pilot-in-command must inform the ATC of
dangerous goods transportation. (ICAO Annex
18, Chapter 9, 9.5).
071 02 12 02 Technical Instructions (ICAO Doc 9284)
01 Explain the principle of compatibility and x x x x
segregation. (ICAO Doc 9284).
02 Explain the special requirements for the x x x x
loading of radioactive materials. (ICAO Doc
9284).
03 Explain the use of the dangerous goods list. x x x x
(ICAO Doc 9284).
04 Identify the dangerous goods labels. (ICAO Doc x x x x
9284).
071 02 12 03 Transport of dangerous goods by air
01 State that dangerous goods transportation is x x x x
subject to operator approval.
02 Identify articles and substances, which would x x x x
otherwise be classed as dangerous goods, that
are excluded from the provisions.
Page 398 of 494

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03 State that some articles and substances may be x x x
forbidden for air transportation.
04 State that packing must comply with the x x x x
Technical Instructions specifications.
05 List the labelling and marking requirements. x x x x
06 List the Dangerous Goods Transport Document x x x x
requirements.
07 List the Acceptance of Dangerous Goods x x x x
requirements.
08 Explain the need for an inspection prior to x x x x
loading on an aircraft.
09 State that some dangerous goods are x x x x
designated for carriage only on cargo aircraft.
10 State that accidents or incidents involving x x x x
dangerous goods are to be reported.
11 State that misdeclared or undeclared x x x x
dangerous goods found in baggage are to be
reported.
071 02 13 00 Contaminated runways
071 02 13 01 Kinds of contamination
01 Define a ‘contaminated runway’, a ‘damp x x
runway’, a ‘wet runway’, and a ‘dry runway.
02 List the different types of contamination: x x
damp, wet or water patches, rime or frost-
covered, dry snow, wet snow, slush, ice,
compacted or rolled snow, frozen ruts or
ridges. (ICAO Annex 15, Appendix 2).
03 Give the definitions of the various types of x x
snow. (ICAO Annex 15, Appendix 2).
071 02 13 02 Estimated surface friction, friction
coefficient
01 Identify the difference between friction x x
coefficient and estimated surface friction.
(ICAO Annex 15, Appendix 2).
02 State that when friction coefficient is 0.40 or x x
higher, the expected braking action is good.
(ICAO Annex 15, Appendix 2).
071 02 13 03 Hydroplaning principles and effects
01 Define the different types of hydroplaning. x x
Page 399 of 494

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02 Compute the two dynamic hydroplaning x x
speeds using the following formulas:
Spin-down speed (rotating tire) (kt) = 9
square root (pressure in PSI)
Spin-up speed (non-rotating tire) (kt) = 7.7
square root (pressure in PSI).
03 State that it is the spin-up speed rather than x x

the spin-down speed which represents the
actual tire situation for aircraft touchdown
on flooded runways.
071 02 13 04 Procedures
01 State that some wind limitations may apply in x x
case of contaminated runways. Those
limitations are to be found in Part B of the
Operations Manual — Limitations.
02 State that the procedures associated with take- x x
off and landing on contaminated runways are
to be found in Part B of the Operations Manual
— Normal procedures.
03 State that the performances associated with x x
contaminated runways are to be found in Part
B of the Operations Manual — Performance.
071 02 13 05 SNOWTAM
01 Interpret from a SNOWTAM the contamination x x
and braking action on a runway.
071 02 14 00 Rotor downwash
071 02 14 01 Describe downwash
01 Describe the downwash. x x
071 02 14 02 Effects
01 Explain the effects on: soil erosion, water x x
dispersal and spray, recirculation, damage to
property, loose articles.
071 02 15 00 Operation influence by meteorological
conditions (Helicopter)
071 02 15 01 White-out/sand/dust
01 Give the definition of ‘white-out’. x x
02 Describe loss of spatial orientation. x x
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03 Describe take-off and landing techniques. x x
071 02 15 02 Strong winds
01 Describe blade sailing. x x
02 Describe wind operating envelopes. x x
03 Describe vertical speed problems. x x
071 02 15 03 Mountain environment
01 Describe constraints associated with mountain x x
environment.
071 03 00 00 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES (HELICOPTER)
071 03 01 00 Influence of technical problems
071 03 01 01 Engine failure
01 Describe techniques for failure in: hover, climb, x x
cruise, approach.
071 03 01 02 Fire in cabin/cockpit/engine
01 Describe the basic actions when encountering x x
fire in the cabin, cockpit or engine.
071 03 01 03 Tail/rotor/directional control failure
01 Describe the basic actions following loss of tail x x
rotor.
02 Describe the basic actions following loss of x x
directional control.
071 03 01 04 Ground resonance
01 Describe recovery actions. x x
071 03 01 05 Blade stall
01 Describe cause and recovery actions when x x
encountering retreating blade stall.
071 03 01 06 Settling with power (vortex ring)
01 Describe prerequisite conditions and recovery x x
actions.
071 03 01 07 Overpitch
01 Describe recovery actions. x x
071 03 01 08 Overspeed: rotor/engine
01 Describe overspeed control. x x
071 03 01 09 Dynamic rollover
01 Describe potential conditions and recovery x x
action.
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071 03 01 10 Mast bumping
01 Describe conditions ‘conductive to’ and x x
‘avoidance of’ effect.
Page 402 of 494
M. SUBJECT 081 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
(AEROPLANE)
M. SUBJECT 081- PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT (AEROPLANE)
(1) The following standard conventions are used for certain mathematical symbols:
* multiplication
≥ greater than or equal to
≤ less than or equal to
SQRT( ) square root of the function, symbol or number in round brackets
(2) Normally, it should be assumed that the effect of a variable under review is the only variation that needs to be
addressed, unless specifically stated otherwise.
(3) Candidates are expected in simple calculations to be able to convert knots (kt) into metres/second (m/s) and
know the appropriate conversion factors by heart.
(4) In the subsonic range, as covered under subject 081 01, compressibility effects normally are not considered,
unless specifically mentioned.
(5) For those questions related to propellers (subject 081 07), as a simplification of the physical reality, the inflow
speed into the propeller plane is taken as the aeroplane’s TAS. In addition, when discussing propeller rotational
direction, it will always be specified as seen from behind the propeller plane.

Learning Objectives
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081 00 00 00 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
081 00 00 00 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT – AEROPLANE
081 01 00 00 SUBSONIC AERODYNAMICS
081 01 01 00 Basics, laws and definitions
081 01 01 01 Laws and definitions
Page 403 of 494
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01 – List the SI units of measurement for x x
mass, acceleration, weight, velocity,
density, temperature, pressure, force,
wing loading, and power;
– Define ‘mass’, ‘force’, ‘acceleration’
and ‘weight’.
– State and interpret Newton’s laws.
– State and interpret Newton’s first law.
– State and interpret Newton’s second
law.
– State and interpret Newton’s third
law.
– Explain air density.
– List the atmospheric properties that
effect air density.
– Explain how temperature and pressure
changes affect density.
– Define ‘static pressure’.
– Define ‘dynamic pressure’.
– Define the ‘formula for dynamic
pressure’.
– Apply the formula for a given altitude
and speed.
– State Bernoulli’s equation.
– Define ‘total pressure’.
– Apply the equation to a Venturi.
– Describe how the IAS is acquired from
the pitot-static system.
– Describe the relationship between
density, temperature, and pressure for
air.
– Describe the Equation of Continuity.
– Define ‘IAS’, ‘CAS’, ’EAS’, ’TAS’.
081 01 01 02 Basics about airflow
Page 404 of 494
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01 – Describe steady and unsteady airflow. x x
– Explain the concept of a streamline.
– Describe and explain airflow through a
stream tube.
– Explain the difference between two
and three-dimensional airflow.
081 01 01 03 Aerodynamic forces and moments on
aerofoils
01 – Describe the force resulting from the x x
pressure distribution around an
aerofoil.
– Resolve the resultant force into the
components ‘lift’ and ‘drag’.
– Describe the direction of lift and drag.
– Define the ‘aerodynamic moment’.
– List the factors that affect the
aerodynamic moment.
– Describe the aerodynamic moment
for a symmetrical aerofoil.
– Describe the aerodynamic moment
for a positively and negatively
cambered aerofoil.
– Forces and equilibrium of forces (refer
to 081 08 00 00);
– Define ‘angle of attack’.
081 01 01 04 Shape of an aerofoil section
Page 405 of 494
(AEROPLANE)

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01 Describe the following parameters of an x x
aerofoil section:
– leading edge;
– trailing edge;
– chord line;
– thickness chord ratio or relative
thickness;
– location of maximum thickness;
– camber line;
– camber;
– nose radius.
Describe a symmetrical and an asymmetrical
aerofoil section.
081 01 01 05 Wing shape
Page 406 of 494
(AEROPLANE)

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01 Describe the following parameters of a wing: x x
– span;
– tip and root chord;
– taper ratio;
– wing area;
– wing platform;
– mean geometric chord;
– mean aerodynamic chord (MAC);
– aspect ratio;
– dihedral angle;
– sweep angle;
– wing twist;
– geometric
– aerodynamic;
– angle of incidence.
Note: In certain textbooks, angle of incidence is
used as angle of attack. For Part-FCL
theoretical- knowledge examination purposes
this use is discontinued, and the angle of
incidence is defined as the angle between the
aeroplane longitudinal axis and the wing-root
chord line.;
081 01 02 00 Two-dimensional airflow around an aerofoil
081 01 02 01 Streamline pattern
01 – Describe the streamline pattern x x
around an aerofoil.
– Describe converging and diverging
streamlines and their effect on static
pressure and velocity.
– Describe upwash and downwash.
081 01 02 02 Stagnation point
01 – Describe the stagnation point. x x
– Explain the effect on the stagnation
point of angle-of- attack changes.
– Explain local-pressure changes.
Page 407 of 494
(AEROPLANE)

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081 01 02 03 Pressure distribution
01 – Describe pressure distribution local x x
speeds around and aerofoil including
effects of camber and angle of attack.
– Describe where the minimum local
static pressure is typically situated on
an aerofoil.
081 01 02 04 Centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre
01 Explain centre of pressure and aerodynamic x x
centre.
081 01 02 05 Lift and downwash
01 Explain the association between lift and x x
downwash.
081 01 02 06 Drag and wake
01 – List two physical phenomena that x x
cause drag.
– Describe skin friction drag.
– Describe pressure (form) drag.
– Explain why drag and wake cause
loss of energy (momentum).
081 01 02 07 Influence of angle of attack
01 Explain the influence of angle of attack on lift. x x
081 01 02 08 Flow separation at high angles of attack
01 Refer to 081 01 08 01. x x
081 01 02 09 The lift - α graph
01 – Describe the lift and angle-of attack x x
graph.
– Explain the significant points on the
graph.
– Describe lift against graph for a
symmetrical aerofoil.
081 01 03 00 Coefficients
01 Explain why coefficients are used in general. x x
Page 408 of 494
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081 01 03 01 The lift coefficient Cl
01 – Describe the lift formula and perform x x
simple calculations.
– Describe the Cl – graph
(symmetrical and positively/
negatively cambered aerofoils).
– Describe the typical difference in Cl –
graph for fast and slow aerofoil
design.
– Define ‘ClMAX’ and ‘ stall’ on the
graph.
081 01 03 02 The drag coefficient Cd
01 – Describe the drag formula and x x
perform simple calculations.
– Discuss the effect of the shape of a
body on the drag coefficient.
– Describe the Cl – Cd graph (aerofoil
polar).
– Indicate minimum drag on the
graph.
– Explain why the Cl–Cd ratio is
important as a measure of
performance.
– State the normal values of Cl–Cd.
081 01 04 00 Three-dimensional airflow about an
aeroplane
01 – Define ‘angle of attack.’ x x
Note: For theoretical-knowledge examination
purposes, the angle-of- attack definition
requires a reference line. This reference line
for 3-D has been chosen to be the
longitudinal axis and for 2-D the chord line.
– Explain the difference between the
angle of attack and the attitude of an
aeroplane.
Page 409 of 494
(AEROPLANE)

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081 01 04 01 Streamline pattern
01 – Describe the general streamline x x
pattern around the wing, tail section
and fuselage.
– Explain and describe the causes of
spanwise flow over top and bottom
surfaces.
– Describe tip vortices and local .
– Explain how tip vortices vary with
angle of attack.
– Explain upwash and downwash due
to tip vortices.
– Describe spanwise lift distribution
including the effect of wing planform.
– Describe the causes, distribution and
duration of the wake turbulence
behind an aeroplane.
– Describe the influence of flap
deflection on the tip vortex.
– List the parameters that influence
wake turbulence.
081 01 04 02 Induced drag
01 — Explain what causes the induced drag. x x
— Describe the approximate formula for
the induced drag coefficient.
— State the factors that affect induced
drag.
— Describe the relationship between
induced drag and total drag in the
cruise.
— Describe the effect of mass on
induced drag at a given IAS.
— Describe the means to reduce induced
drag:
• aspect ratio;
• winglets;
Page 410 of 494
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• tip tanks;
• wing twist;
• camber change.
— Describe the influence of lift
distribution on induced drag.
— Describe the influence of tip vortices
on the angle of attack.
— Explain induced and effective local
angle of attack.
— Explain the influence of the induced
angle of attack on the direction of the
lift vector.
— Explain the relationship between
induced drag and:
• speed;
• aspect ratio;
• wing planform;
• bank angle in a horizontal
coordinated turn.
— Explain the induced drag coefficient.
— Explain the relationship between the
induced drag coefficient and the
angle-of-attack or lift coefficient.
— Explain the influence of induced drag
on:
• CL–angle-of-attack graph, show the
effect on the graph when comparing
high and low aspect ratio wings;
• CL–CD (aeroplane polar), show the
effect on the graph when comparing
high and low aspect ratio wings;
• parabolic aeroplane polar in a graph
and as a formula
• (CD = CDp + kCL2).
081 01 05 00 Total drag
Page 411 of 494
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01 State that total drag consists of parasite drag x x
and induced drag.
081 01 05 01 Parasite drag
01 – List the types of drag that are included x x
in parasite drag.
– Describe form (pressure) drag.
– Describe interference drag.
– Describe friction drag.
081 01 05 02 Parasite drag and speed
01 Describe the relationship between parasite x x
drag and speed.
081 01 05 03 Induced drag and speed
01 Refer to 081 01 04 02. x x
081 01 05 05 Total drag and speed
01 – Explain the total drag–speed graph x x
and the constituent drag components.
– Indicate the speed for minimum drag.
081 01 05 07 The total drag-speed graph
01 — Describe the effect of aeroplane gross x x
mass on the graph.
— Describe the effect of pressure
altitude on:
• drag–IAS graph;
• drag-TAS graph.
– Describe speed stability from the
graph.
– Describe non-stable, neutral and
stable IAS regions.
— Explain what happens to the IAS and
drag in the non-stable region if
speed suddenly decreases.
Page 412 of 494
(AEROPLANE)

Learning Objectives
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081 01 06 00 Ground effect.
01 Explain what happens to the tip vortices, x x
downwash, airflow pattern, lift and drag in
ground effect.
081 01 06 01 Effect on CDi
01 – Describe the influence of ground effect x x
on CDi and induced angle of attack.
– Explain the effects on entering and
leaving ground effect.
081 01 06 02 Effect on stall
01 Describe the influence of ground effect on x x
stall.
081 01 06 03 Effect on CL
Describe the influence of ground effect on CL. x x
081 01 06 04 Effect on take-off and landing characteristics
of an aeroplane
01 – Describe the influence of ground x x
effect on take-off and landing
characteristics and performance of an
aeroplane.
– Describe the difference between:
• high and low wing characteristics;
• high and low tail characteristics.
– Explain the effects on static pressure
measurements at the static ports
when entering and leaving ground
effect.
081 01 07 00 The relationship between lift coefficient and
speed in steady, straight and level flight
081 01 07 01 Represented by an equation
01 Explain the effect on CL during speed x x
increase/decrease in steady, straight and
level flight, and perform simple calculations.
Page 413 of 494
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081 01 07 02 Represented by a graph
01 Explain, by using a graph, the effect on speed x x
of CL changes at a given weight.
081 01 08 00 The stall
081 01 08 01 Flow separation at increasing angles of
attack
01 – Define the ‘boundary layer’. x x
– Describe the thickness of a typical
boundary layer.
– List the factors that affect thickness.
– Describe the laminar layer.
– Describe the turbulent layer.
– Define the ‘transition point’.
– List the differences between laminar
and turbulent boundary layers.
– Explain why the laminar boundary
layer separates easier than the
turbulent one.
– List the factors that slow down the
airflow over the aft part of an aerofoil,
as the angle of attack increases.
– Define the ‘separation point’ and
describe its location as a function of
angle of attack.
– Define the ‘critical stall angle of
attack’.
– Describe the influence of increasing
the angle of attack on;
– the forward stagnation point;
– the pressure distribution;
– the location of the centre of pressure
(straight and swept back wing);
• CL and L;
• CD and D
• the pitching moment (straight and
swept back wing);
Page 414 of 494
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• the downwash at the horizon
stabiliser.
– Explain what causes the possible
natural buffet on the controls in a pre-
stall condition.
– Describe the effectiveness of the flight
controls in a pre-stall condition.
– Describe and explain the normal post-
stall behaviour of a wing/aeroplane.
– Describe the dangers of using the
controls close to the stall.;
081 01 08 02 The stall speed
01 – Explain V S0, VS1, VSR, VS1g. x x
– Solve the 1G stall speed from the lift
formula.
– Describe and explain the influence of
the following parameters on stall
speed:
• centre of gravity;
• trust component;
• slipstream;
• wing loading;
• mass;
• wing contamination;
• angle of sweep;
• altitude (for compressibility effects,
see 081 02 03 02).
– Define the ‘load factor n’.
– Explain why the load factor increases
in a turn.
– Explain why the load factor increases
in a pull-up and decreases in a push-
over maneuver.
– Describe and explain the influence of
the ‘load factor n’ on stall speed.
– Explain the expression ‘accelerated
Page 415 of 494
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Learning Objectives
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stall’.
Note: Sometimes accelerated stall is also
erroneously referred to as high speed stall. This
latter expression will not be used for subject
081.
– Calculate the change of stall speed as
a function of the load factor.
– Calculate the increase of stall speed in
a horizontal coordinated turn as a
function of bank angle.
– Calculate the change of stall speed as
a function of the gross mass.
081 01 08 03 The initial stall in span-wise direction
01 – Explain the initial stall sequence on the x x
following platforms:
• elliptical;
• rectangular;
• moderate and high taper;
• sweepback or delta.
– Explain the influence of geometric
twist (wash out) and aerodynamic
twist.
– Explain the influence of deflected
ailerons.
– Explain the influence of fences,
vortilons, saw teeth, vortex
generators.
081 01 08 04 Stall warning
01 – Explain why stall warning is necessary. x x
– Explain when aerodynamic and
artificial stall warnings are used.
– Explain why a margin to stall speed is
required.
– Describe:
• buffet;
• stall strip;
Page 416 of 494
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• flapper switch (leading-edge stall-
warning vane);
• angle-of-attack vane;
• angle-of-attack probe;
• stick shaker.
– Describe the recovery after:
• stall warning;
• stall;
• stick-pusher actuation.
081 01 08 05 Special phenomena of stall
01 – Describe the basic stall requirements x x
for transport category aeroplanes.
– Explain the difference between power-
off and power-on stalls and recovery.
– Describe stall and recovery in a
climbing and descending turn.
– Describe the effect on stall and
recovery characteristics of:
• wing sweep (consider both forward
and backward sweep);
• T-tailed aeroplane;
• canards.
– Describe super-stall or deep-stall.
– Describe the philosophy behind the
stick-pusher system.
– Explain the effect of ice, frost and
snow on the stagnation point.
– Explain the absence of stall warning.
– Explain the abnormal behaviour of the
stall.
– Describe and explain cause and effects
of the stabiliser stall (negative tail
stall).
– Describe when to expect in-flight icing.
– Explain how the effect is changed
when retracting/extending lift
Page 417 of 494
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augmentation devices.
– Describe how to recover from a stall
after a configuration change caused by
in-flight icing.
– Explain the effect of a contaminated
wing.
– Explain what ‘on-ground’ icing is.
– Describe the aerodynamic effects of
de-icing/anti-ice fluid after the
holdover time has been reached.
– Describe the aerodynamic effects of
heavy tropical rain on stall speed and
drag.
– Explain how to avoid spins.
– List the factors that cause a spin to
develop.
– Describe spin development,
recognition and recovery.
– Describe the differences in recovery
techniques for aeroplanes that have
different mass distributions between
the wings and the fuselage.
081 01 09 00 CLMAX augmentation

081 01 09 01 Trailing-edge flaps and the reasons for use in
take-off and landing
01 – Describe trailing-edge flaps and the x x
reasons for their use during take-off
and landing.
– Identify the different types of trailing-
edge flaps given a relevant diagram:
• split flaps;
• plain flaps;
• slotted flaps;
• fowler flaps.
– Describe their effect on wing
Page 418 of 494
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geometry.
– Describe how the wing’s effective
camber increases.
– Describe how the effective chord line
differs from the normal chord line.
– Describe their effect on:
• the location of centre of pressure;
• pitching moments;
• stall speed.
– Compare their influence on the CL–
graph:
• indicate the variation in CL at any
given angle of attack;
• indicate the variation in CD at any
given angle of attack;
• indicate their effect on CLMAX;
• indicate their effect on the stall or
critical angle of attack;
• indicate their effect on the angle of
attack at a given CL.
CD graph:
• indicate how the (CL/CD)MAX differs
from that of a clean wing.
– Explain the influence of trailing- edge
flap deflection on the glide angle.
– Describe flap asymmetry:
• explain the effect on aeroplane
controllability.
– Describe trailing-edge flap effect on
take-off and landing:
• explain the advantages of lower-
nose attitudes;
• explain why take-off and landing
speeds/distances are reduced.
081 01 09 02 Leading-edge devices and the reasons for
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their use in take-off and landing
01 — Describe leading-edge high-lift devices. x x
— Identify the different types of leading-
edge high-lift devices given a relevant
diagram:
• Krueger flaps;
• variable camber flaps;
• slats.
– State their effect on wing geometry.
– Describe the function of the slot.
– Describe how the wing’s effective
camber increases.
– Describe how the effective chord line
differs from the normal chord line.
– State their effect on the stall speed,
also in comparison with trailing edge
flaps.
graph, compared with trailing-
edge flaps and a clean wing:
• indicate the effect of leading- edge
devices on CLMAX;
• explain how the CL curve differs from
that of a clean wing;
• indicate the effect of leading- edge
devices on the stall or critical angle
of attack.
CD graph;
– Describe slat asymmetry:
• describe the effect on aeroplane
controllability.
– Explain the reasons for using leading-
edge high-lift devices on take-off and
landing:
• explain the disadvantage of increased
nose-up attitudes;
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• explain why take-off and landing
speeds/distances are reduced.
081 01 09 03 Vortex generators
01 – Explain the purpose of vortex x x
generators.
– Describe their basic operating
principle.
– State their advantages and
disadvantages.
081 01 10 00 Means to reduce the CL–CD ratio
081 01 10 01 Spoilers and the reasons for use in the
different phases of flight
01 – Describe the aerodynamic functioning x x
of spoilers:
• roll spoilers;
• flight spoilers (speed brakes);
• ground spoilers (lift dumpers).
– Describe the effect of spoilers on
the CL– graph and stall speed.
– Describe the influence of spoilers on
the CL–CD graph and lift–drag ratio.
081 01 10 02 Speed brakes and the reasons for use in the
different phases of flight
01 – Describe speed brakes and the x x
reasons for use in the different
phases of flight.
– State their influence on the CL–CD
graph and lift–drag ratio.
– Explain how speed brakes increase
parasite drag.
– Describe how speed brakes affect the
minimum drag speed.
– Describe their effect on rate and angle
of descent.
081 01 11 00 The boundary layer
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081 01 11 01 Different types
01 Refer to 081 01 08 01. x x
081 01 11 02 Their advantages and disadvantages on
pressure drag and friction drag
081 01 12 00 Aerodynamic degradation
081 01 12 01 Ice and other contaminants
01 — Describe the locations on an x x
aeroplane where ice build-up will
occur during flight.
— Explain the aerodynamic effects of
ice and other contaminants on:
• lift (maximum lift coefficient);
• drag;
• stall speed;
• stalling angle of attack;
• stability and controllability.
– Explain the aerodynamic effects of
icing on the various phases during
take-off.
081 01 12 02 Deformation and modification of airframe,
ageing aeroplanes
01 – Describe the effect of airframe x x
deformation and modification of an
ageing aeroplane on aeroplane
performance.
– Explain the effect on boundary layer
condition of an ageing aeroplane.
081 02 00 00 HIGH SPEED AERODYNAMICS
081 02 01 00 Speeds
081 02 01 01 Speed of sound
01 – Define ‘speed of sound’. x
– Explain the variation of the speed of
sound with altitude.
– Describe the influence of temperature
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on the speed of sound.
081 02 01 02 Mach number
01 Define ‘Mach number as a function of TAS and x
speed of sound’.
081 02 01 03 Influence of temperature and altitude on
Mach number
01 – Explain the absence of change of x
Mach number with varying
temperature at constant flight level
and calibrated airspeed.
– Referring to 081 08 01 02 and 081 08
01 03, explain the relationship of
Mach number, TAS and IAS during
climb and descent at constant Mach
number and IAS, and explain
variation of lift coefficient, angle of
attack, pitch and flight-path angle.
02 Referring to 081 06 01 04 and 081 06 01
05, explain that VMO can be exceeded during
a descent at constant Mach number and
that MMO can be exceeded during a climb
at constant IAS.
081 02 01 04 Compressibility
01 – State that compressibility means that x
density can change along a streamline.
– Describe how the streamline pattern
changes due to compressibility.
– State that Mach number is a measure
of compressibility.
081 02 01 05 Subdivision of aerodynamic flow
01 – List the subdivision of aerodynamic x
flow:
• subsonic flow;
• transonic flow;
• supersonic flow.
– Describe the characteristics of the flow
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regimes listed above.
– state that transport aeroplanes
normally cruise at Mach numbers
above Mcrit.
081 02 02 00 Shock waves
01 Define a ‘shock wave’. x
081 02 02 01 Normal Shock waves
01 Describe a normal shock wave with respect to x
changes in:
– static temperature;
– static and total pressure;
– velocity;
– local speed of sound;
– Mach number;
– density.
Describe a normal shock wave with respect to
orientation relative to the wing surface.
Explain the influence of increasing Mach
number on a normal shock wave, at positive
lift, with respect to:
– strength;
– length;
– position relative to the wing;
– second shock wave at the lower
surface.
Explain the influence of angle of attack on
shock-wave intensity at constant Mach
number.
Discuss the bow wave.
081 02 02 02 Oblique shock waves
01 Describe an oblique shock wave with respect to x
changes in:
– static temperature;
– static and total pressure;
– velocity;
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– local speed of sound;
– Mach number;
– density.
Compare the characteristics of normal and
oblique shock waves.
081 02 02 03 Mach cone
01 Define ‘Mach angle ’ with a formula and x
perform simple calculations.
Identify the Mach-cone zone of influence of a
pressure disturbance due to the presence of
the aeroplane.
Explain ‘sonic boom’.
081 02 03 00 Effects of exceeding Mcrit
081 02 03 01 Mcrit
01 Define ‘Mcrit’. x
Explain how a change in angle of attack
influences Mcrit.
081 02 03 02 Effect on lift
01 Describe the behaviour of lift coefficient CL x
versus Mach number at constant angle of
attack.
Explain shock-induced separation, shock
stall, and describe its relationship with Mach
buffet.
Define ‘shock stall’.
purposes, the following description is used
for shock stall: Shock stall occurs when the
lift coefficient, as a function of Mach
number, reaches its maximum value (for a
given angle of attack).
Describe the consequences of exceeding Mcrit
with respect to:
– gradient of the CL– graph;
– CLMAX (stall speed).
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Explain the change in stall speed (IAS) with
altitude.
Discuss the effect on critical or stalling angle of
attack.
081 02 03 03 Effect on drag
01 Describe wave drag. x
Describe the behaviour of drag coefficient CD
versus Mach number at constant angle of
attack.
Explain the effect of Mach number on the CL–
CD graph.
Define ‘drag divergence Mach number’ and
explain the relation with Mcrit.
081 02 03 04 Effect on pitching moment
01 Discuss the effect of Mach number on the x
location of centre of pressure and aerodynamic
centre.
Explain ‘tuck under’ effect.
List the methods of compensating for tuck
under effect.
Discuss the aerodynamic functioning of the
Mach trim system.
Discuss the corrective measures if the Mach
trim fails.
081 02 03 05 Effect on control effectiveness
01 Discuss the effects on the functioning of x
control surfaces.
081 02 04 00 Buffet onset
01 Explain the concept of buffet margin and x
describe the influence of the following
parameters:
– angle of attack;
– Mach number;
– pressure altitude;
– mass;
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– load factor;
– angle of bank;
– CG location.
Explain how the buffet onset boundary chart
can be used to determine maneuver capability.
Describe the effect of exceeding the speed for
buffet onset.
Explain aerodynamic ceiling and
‘coffin corner’.
Explain the concept of the ‘1.3G’ altitude.
Find (using an example graph):
– buffet free range;
– aerodynamic ceiling at a given mass;
– load factor and bank angle at which
buffet occurs at a given mass, Mach
number and pressure altitude.
081 02 05 00 Means to influence Mcrit
081 02 05 01 Wing sweep
01 Explain the influence of the angle of sweep on: x
– Mcrit ;
– effective thickness/chord change or
velocity component perpendicular to
the quarter chord line.
Describe the influence of the angle of sweep at
subsonic speed on:
– CLMAX;
– efficiency of high-lift devices;
– pitch-up stall behaviour.
Discuss the effect of wing sweep on drag.
081 02 05 02 Aerofoil shape
01 Explain the use of thin aerofoils with reduced x
camber.
Explain the main purpose of supercritical
aerofoils.
Identify the shape characteristics of a
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supercritical aerofoil shape.
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of
supercritical aerofoils for wing design.
081 02 05 03 Vortex generators
01 Explain the use of vortex generators as a x
means to avoid or restrict flow separation.
081 02 05 04 Area ruling
01 Explain area ruling in aeroplane design. x
081 04 00 00 STABILITY
081 04 01 00 Static and dynamic stability
081 04 01 01 Basics and definitions
01 Define ‘static stability’: x x
– identify a statically stable, neutral and
unstable condition (positive, neutral
and negative static stability).
Explain maneuverability.
Explain why static stability is the opposite of
maneuverability.
Define ‘dynamic stability’:
– identify a dynamically stable neutral
and unstable motion (positive, neutral
and negative static stability;
– identify periodic and aperiodic motion.
Explain what combinations of static and
dynamic stability will return an aeroplane to
the equilibrium state after a disturbance.
081 04 01 02 Precondition for static stability
01 Explain an equilibrium of forces and moments x x
as the condition for the concept of static
stability.
081 04 01 03 Sum of forces
01 Identify the forces considered in the x x
equilibrium of forces.
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081 04 01 04 Sum of moments
01 Identify the moments about all three axes x x
considered in the equilibrium of moments.
Discuss the effect of sum of moments not
being zero.
081 04 03 00 Static and dynamic longitudinal stability
081 04 03 01 Methods for achieving balance
01 Explain the stabiliser and the canard as the x x
means to satisfy the condition of nullifying the
total sum of the moments about the lateral
axis.
Explain the influence of the location of the
wing centre of pressure relative to the centre
of gravity on the magnitude and direction of
the balancing force on stabiliser and canard.
Explain the influence of the indicated airspeed
on the magnitude and direction of the
balancing force on stabiliser and canard.
Explain the influence of the balancing force on
the magnitude of the wing/fuselage lift.
Explain the use of the elevator deflection or
stabiliser angle for the generation of the
balancing force.
Explain the elevator deflection required to
balance thrust changes.
081 04 03 02 Static longitudinal stability
01 Explain the changes in aerodynamic forces x x
when varying angle of attack for a static
longitudinally stable aeroplane.
Discuss the effect of CG location on pitch
maneuverability.
081 04 03 03 Neutral point
01 Define ‘neutral point’. x x
Explain why the location of the neutral point is
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only dependent on the aerodynamic design of
the aeroplane.
081 04 03 04 Factors affecting neutral point
01 Indicate the location of the neutral point x x
relative to the locations of the aerodynamic
centre of the wing and tail/canard.
Explain the influence of the downwash
variations with angle-of- attack variation on the
location of the neutral point.
Explain the contribution of engine nacelles.
081 04 03 05 Location of centre of gravity
01 Explain the influence of the CG location on x x
static longitudinal stability of the aeroplane.
Explain the CG forward and aft limits with
respect to:
– longitudinal control forces;
– elevator effectiveness;
– stability.
Define ‘static margin’.
081 04 03 06 The Cm– graph
01 Define the ‘aerodynamic pitching moment x x
coefficient (Cm)’.
Describe the Cm– graph with respect to:
– positive and negative sign;
– linear relationship;
– angle of attack for equilibrium state;
– relationship between the slope of the
graph and static stability.
081 04 03 07 Factors affecting the Cm– graph
01 Explain: x x
– the effect on the Cm– graph of a
shift of CG in the forward and aft
direction;
– the effect on the Cm– graph when
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the elevator is moved up or down;
– the effect on the Cm– graph when
the trim is moved;
– the effect of the wing contribution
and how it is affected by CG location;
– the effect of the fuselage
contribution and how it is affected by
CG location;
– the tail contribution;
– the effect of aerofoil camber
change.
081 04 03 08 The elevator position versus speed graph
(IAS)
01 Describe the elevator position speed graph. x x
Explain:
– the gradient of the elevator position
speed graph;
– the influence of the airspeed on the
stick position stability.
081 04 03 09 Factors affecting the elevator position-speed
graph
01 Explain the contribution on the elevator x x
position–speed graph of:
– the location of centre of gravity;
– the trim (trim tab and stabiliser trim);
– high-lift devices.
081 04 03 10 The stick force versus speed graph (IAS)
01 Define the ‘stick force speed graph’. x x
Describe the minimum gradient for stick force
versus speed that is required for certification.
Explain the importance of the stick force
gradient for good flying qualities of an
aeroplane.
Identify the trim speed in the stick force
speed graph.
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Explain how a pilot perceives stable static
longitudinal stick force stability.
081 04 03 11 Factors affecting the stick force versus
speed graph
01 Explain the contribution of: x x
– the location of the centre of gravity;
– the trim (trim tab and stabiliser trim);
– down spring;
– bob weight;
– friction.
02 Explain the contribution of Mach number — x
Ref. 081 02 03 04
081 04 03 12 The maneuvering stability/stick force per G
01 Define the ‘stick force per G’. x x
Explain why:
– the stick force per G has a prescribed
minimum and maximum value;
– the stick force per G decreases with
pressure altitude at the same
indicated airspeed.
081 04 03 14 Factors affecting the maneuvering
stability/stick force per G
01 Explain the influence on stick force per G x x
of:
– CG location;
– trim setting;
– a down spring in the control system;
– a bob weight in the control system.
081 04 03 15 Stick force per G and the limit-load
factor
01 Explain why the prescribed minimum and x x
maximum values of the stick force per G are
dependent on the limit-load factor.
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Calculate the stick force to achieve a certain
load factor at a given maneuver stability.
081 04 03 16 Dynamic longitudinal stability
01 Describe the phugoid and short-period motion x x
in terms of period, damping, variations (if
applicable) in speed, altitude and angle of
attack.
Explain why short-period motion is more
important for flying qualities than the
phugoid.
Define and describe ‘pilot-induced
oscillations’.
Explain the effect of high altitude on
dynamic stability.
Describe the influence of the CG location
on the dynamic longitudinal stability of the
aeroplane.
081 04 04 00 Static directional stability
01 Define ‘static directional stability’. x x
Explain the effects of static directional stability
being too weak or too strong.
081 04 04 01 Sideslip angle β
01 Define ‘sideslip angle’. x x
Identify β as the symbol used for the sideslip
angle.
081 04 04 02 Yaw-moment coefficient Cn
01 Define the ‘yawing-moment coefficient Cn’. x x
Define the relationship between Cn and β for
an aeroplane with static directional stability.
081 04 04 03 Cn–β graph
01 Explain why: x x
– Cn depends on the angle of sideslip;
– Cn equals zero for that angle of
sideslip that provides static
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equilibrium about the aeroplane’s
normal axis;
– if no asymmetric engine thrust, flight
control or loading condition prevails,
the equilibrium angle of sideslip
equals zero;
Identify how the slope of the Cn–β graph
is a measure for static directional stability.
081 04 04 04 Factors affecting static directional stability
01 Describe how the following aeroplane x x
components contribute to static directional
stability:
– wing;
– fin;
– dorsal fin;
– ventral fin;
– angle of seep of the wing;
– angle of sweep of the fin;
– fuselage at high angles of attack;
– strakes.
Explain why both the fuselage and the fin
contribution reduce static directional stability
when the CG moves aft.
081 04 05 00 Static lateral stability
01 Define ‘static lateral stability’. x x
Explain the effects of static lateral stability
being too weak or too strong.
081 04 05 01 Bank angle Ø
01 Define ‘bank angle Ø’. x x
081 04 05 02 The roll-moment coefficient Cl
01 Define the ‘roll-moment coefficient Cl’. x x
081 04 05 03 Contribution of sideslip angle β
01 Explain how without coordination the bank x x
angle creates sideslip angle.
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081 04 05 04 The Cl–β graph
01 Describe Cl– graph. x x
Identify the slope of the Cl– graph as a
measure for static lateral stability.
081 04 05 05 Factors affecting static lateral stability
01 Explain the contribution to the static lateral x x
stability of:
– dihedral, anhedral;
– high wing, low wing;
– sweep angle of the wing;
– ventral fin;
– vertical tail.
Define ‘dihedral effect’.
081 04 06 00 Dynamic lateral/directional stability
081 04 06 01 Effects of asymmetric propeller slipstream
081 04 06 02 Tendency to spiral dive
01 Explain how lateral and directional stability are x x
coupled.
Explain how high-static directional stability and
a low-static lateral stability may cause spiral
divergence (unstable spiral dive), and under
which conditions the spiral dive mode is
neutral or stable.
Describe an unstable spiral dive mode with
respect to deviations in speed, bank angle,
nose low-pitch attitude and decreasing
altitude.
081 04 06 03 Dutch roll
01 Describe Dutch roll. x x
Explain:
– why Dutch roll occurs when the static
lateral stability is large compared with
static directional stability;
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– the condition for a stable, neutral or
unstable Dutch roll motion;
– the function of the yaw damper;
– the actions to be taken in case of
non-availability of the yaw damper.
02 State the effect of Mach number on Dutch roll. x
081 04 06 04 Effects of altitude on dynamic stability
01 Explain that increased pressure altitude x x
reduces dynamic lateral/directional stability.
081 05 00 00 CONTROL
081 05 01 00 General
081 05 01 01 Basics, the three planes and three axes.
01 Define: x x
– lateral axis;
– longitudinal axis;
– normal axis.
Define:
– pitch angle;
– bank angle;
– yaw angle.
Describe the motion about the three axes.
Name and describe the devices that control
these motions.
081 05 01 02 Camber change
01 Explain how camber is changed by movement x x
of a control surface.
081 05 01 03 Angle-of-attack change
01 Explain the influence of local angle-of-attack x x
change by movement of a control surface.
081 05 02 00 Pitch (longitudinal) control
081 05 02 01 Elevator/all-flying tails
01 Explain the working principle of the x x
elevator/all-flying tail and describe its function.
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Describe the loads on the tailplane over the
whole speed range.
081 05 02 02 Downwash effects
01 Explain the effect of downwash on the x x
tailplane angle of attack.
Explain in this context the use of a T-tail or
stabiliser trim.
081 05 02 03 Ice on tail
01 Explain how ice can change the x x
aerodynamic characteristics of the tailplane.
Explain how this can affect the tail’s proper
function.
081 05 02 04 Location of centre of gravity
01 Explain the relationship between elevator x x
deflection and CG location to produce a given
aeroplane response.
Explain the effect of forward CG limit on pitch
control.
081 05 02 05 Moments due to engine thrust
01 Describe the effect of engine thrust on x x
pitching moments for different engine
locations.
081 05 03 00 Yaw (directional) control
01 Explain the working principle of the rudder x x
and describe its function.
– State the relationship between rudder
deflection and the moment about the
normal axis;
– Describe the effect of sideslip on the
moment about the normal axis.
081 05 03 01 Rudder limiting
01 Explain why and how rudder deflection is x
limited on transport aeroplanes.
081 05 04 00 Roll (lateral) control
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081 05 04 01 Ailerons
01 Explain the functioning of ailerons. x x
Describe the adverse effects of ailerons.
(Refer to 081 05 04 04 and 081 06 01 02).
Explain in this context the use of inboard and
outboard ailerons.
Explain outboard-aileron lockout and
conditions under which this feature is used.
Describe the use of aileron deflection in
normal flight, flight with sideslip, crosswind
landings, horizontal turns, flight with one
engine out.
Define ‘roll rate’.
List the factors that affect roll rate.
Flaperons, aileron droop.
081 05 04 03 Spoilers
01 Explain how spoilers can be used to control the x x
rolling movement in combination with or
instead of the ailerons.
081 05 04 04 Adverse yaw
01 Explain how the use of ailerons induces x x
adverse yaw.
081 05 04 05 Means to avoid adverse yaw
01 Explain how the following reduce adverse yaw: x x
– Frise ailerons;
– differential aileron deflection;
– rudder aileron cross-coupling;
– roll spoilers.
081 05 05 00 Roll/yaw interaction
01 Explain the secondary effect of roll. x x
Explain the secondary effect of yaw.
081 05 06 00 Means to reduce control forces
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081 05 06 01 Aerodynamic balance
01 Describe the purpose of aerodynamic balance. x x
Describe the working principle of the nose
and horn balance.
Describe the working principle of internal
balance.
Describe the working principle and the
application of:
– balance tab;
– anti- balance tab;
– spring tab;
– servo tab.
081 05 06 02 Artificial means
01 Describe fully powered controls. x x
Describe power-assisted controls.
Explain why artificial feel is required.
Explain the inputs to an artificial feel system.
081 05 07 00 Mass balance
01 Refer to 081 06 01 01 for mass balance. x x
Refer to 081 04 03 11 and 081 04 03 14 for bob
weight.
081 05 08 00 Trimming
081 05 08 01 Reasons to trim
01 State the reasons for trimming devices. x x
Explain the difference between a trim tab and
the various balance tabs.
081 05 08 02 Trim tabs
01 Describe the working principle of a trim tab x x
including cockpit indications.
081 05 08 03 Stabiliser trim
01 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a x x
stabiliser trim compare with a trim tab.
Explain elevator deflection when the aeroplane
is trimmed in the case of fully powered and
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power-assisted pitch controls.
Explain the factors influencing stabiliser setting.
Explain the influence of take-off stabiliser trim
setting on rotation characteristics and stick
force during take-off rotation at extremes of
CG position.
Discuss the effects of jammed and runaway
stabiliser.
Explain the landing considerations with a
jammed stabiliser.
081 06 00 00 LIMITATIONS
081 06 01 00 Operating Limitations
081 06 01 01 Flutter
01 Describe the phenomenon of flutter and list x x
the factors:
– elasticity;
– backlash;
– aeroelastic coupling;
– mass distribution;
– structural properties;
– IAS.
List the flutter modes of an aeroplane:
– wing;
– tailplane;
– fin;
– control surfaces including tabs.
Describe the use of mass balance to alleviate
the flutter problem by adjusting the mass
distribution:
– wing-mounted pylons;
– control surface mass balance.
List the possible actions in the case of flutter in
flight.
081 06 01 02 Aileron reversal
01 Describe the phenomenon of aileron x x
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reversal:
– at low speeds;
– at high speeds.
Describe the aileron reversal speed in
relationship to VNE and VNO.
081 06 01 03 Landing gear/flap operating
01 Describe the reason for flap/landing gear x x
limitations.
– define ‘VLO’;
– define ‘VLE’.
Explain why there is a difference between
VLO and VLE in the case of some aeroplane
types.
Define ‘VFE’.
Describe flap design features to prevent
overload.
081 06 01 04 VMO, VNO, VNE
01 Define ‘VMO’, ‘VNO’, ‘VNE’. x x
Describe the differences between VMO, VNO
and VNE.
Explain the dangers of flying at speeds close to
VNE.
081 06 01 05 MMO
01 Define ‘MMO’ and state its limiting factors. x
081 06 02 00 Maneuvering envelope
081 06 02 01 Maneuvering-load diagram
01 Describe the maneuvering-load diagram. x x
Define limit and ultimate load factor and
explain what can happen if these values are
exceeded.
Define ‘VA’, ‘VC’, ‘VD’.
Identify the varying features on the
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diagram:
– load factor ‘n’;
– speed scale, equivalent airspeed, EAS;
– CLMAX boundary;
– accelerated stall speed (refer to 081
01 08 02).
Describe the relationship between VMO and
VC.
State all the maneuvering limit load factors
applicable to aeroplanes.
Explain the relationship between VA and VS in
a formula.
Explain the adverse consequences of
exceeding VA.
081 06 02 02 Factors affecting the maneuvering-load
diagram
01 State the relationship of mass to: x x
– load factor limits;
– accelerated stall speed limit;
– VA and VC.
Explain the relationship between VA,
aeroplane mass and altitude.
Calculate the change of VA with changing
mass.
02 Describe the effect of altitude on Mach x
number, with respect to limitations.
Explain why VA loses significance at higher
altitude where compressibility effects occur
Define ‘MC’ and ‘MD’ and their relation with
VC and VD.
081 06 03 00 Gust envelope
081 06 03 01 Gust-load diagram
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Learning Objectives
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01 Recognise a typical gust-load diagram. x x
Identify the various features shown on the
diagram:
– gust-load factor ‘n’;

– speed scale, equivalent airspeed and
EAS;
– CLMAX boundary;
– vertical gust velocities;
– relationship of V B to VC and VD;
– gust limit load factor.
Define ‘VRA’, ‘VB’.
Discuss considerations for the selection of this
speed.
Explain the adverse effects on the aeroplane
when flying in turbulence.
081 06 03 02 Factors affecting the gust-load diagram.
01 Explain the relationship between the gust-load x x
factor, lift-curve slope, density ratio, wing
loading, EAS and equivalent vertical sharp-
edged gust velocity and perform relevant
calculations.
081 07 00 00 PROPELLERS
081 07 01 00 Conversion of engine torque to thrust
01 Explain the resolution of aerodynamic force on x x
a propeller blade element into lift and drag or
into thrust and torque.
Describe propeller thrust and torque and their
variation with IAS.
081 07 01 01 Relevant propeller parameters
01 Describe the geometry of a typical propeller x x
blade element at the reference section:
– blade chord line;
– propeller rotational velocity vector;
– true-airspeed vector;
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– blade angle of attack;
– pitch or blade angle;
– advance or helix angle;
– define ‘geometric pitch’, ‘effective
pitch’ and ‘propeller slip’.
purposes, the following definition is used for
geometric pitch: the theoretical distance a
propeller would advance in one revolution at
zero blade angle of attack.
Define ‘fine and coarse pitch’.
081 07 01 02 Blade twist
01 Define ‘blade twist’. x x
Explain why blade twist is necessary.
081 07 01 03 Fixed pitch and variable pitch/constant speed
01 List the different types of propellers: x x
– fixed pitch;
– adjustable pitch or variable pitch (non-
governing);
– variable pitch (governing)/ constant
speed.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
fixed-pitch and constant-speed propellers.
Discuss climb and cruise propellers.
Explain the relationship between blade angle,
blade angle of attack and airspeed for fixed and
variable pitch propellers.
Given a diagram, explain the forces acting on a
rotating blade element in normal, feathered,
windmilling and reverse operation.
Explain the effects of changing propeller pitch
at constant IAS.
081 07 01 04 Propeller efficiency versus speed
01 Define ‘propeller efficiency’. x x
Explain the relationship between propeller
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efficiency and speed (TAS).
Plot propeller efficiency against speed for the
types of propellers listed in 081 07 01 03
above.
Explain the relationship between blade angle
and thrust.
081 07 01 05 Effects of ice on propeller
01 Describe the effects of ice on a propeller. x x
081 07 02 00 Engine failure
081 07 02 01 Windmilling drag
01 List the effects of an inoperative engine on the x x
performance and controllability of an
aeroplane:
– thrust loss/drag increase;
– influence on yaw moment during
asymmetric power.
081 07 02 02 Feathering
01 Explain the reasons for feathering and the x x
effect on performance and controllability.
Influence on yaw moment during asymmetric
power.
081 07 03 00 Design features for power absorption
01 Describe the factors of propeller design that x x
increase power absorption.
081 07 03 01 Aspect ratio of blade
01 Define ‘blade-aspect ratio’. x x
081 07 03 02 Diameter of propeller
01 Explain the reasons for restricting propeller x x
diameter.
081 07 03 03 Number of blades
01 Define ‘solidity’. x x
Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
increasing the number of blades.
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081 07 03 04 Propeller noise
01 Explain how propeller noise can be minimised. x x
081 07 04 00 Secondary effects of propellers
081 07 04 01 Torque reaction
01 Describe the effects of engine/propeller x x
torque.
Describe the following methods for
counteracting engine/propeller torque:
– counter-rotating propellers;
– contra-rotating propellers.
081 07 04 02 Gyroscopic precession
01 Describe what causes gyroscopic precession. x x
Describe the effect on the aeroplane due to the
gyroscopic effect.
081 07 04 03 Asymmetric slipstream effect
01 Describe the possible asymmetric effects of the x x
rotating propeller slipstream.
081 07 04 04 Asymmetric blade effect
01 Explain the asymmetric blade effect (also called x x
P factor).
Explain influence of direction of rotation on
critical engine on twin engine aeroplanes.
081 08 00 00 FLIGHT MECHANICS
081 08 01 00 Forces acting on an aeroplane
081 08 01 01 Straight horizontal steady flight
01 Describe the forces acting on an aeroplane in x x
straight horizontal steady flight.
List the four forces and state where they act.
Explain how the four forces are balanced.
Describe the function of the tailplane.
081 08 01 02 Straight steady climb
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01 Define ‘ flight-path angle’. x x
Describe the relationship between pitch
attitude, flight-path angle and angle of attack
for the zero-wind, zero-bank and sideslip
conditions.
Describe the forces acting on an aeroplane in a
straight steady climb.
Name the forces parallel and perpendicular to
the direction of flight.
Apply the formula relating to the parallel forces
(T = D + W sin );
Apply the formula relating to the
perpendicular forces (L = W cos ).
Explain why thrust is greater than drag.
Explain the formula (for small angles) giving the
relationship between flight- path angle, thrust,
weight and lift– drag ratio, and use this formula
for simple calculations.
Explain how IAS, angle of attack and flight-path
angle change in a climb performed with
constant pitch attitude and normal thrust
decay with altitude.
081 08 01 03 Straight steady descent
01 Describe the forces acting on an aeroplane in a x x
straight steady decent.
– Apply the formula parallel to the
direction flight (T = D - W sin ).
– Apply the formula relating to the
perpendicular forces (L = W cos ).
Explain why lift is less than weight.
Explain why thrust is less than drag.
081 08 01 04 Straight steady glide
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straight steady glide.
Apply the formula for forces parallel to the
direction of flight (D = W sin );
– Apply the formula for forces
perpendicular to the direction of flight
(L = W cos ).
Describe the relationship between the glide
angle and the lift–drag ratio.
Describe the relationship between angle of
attack and the best lift–drag ratio.
Explain the effect of wind component on
glide angle, duration and distance.
Explain the effect of mass change on glide
angle, duration and distance.
Explain the effect of configuration change
on glide angle, duration and distance.
Describe the relation between TAS and sink
rate including minimum glide angle and
minimum sink rate.
081 08 01 05 Steady coordinated turn
steady coordinated turn.
Resolve the forces acting horizontally and
vertically during a coordinated turn:
.
Describe the difference between a
coordinated and an uncoordinated turn and
explain how to correct an uncoordinated
turn using turn and slip indicator.
Explain why the angle of bank is independent
of mass and only depends on TAS and radius of
turn.
Resolve the forces to show that for a given
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angle of bank the radius of turn is determined
solely by airspeed
.
Calculate the turn radius, load factor and the
time for a complete turn for relevant
parameters given for a steady turn.
Discuss the effects of bank angle on:
– load factor;
– angle of attack;
– thrust;
– drag.
Define ‘angular velocity’.
Define ‘rate of turn’ and ‘rate-one turn’.
Explain the influence of TAS on rate of turn at a
given bank angle.
081 08 02 00 Asymmetric thrust
01 Describe the effects on the aeroplane during x x
flight with asymmetric thrust including both jet
engine and propeller-driven aeroplanes.
Discuss critical engine, include effect of
crosswind when on the ground.
Explain the effect of steady asymmetric flight
on a conventional (ball) slip indicator.
081 08 02 01 Moments about the normal axis
01 Describe the moments about the normal axis. x x
Explain the yawing moments about the CG.
Describe the change to yawing moment caused
by power changes.
Describe the changes to yawing moment
caused by engine distance from CG.
Describe the methods to achieve balance.
081 08 02 03 Forces parallel to the lateral axis
01 Explain: x x
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– the force on the vertical fin;
– the fuselage side force due to
sideslip;
– the use of bank angle to tilt the lift
vector.
Explain how bank angle and sideslip are related
in a steady asymmetric flight.
Explain why the bank angle must be limited.
Explain the effect on fin angle of attack due to
sideslip.
081 08 02 04 Influence of aeroplane mass
01 Explain why controllability with one engine x x
inoperative is a typical problem encountered at
low aeroplane mass.
081 08 02 06 Secondary propeller effects
01 Describe propeller effects: x x
– slip stream;
– torque reaction;
– asymmetric blade effect.
081 08 02 08 VMCA
01 Define “VMCA”. x x
Describe how VMCA is determined.
Explain the influence of the CG location
081 08 02 09 VMCL
01 Define ‘VMCL’. x x
Describe how VMCL is determined.
Explain the influence of the CG location.
081 08 02 10 VMCG
01 Define ‘VMCG’. x x
Describe how VMCG is determined.
Explain the influence of the CG location.
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081 08 02 11 Influence of density
01 Describe the influence of density. x x
Explain why VMCA, VMCL and VMCG reduce with an
increase in altitude and temperature.
081 08 03 00 Particular points on a polar curve
01 Identify the particular points on a polar curve x x
and explain their significance, assuming a
parabolic approximation.
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N. SUBJECT 082 – PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
(HELICOPTER)
N. SUBJECT 082 - PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT (HELICOPTER)
(1) VOCABULARY OF MECHANICS
Speed is a scalar quantity, it has only magnitude.
Velocity is a vector quantity having magnitude and direction.
The velocity (speed) of a point of the aerofoil in the rotation around its axis is the ‘linear’ or ‘tangential’ velocity
(speed).
The rotational velocity (speed) of a body around an axis is an angular velocity (speed) expressed in revolutions per
minute (RPM), or degrees per second (deg/s), or radians per second (rad/s).
Density is the mass of the fluid per unit volume, in SI units kg/m3.
(2) AERONAUTICAL DEFINITIONS
The blade is the aerofoil between a root radius and the tip radius (R) attached to the hub with hinges or flexible
elements.
The cross section of a blade perpendicular to the feathering axis, the blade section at a distance (radius) from
the hub centre shows the shape of the aerofoil.
Such section is characterised by a contour, a leading and trailing edge, a chord line, a chord, a camber line,
the maximum thickness or depth, the thickness-to-chord ratio.
The blade element is a spanwise piece of the blade. It is assumed that its radial extension is small such that the
aerodynamic forces don ’t vary with radial distance. The aerodynamic forces on the blade element produce lift,
drag and a pitching moment.
PCAA, FCL (ATPL, MPL, CPL) Learning Objectives, v0.1, Feb 2022
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The centre of pressure is defined as the point on the chord where the resultant of all aerodynamic forces
acts such that the pitching moment about this point is zero.
The planform of the blade is the shape of the blade as seen from above.
The pitch angle of a section is the angle between the chord line and a reference plane. (The reference planes
will be defined later in this text.)
The blade is without twist when the pitch angle is constant from root to tip.
The blade is twisted when the pitch angle of the section s varies as a function of the radial distance (the chord lines
are not parallel). If the pitch angle decreases towards the tip, this is called washout.
The vector sum of the undisturbed upstream velocity and the thrust-induced velocity is the relative velocity.
In the helicopter theory we use the following definitions for ‘angle of attack’, ‘lift’ and ‘drag’:
— The angle between the relative velocity and the chord line is the angle of attack or AoA, called effective
angle of attack. The geometric angle of attack is the angle between the undisturbed upstream velocity
and the chord line.
— Lift is the component of the aerodynamic force on a blade element perpendicular to the relative velocity.
— Profile drag is the component of the aerodynamic force on a blade element parallel to the relative velocity.
Profile drag is produced by the pressure forces and by skin -friction forces that act on the surface of the blade
element.
The component of the drag force due to the pressure forces is the pressure or form drag.
The component of the drag due to the shear forces over the aerofoil is termed skin-friction drag.
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The sum of the pressure drag and the skin-friction drag is the profile drag.
(3) HELICOPTER CHARACTERISTICS
Disc loading is by definition the mass M or weight W of the helicopter divided by the area of the disc.
(The disc area is R2, R being the blade-tip radius)
The disc loading is M/( R2) or W/( R2)
Blade loading is by definition the mass (weight) divided by the total planform area of the blades.
The area of a rectangular blade is given by chord times tip radius. For tapered blades, the mean geometric chord is
taken as an approximately equivalent chord.
Blade loading is defined as the mass or weight of the helicopter divided by the total area of all blades.
Rotor solidity is the ratio of the total blade area to the disc area.
(4) PLANES, AXES, REFERENCE SYSTEMS OF THE ROTOR
— Shaft axis: the axis of the rotor shaft (mast).

— Hub plane: plane perpendicular to the shaft axis through the centre of the hub.
— Tip-path plane: the plane traced out by the blade tips. This plane is also the no-flapping plane.
— Virtual rotation axis: axis through the centre of the hub and perpendicular to the tip-path plane. Another
name for this axis is no-flapping axis.
— Rotor-disc plane: another name for the tip-path plane.
— Rotor disc: the disc traced out by the blade tips in the tip-path plane.
— Plane of rotation: the plane parallel to the tip-path plane through the hub centre.
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— No-feathering plane: is also called the control plane. This is the reference plane relative to which the
pitch of the rotating blade has no variation during a full rotation. The control plane is parallel to the swash
plate in the simple feathering mechanism (no flap-feathering coupling).
— Control axis or axis of no-feathering. Axis through the hub centre and perpendicular to the no-feathering or
control plane.
— The azimuthal angle of the blade is the angle in the rotor-disc plane counted in the rotation sense from the
direction opposite to the helicopter velocity.
(5) REFERENCE SYSTEMS (sometimes called frames of reference)
There are three different reference systems in which the movement of the blades can be studied or observed:
— The tip-path plane with the virtual rotation axis: the observer in this system observes no flapping, only cyclic
feathering.
— The no-feathering plane (or control plane) with the control axis: the observer in this system observes no
feathering, only cyclic flapping.
— The hub plane and shaft axis: the observer in this system observes both cyclic flapping and cyclic feathering.
(6) ANGLES OF THE BLADES, INDUCED VELOCITY
— Pitch angle of a blade section: the angle between the chord line of the section and the hub plane (the reference
plane), also called local pitch angle.
— Pitch angle of the blade: the pitch angle at 75 % of the tip radius.
— Flapping angle: the angle between the longitudinal axis of the blade and the hub plane.
— Coning angle: the angle between the longitudinal axis of the blade and the tip -path plane.
— Advance angle: the azimuthal angle between the flapping axis and the point where the pitch link is connected to
the swash plate (not to be confused with the phase lag from pitch input to flapping response).
The induced velocity is the velocity induced by the rotor thrust in the plane of the rotor disc (about 10 m/s for a
light helicopter in hover). The slipstream velocity continues to increase downstream of the rotor. In the hover out-
of-ground-effect (HOGE), the velocity in the ultimate wake is equal to two times the induced velocity.
Aerodynamic forces on the BLADES and the ROTOR.
The airflow around the blade element produces an aerodynamic force resolvable in two components: lift and
drag. Lift is perpendicular to the relative air velocity, and drag is parallel to the relative air velocity.
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The aerodynamic force may also be resolved into thrust perpendicular to the tip -path plane (or plane of rotation)
and drag parallel to the tip-path plane. This drag is the sum of the profile drag and the induced drag.
Because the angle between the lift vector and the thrust vector is very small , the magnitudes of these two vectors
may be taken as equal.
The blade thrust is the sum of the thrusts of all blade elements along the blade radius.
The sum of the thrusts of all blades is the (total) rotor thrust acting perpendicular to the tip-path plane in the
direction of the virtual rotation axis.
The result of the induced drag forces on all the blade elements of all blades is a torque on the shaft which —
multiplied by the angular velocity of the rotor — gives the required induced power.
The result of all the profile drags is a torque on the shaft which — multiplied by the angular velocity of the rotor —
gives the required profile power.
(7) TYPES OF ROTOR HUBS
There are basically four types of rotor hubs in use:
1. Teetering rotor or seesaw rotor: The two blades are connected together; the hinge is on the shaft axis. A variation
is the gimballed hub; the blades and the hub are attached to the rotor shaft by means of a gimbal or universal
joint.
2. Fully articulated rotor: The rotor has more than two blades. Each blade has a flapping hinge, a lead-lag
hinge and a feathering bearing.
3. Hingeless rotor: There are no flap and lead-lag hinges. They are replaced by flexible elements at the root
of the blades which allow flapping and lead-lag movements. The feathering bearing allows feathering of the
blade.
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4. Bearingless rotor: There are no hinges or bearings. Flapping and lead or lag are obtained by flexing flexible elements
called elastomeric hinges and feathering is obtained by twisting the element.
Two remarks:
1. Hinge offset and equivalent hinge offset
The hinge offset is the distance between the shaft axis and the axis of the hinge. In the hingeless and
bearingless rotor, we define an equivalent hinge offset.
2. Elastomeric hinges
This bearing consists of alternate layers of elastomer and metal. The elasticity in the elastomer allows the
movements of flapping, lead-lag and feathering.
(8) DRAG AND POWERS
The induced power is the power resulting from the induced velocity in the rotor disc for the generation of lift. For
any given thrust, the induced power is minimum when the induced velocity is uniform over the rotor disc. Such
velocity distribution can be approximated by using some blade twist (a truly uniform velocity cannot be obtained).
The rotor profile drag results from the component opposite to the blade velocities of all the profile drags of the
blade elements of all the blades.
The resulting power is the rotor profile power or the profile-drag power (sum of the powers to overcome the torque).
The parasite drag is the drag on the helicopter fuselage including the drag of the rotor hub and all external
equipment such as wheels, winch, etc. The tail -rotor drag is also included in the parasite drag. The power to
overcome this drag is the parasite power.
In the level flight at constant speed, the main-rotor-induced power, the rotor profile power and the parasite power
are summed to give the total power required to drive the main rotor.
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The tail-rotor-induced power and the tail-rotor profile power are summed to give the power required to drive the tail
rotor .
The power required to drive the auxiliary services , such as oil pumps and electrical generators, is the accessory or
ancillary power. The power to overcome the mechanical friction in the transmissions is included in the accessory
power.
The total power required in level flight at constant speed is the sum of the total power for the main rotor, the
power for the tail rotor and the accessory power.
In the low-speed region, the required power in straight and level flight decreases as speed increases. The
phenomenon is called translational lift.
The term limited power means that the total power required to hover OGE is greater than the available power.
(9) PHASE ANGLE IN FLAPPING MOVEMENT OF THE BLADE
The cyclic movement tilts the rotor disc in the direction of the intended helicopter velocity.
The flapping response is approximately 90° later than the applied cyclic pitch (somewhat less than 90° for hingeless
rotors).
The pitch mechanism consists of the swash plate and for each blade a pitch link attached to the swash plate and a pitch
horn attached to the blade.
(10) AXES THROUGH THE CENTRE OF THE HELICOPTER
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Longitudinal axis or roll axis: Straight line through the centre of gravity of the helicopter from the nose to the
tail about which the helicopter can roll left or right.
Lateral axis, transverse axis or pitch axis: Straight line through the centre of gravity of the helicopter about which
the helicopter can pitch its nose up or down. (This axis is also perpendicular to the reference plane of the
aircraft.)
Normal axis or yaw axis: Straight line perpendicular to the plane defined by the longitudinal and lateral axes and
about which the helicopter can yaw.
Aircraft reference plane: The plane with respect to which a subset of the components that.
constitutes the major part of the aircraft is symmetrically disposed in the port and starboard sense.
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Learning Objectives
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080 00 00 00 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
082 00 00 00 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT — HELICOPTER
082 01 00 00 SUBSONIC AERODYNAMICS
082 01 01 00 Basic concepts, laws and definitions
082 01 01 01 SI units and conversion of units
01 List the fundamental quantities and units in SI x x
system: mass (kg), length (m), time (s).
02 Show and apply tables of conversion of units of x x
English units to SI units and vice versa.
03 The units of the physical quantities should be x x
mentioned when they are introduced.
082 01 01 02 Definitions and basic concepts about air
01 Describe air temperature and pressure as x x
functions of height.
02 Use the table of the International Standard x x
Atmosphere.
03 Define air density; explain the relationship x x
between density, pressure and temperature.
04 Explain the influence of moisture content on x x
density.
05 Define pressure altitude and density altitude. x x
082 01 01 03 Newton’s laws
01 Describe Newton’s second law: force equals x x
product of mass and acceleration.
02 Distinguish mass and weight, units. x x
03 Describe the other form of the second law, x x
applicable to thrust.
04 Describe Newton’s third law: action and x x
reaction, force and torque.
082 01 01 04 Basic concepts of airflow
01 Describe steady and unsteady airflow. x x
02 Define ‘streamline’ and ‘stream tube’. x x
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03 Equation of continuity or mass conservation. x x
04 Mass-flow rate through a stream-tube section. x x
05 Describe the relation between the external x x
force on a stream tube and the momentum
variation of the airflow.
06 State the Bernoulli’s equation in a non-viscous x x
airflow, use this equation to explain and define
static pressure, dynamic pressure and total
pressure.
07 Define the stagnation point in a flow around an x x
aerofoil and explain the pressure obtained in
the stagnation point.
08 Describe the pitot system and explain the x x
measurement of airspeed (no compressibility
effects).
09 Define TAS, IAS, CAS. x x
10 Define a two-dimensional airflow and an x x
aerofoil of infinite span. Explain the difference
between a two- dimensional and a three-
dimensional airflow.
11 Explain that viscosity is a feature of a fluid (gas x x
or liquid).
12 Describe the airflow over a flat surface and x x
explain the tangential friction between air and
surface and the development of a boundary
layer.
13 Define a laminar boundary layer, a x x
turbulent boundary layer and the transition
from laminar to turbulent. Show the
influence of the roughness of the surface on
the position of the transition point.
082 01 02 00 Two-dimensional airflow
082 01 02 01 Aerofoil section geometry
01 Define the terms ‘aerofoil section’, ‘aerofoil x x
element’, ‘chord line’, ‘chord’, ‘thickness’,
‘thickness-to- chord ratio of section’, ‘camber
line’, ‘camber’, ‘leading-edge radius’.
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02 Describe different aerofoil sections, x x
symmetrical and asymmetrical.
082 01 02 02 Aerodynamic forces on aerofoil elements
01 Define the ‘angle of attack’. x x
02 Describe the pressure distribution on the upper x x
and lower surface.
03 Describe the boundary layers on the upper and x x
lower surfaces for small angles of attack (below
the onset of stall).
04 Describe the resultant force due to the x x
pressure distribution and the friction at the
element, the boundary layers and the velocities
in the wake, the loss of momentum due to
friction forces.
05 Resolve the aerodynamic force into the x x
components lift and drag.
06 Define the lift coefficient and the drag x x
coefficient, equations.
07 Show that the lift coefficient is a function of the x x
angle of attack, draw the graph.
08 Explain how drag is caused by pressure forces x x
on the surfaces and by friction forces in the
boundary layers. Define the term ‘profile drag’.
09 Draw the graph of lift (or of the lift coefficient) x x
as a function of drag or of the drag coefficient
and define the lift–drag ratio.
10 Use the equations of lift and drag to show the x x
influence of speed and density on lift and drag
for a given angle of attack and to calculate lift
and drag.
11 Define the action line of the aerodynamic x x
force, the centre of pressure and the pitching
moment.
12 Know that the pitching moment about the x x
centre of pressure is zero by definition.
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13 Know that symmetrical aerofoils have the x x
centre of pressure a quarter chord behind the
leading edge independently of the angle of
attack as long as the angle of attack remains
smaller than the angle of stall.
14 Taking an asymmetrical aerofoil section with x x
different cambers, know the position of the
centre of pressure, the influence of the angle
of attack on the centre of pressure and the
pitching moment about a line which is a
quarter chord behind the leading edge.
082 01 02 03 Stall
01 Explain the boundary layer separation when x x
the angle of attack increases beyond stall onset
and the decrease of lift and the increase of
drag. Define the ‘separation point and line’.
02 Draw a graph of lift and drag coefficient as a x x
function of the angle of attack before and
beyond the stall onset.
03 Describe how the stall phenomenon displaces x x
the centre of pressure and how pitching
moments appear about the line at quarter
chord behind the leading edge.
082 01 02 04 Disturbances due to profile contamination
01 Explain ice contamination, the modification of x x
the section profile and the surfaces due to ice
and snow, influence on lift and drag and L–D
ratio, on the angle of attack at stall onset,
effect of the weight increase.
02 Explain the erosion effect of heavy rain on the x x
wing and subsequent increase of profile drag.
082 01 03 00 Three-dimensional airflow around a blade
(wing) and a fuselage
082 01 03 01 The blade
01 Describe different planforms of blades and x x
describe untwisted and twisted blades.
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Learning Objectives
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02 Define the root chord and the tip chord, the x x
mean chord, the aspect ratio and the blade
twist.
082 01 03 02 Airflow pattern and influence on lift
082 02 01 01 Speeds and Mach number
01 Define the speed of sound in air. x x
02 State that the speed of sound is proportional x x
to the square root of the absolute
temperature (unit Kelvin).
03 Explain the variation of speed of sound with x x
altitude.
04 Define Mach number. x x
05 Explain the meaning of incompressibility and x x
compressibility of air; relate this to the value of
Mach number.
06 Define subsonic, high subsonic and x x
supersonic flows in relation to the value of the
Mach number.
082 02 01 02 Shock waves
01 Describe a shock wave in a supersonic flow x x
and the pressure and speed changes by the
shock.
02 Describe the appearance of local x x
supersonic flows at the upper surface of a
blade section and the compression by a
shock when the section is in an upstream
high subsonic flow.
03 Describe the effect of the shock on lift, x x
drag, the pitching moment, the CL–CD
ratio and drag divergence Mach number.
082 02 01 03 Influence of aerofoil section and blade
planform
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01 Explain the different shapes which allow x x
higher upstream Mach numbers without
generating a shock wave on the upper
surface:
– reducing the section thickness- to-
chord ratio;
– special aerofoil sections as supercritical
shapes;
– a planform with sweep angle, positive
and negative.
082 03 00 00 ROTORCRAFT TYPES
082 03 01 00 Rotorcraft
082 03 01 01 Rotorcraft types
01 Define the ‘autogyro’ and the x x
‘helicopter’.
02 Explain the rolling moment on an autogyro x x
with fixed blades, the necessity to use
flapping hinges and the ensuing reduction of
the moment arm, the flapback of the blades.
082 03 02 00 Helicopters
082 03 02 01 Helicopter configurations
01 Describe the single main rotor helicopter x x
and the other configurations: tandem,
coaxial, side by side, synchrocopter
(intermeshing blades), the compound
helicopter, tilt-wing and tilt-rotor.
082 03 02 02 The helicopter, characteristics and associated
terminology
01 Describe the general layout of a single main x x
rotor helicopter, fuselage, engine or engines,
main gearbox, main rotor shaft and rotor hub.
02 Mention the tail rotor at the aft of the fuselage, x x
the fenestron and the NOTOR (No Tail Rotor).
03 Define the rotor disc area and the blade area, x x
the blades turning in the hubplane.
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04 Describe the teetering rotor with the hinge axis x x
on the shaft axis and the rotor with more than
two blades with offset hinge axes.
05 Define the fuselage centre line and the three x x
axes: roll, pitch and normal.
06 Define the gross weight and the gross mass x x
(units), the disc and blade loading.
082 04 00 00 MAIN-ROTOR AERODYNAMICS
082 04 01 00 Hover flight Outside Ground Effect (OGE)
082 04 01 01 Airflow through the rotor disc and around the
blades
01 Define the circumferential (tangential) velocity x x
of the blade sections, which equals the angular
velocity of the rotor multiplied by the radius of
the section.
02 Keep the blade fixed and define the x x
undisturbed upstream air velocity relative to
the blade.
03 Based on Newton’s second law (momentum), x x
explain that the vertical force on the disc, the
rotor thrust, produces vertical downward
velocities in the rotor-disc plane. The values of
these thrust-induced velocities increase as the
thrust increases and decrease with increasing
rotor diameter. Know that the velocities some
distance downstream are twice the value of
the induced speed in the disc plane.
04 Explain why the production of the induced flow x x
requires a power on the shaft, the induced
power. The induced power is smallest if the
induced velocities have the same value on the
whole disc (flow uniformity over the disc).
05 Describe uniform and typical non-uniform x x
velocities through the rotor disc.
06 Explain why the vertical rotor thrust must be x x
somewhat higher than the weight because of
the vertical drag on the fuselage.
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07 Describe the vertical air velocities relative to x x
the rotor disc as the sum of the upstream air
velocities and the induced velocities.
08 Define the pitch angle and the angle of attack x x
of a blade element.
09 Explain lift and the profile drag of a blade x x
element.
10 Explain the resulting lift and the thrust on the x x
blade, define the resulting rotor thrust.
11 Explain the necessity of collective pitch angle x x
changes, the influence on the angles of attack
and on the rotor thrust and the necessity of
blade feathering.
12 Explain the blade twist necessary to obtain a x x
more even induced airspeed over the disc.
13 Describe the different blade shapes (as viewed x x
from above).
14 Explain how the profile drag on the blade x x
elements generates a torque on the main shaft
and define the resulting rotor profile power.
15 Explain the influence of air density on the x x
required powers.
16 Show the effect on the airflow over the blade x x
tips.
082 04 01 02 Anti-torque force and tail rotor
01 Based on Newton’s third law, explain the need x x
of a tail-rotor thrust, the required value being
proportional to the main-rotor torque. Show
that the tail-rotor power is proportional to the
tail-rotor thrust.
02 Explain the necessity of blade feathering of the x x
tail-rotor blades and the control by the yaw
pedals, the maximum and minimum values of
the pitch angles of the blades.
082 04 01 03 Total power required and hover altitude
Outside Ground Effect (OGE)
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01 Define the ancillary equipment and its power x x
requirement.
02 Define the total power required. x x
03 Describe the influence of ambient pressure, x x
temperature and moisture on the required
power.
082 04 02 00 Vertical climb
082 04 02 01 Relative airflow and angles of attack
01 Describe the climb speed and the opposite x x
vertical air velocity relative to the rotor disk.
02 Explain the relative air velocities and the angle x x
of attack of the blade elements.
03 Explain how the angle of attack is controlled by x x
the collective pitch angle control.
082 04 02 02 Power and vertical speed
01 Define the total main-rotor power as the sum x x
of the parasite power, the induced power, the
climb power and the rotor profile power.
02 Explain why the total main-rotor power x x
increases when the rate of climb increases.
03 Define the total required power in vertical x x
flight.
082 04 03 00 Forward flight
082 04 03 01 Airflow and forces in uniform inflow
distribution
01 Explain the assumption of a uniform inflow x x
distribution on the rotor disc.
02 Define the azimuth angle of a blade, the x x
advancing blade angular range centred at 90°,
and the retreating blade range centred at 270°.
03 Show the upstream air velocities relative to the x x
blade elements and the different effects on the
advancing and retreating blade. Define the
area of reverse flow. Explain the influence of
forward speed on the tip circumferential
speed.
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04 Assuming constant pitch angles and rigid blade x x
attachments, explain the huge roll moment by
the asymmetric lift distribution.
05 Show that through cyclic feathering this x x
imbalance could be eliminated by a low angle
of attack (accomplished by a low-pitch angle)
on the advancing blade and a high angle of
attack (accomplished by a high-pitch angle) on
the retreating blade.
06 Describe the high air velocity at the advancing x x
blade tip and the compressibility effects which
limit the maximum speed of the helicopter.
07 Describe the low air velocities on the retreating x x
blade tip resulting from the circumferential
speed and the forward speed, the necessity of
high angle of attack and the onset of stall.
08 Define the tip–speed ratio and show the limits. x x
09 Explain the rotor thrust perpendicular to the x x
rotor disc and the necessity to tilt the thrust
vector forward. (Realisation will be explained in
082 05 00 00).
10 Explain the equilibrium conditions in steady x x
straight and level flight.
082 04 03 02 The flare (powered flight)
01 Explain the flare in powered flight, the x x
rearward tilt of the rotor disc and of the thrust
vector. Show the horizontal thrust component
opposite to the speed.
02 State the increase of the thrust due to the x x
upward inflow and show the modifications of
the angles of attack.
03 Explain the increase of rotor RPM in the case of x x
a non-governed rotor.
04 Explain the actions to be taken by the pilot. x x
082 04 03 03 Non-uniform inflow distribution in relation
to inflow roll
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01 Explain why the uniform inflow distribution is x x
an assumption to simplify the theory and
describe the real inflow distribution which
modifies the angle of attack and the lift
especially on the forward and backward blades.
082 04 03 04 Power and maximum speed
01 Explain that the induced velocities and induced x x
power decrease as the helicopter speed
increases.
02 Define the profile drag and the profile power x x
and their increase with helicopter speed.
03 Define the fuselage drag and the parasite x x
power and the increase with helicopter speed.
04 Define the total drag and the increase with x x
helicopter speed.
05 Describe the tail-rotor power and the power x x
required by the ancillary equipment.
06 Define the total power requirement as a sum x x
of the partial powers and explain how this total
power varies with helicopter speed.
07 Explain the influence of the helicopter mass, x x
the air density and additional external
equipment on the partial powers and the total
power required.
08 Describe the translational lift and show the x x
decrease of required total power as the
helicopter speed increases in the low-speed
region.
082 04 04 00 Hover and forward flight In Ground Effect
(IGE)
082 04 04 01 Airflow in ground effect, downwash
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01 Explain how the vicinity of the ground changes x x
the downward flow pattern and the
consequences on lift (thrust) at constant
rotor power. Show that the ground effect
depends on the height of the rotor above the
ground and the rotor diameter. Show the
required rotor power at constant AUM as a
function of height above the ground.
Describe the influence of the forward speed.
082 04 05 00 Vertical descent
082 04 05 01 Vertical descent, power on
01 Describe the airflow to the rotor disc in a x x
trouble-free vertical descent, power on, the
airflow opposite to the helicopter velocity, the
relative air velocity and the angle of attack.
02 Explain the vortex-ring state, the settling with x x
power. State the approximate values of vertical
descent speeds for the formation of vortex ring
related to the values of the induced velocities.
03 Describe the airflow relative to the blades, the x x
root stall, the loss of lift on the blade tip, the
turbulence. Show the effect of raising the lever
and discuss the effects on the controls.
082 04 05 02 Autorotation
01 State the need for early recognition of x x
malfunctions and for a quick initiation of
recovery. Describe the recovery actions.
02 Explain that the collective lever position must x x
be lowered sufficient quickly to avoid a rapid
decay of rotor RPM, explain the influence of
the rotational inertia of the rotor on the rate of
decay.
03 Show the induced flow through the rotor disc, x x
the rotational velocity and the relative airflow,
the inflow and inflow angles.
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04 Show how the aerodynamic forces on the x x
blade elements vary from root to tip and
distinguish three zones: the inner stalled ring
(stall region), the middle autorotation ring
(driving region), and the outer anti-
autorotation ring (driven region). Explain the
RPM stability at a given collective pitch.
05 Explain the control of the rotor RPM with x x
collective pitch.
06 Show the need of negative tail-rotor thrust for x x
yaw control.
07 Explain the final increase in rotor thrust by x x
pulling the collective to decrease the vertical
descent speed and the decay in rotor RPM.
082 04 06 00 Forward flight — Autorotation
082 04 06 01 Airflow at the rotor disc
01 Explain the factors affecting inflow angle and x x
angle of attack, the autorotative power
distribution and the asymmetry over the
rotor disc in forward flight.
082 04 06 02 Flight and landing
01 Show the effect of forward speed on the x x
vertical descent speed.
02 Explain the effects of gross weight, rotor x x
RPM and altitude (density) on endurance
and range.
03 Explain the maneuvers of turning and x x
touchdown.
04 Explain the height–velocity avoidance x x
graph or dead man’s curves.
082 05 00 00 MAIN-ROTOR MECHANICS
082 05 01 00 Flapping of the blade in hover
082 05 01 01 Forces and stresses on the blade
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01 Show how the centrifugal forces depend on x x
rotor RPM and blade mass and how they pull
on the blade attachment to the hub. Apply the
formula to an example. Justify the upper limit
of the rotor RPM.
02 Assume a rigid attachment and show how x x
thrust may cause huge oscillating bending
moments which stress the attachment.
03 Explain why flapping hinges do not transfer x x
such moments. Show the small flapping hinge
offset on fully articulated rotors and zero offset
in the case of teetering rotors.
04 Describe the working principle of the flexible x x
element in the hingeless rotor and describe
the equivalent flapping hinge offset
compared to that of the articulated rotor.
082 05 01 02 Centrifugal turning moment
01 Describe the centrifugal forces on the mass x x
elements of a blade with pitch applied and the
components of these forces. Show how these
forces generate a moment which tries to
reduce the blade-pitch angle.
02 Explain the methods of counteracting by x x
hydraulics, bias springs and balance masses.
082 05 01 03 Coning angle in hover
01 Show how the equilibrium of the moments x x
about the flapping hinge of lift (thrust) and of
the centrifugal force determine the coning
angle of the blade (the blade weight being
negligible).
02 Define the tip-path plane and the coning angle. x x
03 Explain the influence of rotor RPM and lift on x x
the coning angle, justify the lower limit of the
rotor RPM, relate the lift on one blade to the
gross weight.
04 Explain the effect of the mass of the blade on x x
the tip path and the tracking.
082 05 02 00 Flapping angles of the blade in forward flight
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082 05 02 01 Forces on the blade in forward flight without
cyclic feathering
01 Assume rigid attachments of the blade to the x x
hub and show the periodic lift, moment and
stresses on the attachment, the ensuing metal
fatigue, the roll moment on the helicopter and
justify the necessity for flapping hinge.
02 Assume no cyclic pitch and describe the lift on x x
the advancing and the retreating blades.
03 State the azimuthal phase lag (90° or less) x x
between the input (applied pitch) and the
output (flapping angle). Explain the rotor
flapback (the rearward tilting of the tip-path
plane and the rotor thrust).
082 05 02 02 Cyclic pitch (feathering) in helicopter mode,
forward flight
01 Show that in order to assume and maintain x x
forward flight, the rotor- thrust vector must get
a forward component by tilting the tip-path
plane.
02 Show how the applied cyclic pitch modifies the x x
lift on the advancing and retreating blades and
produces the required forward tilting of the
tip- path plane and the rotor thrust.
03 Show the cone described by the blades and x x
define the virtual axis of rotation (or the no
flapping axis). Define the plane of rotation.
04 Define the reference system in which we x x
define the movements: the shaft axis and the
hub plane.
05 Describe the swash plates, the pitch link and x x
the pitch horn. Explain how the collective lever
moves the non- rotating swash plate up or
down alongside the shaft axis.
06 Describe the mechanism by which the desired x x
cyclic blade pitch can be produced by tilting the
swash plate with the cyclic stick.
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07 Define the no-feathering or control plane x x
(control orbit) and the no- feathering axis or
control axis.
08 Explain the translational lift effect when the x x
speed increases.
09 Justify the increase of the tilt angle of the x x
thrust vector and of the tip-path plane disc in
order to increase the speed.
082 05 03 00 Blade-lag motion in forward flight
082 05 03 01 Forces on the blade in the disc plane
(tip-path plane) in forward flight
01 Explain the Coriolis force due to flapping, the x x
resulting periodic moments in the hub plane
and the resulting periodic stresses which make
lead-lag hinges necessary to avoid material
fatigue.
02 Describe the profile-drag forces on the blade x x
elements and the periodic variation of these
forces.
082 05 03 02 The drag or lag hinge
01 Describe the drag hinge of the fully articulated x x
rotor and the lag flexure in the hingeless rotor.
02 Explain the necessity for drag dampers. x x
082 05 03 03 Ground resonance
01 Explain the movement of the centre of gravity x x
of the blades due to the lead-lag movements in
the multiblade rotor.
02 Show the effect on the fuselage and the danger x x
of resonance between this force and the
fuselage and undercarriage. State the
conditions likely to lead to ground resonance.
082 05 04 00 Rotor systems
082 05 04 01 See-saw or teetering rotor
01 Explain that a teetering rotor is prone to mast x x
bumping in low G situations because of
having no flapping hinge offset.
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082 05 04 02 Fully articulated rotor
01 Describe the fully articulated rotor with hinges x x
and feathering bearings.
02 Describe ball and roller bearings and x x
elastomeric bearings, advantages and
disadvantages.
082 05 04 03 Hingeless rotor, bearingless rotor
01 Show the forces on the flapping hinges x x
with large offset (virtual hinge) and the
resulting moments, compare them with
other rotor systems.
082 05 05 00 Blade sailing
082 05 05 01 Blade sailing and causes
01 Define ‘ blade sailing, the influence of low x x
rotor RPM and of headwind’.
082 05 05 02 Minimising the danger
01 Describe the actions to minimise danger x x
and the demonstrated wind envelope for
engaging and disengaging rotors.
082 05 05 03 Droop stops
01 Explain the utility of the droop stops, x x
retraction of the stops.
082 05 06 00 Vibrations due to main rotor
082 05 06 01 Origins of the vertical vibrations
01 Explain the lift (thrust) variations per revolution x x
of a blade and the resulting vertical rotor-
thrust variation in the case of perfect identical
blades.
02 Show the resulting frequencies and amplitudes x x
as a function of the number of blades.
03 Explain the thrust variation in case of an out-of- x x
track blade, causes, frequencies (one-per-
revolution).
04 Explain the importance of the hinges offset on x x
the effect of the vibrations on the fuselage.
082 05 06 02 Lateral vibrations
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01 Explain imbalances of a blade, causes, and x x
effects.
02 Explain the frequencies lateral one- per- x x
revolution vibration.
082 06 00 00 TAIL ROTORS
082 06 01 00 Conventional tail rotor
082 06 01 01 Tail rotor description
01 Describe the two-bladed rotor with teetering x x
hinge, the rotors with more than two blades.
02 Show the flapping hinges and the feathering x x
bearing.
03 Describe the dangers to ground personnel, to x x
the rotor blades, possibilities of minimising
these dangers.
082 06 01 02 Tail-rotor aerodynamics
01 Explain the airflow around the blades in hover x x
and in forward flight, the effects of the tip
speeds on the noise production and the
compressibility, limits.
02 Explain in hovering the effect of wind on the x x
tail-rotor aerodynamics and thrust, problems.
03 Explain the tail-rotor thrust and the control x x
through pitch control (feathering).
04 Explain the tail-rotor flapback, and the effects x x
of delta-three hinges.
05 Describe roll moment and drift as side effects x x
of the tail rotor.
06 Explain the effects of the tail-rotor failure. x x
07 Explain the loss of tail-rotor effectiveness, x x
vortex-ring state, causes, crosswind and yaw
speed.
082 06 01 03 Strakes on the tail boom
01 Describe the strake and explain the function of x x
the device.
082 06 02 00 The fenestron
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082 06 02 01 Technical layout
01 Show the technical layout of a fenestron tail x x
rotor.
082 06 02 02 Control concepts
01 Explain the control concepts of a fenestron tail x x
rotor.
01 Explain the advantages and disadvantages. x x
082 06 03 00 The NOTAR
082 06 03 01 Technical layout
01 Show the technical layout. x x
082 06 03 02 Control concepts
01 Explain the control concepts. x x
01 Explain the advantages and disadvantages. x x
082 06 04 00 Vibrations
082 06 04 01 Tail-rotor vibrations
01 Explain the sources of vibration of the tail rotor x x
and the resulting high frequencies.
082 06 04 02 Balancing and tracking
01 Explain balancing and tracking of the tail rotor. x x
082 07 00 00 EQUILIBRIUM, STABILITY AND CONTROL
082 07 01 00 Equilibrium and helicopter attitudes
082 07 01 01 Hover
01 Explain why the vector sum of forces and x x
moments must be zero in any acceleration-free
situation.
02 Indicate the forces and the moments about the x x
lateral axis in a steady hover.
longitudinal axis in a steady hover.
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04 Deduce how the roll angle in a steady hover x x
without wind results from the moments about
the longitudinal axis.
05 Explain how the cyclic is used to create x x
equilibrium of moments about the lateral axis
in a steady hover.
06 Explain the consequence of the cyclic stick x x
reaching its forward or aft limit during an
attempt to take off to the hover.
07 Explain the influence of the density altitude on x x
the equilibrium of forces and moments in a
steady hover.
01 Explain why the vector sum of forces and of x x
moments must be zero in unaccelerated flight.
lateral axis acting on a helicopter in a steady
straight and level flight.
03 Explain the influence of All-Up Mass (AUM) on x x
the forces and moments about the lateral axis
in forward flight.
04 Explain the influence of the position of the x x
centre of gravity on the forces and moments
about the lateral axis in forward flight.
05 Explain the role of the cyclic stick position in x x
creating equilibrium of forces and moments
about the lateral axis in forward flight.
06 Explain how forward speed influences the x x
fuselage attitude.
07 Describe and explain the inflow roll effect. x x
082 07 02 00 Stability
082 07 02 01 Static longitudinal, roll and directional stability
01 Define static stability; give an example of static x x
stability and of static instability.
02 Explain the contribution of the main rotor to x x
speed stability.
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03 Describe the influence of the horizontal x x
stabiliser on static longitudinal stability.
04 Explain the effect of hinge offset on static x x
stability.
05 Describe the influence of the tail rotor on static x x
directional stability.
06 Describe the influence of the vertical stabiliser x x
on static directional stability.
07 Explain the influence of the main rotor on the x x
static roll stability.
08 Describe the influence of the longitudinal x x
position of the centre of gravity on the static
longitudinal stability.
082 07 02 02 Static stability in the hover
01 Describe the initial movements of a x x
hovering helicopter after the occurrence of a
horizontal gust.
082 07 02 03 Dynamic stability
01 Define dynamic stability; give an example of x x
dynamic stability and of dynamic instability.
02 Explain why static stability is a precondition for x x
dynamic stability.
082 07 02 04 Longitudinal stability
01 Explain the individual contributions of angle of x x
attack and speed stability together with the
stabiliser and fuselage on the dynamic
longitudinal stability.
02 Explain the principle of stability- augmentation x x
systems.
03 Define the characteristics of a phugoid. x x
082 07 02 05 Roll stability and directional stability
01 Explain the effect of a dihedral on a helicopter. x x
02 Describe how a dihedral influences the static x x
roll stability.
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03 Know that a large static roll stability together x x
with a small directional stability may lead to a
Dutch roll.
04 Explain which stability features taken together x x
may result in spiral dive and the reason why.
05 Explain the static directional stability features x x
of a tandem rotor type helicopter.
082 07 03 00 Control
082 07 03 01 Maneuver stability
01 Define the meaning of stick-force stability. x x
02 Define the meaning of stick-position stability. x x
03 Explain the meaning of the stick-force diagram x x
and trim speed.
04 Explain the meaning of stick force per G. x x
05 Explain how a bob weight influences stick force x x
per G.
06 Explain how helicopter control can be limited x x
because of available stick travel.
07 Explain how the position of the centre of x x
gravity influences the remaining stick travel.
082 07 03 02 Control power
01 Explain the meaning of the control moment. x x
02 Explain the importance of the centre of gravity x x
position on the control moment.
03 Explain how the changes of magnitude of rotor x x
thrust of a helicopter during maneuvers
influence the control moment.
04 Explain which control moment provides control x x
for a helicopter rotor with zero-hinge offset
(central flapping hinge).
05 Explain the different type of rotor control x x
moments which together provide the control
of helicopters with a hingeless or a fully
articulated rotor system.
06 Explain the influence of hinge offset on x x
controllability.
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082 07 03 03 Static and dynamic rollover
01 Explain the mechanism which causes dynamic x x
rollover.
02 Explain the required pilot action when dynamic x x
rollover is starting to develop.
082 08 00 00 HELICOPTER FLIGHT MECHANICS
082 08 01 00 Flight limits
082 08 01 01 Hover and vertical flight
01 Show the power required OGE and IGE and the x x
power available, the OGE and IGE maximum
hover height (see subject 020, piston engines
and turbine engines).
02 Explain the effects of All-Up Mass (AUM), x x
ambient temperature and pressure, density
altitude and moisture.
03 Discuss the rate of climb in a vertical flight. x x
01 Compare the power required and the power x x
available as a function of speed in straight and
level flight.
02 Define the maximum speed limited by power x x
and the value relative to VNE and VNO.
03 Use the graph to determine the speeds of x x
maximum rate of climb and the maximum
angle of climb.
04 Use the graph to define the TAS for maximum x x
range and maximum endurance, consider the
case of the piston engine and the turbine
engine. Explain the effects of tailwind or
headwind on the speed for maximum range.
05 Explain the effects of AUM, pressure and x x
temperature, density altitude, humidity.
082 08 01 03 Maneuvering
01 Define the load factor, the radius of turn and x x
the rate of turn.
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02 Explain the relationship between the bank x x
angle, the airspeed and the radius of turn,
between the bank angle and the load factor.
03 Explain the influence of All-Up Mass (AUM), x x
pressure and temperature, density altitude,
humidity.
04 Define the limit-load factors and the x x
certification categories.
082 08 02 00 Special conditions
082 08 02 01 Operating with limited power
01 Explain the operations with limited power, x x
use the graph to show the limitations on
vertical flight and level flight, discuss the
power checks and procedures for take-off and
landing.
02 Describe maneuvers with limited power. x x
082 08 02 02 Overpitch, overtorque
01 Describe overpitching and show the x x
consequences.
02 Describe situations likely to lead to x x
overpitching.
03 Describe overtorqueing and show the x x
consequences.
04 Describe situations likely to lead to x x
overtorqueing.
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O. SUBJECT 091 –VFR COMMUNICATIONS
O. SUBJECT 091 - VFR COMMUNICATIONS

Learning Objectives
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090 00 00 00 COMMUNICATIONS
091 00 00 00 VFR COMMUNICATIONS
091 01 00 00 DEFINITIONS
091 01 01 00 Meanings and significance of associated
terms
01 Define commonly used air traffic services x x x x
(ATS) terms for Stations.
02 Define commonly used ATS terms for x x x x
Communication methods.
091 01 02 00 Air Traffic Services (ATS) abbreviations
01 Define commonly used Air Traffic Services x x x x
abbreviations:
– flight conditions;
– airspace;
– services;
– time;
– miscellaneous.
091 01 03 00 Q-code groups commonly used in
Radiotelephony (RT) air–ground
communications
01 Define Q-code groups commonly used in RT x x x x
air-ground communications:
– pressure settings;
– directions and bearings.
02 State the procedure for obtaining bearing x x x x
information in flight.
091 01 04 00 Categories of messages
01 List the categories of messages in order of x x x x
priority.
02 Identify the types of messages appropriate x x x x
to each category.
03 List the priority of a message (from given x x x x
examples of messages to compare).
091 02 00 00 GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES
Page 484 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
091 02 01 00 Transmission of letters
01 State the phonetic alphabet used in radio- x x x x
telephony.
02 Identify the occasions when words should x x x x
be spelt.
091 02 02 00 Transmission of numbers (including level
information)
01 Describe the method of transmission of x x x x
numbers:
– pronunciation;
– single digits, whole hundreds and
whole thousands.
091 02 03 00 Transmission of time
01 Describe the ways of transmitting time: x x x x
– standard time reference (UTC);
– Minutes, minutes and hours, when
required.
091 02 04 00 Transmission technique
01 Explain the techniques used for making x x x x
good RT transmissions.
091 02 05 00 Standard words and phrases (relevant RTF
phraseology included)
01 Define the meaning of ‘standard words and x x x x
phrases’.
02 Use correct phraseology for each phase of x x x x
VFR flight.
03 Aerodrome procedures: x x x x
– departure information;
– taxiing instructions;
– aerodrome traffic and circuits;
– final approach and landing;
– after landing;
– essential aerodrome information.
04 VFR departure. x x x x
05 VFR arrival. x x x x
Page 485 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
091 02 06 00 Radio-telephony call signs for
aeronautical stations including use of
abbreviated call signs
01 Name the two parts of the call sign of an x x x x
aeronautical station.
02 Identify the call-sign suffixes for aeronautical x x x x
stations.
03 Explain when the call sign may be omitted or x x x x
abbreviated to the use of suffix only.
091 02 07 00 RT call signs for aircraft including use of
01 List the three different ways to compose an x x x x
aircraft call sign.
02 Describe the abbreviated forms for aircraft x x x x
call signs.
03 Explain when aircraft call signs may be x x x x
abbreviated.
091 02 08 00 Transfer of communication
01 Describe the procedure for transfer of x x x x
communication:
– by ground station;
– by aircraft.
091 02 09 00 Test procedures including readability scale
01 Explain how to test radio transmission and x x x x
reception.
02 State the readability scale and explain its x x x x
meaning.
091 02 10 00 Read-back and acknowledgement
requirements
01 State the requirement to read back ATC x x x x
route clearances.
02 State the requirement to read back x x x x
clearances related to the runway in use.
03 State the requirement to read back other x x x x
clearances including conditional clearances.
Page 486 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
04 State the requirement to read back other x x x x
data such as runway, SSR codes, etc.
091 02 11 00 Radar procedural phraseology
01 Use the correct phraseology for an x x x x
aircraft receiving a radar service:
– radar identification;
– radar vectoring;
– traffic information and avoidance;
– SSR procedures.
091 03 00 00 RELEVANT WEATHER INFORMATION
TERMS (VFR)
091 03 01 00 Aerodrome weather
01 List the contents of aerodrome weather x x x x
reports and state units of measurement
used for each item:
– variation of wind direction and
speed;
– visibility;
– present weather;
– cloud amount and type (including
the definition of CAVOK);
– air temperature and dew point;
– pressure values (QNH, QFE);
– supplementary information
(aerodrome warnings, landing
runway, runway conditions,
restrictions, obstructions, wind-
shear warnings, etc.).
091 03 02 00 Weather broadcast
01 List the sources of weather information x x x x
available for aircraft in flight.
02 Explain the meaning of the acronyms x x x x
‘ATIS’, ‘D-ATIS’ and ‘VOLMET’.
091 04 00 00 ACTION REQUIRED TO BE TAKEN IN CASE
OF COMMUNICATION FAILURE
Page 487 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 State the action to be taken in case of x x x x
communication failure on a controlled VFR
flight.
02 Identify the frequencies to be used in an x x x x
attempt to establish communication.
03 State the additional information that should x x x x
be transmitted in the event of receiver
failure.
04 Identify the SSR code that may be used to x x x x
indicate communication failure.
05 Explain the action to be taken by a pilot that x x x x
experience communication failure in the
aerodrome traffic pattern at controlled
aerodromes.
091 05 00 00 DISTRESS AND URGENCY PROCEDURES
091 05 01 00 Distress (definition, frequencies, watch of
distress frequencies, distress signal,
distress message)
01 State the DISTRESS procedures. x x x x
02 Define DISTRESS. x x x x
03 Identify the frequencies that should be used x x x x
by aircraft in DISTRESS.
04 Specify the emergency SSR codes that may x x x x
be used by aircraft, and the meaning of the
codes.
05 Describe the action to be taken by the x x x x
station which receives a DISTRESS message.
06 Describe the action to be taken by all other x x x x
stations when a DISTRESS procedure is in
progress.
07 List the content of a DISTRESS x x x x
signal/message in the correct sequence.
091 05 02 00 Urgency (definition, frequencies, urgency
signal, urgency message)
01 State the URGENCY procedures. x x x x
02 Define URGENCY. x x x x
Page 488 of 494

Learning Objectives
ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
03 Identify the frequencies that should be used x x x x
by aircraft in URGENCY.
04 Describe the action to be taken by the x x x x
station which receives an URGENCY
message.
05 Describe the action to be taken by all other x x x x
stations when an URGENCY procedure is in
progress.
06 List the content of an URGENCY x x x x
091 06 00 00 VHF PROPAGATION AND ALLOCATION OF
FREQUENCIES
01 Describe the radio-frequency spectrum with x x x x
particular reference to VHF.
02 Describe the radio-frequency spectrum of x x x x
the bands into which the radio-frequency
spectrum is divided.
03 Identify the frequency range of the VHF x x x x
band.
04 Name the band normally used for x x x x
Aeronautical Mobile Service voice
communication.
05 State the frequency separation allocated x x x x
between consecutive VHF frequencies.
06 Describe the propagation characteristics of x x x x
radio transmissions in the VHF band.
07 Describe the factors which reduce the x x x x
effective range and quality of radio
transmissions.
08 State which of these factors apply to the x x x x
VHF band.
09 Calculate the effective range of VHF x x x x
transmissions assuming no attenuating
factors.
Page 489 of 494
P. SUBJECT 092 – IFR COMMUNICATIONS
P. SUBJECT 092 - IFR COMMUNICATIONS

ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
090 00 00 00 COMMUNICATIONS
092 00 00 00 IFR COMMUNICATIONS
092 01 00 00 DEFINITIONS
092 01 01 00 Meanings and significance of associated
terms
01 Stations. x x
02 Communication methods. x x
03 The terms used in conjunction with the x x
approach and holding procedures.
092 01 02 00 Air Traffic Services (ATS) abbreviations
01 Define commonly used ATS abbreviations: x x
– flight conditions;
– airspace;
– services;
– time;
– miscellaneous.
02 The additional IFR-related terms. x x
092 01 03 00 Q-code groups commonly used in
radiotelephony (RT) air–ground
communications
01 Define Q-code groups commonly used in RT x x
air-to-ground communications:
– pressure settings;
– directions and bearings.
02 State the procedure for obtaining a bearing x x
information in flight.
092 01 04 00 Categories of messages
01 List the categories of messages in order of x x
priority.
02 Identify the types of messages appropriate to x x
each category.
03 List the priority of a message (given x x
examples of messages to compare).
092 02 00 00 GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES
092 02 01 00 Transmission of letters
01 State the phonetic alphabet used in RT. x x
02 Identify the occasions when words should be x x
spelt.
092 02 02 00 Transmission of numbers (including level
information)
Page 490 of 494

ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
01 Describe the method of transmitting numbers: x x
– pronunciation;
– single digits, whole hundreds
– and whole thousands.
092 02 03 00 Transmission of time
01 Describe the ways of transmitting time: x x
– standard time reference (UTC);
– minutes, minutes and hours,
– when required.
092 02 04 00 Transmission technique
01 Explain the techniques used for making good x x
RT transmissions.
092 02 05 00 Standard words and phrases (relevant RTF
phraseology included)
01 Define the meaning of ‘standard words and x x
phrases’.
02 Use correct standard phraseology for each x x
phase of IFR flight:
– pushback;
– departure;
– airways clearances;
– position reporting;
– approach procedures;
– arrivals.
092 02 06 00 RT call signs for aeronautical stations
including use of abbreviated call signs
01 Name the two parts of the call sign of an x x
02 Identify the call-sign suffixes for aeronautical x x
stations.
03 Explain when the call sign may be omitted or x x
abbreviated to the use of suffix only.
04 Name the two parts of the call sign of an x x
05 Identify the call-sign suffixes for aeronautical x x
stations.
06 Explain when the call sign may be abbreviated x x
to the use of suffix only.
092 02 07 00 RT call signs for aircraft including use of
01 List the three different ways to compose an x x
aircraft call sign.
Page 491 of 494

ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
02 Describe the abbreviated forms for aircraft call x x
signs.
03 Explain when aircraft call signs may be x x
abbreviated.
04 Explain when the suffix ‘HEAVY’ or ‘SUPER’ x x
should be used with an aircraft call sign.
05 Explain the use of the phrase ‘Change your call x x
sign to…’.
06 Explain the use of the phrase ‘Revert to flight x x
plan call sign’.
092 02 08 00 Transfer of communication
01 Describe the procedure for transfer of x x
communication:
– by ground station;
– by aircraft.
092 02 09 00 Test procedures including readability scale;
establishment of RTF communication
01 Explain how to test radio transmission and x x
reception.
02 State the readability scale and explain its x x
meaning.
092 02 10 00 Read-back and acknowledgement
requirements
01 State the requirement to read back ATC route x x
clearances.
02 State the requirement to read back clearances x x
related to runway in use.
03 State the requirement to read back other x x
clearances including conditional clearances.
04 State the requirement to read back data such x x
as runway, SSR codes, etc.
092 02 11 00 Radar procedural phraseology
01 Use the correct phraseology for an aircraft x x
receiving a radar service:
– radar identification;
– radar vectoring;
– traffic information and
– avoidance;
– SSR procedures.
092 02 12 00 Level changes and reports
01 Use the correct term to describe vertical x x
position:
– in relation to flight level (standard
Page 492 of 494

ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
pressure setting);
– altitude (metres/feet on QNH);
– height (metres/feet on QFE).
092 03 00 00 ACTION REQUIRED TO BE TAKEN IN CASE OF
COMMUNICATION FAILURE
01 Describe the action to be taken in x x
communication failure on an IFR flight.
02 Describe the action to be taken in case of x x
communication failure on an IFR flight when
flying in VMC and the flight will be terminated
in VMC.
03 Describe the action to be taken in case of x x
communication failure on an IFR flight when
flying in IMC.
092 04 00 00 DISTRESS AND URGENCY PROCEDURES
092 04 01 00 PAN MEDICAL
01 Describe the type of flights to which PAN x x
MEDICAL applies.
02 List the content of a PAN MEDICAL message in x x
correct sequence.
092 04 02 00 Distress (definition, frequencies, watch of
distress frequencies, distress signal, distress
message)
01 State the DISTRESS procedures. x x
02 Define DISTRESS. x x
03 Identify the frequencies that should be used by x x
aircraft in DISTRESS.
04 Specify the emergency SSR codes that may be x x
used by aircraft, and the meaning of the codes.
05 Describe the action to be taken by the station x x
which receives a DISTRESS message.
06 Describe the action to be taken by all other x x
progress.
07 List the content of a DISTRESS message. x x
092 04 03 00 Urgency (definition, frequencies, urgency
signal, urgency message)
01 State the URGENCY procedures. x x
02 Define URGENCY. x x
03 Identify the frequencies that should be used by x x
aircraft in URGENCY.
04 Describe the action to be taken by the station x x
which receives an URGENCY message.
Page 493 of 494

ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
05 Describe the action to be taken by all other x x
progress.
06 List the content of an URGENCY x x
092 05 00 00 RELEVANT WEATHER INFORMATION TERM
092 05 01 00 Aerodrome weather
01 List the contents of aerodrome weather x x
reports and state units of measurement used
for each item:
– variation of wind direction and speed;
– visibility;
– present weather;
– cloud amount and type including the
definition of cloud and visibility OK
(CAVOK);
– air temperature and dew point;
– pressure values (QNH, QFE);
– supplementary information
(aerodrome warnings, landing runway,
runway conditions, restrictions,
obstructions, windshear warnings,
etc.).
02 State units for measurement used for runway x x
visual range.
03 State units of measurement used for braking x x
action (friction coefficient).
092 05 02 00 Weather broadcast
01 List the sources of weather information x x
available for aircraft in flight.
02 Explain the meaning of the acronyms x x
‘ATIS’, ‘VOLMET’.
03 Explain when aircraft routine meteorological x x
observations should be made.
04 Explain when aircraft special meteorological x x
observations should be made.
092 06 00 00 VHF PROPAGATION AND ALLOCATION OF
FREQUENCIES
01 Describe the radio-frequency spectrum with x x
particular reference to VHF.
02 State the names of the bands into which the x x
radio-frequency spectrum is divided.
Page 494 of 494

ATPL CPL ATPL CPL
/IR
03 Identify the frequency range of the VHF band. x x
04 Name the band normally used for Aeronautical x x
Mobile Service voice communications.
05 State the frequency separation allocated x x
between consecutive VHF frequencies.
06 Describe the propagation characteristics of x x
radio transmissions in the VHF band.
07 Describe the factors which reduce the effective x x
range and quality of radio transmissions.
08 State which of these factors apply to the VHF x x
band.
09 Calculate the effective range of VHF x x
transmissions assuming no attenuating factors.
092 07 00 00 MORSE CODE
01 Identify radio-navigation aids (VOR, DME, NDB, x x x x
ILS) from their Morse- code identifiers.
02 SELCAL, TCAS, ACARS phraseology and x x x x
procedures.
- END -
Page 495 of 494

PCAA CPL MPL ATPL Learning Objectives - V1.0 - Mar 2022

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Pakistan Civil Aviation Authority (PCAA)

FLIGHT CREW LICENSING

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (LOs)

1.1 Training aims ................................................................................................................... 6

1.2 Additional Material ......................................................................................................... 6

A. SUBJECT 010 - AIR LAW .......................................................................................................... 7

C. SUBJECT 022 - INSTRUMENTATION .................................................................................... 122

D. SUBJECT 031 - MASS AND BALANCE .................................................................................. 166

E. SUBJECT 032 - PERFORMANCE (AEROPLANE) .................................................................... 176

F. SUBJECT 033 - FLIGHT PLANNING & MONITORING ............................................................ 193

G. SUBJECT 034 - PERFORMANCE (HELICOPTER) .................................................................... 207

H. SUBJECT 040 - HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS .............................................. 216

I. SUBJECT 050 - METEOROLOGY ........................................................................................... 249

J. SUBJECT 061 - GENERAL NAVIGATION ............................................................................... 290

K. SUBJECT 062 - RADIO NAVIGATION .................................................................................... 317

L. SUBJECT 070 - OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES ...................................................................... 367

M. SUBJECT 081- PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT (AEROPLANE) .......................................................... 403

N. SUBJECT 082 - PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT (HELICOPTER) ......................................................... 452

O. SUBJECT 091 - VFR COMMUNICATIONS ............................................................................. 484

P. SUBJECT 092 - IFR COMMUNICATIONS .............................................................................. 490

020 Aircraft general knowledge

021 Airframe and systems, electrics, power plant and emergency B.

030 Flight performance and planning

031 Mass and balance D.

032 Performance (Aeroplane) E.

033 Flight planning & monitoring F.

034 Performance (Helicopter) G.

040 Human performance & limitations H.

061 General navigation J.

062 Radio navigation K.

070 Operational procedures L.

080 Principles of flight

081 Principles of flight (Aeroplane) M.

082 Principles of flight (Helicopter) N.

091 VFR communications O.

092 IFR communications P.

1.2 Additional Material

A. SUBJECT 010 - AIR LAW

Syllabus reference Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter

010 01 00 00 INTERNATIONAL LAW:

010 01 01 00 The Convention on International Civil

Explain the historical background that led to x x x x

010 01 01 01 Part I – Air navigation

Be familiar with the general contents of x x x x

Syllabus reference Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter

04 Describe the duties of Contracting States in x x x x

02 Explain the organization and duties of the x x x x

010 01 02 01 The International Air Services Transit

Syllabus reference Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter

01 Explain the three commercial freedoms of the x x x x

03 Explain the content of the Convention on x x x x

04 Explain the content of the Convention on x x x x

010 01 02 04 Bilateral agreements

Syllabus reference Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter

01 Explain the Conventions and Protocols x x x x

03 Describe the consequences for an airline x x x x

04 Explain that the liability towards persons and x x x x

010 01 02 06 Operators’ and pilots’ liabilities towards

Syllabus reference Syllabus details and associated Aeroplane Helicopter