10

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
AND POLAR COORDINATES
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS & POLAR COORDINATES

A coordinate system represents

a point in the plane by an ordered
pair of numbers called coordinates.
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS & POLAR COORDINATES

Usually, we use Cartesian coordinates,

which are directed distances from two
perpendicular axes.
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS & POLAR COORDINATES

Here, we describe a coordinate system

introduced by Newton, called the polar
coordinate system.

 It is more convenient for many purposes.

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS & POLAR COORDINATES

10.3
Polar Coordinates

In this section, we will learn:

How to represent points in polar coordinates.
POLE

We choose a point in the plane

that is called the pole (or origin)
and is labeled O.
POLAR AXIS

Then, we draw a ray (half-line) starting

at O called the polar axis.

 This axis is usually drawn horizontally to the right

corresponding to the positive x-axis in Cartesian
coordinates.
ANOTHER POINT

If P is any other point in the plane, let:

 r be the distance from O to P.

 θ be the angle (usually measured in radians)
between the polar axis and the line OP.
POLAR COORDINATES

P is represented by the ordered pair (r, θ).

r, θ are called polar coordinates of P.
POLAR COORDINATES

We use the convention that

an angle is:

 Positive—if measured in the counterclockwise

direction from the polar axis.

 Negative—if measured in the clockwise

direction from the polar axis.
POLAR COORDINATES

If P = O, then r = 0, and we agree that

(0, θ) represents the pole for any value
of θ.
POLAR COORDINATES

We extend the meaning of polar

coordinates (r, θ) to the case in which
r is negative—as follows.
POLAR COORDINATES

We agree that, as shown, the points (–r, θ)

and (r, θ) lie on the same line through O
and at the same distance | r | from O, but
on opposite sides of O.
POLAR COORDINATES

If r > 0, the point (r, θ) lies in the same

quadrant as θ.
If r < 0, it lies in the quadrant on the opposite
side of the pole.

 Notice that (–r, θ)

represents
the same point
as (r, θ + π).
POLAR COORDINATES Example 1

Plot the points whose polar coordinates

are given.

a. (1, 5π/4)
b. (2, 3π)
c. (2, –2π/3)
d. (–3, 3π/4)
POLAR COORDINATES Example 1 a

The point (1, 5π/4) is plotted here.

POLAR COORDINATES Example 1 b

The point (2, 3π) is plotted.

POLAR COORDINATES Example 1 c

The point (2, –2π/3) is plotted.

POLAR COORDINATES Example 1 d

The point (–3, 3π/4) is plotted.

 It is is located three
units from the pole
in the fourth quadrant.

 This is because
the angle 3π/4 is in
the second quadrant
and r = -3 is negative.
CARTESIAN VS. POLAR COORDINATES

In the Cartesian coordinate system, every

point has only one representation.

However, in the polar coordinate system,

each point has many representations.
CARTESIAN VS. POLAR COORDINATES

For instance, the point (1, 5π/4) in

Example 1 a could be written as:
 (1, –3π/4), (1, 13π/4), or (–1, π/4).
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDINATES

In fact, as a complete counterclockwise

rotation is given by an angle 2π, the point
represented by polar coordinates (r, θ) is
also represented by

(r, θ + 2nπ) and (-r, θ + (2n + 1)π)

where n is any integer.

CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDINATES

The connection between polar and Cartesian

coordinates can be seen here.

 The pole corresponds to the origin.

 The polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDINATES

If the point P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

and polar coordinates (r, θ), then, from
the figure, we have: x y
cos   sin  
r r
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Equations 1

Therefore,

x  r cos 

y  r sin 
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS.

Although Equations 1 were deduced from

the figure (which illustrates the case where
r > 0 and 0 < θ < π/2), these equations are
valid for all values of r and θ.

 See the general

definition of sin θ
and cos θ
in Appendix D.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS.

Equations 1 allow us to find

the Cartesian coordinates of a point
when the polar coordinates are known.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Equations 2

To find r and θ when x and y are known,

we use the equations
y
r x y
2 2 2
tan  
x
 These can be
deduced from
Equations 1 or
simply read from
the figure.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Example 2

Convert the point (2, π/3) from polar to

Cartesian coordinates.

 Since r = 2 and θ = π/3,

Equations 1 give:  1
x  r cos   2 cos  2   1
3 2
 3
y  r sin   2sin  2.  3
3 2
 Thus, the point is (1, 3 ) in Cartesian coordinates.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Example 3

Represent the point with Cartesian

coordinates (1, –1) in terms of polar
coordinates.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Example 3

If we choose r to be positive, then

Equations 2 give:

r  x  y  1  (1)  2
2 2 2 2

y
tan    1
x
 As the point (1, –1) lies in the fourth quadrant,
we can choose θ = –π/4 or θ = 7π/4.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Example 3

Thus, one possible answer is:

( 2 , –π/4)

Another possible answer is:

( 2 , 7π/4)
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Note

Equations 2 do not uniquely determine θ

when x and y are given.

 This is because, as θ increases through the interval

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, each value of tan θ occurs twice.
CARTESIAN & POLAR COORDS. Note

So, in converting from Cartesian to polar

coordinates, it’s not good enough just to find r
and θ that satisfy Equations 2.

 As in Example 3, we must choose θ so that

the point (r, θ) lies in the correct quadrant.
POLAR CURVES

The graph of a polar equation r = f(θ)

[or, more generally, F(r, θ) = 0] consists
of all points that have at least one polar
representation (r, θ), whose coordinates
satisfy the equation.
POLAR CURVES Example 4

What curve is represented by

the polar equation r = 2 ?

 The curve consists of all points (r, θ)

with r = 2.

 r represents the distance from the point

to the pole.
POLAR CURVES Example 4

 Thus, the curve r = 2 represents

the circle with center O and radius 2.
POLAR CURVES Example 4

In general, the equation r = a represents

a circle O with center and radius |a|.
POLAR CURVES Example 5

Sketch the polar curve θ = 1.

 This curve consists of all points (r, θ)

such that the polar angle θ is 1 radian.
POLAR CURVES Example 5

It is the straight line that passes through O

and makes an angle of 1 radian with the polar
axis.
POLAR CURVES Example 5

Notice that:

 The points (r, 1) on

the line with r > 0 are
in the first quadrant.

 The points (r, 1) on

the line with r < 0 are
in the third quadrant.
POLAR CURVES Example 6

a. Sketch the curve with polar equation

r = 2 cos θ.

b. Find a Cartesian equation for this curve.

POLAR CURVES Example 6 a

First, we find the values of r for

some convenient values of θ.
POLAR CURVES Example 6 a

We plot the corresponding points (r, θ).

Then, we join these points

to sketch the curve—as
follows.
POLAR CURVES Example 6 a

The curve appears to be a circle.

POLAR CURVES Example 6 a

We have used only values of θ between 0

and π—since, if we let θ increase beyond π,
we obtain the same points again.
POLAR CURVES Example 6 b

To convert the given equation to a Cartesian

equation, we use Equations 1 and 2.

 From x = r cos θ, we have cos θ = x/r.

 So, the equation r = 2 cos θ becomes r = 2x/r.

 This gives:
2x = r2 = x2 + y2 or x2 + y2 – 2x = 0
POLAR CURVES Example 6 b

Completing the square,

we obtain:
(x – 1)2 + y2 = 1

 The equation is of a circle with center (1, 0)

and radius 1.
POLAR CURVES

The figure shows a geometrical illustration

that the circle in Example 6 has the equation
r = 2 cos θ.

 The angle OPQ is

a right angle,
and so r/2 = cos θ.

 Why is OPQ
a right angle?
POLAR CURVES Example 7

Sketch the curve r = 1 + sin θ.

 Here, we do not plot points as in Example 6.

 Rather, we first sketch the graph of r = 1 + sin θ

in Cartesian coordinates by shifting the sine curve
up one unit—as follows.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

This enables us to read at a glance the

values of r that correspond to increasing
values of θ.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

For instance, we see that, as θ increases

from 0 to π/2, r (the distance from O)
increases from 1 to 2.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

So, we sketch the corresponding part

of the polar curve.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

As θ increases from π/2 to π,

the figure shows that r decreases
from 2 to 1.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

So, we sketch the next part of

the curve.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

As θ increases from to π to 3π/2,

r decreases from 1 to 0, as shown.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

Finally, as θ increases from 3π/2 to 2π,

r increases from 0 to 1, as shown.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

If we let θ increase beyond 2π or

decrease beyond 0, we would simply
retrace our path.
POLAR CURVES Example 7

Putting together the various parts of the curve,

we sketch the complete curve—as shown
next.
CARDIOID Example 7

It is called a cardioid—because it’s

shaped like a heart.
POLAR CURVES Example 8

Sketch the curve r = cos 2θ.

 As in Example 7, we first sketch r = cos 2θ,

0 ≤ θ ≤2π, in Cartesian coordinates.
POLAR CURVES Example 8

As θ increases from 0 to π/4,

the figure shows that r decreases
from 1 to 0.
POLAR CURVES Example 8

So, we draw the

corresponding portion
of the polar curve
(indicated by 1 ).
POLAR CURVES Example 8

As θ increases from π/4 to π/2, r goes

from 0 to –1.

 This means that the distance from O increases

from 0 to 1.
POLAR CURVES Example 8
 However, instead of being
in the first quadrant,
this portion of the polar curve
(indicated by 2 ) lies on
the opposite side of the pole
in the third quadrant.
POLAR CURVES Example 8

The rest of the curve is

drawn in a similar fashion.

 The arrows and numbers

indicate the order in which
the portions are traced out.
POLAR CURVES Example 8

The resulting curve

has four loops
and is called a
four-leaved rose.
SYMMETRY

When we sketch polar curves, it is

sometimes helpful to take advantage
of symmetry.
RULES

The following three rules

are explained by figures.
RULE 1

If a polar equation is unchanged when θ

is replaced by –θ, the curve is symmetric
about the polar axis.
RULE 2

If the equation is unchanged when r is

replaced by –r, or when θ is replaced by
θ + π, the curve is symmetric about the pole.

 This means that

the curve remains
unchanged if we rotate
it through 180° about
the origin.
RULE 3

If the equation is unchanged when θ is

replaced by π – θ, the curve is symmetric
about the vertical line θ = π/2.
SYMMETRY

The curves sketched in Examples 6 and 8

are symmetric about the polar axis, since
cos(–θ) = cos θ.
SYMMETRY

The curves in Examples 7 and 8 are

symmetric about θ = π/2, because
sin(π – θ) = sin θ and cos 2(π – θ) = cos 2θ.
SYMMETRY

The four-leaved rose is also symmetric

about the pole.
SYMMETRY

These symmetry properties

could have been used in sketching
the curves.
SYMMETRY

For instance, in Example 6, we need only

have plotted points for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 and then
reflected about the polar axis to obtain
the complete circle.
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES

To find a tangent line to a polar curve r = f(θ),

we regard θ as a parameter and write its
parametric equations as:

x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ

y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Equation 3

Then, using the method for finding slopes of

parametric curves (Equation 2 in Section 10.2)
and the Product Rule, we have:

dy dr
sin   r cos 
dy d d
 
dx dx dr
cos   r sin 
d d
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES

We locate horizontal tangents by finding

the points where dy/dθ = 0 (provided that
dx/dθ ≠ 0).

Likewise, we locate vertical tangents at

the points where dx/dθ = 0 (provided that
dy/dθ ≠ 0).
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES

Notice that, if we are looking for tangent

lines at the pole, then r = 0 and Equation 3
simplifies to:

dy dr
 tan  if 0
dx d
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES

For instance, in Example 8, we found that

r = cos 2θ = 0 when θ = π/4 or 3π/4.

 This means that the lines θ = π/4 and θ = 3π/4

(or y = x and y = –x) are tangent lines to r = cos 2θ
at the origin.
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9

a. For the cardioid r = 1 + sin θ of Example 7,

find the slope of the tangent line when
θ = π/3.

b. Find the points on the cardioid where

the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9

Using Equation 3 with r = 1 + sin θ, we have:

dr
sin   r cos 
dy d

dx dr cos   r sin 
d
cos  sin   (1  sin  ) cos 

cos  cos   (1  sin  ) sin 
cos  (1  2sin  ) cos  (1  2sin  )
 
1  2sin   sin  (1  sin  )(1  2sin  )
2
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9 a

The slope of the tangent at the point where

θ = π/3 is:

dy cos( / 3)(1  2sin( / 3))


dx   3 (1  sin( / 3))(1  2sin( / 3)
1
(1  3)
 2

(1  3 / 2)(1  3)
1 3 1 3
   1
(2  3)(1  3) 1  3
 TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9 b

Observe that:

dy  3 7 11
 cos  (1 2sin )  0 when  , , ,
d 2 2 6 6

dx 3  5
 (1 sin )(1 2sin )  0 when  , ,
d 2 6 6
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9 b

Hence, there are horizontal tangents at

the points
(2, π/2), (½, 7π/6), (½, 11π/6)
and vertical tangents at
(3/2, π/6), (3/2, 5π/6)

 When θ = 3π/2, both dy/dθ and dx/dθ are 0.

 So, we must be careful.
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9 b

Using l’Hospital’s Rule, we have:

dy
lim 
 (3 / 2) dx

 1  2sin   cos  
  lim   lim  
   (3 / 2) 1  2sin     (3 / 2) 1  sin  
1 cos 
 lim 
3  (3 / 2) 1  sin 
1  sin 
 lim  
3  (3 / 2) cos 
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9 b

By symmetry,

dy
lim  
  (3 / 2) dx
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Example 9 b

Thus, there is a vertical tangent line

at the pole.
TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Note

Instead of having to remember Equation 3,

we could employ the method used to
derive it.

 For instance, in Example 9, we could have written:

x = r cos θ = (1 + sin θ) cos θ = cos θ + ½ sin 2θ

y = r sin θ = (1 + sin θ) sin θ = sin θ + sin2θ

TANGENTS TO POLAR CURVES Note

 Then, we would have

dy dy / d cos   2sin  cos 

 
dx dx / d  sin   cos 2
cos   sin 2

 sin   cos 2

which is equivalent to our previous

expression.
GRAPHING POLAR CURVES

It’s useful to be able to

sketch simple polar curves
by hand.
GRAPHING POLAR CURVES

However, we need to use a graphing

calculator or computer when faced with curves
as complicated as shown.
GRAPHING POLAR CURVES WITH GRAPHING DEVICES

Some graphing devices have commands that

enable us to graph polar curves directly.

With other machines, we need to convert to

parametric equations first.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES

In this case, we take the polar equation r = f(θ)

and write its parametric equations as:
x = r cos θ = f(θ) cos θ
y = r sin θ = f(θ) sin θ

 Some machines require that the parameter

be called t rather than θ.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

Graph the curve r = sin(8θ / 5).

 Let’s assume that our graphing device doesn’t

have a built-in polar graphing command.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

In this case, we need to work with

the corresponding parametric equations,
which are:
x  r cos   sin(8 / 5) cos 

y  r sin   sin(8 / 5) sin 

 In any case, we need to determine

the domain for θ.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

So, we ask ourselves:

 How many complete rotations are required

until the curve starts to repeat itself ?
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

If the answer is n, then

8(  2n )  8 16n 

sin  sin   
5  5 5 
8
 sin
5
 So, we require that 16nπ/5
be an even multiple of π.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

This will first occur when n = 5.

 Hence, we will graph the entire curve

if we specify that 0 ≤ θ ≤ 10π.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

Switching from θ to t,
we have the equations

x  sin(8t / 5) cos t
y  sin(8t / 5) sin t
0  t  10
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 10

This is the resulting curve.

 Notice that
this rose has
16 loops.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

Investigate the family of polar curves given

by r = 1 + c sin θ.
How does the shape change as c changes?

 These curves are called limaçons—after a French word

for snail, because of the shape of the curves for certain
values of c.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

The figures show computer-drawn

graphs for various values of c.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

For c > 1, there is a loop that decreases

in size as decreases.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

When c = 1, the loop disappears and

the curve becomes the cardioid that we
sketched in Example 7.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

For c between 1 and ½, the cardioid’s cusp

is smoothed out and becomes a “dimple.”
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

When c decreases from ½ to 0,

the limaçon is shaped like an oval.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

This oval becomes more circular as c → 0.

When c = 0, the curve is just the circle r = 1.

GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

The remaining parts show that, as c

becomes negative, the shapes change
in reverse order.
GRAPHING WITH DEVICES Example 11

In fact, these curves are reflections about

the horizontal axis of the corresponding
curves with positive c.