Logic

Logic Statements
Logic – a science of correct, critical reasoning.
– a belief that is supported by factual evidence.
Every language contains different types of sentences,
such as statements, questions, and commands. For
instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper.” is a command.
“This is a nice car.” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado.” is a statement of
fact.
 Logic Statements
▼ A Statement
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both true and false.

Example 1. Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. Davao City is a city in the Answer: TRUE STATEMENT

Philippines.
b. How are you? Answer: NOT A STATEMENT
c. 2 is a negative number. Answer: FALSE STATEMENT
d. � + 1 = 5. Answer: A STATEMENT
 Logic Statements
▼ A Statement
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not
both true and false.

Open sentence – a sentence involving one or more variables,

which becomes true or false when the variables are assigned
specific values.
Truth Set – the set of all values that will make an open sentence
true.
 Logic Statements
Example 2:
OPEN SENTENCE TRUTH SET
�+1=5 4
2� − 3 = 9 6
� is a negative number such that
−2
�2 = 4
� is an integer such that �2 =− 16 {} or ∅
�2 − 25 = � − 5 � + 5 , where � is
The set of real numbers
real
 Simple Statement and Compound Statement
▼ Simple Statements and Compound Statements
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound
statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and,

or, if . . . then, and if and only if creates a compound statement.
Example: “I will attend the meeting or I will go to school.” is a
compound statement.
This is composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend the
meeting.” and “I will go to school.”. The word or is a connective for
the two simple statements.
 Simple Statement and Compound Statement
▼ Simple Statements and Compound Statements
A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound
statement is a statement that conveys two or more ideas.

▼ Truth Value and Truth Tables

The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F).
The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its
simple statements and its connectives.
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements.
 Simple Statement and Compound Statement
George Boole used symbols such as � , � , � , and � to
represent simple statements and the symbols ˄, ˅, ~, →, and ↔
to represent connectives.

Logic Connectives and Symbols

 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction
The negation of statement � , denoted by ~�
(to be read as “not � ”), asserts that � is false.
Thus, if � is true, then ~� is false, and if � is
false, then ~� is true.
Example 3:
If � : Today is Friday, then ~� :Today is not
Friday.
If � :3� + 1 = 5, then ~� :3� + 1 ≠ 5.
The conjunction of two statements � and � ,
denoted by � ˄� , is true if both � and � are
true.
The disjunction of � and � , denoted by � ˅� ,
is true if either � or � is true.
 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction
Example 4. Consider the following simple statements.
� : Today is Friday.
q: It is raining.
� : I am going to a movie.
� : I am not going to the basketball game.
Write the following compound statements in symbolic form:
a. Today is Friday and it is raining. Answer: � ∧ �
b. It is not raining and I am going to a movie. Answer: ∼ � ∧ �
c. I am going to the basketball game or Answer: ∼ � ∨ �
I am going to a movie.
 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction
In the next example, we translate symbolic statements into English sentences.
Example 5. Consider the following statements:
� : The game will be played in MSU. � : The game will not be shown on
GMA.
� : The game will be shown on � : The Sultans are favored to
win.
ABS-CBN.
Write each of the following symbolic statements in words:
a. � ˄� b. ~� ˄�
Answers:
a. The game will be shown on ABS-CBN and the game will be played in MSU.
b. The game will be shown on GMA and the Sultans are favored to win.
 Negation, Conjunction and Disjunction
Example 6. Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 7 ≥ 5
b. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
c. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.

Solution:
a. 7 ≥ 5 means 7 > 5 or 7 = 5. Because 7 > 5 is true, the statement
7 ≥ 5 is a true statement.
b. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
c. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.
 De Morgan’s
Negation, Conjunction andLawDisjunction
for
Statements
STATEMENT TRUTH SET NEGATION TRUTH SET
�� ∧ � � �∩� ∼ �� ∧ �� ≡∼ �� ∨∼ �� �� ∪ � �
�� ∨ � � �∪� ∼ �� ∨ �� ≡∼ �� ∧∼ �� �� ∩ � �

Example 7. Given � = {−4,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,4} . Find the negation of

the following and determine the truth sets of each negation:

1. �� ∧ �� : �2 = 4 � � � �2 + � − 2 = 0;
2. �� ∨ �� : � + 4 = 4 � � �2 < 5.
 Universal and Existential Statements
Universal Statement – a statement that states a property
that is TRUE TO ALL.
Example 8:
1. ALL positive numbers are greater than zero.
2. For EVERY even integer � , � is divisible by 2.
3. Ang BAWAT ISA ay may pag-asa.
4. Ang LAHAT ng halaman ay nakakain.
 Universal and Existential Statements
Existential Statement – a statement which states that
there is AT LEAST ONE thing for which the property is true.
Example 9:
1. THERE IS a prime number that is even.
2. THERE EXIST a number which is divisible by any number
except itself.
3. Mayroon isang taong sa mundo na magmamahal
saiyo.
 Quantifiers and Negation
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at
least one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers
are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
Notation: “∃� ” to be read as “for some � ” or “there exists �
such that…”.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called
universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers none and no deny
the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all
and every are used to assert that every element of a given set
satisfies some condition.
Notation: “∀� ” to be read as “for every � ” or “for all � ”.
 Quantifiers and Negation
Example 10. Determine the truth value in each of the following:
1. ∀� ∈ {1,2,3} : �2  �� less than 10.
2. ∃� ∈ {10,15,20} : 3� + 1 is odd.
3. ∀� ,� ∈ {1,2,3} : � + � is prime.
4. ∃� ∈ {2,4,6} : 2� − 5 = 5.

Negations of ∀� :� and ∃� :�
STATEMENT NEGATION
∀�: � ~ ∀�: � ≡ ∃�: ~�
∃�: � ~ ∃�: � ≡ ∀�: ~�
 Quantifiers and Negation
Negations of Universal and Existential Statement

Example 11. Write the negation of each of the following statements.

a. Some airports are open.
b. All movies are worth the price of admission.
c. No odd numbers are divisible by 2.
Answer:
a. No airports are open.
b. Some movies are not worth the price of admission
c. Some odd numbers are divisible by 2
 Quantifiers and Negation
Example 12. State the negation of the following sentences
and determine the truth values of each negation:
1. ∀� ∈ {0,1,2,3} : �3 − 1 is an odd integer.
2. ∃� ,� ∈ {−1,0,1} : � = � + 1.
 Conditional Statements
Conditional statements can be written in if � , then � form or in if
� , � form. For instance, all of the following are conditional
statements.
1. If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.
2. If you go to the movie, you will not be able to meet us for dinner.
3. If � is a prime number greater than 2, then � is an odd number.
In any conditional statement represented by “If � , then � ” or
by “If � , � ,” the � statement is called the antecedent and the �
statement is called the consequent.
 Conditional Statements
Example 13. Identify the antecedent and consequent in the
following statements:
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a
week.—The Basketball Diaries
Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. If you don’t get in that plane, you’ll regret it. —Casablanca
Antecedent: you don’t get in that plane
Consequent: you’ll regret it
 Conditional Statements
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can
possibly imagine.—Obi-Wan Kenobi, Star Wars, Episode IV, A New Hope
Antecedent: you strike me down
Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can possibly
imagine
d. If � = 5, then �2 = 25.
Antecedent: � = 5
Consequent: �2 = 25
e. If �2 = 9, then � > 0.
Antecedent: �2 = 9
Consequent: � > 0
 Conditional Statements
Every conditional Statement � → � can be written in the
following equivalent forms:
 Conditional Statements
Example 14. Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form:
a. The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2.
Answer:
The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is
divisible by 2,” is in “q provided that p” form.
Antecedent: “it is divisible by 2”
Consequent: “the number is an even number”
Thus its “If p, then q” form is

If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even

number.
 Conditional Statements
b. Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Answer:
The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was
Thursday,” is in “p only if q” form.
Antecedent: “today is Friday”
Consequent: “yesterday was Thursday”
Thus its “If p, then q” form is

If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.

 Conditional Statements
▼ Arrow Notation
The conditional statement, “If p, then q,” can be written using the arrow
notation � → �. The arrow notation p l q is read as “if p, then q” or as “p
implies q.”

▼ Truth Value of the Conditional � → �

The conditional � → � is false if p is true
and q is false. It is true in all other cases.

▼ The Negation of � → � 
∼ � → � = � ∧∼ �
Truth table for � → �
 Conditional Statements
Examples: Determine the truth value of each of the
following. Then state the negation of each statement.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4
 Biconditional Statements
The statement � → � ˄ � → � is called a biconditional and is denoted
by � ↔ � which is read as “� if and only if � .”

▼ The Biconditional � ↔
�
�↔�≡ �→� ∧ �→�

Truth table for � ↔ �

 Biconditional Statements

Examples: State whether each biconditional is

true or false.
a. x + 4 = 7 if and only if x = 3.
b. � = 36 if and only if x = 6.
2
 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
Statements
Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are
called the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive

▼ Statements Related to the Conditional Statement

The converse of � → � is � → �.
The inverse of � → � is ∼ � →∼ �.
The contrapositive of � → � is ∼ � →∼ �.
 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
Statements
Example 15. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive
of the following:
1. If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.
Answer:
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the
apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the apartment, then I did not
get the job.
 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
Statements
2. If � is an odd integer, then �2 + 2 is even.
Answer:
Converse: If �2 + 2 is even, then � is an odd integer.
Inverse: If � is an even integer, then �2 + 2 is odd.
Contrapositive:If �2 + 2 is odd, then � is an even integer.