Chemistry of Life

CHAPTER 2
Connect to the Big Idea
The Chemistry of Life

Have students look at the photograph of
the polar bear in its icy habitat. Ask them
what the bear’s habitat consists of. (mostly
ice and water) Tell them that water is essential not
only to polar bears but to all living things as it allows Matter and Energy
them to carry out basic life processes. This is because Q: What are the basic chemical principles that
water has certain chemical properties that make it affect living things?
unique. Then, have students anticipate the answer to
the question, What are the basic chemical prin-
ciples that affect living things?
Have students read over the Chap-
ter Mystery. Connect the Chapter
Mystery to the Big Idea of Matter
and Energy by explaining that most organisms—
including ice fish—need oxygen for many body proc-
esses. For example, oxygen is needed to break down
food molecules for energy. Ask students to predict
how liquid blood could carry oxygen gas without
hemoglobin to bind with the oxygen. As a hint, tell
students that, in carbonated liquids, the bubbles they
see are made up of carbon dioxide gas that has
come out of the liquid.
Have students preview the chapter

vocabulary terms using the Flash Cards.
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS Chapter 2 • Flash Cards
32
UNIFYING CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES
I, II, III, IV, V
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_CO.indd 1 6/2/09 5:56:51 PM
CONTENT Understanding by Design

B.1, B.2, B.3, B.4, B.5, C.1.a, C.1.b, C.1.c, C.1.d, Chapter 2 introduces the molecular basis of life, and thereby advances students’
C.1.e, C.2.a, C.5.b, C.5.c, E.2 comprehension of the Enduring Understanding: The process of science helps biolo-
gists investigate how nature works at all levels, from the molecules in cells to the bio-
INQUIRY sphere. The Big Idea, Essential Question, and Guiding Questions, listed in the graphic
A.1.b, A.1.d, A.2.c, A.2.d organizer at the right, provide a framework for how students can explore the chemi-
cal principles that underlie life processes—from atoms to enzymes.
PERFORMANCE GOALS
In Chapter 2, students will use diagrams, lab activities, and analogies to learn about
the chemistry of life. In the Chapter Mystery, they will apply basic chemical principles
to understand how certain fish can survive without oxygen-carrying red blood cells.
At the end of the chapter, students will demonstrate their understanding of the
molecular basis of life by creating a storybook on the topic for a lower grade.
32 Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
What’s Online
INSIDE: THE GHOSTLY FISH
• 2.1 The Nature of Matter Most fish, just like you and other Extend your reach by using
• 2.2 Properties of Water vertebrates, have red blood. Red these and other digital assets offered at
blood cells carry oxygen, a gas Biology.com.
• 2.3 Carbon Compounds essential for life. The cells’ red color
• 2.4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes comes from an oxygen-binding protein CHAPTER MYSTERY
called hemoglobin. In The Ghostly Fish, students can investigate the
But a very small number of fish chemistry involved in an organism that lacks red
don’t have such cells. Their blood is blood cells.
clear—almost transparent. Because
UNTAMED SCIENCE VIDEO
they live in cold antarctic waters and
have a ghostly appearance, they are
Follow the Untamed Science crew as they explore the
nicknamed “ice fish.” How do these
unique chemistry of water.
animals manage to survive without red
blood cells?
As you read this chapter, look
for clues to help you explain the ice
fish’s unusual feature. Think about the
chemistry that might be involved. Then,
solve the mystery.
Never Stop Exploring Your World.

Water is locked in ice in the Svalbard Finding the solution to the fishy
islands of Norway—home to the polar mystery is only the beginning. Take a
bear. Even in such an extreme envi-
video field trip with the ecogeeks of
ronment, organisms are able to obtain
the matter and energy they need Untamed Science to see where this
to survive. mystery leads.
ART REVIEW
This drag-and-drop activity lets students explore ionic
and covalent bonds.
ART IN MOTION
This animation shows the process of salt crystals dis-
solving in water.
DATA ANALYSIS
Students can analyze data about the ecological
impact of acid rain.
• Untamed Science Video • Chapter Mystery VISUAL ANALOGY
The Chemistry of Life 33
Using this animation, students can further explore
the lock-and-key analogy for an enzyme and its
substrates.
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_CO.indd 33 6/9/09 1:20:46 PM
Chapter 2
Big Idea: Matter
and Energy 2.1 GQ: What is the matter in organisms
made of?
Chapter 2 EQ: 2.2 GQ: Why are the properties of water

What are the basic important to organisms?
chemical principles
that affect living 2.3 GQ: How do organisms use different types
things? of carbon compounds?
2.4 GQ: How do chemicals combine and

break apart inside living things?

LESSON 2.1
Getting Started
Objectives
The Nature of Matter
2.1.1 Identify the three subatomic particles found
in atoms.
2.1.2 Explain how all of the isotopes of an element Key Questions THINK ABOUT IT What are you made of ? Just as buildings are
are similar and how they are different. What three subatomic made from bricks, steel, glass, and wood, living things are made from
particles make up atoms? chemical compounds. But it doesn’t stop there. When you breathe,
2.1.3 Explain how compounds are different from eat, or drink, your body uses the substances in air, food, and water to
their component elements. How are all of the isotopes
of an element similar? carry out chemical reactions that keep you alive. If the first task of an
2.1.4 Describe the two main types of chemical architect is to understand building materials, then what would be the
In what ways do compounds first job of a biologist? Clearly, it is to understand the chemistry of life.
bonds. differ from their component
elements?
What are the main types of Atoms
chemical bonds? What three subatomic particles make up atoms?
Student Resources
Vocabulary The study of chemistry begins with the basic unit of matter, the atom.
Study Workbooks A and B, 2.1 Worksheets The concept of the atom came first from the Greek philosopher
atom • nucleus • electron •
Spanish Study Workbook, 2.1 Worksheets element • isotope • compound • Democritus, nearly 2500 years ago. Democritus asked a simple ques-
ionic bond • ion • tion: If you take an object like a stick of chalk and break it in half, are
Lab Manual A, 2.1 Quick Lab Worksheet covalent bond • molecule • both halves still chalk? The answer, of course, is yes. But what happens
Lab Manual B, 2.1 Hands-On Activity Worksheet van der Waals forces if you break it in half again and again and again? Can you continue to
divide without limit, or does there come a point at which you cannot
Taking Notes divide the fragment of chalk without changing it into something else?
Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes Outline Before you read, make Democritus thought that there had to be a limit. He called the smallest
• Activity: Art Review • Assessment: Self-Test, an outline of the major headings fragment the atom, from the Greek word atomos, which means “unable
in the lesson. As you read, fill
Lesson Assessment to be cut.”
in main ideas and supporting
details under each head. Atoms are incredibly small. Placed side by side, 100 million atoms
would make a row only about 1 centimeter long—about the width of
For corresponding lesson in the your little finger! Despite its extremely small size, an atom contains
Foundation Edition, see pages 28–32. + Proton
subatomic particles that are even smaller. Figure 2–1 shows the sub-
Neutron atomic particles in a carbon atom. The subatomic particles that
– Electron make up atoms are protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Protons and Neutrons Protons and neutrons have about the same
mass. However, protons are positively charged particles (+) and neu-
trons carry no charge at all. Strong forces bind protons and neutrons
together to form the nucleus, at the center of the atom.
Electrons The electron is a negatively charged particle (–) with only
1/1840 the mass of a proton. Electrons are in constant motion in the
space surrounding the nucleus. They are attracted to the positively
charged nucleus but remain outside the nucleus because of the energy
FIGURE 2–1 A Carbon Atom of their motion. Because atoms have equal numbers of electrons and
protons, their positive and negative charges balance out, and atoms
themselves are electrically neutral.
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS
34 Lesson 2.1 • Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes
I, II
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S1.indd 34 6/9/09 1:21:28 PM
CONTENT Teach for Understanding

B.1, B.2, B.4, E.2
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING The process of science helps biologists investigate how
nature works at all levels, from the molecules in cells to the biosphere.
INQUIRY
GUIDING QUESTION What is the matter in organisms made of?
A.1.b, A.1.d
EVIDENCE OF UNDERSTANDING After completing the lesson, give students the
following assessment to show they understand the chemical basis of the matter that
makes up living things. Divide the class into groups, and ask each group to write a
poem in which they answer the Key Questions of the lesson and use each of the
lesson vocabulary terms. Give groups a chance to perform their poems for the class.
34 Chapter 2 • Lesson 1
LESSON 2.1
Elements and Isotopes
How are all of the isotopes of an element similar? Teach
A chemical element is a pure substance that consists entirely of one
type of atom. More than 100 elements are known, but only about
two dozen are commonly found in living organisms. Elements Use Models
are represented by one- or two-letter symbols. C, for example,
stands for carbon, H for hydrogen, Na for sodium, and Hg Have students model isotopes using beads of two
for mercury. The number of protons in the nucleus of an different colors to represent protons and neutrons.
element is called its atomic number. Carbon’s atomic number Tell them to place six beads of one color and six
is 6, meaning that each atom of carbon has six protons and,
consequently, six electrons. See Appendix E, The Periodic Table,
beads of the other color together in a pile on their
which shows the elements. desk. Explain that each pile of beads represents the
nucleus of a carbon-12 atom. Then, tell students to
Isotopes Atoms of an element may have different numbers of neu-
select more beads as needed to model the nuclei of
trons. For example, although all atoms of carbon have six protons,
some have six neutrons, some seven, and a few have eight. Atoms of carbon-13 and carbon-14 isotopes.
the same element that differ in the number of neutrons they contain
FIGURE 2–2 Droplets of Mercury Ask How many protons does each isotope have?
are known as isotopes. The total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom is called its mass number. Isotopes are identi- Mercury, a silvery-white metallic (six) How many electrons? (six)
element, is liquid at room temperature
fied by their mass numbers. Figure 2–3 shows the subatomic compo- and forms droplets. It is extremely Add a proton bead to a student’s model of
sition of carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 atoms. The weighted poisonous.
carbon-14.
average of the masses of an element’s isotopes is called its atomic mass.
“Weighted” means that the abundance of each isotope in nature is Ask Do the beads still model the nucleus of a carbon
considered when the average is calculated. Because they have the isotope? (No; carbon isotopes have six protons.)
same number of electrons, all isotopes of an element have the same
chemical properties.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
Isotopes of Carbon L1 Struggling Students Have students use a dif-
FIGURE 2–3 Carbon Isotopes
Isotope Number of Number of Number of Isotopes of carbon all have 6 protons
ferent element to make sure they understand the
Protons Electrons Neutrons but different numbers of neutrons—6, general relationship between atoms and isotopes.
7, or 8. They are identified by the total
Carbon–12
6 6 6 number of protons and neutrons in the
Tell students that an atom of helium has two protons
(nonradioactive)
nucleus: carbon–12, carbon–13, and and two neutrons in its nucleus.
Carbon–13 6 carbon–14. Classify Which isotope
6 7
(nonradioactive)
of carbon is radioactive? Ask How many protons and neutrons are in the
Carbon–14 6 6 8
(radioactive) nucleus of the isotope helium-5? (two protons and
three neutrons)
Radioactive Isotopes Some isotopes are radioactive, meaning that
Ask How many electrons do helium and helium-5
their nuclei are unstable and break down at a constant rate over time. have? (two)
The radiation these isotopes give off can be dangerous, but radioactive
isotopes have a number of important scientific and practical uses.
Geologists can determine the ages of rocks and fossils by analyz- ELL Focus on ELL:
ing the isotopes found in them. Radiation from certain isotopes can
be used to detect and treat cancer and to kill bacteria that cause food
Extend Language
to spoil. Radioactive isotopes can also be used as labels or “tracers” to BEGINNING AND INTERMEDIATE SPEAKERS
follow the movements of substances within organisms. Have students complete an ELL Frayer Model
In Your Notebook Draw a diagram of a helium atom, which has an for each vocabulary term as it is introduced in
atomic number of 2. the lesson. They should define each term in their
own words. For example, they might define the
The Chemistry of Life 35 term atom as “the tiniest particle that makes
up matter.” Their drawing of an atom might
be based on Figure 2–1, and they might list a
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S1.indd 2 6/2/09 5:57:34 PM carbon atom as an example. If possible, have
students translate each term into their own
How Science Works language, or have them write a definition of the
THE SAME YET DIFFERENT term in their native language.
In the early nineteenth century, British chemist John Dalton proposed several highly Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S26, ELL Frayer
significant postulates about matter. One of Dalton’s postulates was that all atoms of Model. Transparencies, GO10.
a given element are identical. About a century later, scientists working on radioactive
decay discovered that many atoms seemed to refute Dalton’s postulate. For example,
another British chemist and physicist, Francis Aston, found that neon atoms can have
a mass number of either 20 or 22. He suggested that atoms with both mass numbers Answers
should be considered neon, given that they both have the same number of protons FIGURE 2–3 carbon-14
and differ only in their number of neutrons. He called them isotopes, based on a term
IN YOUR NOTEBOOK Students’ diagrams should
coined earlier by the British chemist Frederick Soddy. Soddy had conceived of the
resemble Figure 2–1 but show an atom with two
idea of isotopes (from the Greek words for “same” and “place”) to describe different
protons, two neutrons, and two electrons.
atoms that could occupy the same place in the periodic table.
LESSON 2.1 Chemical Compounds
Teach continued In what ways do compounds differ from their
component elements?
In nature, most elements are found combined with other elements
Build Science Skills in compounds. A chemical compound is a substance formed by the
chemical combination of two or more elements in definite propor-
Demonstrate how different chemical compounds tions. Scientists show the composition of compounds by a kind of
that contain the same elements may vary in their shorthand known as a chemical formula. Water, which contains two
properties. Place tap water in a beaker labeled atoms of hydrogen for each atom of oxygen, has the chemical formula
H2O. The formula for table salt, NaCl, indicates that the elements that
H2O and a dilute solution of hydrogen peroxide in make up table salt—sodium and chlorine—combine in a 1 : 1 ratio.
a beaker labeled H2O2 . As students observe, pour The physical and chemical properties of a compound are
a few drops of each liquid onto two pieces of the usually very different from those of the elements from which it is
same colored fabric. Students will see that the water formed. For example, hydrogen and oxygen, which are gases at room
BUILD Vocabulary temperature, can combine explosively and form liquid water. Sodium
only wets the fabric, while the hydrogen peroxide
RELATED WORD FORMS The verb is a silver-colored metal that is soft enough to cut with a knife. It reacts
bleaches it. Challenge students to infer why the react means to act in response to explosively with water. Chlorine is very reactive, too. It is a poisonous,
two compounds behave so differently, even though something. The adjective reactive
yellow-greenish gas that was used in battles during World War I. Sodium
describes the tendency to respond
they contain the same elements. ( The elements or react. chloride, table salt, is a white solid that dissolves easily in water. As you
are combined in different proportions in the two know, sodium chloride is not poisonous. In fact, it is essential for the
compounds, which gives each compound different survival of most living things.
chemical properties.)
Chemical Bonds
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION What are the main types of chemical bonds?
L1 Struggling Students To further help students

The atoms in compounds are held together by various types of chemi-
cal bonds. Much of chemistry is devoted to understanding how and
discern compounds and elements, have them make when chemical bonds form. Bond formation involves the electrons
a Vocabulary Word Map for the term compound. that surround each atomic nucleus. The electrons that are available
Their word maps for compound might include such to form bonds are called valence electrons. The main types of
attributes as combination of two or more elements, chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds.
elements in definite proportions, unique physical
and chemical properties, and atoms held together
by chemical bonds. Then, have them make another
word map for element. Have pairs of students dis-
cuss the difference between the two terms. Model an Ionic Compound Analyze and Conclude
1 You will be assigned to represent either a sodium atom 1. Relate Cause and Effect Describe the
Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S32, Vocabulary Word
or a chlorine atom. exchange of popcorn kernels (electrons)
Map. Transparencies, GO17. that took place as you formed the ionic
2 Obtain the appropriate number of popcorn kernels
bond. What electrical charges resulted
to represent your electrons. from the exchange?
3 Find a partner with whom you can form the ionic
Address Misconceptions 2. Use Models How were the “ions”
compound sodium chloride—table salt. arranged in the model of the crystal?
Atomic Models The use of atomic models, like the 4 In table salt, the closely packed sodium and chloride ions Why did you and your classmates
Bohr models in Figure 2–4, can lead to student mis- form an orderly structure called a crystal. With all your choose this arrangement?
conceptions. For example, students may think that classmates, work as a class to model a sodium chloride crystal.
electrons travel in fixed orbits around the nucleus of
an atom, similar to the way planets revolve around
the sun. Rather, electrons travel about in an electron 36 Chapter 2 • Lesson 1
cloud—a “fuzzy” area around the nucleus where
electrons are only likely to be found. Help them
appreciate that models are just representations, not 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S1.indd 3 6/2/09 5:57:40 PM
reality. Use the analogy of a model car to make this either Na or Cl—that they then hold up
point by discussing as a class how a model car differs during the activity.
from a real car. Then, explain some of the ways that ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE
simple atomic models differ from real atoms. PURPOSE Students will model the 1. Students representing Na lose
attraction between oppositely charged one kernel and become posi-
ions in an ionic compound. tive. Students representing Cl gain
MATERIALS bags of popcorn one kernel and become negative.
kernels, paper 2. Sample answer: We huddled close
SAFETY Tell students not to eat any of together to represent Na+ ions sur-
the popcorn kernels and to wash their rounding Cl – ions, and Cl – ions sur-
hands after they finish the lab. rounding Na+ ions. Describe how
PLANNING Review how bonds hold
the ions are closely packed to form a
together the atoms in compounds. Have crystal lattice.
students create labels for themselves—
LESSON 2.1
A. Ionic Bonding
Sodium atom (Na) + Chlorine atom (Cl) Sodium ion (Na+) + Chloride ion (Cl–)
Build Study Skills
Use familiar phenomena as analogies to help stu-
dents understand and distinguish between ionic and
covalent bonds. After students have read about the
two types of bonds, explain that ionic bonding can
be summed up as “opposites attract.” Electrons are
Transfer
of electron
transferred from one atom to the other, forming
positive and negative ions that attract and bind with
Protons +11 Protons +17 Protons +11 Protons +17 one another like the north and south poles of two
Electrons –11 Electrons –17 Electrons –10 Electrons –18
magnets. You may want to use magnets to demon-
Charge 0 Charge 0 Charge +1 Charge –1
strate this type of attraction. Then, explain that cova-
B. Covalent Bonding lent bonding involves the sharing of electrons. When
electrons are shared between atoms, the atoms bind
Ionic Bonds An ionic bond is formed when one or more –
–
– together like two people sharing the same umbrella.
electrons are transferred from one atom to another. Recall that Challenge students to think of other analogies for
atoms are electrically neutral because they have equal numbers covalent bonds in which two people or objects are
– O –
of protons and electrons. An atom that loses electrons becomes
held together by sharing something between them.
positively charged. An atom that gains electrons has a negative – – –
charge. These positively and negatively charged atoms are known – –
as ions. H H DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
Figure 2–4A shows how ionic bonds form between sodium
LPR Less Proficient Readers Have students work
and chlorine in table salt. A sodium atom easily loses its one
valence electron and becomes a sodium ion (Na+). A chlorine Water molecule (H2O) together in pairs to make a Venn Diagram for
atom easily gains an electron and becomes a chloride ion (Cl-). ionic and covalent bonds. Similarities might include
In a salt crystal, there are trillions of sodium and chloride ions. FIGURE 2–4 Ionic Bonding and
Covalent Bonding A. The compound that they hold atoms together. Differences might
These oppositely charged ions have a strong attraction, forming
an ionic bond.
sodium chloride forms when sodium include that ionic bonds involve the transfer of
loses its valence electron to chlorine.
B. In a water molecule, each hydrogen electrons, whereas covalent bonds involve the
Covalent Bonds Sometimes electrons are shared by atoms atom shares two electrons with the sharing of electrons.
instead of being transferred. What does it mean to share elec- oxygen atom.
trons? It means that the moving electrons actually travel about Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S33, Venn Diagram.
the nuclei of both atoms, forming a covalent bond. When the Transparencies, GO18.
atoms share two electrons, the bond is called a single covalent
bond. Sometimes the atoms share four electrons and form a L3 Advanced Students Challenge creative stu-
double bond. In a few cases, atoms can share six electrons, form- dents to develop three-dimensional or computer-
ing a triple bond. The structure that results when atoms are joined
together by covalent bonds is called a molecule. The molecule
generated models of ionic and covalent bonds. Their
is the smallest unit of most compounds. The diagram of a water Fish do not break water models should show how the two types of bonds
molecules into their form and how they differ. Ask students to present
molecule in Figure 2–4B shows that each hydrogen atom is
component atoms to
joined to water’s lone oxygen atom by a single covalent bond. obtain oxygen. Rather, their models to the class.
When atoms of the same element join together, they also form a they use oxygen gas
molecule. Oxygen molecules in the air you breathe consist of two dissolved in the water.
oxygen atoms joined by covalent bonds. How are the atoms in an
oxygen molecule (O2)
joined together?
Students should respond that the atoms
In Your Notebook In your own words, describe the differences
between ionic and covalent bonds. in an oxygen molecule are joined
together by covalent bonds. Ask them
to predict what factors might affect how much oxy-
Lesson 2.1 • Art Review 37
gen will dissolve in water. Students can go online to
Biology.com to gather their evidence.
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S1.indd 4 6/2/09 5:57:42 PM
Check for Understanding Students can use drag-and-drop

VISUAL REPRESENTATION labels to further explore ionic and covalent
bonding in Art Review: Ionic and Covalent
Ask small groups of students to create a Concept Map that relates the following
Bonding.
concepts: atom, proton, neutron, electron, element, isotope, compound, ionic bond,
ion, covalent bond, and molecule.
Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S21, Concept Map. Transparencies, GO4.
Answers
ADJUST INSTRUCTION
IN YOUR NOTEBOOK Ionic bonds are formed
If students’ concept maps are incorrect or show that they are confused, have students when electrons are transferred from one atom to
work in small groups. Ask group members to compare concept maps. If they disagree another. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms
about how any of the concepts are related, have them refer to the text. share electrons, which hold the atoms together in
a molecule.

LESSON 2.1 Van der Waals Forces Because of their structures, atoms of differ-
ent elements do not all have the same ability to attract electrons. Some
Teach continued atoms have a stronger attraction for electrons than do other atoms.
Therefore, when the atoms in a covalent bond share electrons, the
sharing is not always equal. Even when the sharing is equal, the rapid
movement of electrons can create regions on a molecule that have a
tiny positive or negative charge.
When molecules are close together, a slight
Ask students if they ever wondered how a lizard—or attraction can develop between the oppositely
a fly—could walk up a wall. Explain to them how van charged regions of nearby molecules. Chemists
der Waals forces make this feat possible. Check that call such intermolecular forces of attraction
students understand how the three different images van der Waals forces, after the scientist who dis-
covered them. Although van der Waals forces are
in Figure 2–5 are related.
not as strong as ionic bonds or covalent bonds,
Ask How could weak intermolecular forces between they can hold molecules together, especially when
the molecules are large.
the gecko’s feet and the wall prevent gravity from
pulling the gecko off the wall? ( There are so many
fibers that the total van der Waals forces are strong
enough to counter the force of gravity.)
VAN DER WAALS

FORCES AT WORK
Assess and Remediate FIGURE 2–5 The underside of each foot
on this Tokay gecko is covered by millions
EVALUATE UNDERSTANDING of tiny hairlike projections. The projections
themselves are made of even finer fibers,
Write the chemical formula for water (H2O) on the creating more surface area for “sticking“
board. Then, ask students to draw and label a model to surfaces at the molecular level. This SEM 950
allows geckos to scurry up walls and

of a water molecule that shows how the atoms in a across ceilings.
water molecule “stick” together. (Students should
make and label a drawing similar to Figure 2–4B.)
Then, have them complete the 2.1 Assessment.
REMEDIATION SUGGESTION Review Key Concepts 4. a. Review What are two types of bonds that
1. a. Review Describe the structure of an atom. hold the atoms within a compound together?
L1 Struggling Students If students have trouble
b. Infer An atom of calcium contains 20 pro- b. Classify A potassium atom easily loses
with Question 5, have them reread the first para- its one valence electron. What type of bond
graph of the lesson. tons. How many electrons does it have?
will it form with a chlorine atom?
2. a. Review Why do all isotopes of an element
have the same chemical properties?
b. Compare and Contrast Compare the struc-
Students can check their under- ture of carbon–12 and carbon–14.
3. a. Review What is a compound? Matter and Energy
standing of lesson concepts with the Self-
b. Apply Concepts Water (H2O) and hydrogen 5. Why do you think it is important that
Test assessment. They can then take an online peroxide (H2O2) both consists of hydrogen and biologists have a good understanding
version of the Lesson Assessment. oxygen atoms. Explain why they have different of chemistry?
chemical and physical properties.
Lesson 2.1 • Self-Test • Lesson Assessment
Assessment Answers
1a. An atom is an extremely small particle
with a nucleus in the center. The nucleus 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S1.indd 5 6/2/09 5:57:45 PM
3a. a substance formed by the chemical com- take place within and outside their bodies.
is formed of smaller particles called pro-
bination of two or more elements in defi- Therefore, to understand living things,
tons, which are positively charged, and
nite proportions biologists need to have a good under-
neutrons, which have no charge. Smaller
3b. The two compounds have different proper- standing of chemistry.
particles called electrons, which are nega-
tively charged, are in constant motion in ties because they contain hydrogen and
the space surrounding the nucleus. oxygen in different proportions.
1b. 20 electrons 4a. ionic bonds and covalent bonds
2a. because they all have the same number of 4b. an ionic bond
protons and electrons 5. Sample answer: Like all matter,
2b. Carbon-12 and carbon-14 each have living things are made up of
six protons and six electrons. However, elements and chemical com-
carbon-12 has six neutrons, whereas pounds. In addition, the survival of living
carbon-14 has eight neutrons. things depends on chemical reactions that
TECHNOLOGY & BIOLOGY
Teach
Connect to the Real World
After students read the feature, have them discuss
their own experiences with adhesive bandages.
If it works for the gecko, why not for us? That’s Ask What are some situations in which adhesive
A Nature-Inspired bandages don’t stay on very well? (when they are
the thinking of researchers at the Massachusetts
Adhesive Institute of Technology, who have now used the placed on hands or other surfaces that often get
People who keep geckos as pets have always same principle to produce a bandage. This new wet; when they are placed on knees and other
marveled at the way these little lizards can climb bandage is held to tissue by van der Waals places that bend often)
up vertical surfaces, even smooth glass walls, forces alone. Special materials make it possible
for the new bandage to work even on moist sur- Ask Why don’t bandages stay on well in these situa-
and then hang on by a single toe despite the
pull of gravity. How do they do it? No, they do faces, which means that it may be used to reseal tions? ( The adhesive stops sticking after it gets wet
not have some sort of glue on their feet and they internal tissues after surgery. By learning a trick or is loosened repeatedly by a joint bending.)
don’t have suction cups. Incredibly, they use van or two from the gecko, scientists may have found Ask Why might the new bandages described in
der Waals forces. a way to help heal wounds, and even save lives
the text work better in these situations? ( They stay
A gecko foot is covered by as many as half a in the process.
in place with van der Waals forces even without
million tiny hairlike projections. Each projection
adhesives.)
is further divided into hundreds of tiny, flat- Suppose you are a doctor reviewing
surfaced fibers. This design allows the gecko’s this new bandage for its potential applications. In Ask What do doctors typically use to hold together
what ways might you use such a bandage? Present
foot to come in contact with an extremely large
your ideas as a list.
tissues after surgery? (stitches or staples)
area of the wall at the molecular level. Van der
Ask Why might bandages be a better alternative?
Waals forces form between molecules on the
( They might cause less pain and bleeding; they might
surface of the gecko’s foot and molecules on the
surface of the wall. This allows the gecko to actu- hold tissues together more smoothly and with fewer
ally balance the pull of gravity. gaps than stitches or staples.)
L1 Special Needs Students may have difficulty
relating the nanostructures in the images to the sur-

face of the bandage and the gecko’s feet. Let them
manipulate a material that has similar projections but
on a larger, more comprehensible scale. Bring a small
piece of velvet fabric to class. Pass the fabric around,
and have students feel the tiny fibers extending
from its surface and examine them with a hand lens.
Explain how the fibers on the fabric are similar to the
SEM 12,000 The surface of the new bandage
nanostructures on the bandage and the gecko’s feet.
mimics the surface of the gecko
foot at the microscopic level.
Technology and Biology 39
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_TB.indd 1 6/2/09 6:01:41 PM
Quick Facts Answers

NANOSTRUCTURE BANDAGES WRITING Sample answer: to hold together internal
The bandage described in the feature is covered with nanostructures—like those tissues after surgeries; to hold together external
on a gecko’s foot—that dramatically increase the amount of surface area in contact tissues that are exposed to water or that bend
with the body and, thus, the strength of van der Waals forces holding it in place. The frequently
developers of the bandage have tested it in living tissues and found that it is twice
as strong as bandages without nanostructures. In addition to its superior adhesion,
even on wet tissues, the bandage is waterproof. It is also biodegradable, so it does NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS
not have to be removed after surgery. It is biocompatible, as well, which means that
it does not cause allergic reactions or other tissue responses. Because it is elastic, the UCP I, V
bandage can conform to the irregular shapes of organs and other body structures. It CONTENT B.2, E.2
can also be used as a patch to deliver healing medications directly to tissues.
INQUIRY A.2.c
Technology and Biology 39

LESSON 2.2
Getting Started
Objectives
Properties of Water
2.2.1 Discuss the unique properties of water.
2.2.2 Differentiate between solutions and
suspensions. Key Questions THINK ABOUT IT Looking back at our beautiful planet, an astronaut
2.2.3 Explain what acidic solutions and basic How does the structure in space said that if other beings have seen the Earth, they must surely
of water contribute to its unique call it “the blue planet.” He referred, of course, to the oceans of water
solutions are. that cover nearly three fourths of Earth’s surface. The very presence
properties?
How does water’s polarity of liquid water tells a scientist that life may also be present on such a
influence its properties as planet. Why should this be so? Why should life itself be connected so
Student Resources a solvent? strongly to something so ordinary that we often take it for granted? The
Why is it important for cells
answers to those questions suggest that there is something very special
Study Workbooks A and B, 2.2 Worksheets to buffer solutions against rapid about water and the role it plays in living things.
Spanish Study Workbook, 2.2 Worksheets changes in pH?
Vocabulary The Water Molecule

Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes hydrogen bond • cohesion • How does the structure of water contribute to its unique
• Activities: Art in Motion, Data Analysis • adhesion • mixture • properties?
solution • solute • solvent •
Assessment: Self-Test, Lesson Assessment Water is one of the few compounds found in a liquid state over most
suspension • pH scale •
acid • base • buffer
of the Earth’s surface. Like other molecules, water (H2O) is neutral.
The positive charges on its 10 protons balance out the negative charges
For corresponding lesson in the Taking Notes on its 10 electrons. However, there is more to the story.
Foundation Edition, see pages 33–36. Venn Diagram As you read,
Polarity With 8 protons in its nucleus, an oxygen atom has a much
draw a Venn diagram showing
the differences between solutions
stronger attraction for electrons than does a hydrogen atom with its
and suspensions and the proper- single proton. Thus, at any moment, there is a greater probability of
Build Background ties that they share. finding the shared electrons in water close to its oxygen atom than
near its hydrogen atoms. Because of the angles of its chemical bonds,
Play a guessing game with the class to build back- the oxygen atom is on one end of the molecule and the hydrogen
ground about water and its importance to living atoms are on the other, as shown in Figure 2–6. As a result, the oxygen
things. Tell students the following statements. After end of the molecule has a slight negative charge and the hydrogen end
each, give volunteers a chance to guess what “it” is. of the molecule has a slight positive charge.
A molecule in which the charges are unevenly distributed is said to be
• We take it for granted, but there would be no life “polar,” because the molecule is a bit like a magnet with two poles. The
on Earth without it. charges on a polar molecule are written in parentheses, (–) or (+), to
show that they are weaker than the charges on ions such as Na+ and Cl–.
• It makes up about 60 percent of the human body.
• It is nicknamed the “universal solvent.”
O
FIGURE 2–6 A Water Molecule
A water molecule is polar because there is an
H H uneven distribution of electrons between the
oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The negative pole
is near the oxygen atom and the positive pole is
between the hydrogen atoms.

40 Lesson 2.2 • Lesson Overview
Review • Lesson
• Lesson Notes
Notes

I, III
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S2.indd 1 6/2/09 5:58:12 PM

B.1, B.2, B.3, B.4
INQUIRY
GUIDING QUESTION Why are the properties of water important to organisms?
A.1.b
following assessment to show they understand the properties of water that are
important to organisms. Have pairs of students create three labeled diagrams to
illustrate: (1) why water molecules are polar, (2) how they form hydrogen bonds, and
(3) how they dissolve other polar or ionic substances.
LESSON 2.2
Hydrogen Bonding Because of their partial positive and negative
charges, polar molecules such as water can attract each other. The (–)
attraction between a hydrogen atom on one water molecule and the
oxygen atom on another is known as a hydrogen bond. Hydrogen
Hydrogen Bond Teach
(+)
H
bonds are not as strong as covalent or ionic bonds, and they can form
in other compounds as well. Because water is a polar molecule, O
H Build Study Skills
it is able to form multiple hydrogen bonds, which account for many
of water’s special properties. Tell students that visualization is a good way to
䊳Cohesion Cohesion is an attraction between molecules of the same remember material they are studying. Suggest they
substance. Because a single water molecule may be involved in as many form mental images of the major concepts intro-
as four hydrogen bonds at the same time, water is extremely cohesive. duced on this page. For example, to remember
Cohesion causes water molecules to be drawn together, which is why cohesion, they might envision water forming beads
drops of water form beads on a smooth surface. Cohesion also produces
on a waxed car. Have the class brainstorm ideas for
surface tension, explaining why some insects and spiders can walk on a
pond’s surface, as shown in Figure 2–7. mental images to help them remember adhesion and
high heat capacity.
䊳Adhesion On the other hand, adhesion is an attraction between
molecules of different substances. Have you ever been told to read the
volume in a graduated cylinder at eye level? As shown in Figure 2–8, DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
the surface of the water in the graduated cylinder dips slightly in the LPR Less Proficient Readers Draw a Cause and
center because the adhesion between water molecules and glass mol-
ecules is stronger than the cohesion between water molecules. Adhe- Effect Diagram on the board with one Cause box,
sion between water and glass also causes water to rise in a narrow tube FIGURE 2–7 Hydrogen Bonding
and three Effect boxes. Ask students to redraw this
against the force of gravity. This effect is called capillary action. Capil- and Cohesion Each molecule of diagram on a sheet of paper. Then, have them fill
lary action is one of the forces that draws water out of the roots of a water can form multiple hydrogen
bonds with other water molecules.
it in to help them relate hydrogen bonding with
plant and up into its stems and leaves. Cohesion holds the column of
The strong attraction between water’s properties of cohesion, adhesion, and high
water together as it rises. water molecules produces a force
sometimes called “surface tension,”
heat capacity. Suggest they use simple sketches to
䊳Heat Capacity Another result of the multiple hydrogen bonds which can support very lightweight represent hydrogen bonding and each of its effects.
between water molecules is that it takes a large amount of heat energy objects, such as this raft spider.
to cause those molecules to move faster, which raises the temperature of Apply Concepts Why are water Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S18, Cause and Effect
the water. Therefore, water’s heat capacity, the amount of heat energy molecules attracted to one another?
Diagram. Transparencies, GO1.
required to increase its temperature, is relatively high. This allows large
bodies of water, such as oceans and lakes, to absorb large amounts of
heat with only small changes in temperature. The organisms living
within are thus protected from drastic changes in temperature. At the ELL Focus on ELL:
cellular level, water absorbs the heat produced by cell processes, regu- Access Content
lating the temperature of the cell.
ALL SPEAKERS Pair beginning and intermediate
In Your Notebook Draw a diagram of a meniscus. Label where speakers with advanced or advanced high
cohesion and adhesion occur.
speakers. Have partners use the lesson figures
to preview the properties of water that are
described in the lesson. Tell students to write one
FIGURE 2–8 Adhesion Adhesion
between water and glass molecules is
or two questions that are raised by each figure.
responsible for causing the water in For example, for Figure 2–6, they might write,
these columns to rise. The surface of the What is a polar molecule? As students read the
water in the glass column dips slightly
in the center, forming a curve called lesson, they should try to find answers to their
a meniscus. questions. At the end of the lesson, as you
review lesson content, ask partners to share their
questions and answers with the class.
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S2.indd 2 6/2/09 5:58:18 PM
Quick Facts
WATER AND LIFE ON EARTH
In addition to the properties described in the text, water has other unique properties
that are important to life on Earth. One property is its high boiling point. Because of
this property, water remains in a liquid state over most of Earth’s surface. This is cru- Answers
cial for life, because virtually all organisms need liquid water to survive. Unlike most FIGURE 2–7 The hydrogen atoms have a slight
other compounds, water is less dense as a solid than it is as a liquid. This causes ice negative charge, and the oxygen atoms have a slight
to float on water in temperate zone lakes in the winter. The floating ice insulates the positive charge.
water beneath it and prevents it from freezing. This, in turn, allows aquatic organisms
IN YOUR NOTEBOOK Diagrams should resemble
that live in the water to survive during cold weather.
Figure 2–8, with the meniscus curving downward.
Arrows should point to where water meets glass
(adhesion), and to the water (cohesion).

LESSON 2.2 Solutions and Suspensions
S
Teach continued How does water’s polarity influence its properties as a solvent?
W
Water is not always pure; it is often found as part of a mixture. A
The solubility of gases
increases as temperatures mixture is a material composed of two or more elements or com-
m
Build Science Skills decrease. Think about pounds that are physically mixed together but not chemically com-
when a can of warm bined. Salt and pepper stirred together constitute a mixture. So do
Point out that solutes like table salt (NaCl) seem to soda is opened—the car- sugar and sand. Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen,
bon dioxide dissolved in
disappear when they dissolve in water. You may wish it fizzes out more rapidly
carbon dioxide, and other gases. Living things are in part composed
to demonstrate this by dissolving salt in a beaker of because the gas is less
of mixtures involving water. Two types of mixtures that can be made
soluble at warm tem- with water are solutions and suspensions.
water. Call on a volunteer to explain why the salt
peratures. How might the
seems to disappear. (Its ions break apart and move temperature of antarctic Solutions If a crystal of table salt is placed in a glass of warm water,
throughout the water, so they no longer form visible, waters affect the amount sodium and chloride ions on the surface of the crystal are attracted to
of dissolved oxygen the polar water molecules. Ions break away from the crystal and are
solid crystals.) Have students predict what happens available for ice fish? surrounded by water molecules, as illustrated in Figure 2–9. The ions
to the mass and volume of water when salt is dis- gradually become dispersed in the water, forming a type of mixture
solved in it. (Both increase.) called a solution. All the components of a solution are evenly distrib-
Ask Besides tasting the water, how could you show uted throughout the solution. In a saltwater solution, table salt is the
solute—the substance that is dissolved. Water is the solvent
solute solvent—the sub-
that the salt is still there even though you can no stance in which the solute dissolves. Water’s polarity gives it the
longer see it? (You could measure the mass or vol- ability to dissolve both ionic compounds and other polar molecules.
ume of the water before and after salt is added.) Water easily dissolves salts, sugars, minerals, gases, and even other
solvents such as alcohol. Without exaggeration, water is the greatest
solvent on Earth. But even water has limits. When a given amount
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION of water has dissolved all of the solute it can, the solution is said to
L1 Struggling Students To better understand the be saturated.
concept of solution, have students focus on the Na+
and Cl– ions in the beaker at right in Figure 2–9.
Suggest students draw a simple diagram showing a FIGURE 2–9 A Salt
solution in which all the salt has dissolved. (Each Na+ Solution When an ionic
and Cl – ion is surrounded by water molecules. The compound such as sodium Cl – Cl –
chloride is placed in water,
ions are evenly distributed throughout the solution.) water molecules surround
and separate the positive Na+ Na+
and negative ions.
Interpret Visuals What happens Water
to the sodium ions and chloride Water
Students should conclude that the cold ions in the solution?
temperature of antarctic waters would
increase the amount of dissolved oxy-
gen available for ice fish. Explain that oxygen dis-
solves in water when oxygen molecules are Suspensions Some materials do not dissolve when placed in water, but
surrounded by water molecules. Challenge students separate into pieces so small that they do not settle out. The movement
of water molecules keeps the small particles suspended. Such mixtures
to infer why more oxygen molecules dissolve in
of water and nondissolved material are known as suspensions. Some of
water at lower temperatures. (At lower tempera- the most important biological fluids are both solutions and suspensions.
tures, oxygen molecules have less energy on average The blood that circulates through your body is mostly water. The water
and are less likely to escape the effects of intermo- in the blood contains many dissolved compounds. However, blood also
lecular attractions in the solution.) Students can go contains cells and other undissolved particles that remain in suspension
online to Biology.com to gather their evidence. as the blood moves through the body.
42 Lesson 2.2 • Art in Motion • Data Analysis
Have students further explore solu-

tions using Art in Motion: A Salt Solution. 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S2.indd 3 6/2/09 5:58:23 PM
Check for Understanding

USE VOCABULARY
Divide the class into small groups, and ask students in each group to work together
to create an acrostic poem based on the vocabulary term polar. (An acrostic poem is
a poem in which the first letter of each line spells out another message.) Their poems
should state facts about water that are due to its polarity, such as “P: Possible to dis-
solve many substances easily.”
Answers ADJUST INSTRUCTION
FIGURE 2–9 The ions are surrounded by water If students’ acrostics reveal they are confused by the polar nature of water, have
molecules, separating the sodium and chloride them write two quick summary sentences. These sentences should explain how
in solution. Eventually, the ions become evenly water’s polarity affects its ability to form hydrogen bonds and dissolve other polar
distributed throughout the solution. molecules. Have pairs share their summaries and then work together to write a new
acrostic poem.
LESSON 2.2
Acids, Bases, and pH 14
Why is it important for cells to buffer solutions against Oven cleaner Use Visuals
rapid changes in pH? 13
Bleach Use Figure 2–10 to familiarize students with acids,
Water molecules sometimes split apart to form ions. This 12
Increasingly Basic
reaction can be summarized by a chemical equation in which Ammonia solution
bases, and pH. Point out that pH is a measure of
double arrows are used to show that the reaction can occur in 11 hydrogen ion concentration. Then, explain that acids
either direction.
10 Soap
have a higher hydrogen ion concentration and bases
H2O H+ + OH–
a lower hydrogen ion concentration than pure water.
9
Toothpaste
Have students find the value for pure water on the
water hydrogen ion + hydroxide ion 8 Seawater pH scale. (7) After explaining that the pH of pure
Human blood water is the point of neutrality on the scale, have
How often does this happen? In pure water, about 1 Neutral 7 Pure water
water molecule in 550 million splits to form ions in this way. Milk students find the pH of stomach acid and bleach.
6 Normal rainfall
Because the number of positive hydrogen ions produced is
Ask How does the hydrogen ion concentration of
Increasingly Acidic
equal to the number of negative hydroxide ions produced, 5
pure water is neutral. Acid rain stomach acid and bleach compare with that of pure
4 Tomato juice water? (H+ ion concentration is higher for stomach
The pH Scale Chemists devised a measurement system
called the pH scale to indicate the concentration of H+ ions 3 acid and lower for bleach.)
Lemon juice
in solution. As Figure 2–10 shows, the pH scale ranges from 0 2
to 14. At a pH of 7, the concentration of H+ ions and OH– ions Stomach acid DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
is equal. Pure water has a pH of 7. Solutions with a pH below 7 1
are called acidic because they have more H+ ions than OH– L1 Struggling Students It may seem counterintui-
0
ions. The lower the pH, the greater the acidity. Solutions with a tive to students that pH, which measures hydrogen
pH above 7 are called basic because they have more OH– ions ion concentration, decreases as the hydrogen ion
than H+ ions. The higher the pH, the more basic the solu- FIGURE 2–10 The pH Scale The
concentration increases. To reinforce the fact that
tion. Each step on the pH scale represents a factor of 10. For concentration of H+ ions determines
example, a liter of a solution with a pH of 4 has 10 times as whether solutions are acidic or basic. hydrogen ion concentration and pH have an inverse
The most acidic material on this pH relationship, have students create a simple, Two-
many H+ ions as a liter of a solution with a pH of 5. scale is stomach acid. The most basic
material on this scale is oven cleaner. Column Table to help them remember the relation-
In Your Notebook Order these items in order of increasing
acidity: soap, lemon juice, milk, acid rain.
ship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration.
Students should make a column for pH and another
for Hydrogen ion concentration. Then, ask them to
fill in “high” and “low” accordingly in the table, to
show that low pH = high H+ concentration, and high
pH = low H+ concentration.
Acidic and Basic Foods 4 Use a scalpel to cut a piece off each solid. Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S31, Two-Column
CAUTION: Be careful not to cut yourself. Do not eat Table. Transparencies, GO16.
the food. Touch the cut surface of each sample to a
1 Predict whether the food samples provided square of pH paper. Use a dropper pipette to place a
are acidic or basic. drop of any liquid sample on a square of pH paper.
Record the pH of each sample in your data table. Have students access Data Analy-
2 Tear off a 2-inch piece of pH paper for each
sample you will test. Place these pieces on a Analyze and Conclude sis: Acid Rain to use data to learn more
paper towel. 1. Analyze Data Were most of the samples acidic about the ecological impact of acid rain.
or basic?
3 Construct a data table in which you will
record the name and pH of each food sample. 2. Evaluate Was your prediction correct?
Address Misconceptions
The Chemistry of Life 43 Corrosive Properties of Bases Most students know
that strong acids are harsh solutions that may “eat
away” other substances, but many do not realize
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S2.indd 43 6/9/09 1:22:17 PM that bases can be corrosive too. Show the class a
juices. Most foods are at least slightly bottle of drain cleaner. Point out that it contains
acidic, but there are a few exceptions, sodium hydroxide, a base. Sodium hydroxide will
including egg white and tofu. You may “eat away” at the clog, eliminating it.
PURPOSE Students will make and test
want to include one of these foods. If
predictions about which foods are acidic you use egg white, cook it first to kill
and which are basic. any bacteria. Items can be placed in
small, paper sample cups available from
MATERIALS solid foods and fruit
restaurant or party supply stores.
juices, pH paper, paper towel, scalpel,
dropper pipette ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE
SAFETY Warn students to handle 1. Answers will vary depending on the
scalpels with care. Remind them not to food and juice samples tested. Answers
eat any of the foods tested in the lab. 2. Students’ predictions were correct if IN YOUR NOTEBOOK soap, milk, acid rain, lemon
PLANNING Prepare small samples
they agree with the pH test results. juice
of a variety of solid foods and fruit
LESSON 2.2 FIGURE 2–11 Buffers Buffers help prevent
drastic changes in pH. Adding acid to an
Acids Where do all those extra H+ ions in a low-pH
solution come from? They come from acids. An acid is any
Teach continued unbuffered solution causes the pH of the
unbuffered solution to drop. If the solution compound that forms H+ ions in solution. Acidic solutions
contain higher concentrations of H+ ions than pure water
contains a buffer, however, adding the acid
will cause only a slight change in pH. and have pH values below 7. Strong acids tend to have pH
Connect to Health Science values that range from 1 to 3. The hydrochloric acid (HCl)
produced by the stomach to help digest food is a strong acid.
Explain that normal blood pH is between 7.35–7.45. Base Neutral Acid
A lower or higher blood pH can be a sign of ill Bases A base is a compound that produces hydroxide (OH–)
health. Have students discuss why regulating blood ions in solution. Basic, or alkaline, solutions contain lower
concentrations of H+ ions than pure water and have pH values
pH is vital to maintaining homeostasis. above 7. Strong bases, such as the lye (commonly NaOH) used
in soapmaking, tend to have pH values ranging from 11 to 14.
Buffers The pH of the fluids within most cells in the
L3 Advanced Students Explain that the acid- human body must generally be kept between 6.5 and 7.5.
ity of blood is reduced by the actions of the kid- If the pH is lower or higher, it will affect the chemical reac-
Unbuffered base + acid = acidic pH tions that take place within the cells. Thus, controlling pH
neys and lungs. The kidneys filter out and excrete is important for maintaining homeostasis. One of the ways
+
excess H ions from the blood, while the lungs that organisms control pH is through dissolved compounds
exhale more CO2 when blood acid levels are high. called buffers. Buffers are weak acids or bases that can react
Ask students how blood pH might be affected by FPO #1977 with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes
a disease that reduced lung function. (The blood in pH. Blood, for example, has a normal pH of 7.4. Sudden
changes in blood pH are usually prevented by a number of
might be more acidic.) chemical buffers, such as bicarbonate and phosphate ions.
Buffers dissolved in life’s fluids play an important role
in maintaining homeostasis in organisms.
Assess and Remediate Buffered base + acid = basic pH
EVALUATE UNDERSTANDING
Have students write a paragraph that explains how
the concentration of hydrogen ions determines the
acid-base properties of a solution. Then, have them
complete the 2.2 Assessment. Review Key Concepts c. Infer During exercise, many chemical
1. a. Review What does it mean when a molecule changes occur in the body, including a drop in
REMEDIATION SUGGESTION is said to be “polar”? blood pH, which can be very serious. How is
the body able to cope with such changes?
L1 Special Needs If students have difficulty b. Explain How do hydrogen bonds between
water molecules occur?
answering Question 1c, remind them that a polar
c. Use Models Use the structure of a water
molecule is like a magnet: it has a positive end and a molecule to explain why it is polar. Creative Writing
negative end. Then, have them study Figure 2–7. 2. a. Review Why is water such a good solvent? 4. Suppose you are a writer for a natural history
b. Compare and Contrast What is the differ- magazine for children. This month’s issue will
ence between a solution and a suspension? feature insects. Write a paragraph explaining
why some bugs, such as the water strider, can
Students can check their under- 3. a. Review What is an acid? What is a base?
walk on water.
standing of lesson concepts with the Self- b. Explain The acid hydrogen fluoride (HF)
can be dissolved in pure water. Will the pH of
Test assessment. They can then take an online the solution be greater or less than 7?
version of the Lesson Assessment.
Assessment Answers
1a. A molecule is polar when there is an
uneven distribution of electrons between 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S2.indd 5 6/2/09 5:58:46 PM
molecule, and the hydrogen atoms are on hydrogen ions in solution. A base forms
its atoms. This causes the molecule to have
the other end. Therefore, the oxygen end hydroxide ions in solution.
an area with a slight negative charge and
of the molecule is slightly negative while 3b. The pH of the solution will be less than 7.
an area with a slight positive charge.
the hydrogen end is slightly positive—
1b. A hydrogen bond occurs when the slight 3c. A drop in blood pH is countered by chemi-
resulting in a polar molecule.
positive charge on a hydrogen atom in one cal buffers such as bicarbonate and phos-
2a. Water is such a good solvent because of phate ions.
water molecule is attracted to the slight
its polarity. It can dissolve both ionic com-
negative charge on the oxygen atom in
pounds and other polar molecules.
another water molecule.
2b. A solution is a mixture of two or more 4. Each molecule of water can form multi-
1c. With eight protons in its nucleus, the
substances in which the molecules of the ple hydrogen bonds with other water
oxygen atom in a water molecule has a
substances are evenly distributed. A sus- molecules. The strong attraction between
much stronger attraction for electrons than
pension is a mixture of water and nondis- water molecules produces “surface ten-
do the hydrogen atoms in the molecule.
solved materials. sion,” which can support very lightweight
The oxygen atom is on one end of the
3a. An acid is a compound that forms objects, such as the water strider.
LESSON 2.3
Getting Started
Carbon Compounds Objectives
2.3.1 Describe the unique qualities of carbon.
2.3.2 Describe the structures and functions of each
THINK ABOUT IT In the early 1800s, many chemists called the Key Questions of the four groups of macromolecules.
compounds created by organisms “organic,” believing they were fun- What elements does carbon
damentally different from compounds in nonliving things. Today we bond with to make up life’s
understand that the principles governing the chemistry of living and molecules?
nonliving things are the same, but the term “organic chemistry” is still Student Resources
What are the functions
around. Today, organic chemistry means the study of compounds that of each of the four groups of Study Workbooks A and B, 2.3 Worksheets
contain bonds between carbon atoms, while inorganic chemistry is the macromolecules?
study of all other compounds. Spanish Study Workbook, 2.3 Worksheets
Vocabulary
Lab Manual B, 2.3 Data Analysis Worksheet
The Chemistry of Carbon monomer • polymer •
carbohydrate •
What elements does carbon bond with to make up life’s monosaccharide • Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes
molecules? lipid • nucleic acid •
• Assessment: Self-Test, Lesson Assessment
nucleotide • protein •
Why is carbon so interesting that a whole branch of chemistry amino acid
should be set aside just to study carbon compounds? There are two
For corresponding lesson in the
reasons for this. First, carbon atoms have four valence electrons, allowing Taking Notes
them to form strong covalent bonds with many other elements. Compare/Contrast Table As you
Foundation Edition, see pages 37–41.
Carbon can bond with many elements, including hydrogen, read, make a table that compares
oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen to form the molecules of and contrasts the four groups of
life. Living organisms are made up of molecules that consist of carbon organic compounds.
and these other elements.
Activate Prior Knowledge
Even more important, one carbon atom can bond to another, Ask students to name compounds they know that
which gives carbon the ability to form chains that are almost unlim- contain carbon. As they make suggestions, create a
ited in length. These carbon-carbon bonds can be single, double, or class list on the board. Use their list to start a discus-
triple covalent bonds. Chains of carbon atoms can even close up on
sion on the wide variety of carbon compounds that
themselves to form rings, as shown in Figure 2–12. Carbon has the
ability to form millions of different large and complex structures. No exist in nature.
other element even comes close to matching carbon’s versatility.
FIGURE 2–12 Carbon Structures Carbon can form single, H H

double, or triple bonds with other carbon atoms. Each line
between atoms in a molecular drawing represents one H C H H C H
covalent bond. Observing How many covalent bonds are
there between the two carbon atoms in acetylene? H H H H
H H H H H H C H H C C C C C H
H C H H C C H C C C C
C C
H H H H Answers
C C
H H H H C H H C H FIGURE 2–12 three
H H
Methane Acetylene Butadiene Benzene Isooctane
Lesson 2.3 • Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes 45
I, V
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 1 6/2/09 5:59:09 PM
Teach for Understanding CONTENT

B.1, B.2, C.1.a, C.1.c, C.1.d, C.2.a, C.5.b
GUIDING QUESTION How do organisms use different types of carbon compounds?
following assessment to show they understand the functions of the different
types of carbon compounds in organisms. Ask each student to create a four-
page brochure, with each page devoted to one of the four major types of carbon
compounds in living things. For each type of compound, students should diagram its
general structure and describe its functions in organisms.

LESSON 2.3 Macromolecules
Teach What are the functions of each of the four groups
of macromolecules?
BUILD Vocabulary Many of the organic compounds in living cells are so large
Connect to Chemistry WORD ORIGINS Monomer comes that they are known as macromolecules, which means “giant
from the Greek words monos, molecules.” Macromolecules are made from thousands or
After students read about polymerization, tell them meaning “single,” and meros, even hundreds of thousands of smaller molecules.
meaning “part.” Monomer means
that polymerization commonly occurs in one of “single part.” The prefix poly-
Most macromolecules are formed by a process known
two ways: addition polymerization or condensation comes from the Greek word polus,
as polymerization (pah lih mur ih zay shun), in which large
meaning “many,” so polymer compounds are built by joining smaller ones together. The
polymerization. Explain that in addition polymeriza- smaller units, or monomers
monomers,, join together to form polymers.
means “many parts.”
tion, monomers join together without any change in The monomers in a polymer may be identical, like the links
their molecules. In condensation polymerization, a on a metal watch band; or the monomers may be different,
small molecule—often a water molecule—is released like the beads in a multicolored necklace. Figure 2–13 illus-
each time monomers join together. Next, write trates the process of polymerization.
Biochemists sort the macromolecules found in living
the chemical formulas for glucose (C6H12O6) and
things into groups based on their chemical composition.
sucrose (C12H22O11) on the board. Remind students Monomers The four major groups of macromolecules found in living
that glucose is a monosaccharide and sucrose is things are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
a disaccharide. As you read about these molecules, compare their structures
Polymerization and functions.
Ask Is carbohydrate polymerization an example of
Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are compounds made up
addition or condensation polymerization? (condensa-
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, usually in a ratio of
tion polymerization) 1 : 2 : 1. Living things use carbohydrates as their main
You may wish to draw a sketch of the reaction on source of energy. Plants, some animals, and other organisms
the board, as shown below: also use carbohydrates for structural purposes. The break-
down of sugars, such as glucose, supplies immediate energy for
Polymer cell activities. Many organisms store extra sugar as complex
carbohydrates known as starches. As shown in Figure 2–14,
Glucose 1 Glucose 2
the monomers in starch polymers are sugar molecules.
OH HO O
FIGURE 2–13 Polymerization When 䊳 Simple Sugars Single sugar molecules are also known as
monomers join together, they form monosaccharides (mahn oh sak uh rydz). Besides glucose,
H2O polymers. Using Analogies How are
monomers similar to links in a chain?
monosaccharides include galactose, which is a component of
milk, and fructose, which is found in many fruits. Ordinary
Ask Condensation reactions are sometimes known table sugar, sucrose, consists of glucose and fructose. Sucrose
as dehydration reactions. Why? (A water molecule is is a disaccharide, a compound made by joining two simple
lost. Dehydration means loss of water.) Next, show sugars together.
students the opposite of a dehydration reaction, FIGURE 2–14 Carbohydrates
Starches form when sugars join Glucose
called a hydrolysis reaction: together in a long chain. Each time CH OH
two glucose molecules are joined 2
together, a molecule of water (H2O) C O

is released when the covalent bond H H
Glucose 1 Glucose 2 is formed.
H
C C
O OH HO OH H
HO OH
H2O Starch C C
H OH
Explain to your students that dehydration and hydro-
lysis reactions are extremely common in biochemical
processes. 46 Chapter 2 • Lesson 3
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 2 6/2/09 5:59:16 PM
LPR Less Proficient Readers Have students read

the Build Vocabulary feature on this page. Tell Biology In-Depth
them that a saccharide is a sugar and the prefix di-
MORE FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
means “two.” Then, ask them to predict the mean-
ings of the terms monosaccharide, disaccharide, and In recent years, researchers have found that carbohydrates have more functions in
polysaccharide. (one sugar, two sugars, and many living things than just providing energy and helping to give organisms structure. They
sugars, respectively) have discovered that carbohydrates also play important roles in the interactions of
cells within organisms. Simple sugar molecules attached to larger protein molecules
appear to act like ID tags on the larger molecules. For example, these “glycoproteins”
Answers may allow sperm to recognize egg cells during fertilization and fetuses to avoid detec-
tion and attack by the maternal immune system during gestation. The sugar mol-
FIGURE 2–13 Links are small units that are joined
ecules may also help white blood cells identify infected tissues. Errors in the formation
together to form a chain. In a similar way, monomers
of sugar ID molecules have been implicated in some autoimmune disorders.
are small compounds that are joined together to
form large compounds called polymers.
LESSON 2.3
䊳 Complex Carbohydrates The large macromolecules formed from
monosaccharides are known as polysaccharides. Many animals store
excess sugar in a polysaccharide called glycogen, which is sometimes Build Reading Skills
called “animal starch.” When the level of glucose in your blood runs
low, glycogen is broken down into glucose, which is then released into Ask students if they ever heard the expression, “A
the blood. The glycogen stored in your muscles supplies the energy for picture is worth 1000 words.” Tell them that looking
muscle contraction and, thus, for movement. at the photographs, diagrams, and graphs in their
Plants use a slightly different polysaccharide, called starch, to store textbook when they read can help them understand
excess sugar. Plants also make another important polysaccharide
the material. When they read about carbohydrates,
called cellulose. Tough, flexible cellulose fibers give plants much of
their strength and rigidity. Cellulose is the major component of both have them examine Figure 2–14, and when they
wood and paper, so you are actually looking at cellulose as you read read about lipids, have them look at Figure 2–15.
these words! The figures will help students understand the struc-
Lipids Lipids are a large and varied group of biological tures of the two types of macromolecules. For exam-
molecules that are generally not soluble in water. ple, Figure 2–15 will show them the composition of
Lipids are made mostly from carbon and hydrogen lipids and help them understand how saturated and
atoms. The common categories of lipids are fats, oils, and unsaturated lipids differ. Suggest they check their
waxes. Lipids can be used to store energy. Some comprehension by asking themselves: What makes
lipids are important parts of biological membranes
and waterproof coverings. Steroids synthesized by the the lipid in Figure 2–15 unsaturated?
body are lipids as well. Many steroids, such as hor-
mones, serve as chemical messengers. DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
Many lipids are formed when a glycerol mol-
ecule combines with compounds called fatty acids, L1 Special Needs Use Cloze Prompts to help
as shown in Figure 2–15. If each carbon atom in a students focus on the most important information
lipid’s fatty acid chains is joined to another carbon about lipids. Have them write the following prompts
atom by a single bond, the lipid is said to be satu- on a sheet of paper and try to fill in the missing
rated. The term saturated is used because the fatty
acids contain the maximum possible number of words as they read:
hydrogen atoms.
• Lipids are made mostly from carbon and ______.
If there is at least one carbon-carbon double
bond in a fatty acid, the fatty acid is said to be unsat- (hydrogen atoms)
urated. Lipids whose fatty acids contain more than • Lipids can be used to store ______. (energy)
one double bond are said to be polyunsaturated. If
the terms saturated and polyunsaturated seem famil- • Lipids are part of biological ______. (membranes
iar, you have probably seen them on food package and waterproof coverings)
labels. Lipids that contain unsaturated fatty acids, • Lipids contain glycerol and ______. (fatty acids)
such as olive oil, tend to be liquid at room tempera-
ture. Other cooking oils, such as corn oil, sesame • Lipids that are liquid at room temperature contain
oil, canola oil, and peanut oil, contain polyunsatu- ______ fatty acids. (unsaturated)
rated lipids.
Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S2, Cloze Prompts.
In Your Notebook Compare and contrast
saturated and unsaturated fats. L3 Advanced Students Have students learn about
the roles of saturated and unsaturated lipids in nutri-

tion and health. Then, ask them, to share what they
FIGURE 2–15 Lipids Lipid molecules
learn in a presentation to the class. In their presen-
are made up of glycerol and fatty tation, they should include recommendations for
acids. Liquid lipids, such as olive oil, food choices that have healthy amounts and types
contain mainly unsaturated fatty acids.
of lipids.
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 3 6/2/09 5:59:17 PM
Check for Understanding

QUESTION BOX
Ask students to write a question they have about carbohydrates or lipids on a scrap Answers
of paper. Then, pass an empty shoe box around the room, and have students place
their questions in the box. This will give students who are uncomfortable asking ques- IN YOUR NOTEBOOK Both types of fats are lipids that
tions aloud in class a chance to have their questions answered. form when a glycerol molecule combines with fatty
acid compounds. In saturated fats, each carbon atom
ADJUST INSTRUCTION in the fatty acid chains is joined to another carbon
Review students’ questions, and select the most important or fundamental questions atom by a single bond. In unsaturated fats, at least
that students have raised. Read the questions aloud in class, and call on volunteers to one carbon atom in the fatty acid chains is joined
answer them. to another carbon atom by a double bond. At room
temperature, saturated fats tend to be solids and
unsaturated fats tend to be liquids.

LESSON 2.3
Teach continued
Effect of Carbon Bonds on Melting Point
Comparing Fatty Acids Fatty Acid Number of Number of Melting
Use Models The table compares four different fatty acids. Carbons Double Bonds Point (ºC)
Although they all have the same number of Stearic acid 18 0 69.6
Challenge individual students to use materials of Oleic acid 18 1 14
carbon atoms, their properties vary.
their choice to create a three-dimensional model of 1. Interpret Data Which of the four fatty Linoleic acid 18 2 5
a nucleic acid or a protein. For example, a student acids is saturated? Which are unsaturated? Linolenic acid 18 3 11
might use interlocking brick construction toys in dif- 2. Observe How does melting point change 3. Infer If room temperature is 25°C, which
ferent colors and shapes to represent nitrogenous as the number of carbon-carbon double fatty acid is a solid at room temperature?
bases, phosphate groups, and 5-carbon sugars, and bonds increases? Which is liquid at room temperature?
join the bricks together in the correct arrangement
to model a nucleic acid. Other materials students
might use include modeling clay, toothpicks, and FIGURE 2–16 Nucleic Acids The Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are macromolecules containing hydro-
monomers that make up a nucleic acid gen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus. Nucleic acids are
beads. Tell students to make a key for their model are nucleotides. Each nucleotide has
showing what each part represents. Have students a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, polymers assembled from individual monomers known as nucleotides.
and a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides consist of three parts: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group
display their models in the classroom as you work (–PO4), and a nitrogenous base, as shown in Figure 2–16. Some nucleo-
through the lesson. Nitrogenous tides, including the compound known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
base
Phosphate play important roles in capturing and transferring chemical energy.
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION group Individual nucleotides can be joined by covalent bonds to form a poly-
nucleotide, or nucleic acid.
L1 Struggling Students Have students work in Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or genetic, infor-
small groups to create models of a nucleic acid and mation. There are two kinds of nucleic acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA)
a protein. Suggest they talk about the structure of and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). As their names indicate, RNA
5-carbon sugar
contains the sugar ribose and DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose.
each molecule and write down a quick plan for how
they will model it before they begin construction. Protein Proteins are macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well
as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are polymers of molecules
called amino acids, shown in Figure 2–17. Amino acids are com-
FIGURE 2–17 Amino Acids and pounds with an amino group (–NH2) on one end and a carboxyl
ELL Focus on ELL: Peptide Bonding Peptide bonds form group (–COOH) on the other end. Covalent bonds called peptide
between the amino group of one
Build Background amino acid and the carboxyl group bonds link amino acids together to form a polypeptide. A protein is a
of another amino acid. A molecule functional molecule built from one or more polypeptides. Some
ALL SPEAKERS Show students visuals of of water (H2O) is released when proteins control the rate of reactions and regulate cell processes.
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. the bond is formed. Note that it is Others form important cellular structures, while still others trans-
the variable R-group section of the
Then, have them apply the Think-Pair-Share molecule that distinguishes one amino
port substances into or out of cells or help to fight disease.
strategy. Give students time to think about acid from another.
what they learned from the visuals. Then, pair General Structure Formation of Peptide Bond
of Amino Acids
beginning and intermediate speakers with
H2O
advanced and advanced high speakers. Have H H H H O H
H O H O H O H O
partners discuss the visuals to help them make
N C C N C C + N C C N C C N C C
a list of descriptive terms and examples that are
H OH H OH H CH2 OH H OH
associated with each type of macromolecule. Ask R CH3 CH3 H CH2
Carboxyl OH Peptide
partners to share their lists with the class. Amino
bond
OH
group group Alanine Serine
Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S14, Think-Pair-
Share. 48 Chapter 2 • Lesson 3
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 4 6/2/09 5:59:19 PM
PURPOSE Students will interpret data ANSWERS

to infer properties of fatty acids. 1. Stearic acid is saturated. The other
PLANNING Before students begin three fatty acids in the table are
the activity, check that they know unsaturated.
how saturated, unsaturated, and 2. Melting point decreases as the num-
polyunsaturated fatty acids are classi- ber of double bonds increases.
fied and what melting point means.
3. Stearic acid is a solid at room tem-
perature. The other three fatty acids
are liquids at room temperature.
LESSON 2.3
䊳 Structure and Function More than 20 different amino Heme
acids are found in nature. All amino acids are identical in group
the regions where they may be joined together by covalent
bonds. This uniformity allows any amino acid to be joined
Assess and Remediate
to any other amino acid—by bonding an amino group EVALUATE UNDERSTANDING
to a carboxyl group. Proteins are among the most diverse
macromolecules. The reason is that amino acids differ from
Ask a volunteer to explain what macromolecules are.
each other in a side chain called the R-group, which have Ask another student to go to the board and list the
a range of different properties. Some R-groups are acidic four main groups of macromolecules found in organ-
and some are basic. Some are polar, some are nonpolar, and isms. Call on one student after another to describe
some even contain large ring structures. the structure or identify a function of one of the
䊳 Levels of Organization Amino acids are assembled into groups of macromolecules. Then, have students
polypeptide chains according to instructions coded in complete the 2.3 Assessment.
DNA. To help understand these large molecules, scien-
tists describe proteins as having four levels of structure. REMEDIATION SUGGESTION
A protein’s primary structure is the sequence of its amino Amino
acids. Secondary structure is the folding or coiling of LPR Less Proficient Readers If students have trou-
acids
the polypeptide chain. Tertiary structure is the com- ble with Question 2c, have them reread the defini-
plete, three-dimensional arrangement of a polypeptide tion of polymer. Then, have them look closely at the
chain. Proteins with more than one chain are said to have structure of lipids in Figure 2–15 and the structure
a fourth level of structure, describing the way in which the
different polypeptides are arranged with respect to each of proteins in Figure 2–18.
other. Figure 2–18 shows these four levels of structure in
hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells that helps FIGURE 2–18 Protein Structure
to transport oxygen in the bloodstream. The shape of a The protein hemoglobin consists of four subunits.
The iron-containing heme group in the center of Students can check their under-
protein is maintained by a variety of forces, including
each subunit gives hemoglobin its red color.
ionic and covalent bonds, as well as van der Waals forces An oxygen molecule binds tightly to each heme standing of lesson concepts with the Self-
and hydrogen bonds. In the next lesson, you will learn molecule. Interpret Visuals How many levels of Test assessment. They can then take an online
why a protein’s shape is so important. organization does hemoglobin have?
Review Key Concepts

3. A structural formula shows how the atoms in
1. a. Review What are the major elements a compound are arranged.
of life?
b. Relate Cause and Effect What prop- CH OH H OH
²
erties of carbon explain carbon’s abil- HO O OH
ity to form different large and complex O
H OH H
structures? OH H
H
H H O H
2. a. Review Name four groups of organic H
CH OH
compounds found in living things. H OH ²
b. Explain Describe at least one function

of each group of organic compound. a. Observe What atoms constitute the com-
c. Infer Why are proteins considered pound above? Answers
polymers but lipids not? b. Classify What class of macromolecule does
the compound belong to? FIGURE 2–18 four
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 5 6/2/09 5:59:22 PM
Assessment Answers
1a. carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, 2b. Sample answer: Carbohydrates provide
sulfur, and nitrogen energy, lipids store energy, nucleic acids
store and transmit hereditary information, 3a. carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
1b. Carbon atoms can bond to the atoms of
many other elements. Carbon atoms can and proteins control the rate of reactions 3b. carbohydrates
also readily bond to one another to form and regulate cell processes.
short chains, long chains, or rings, and 2c. Proteins are considered polymers because
these bonds can be single, double, or triple they are made of chains of amino acids.
covalent bonds. This means that carbon Lipids are not considered polymers because
atoms can be combined to make millions they are not made of chains of smaller
of different types of structures. units; they are made of a glycerol molecule
2a. carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and combined with fatty acids.
proteins
LESSON 2.4 Chemical Reactions
Getting Started
Objectives
and Enzymes
2.4.1 Explain how chemical reactions affect
chemical bonds.
2.4.2 Describe how energy changes affect how Key Questions THINK ABOUT IT Living things, as you have seen, are made up of
easily a chemical reaction will occur. What happens to chemical chemical compounds—some simple and some complex. But chem-
bonds during chemical reactions? istry isn’t just what life is made of—chemistry is also what life does.
2.4.3 Explain why enzymes are important to living Everything that happens in an organism—its growth, its interaction
How do energy changes
things. affect whether a chemical reac- with the environment, its reproduction, and even its movement—is
tion will occur? based on chemical reactions.
What role do enzymes play
Student Resources in living things and what affects
their function?
Chemical Reactions
Study Workbooks A and B, 2.4 Worksheets What happens to chemical bonds during chemical reactions?
Vocabulary A chemical reaction is a process that changes, or transforms, one set
Spanish Study Workbook, 2.4 Worksheets chemical reaction • reactant • of chemicals into another. An important scientific principle is that
product • activation energy • mass and energy are conserved during chemical transformations.
catalyst • enzyme • substrate
Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes This is also true for chemical reactions that occur in living organ-
• Activity: Visual Analogy • Assessment: Self- isms. Some chemical reactions occur slowly, such as the combination
Taking Notes
of iron and oxygen to form an iron oxide called rust. Other reactions
Test, Lesson Assessment Concept Map As you read,
occur quickly. The elements or compounds that enter into a chemical
make a concept map that shows
the relationship among the reaction are known as reactants. The elements or compounds pro-
For corresponding lesson in the vocabulary terms in this lesson. duced by a chemical reaction are known as products. Chemical
Foundation Edition, see pages 42–45. reactions involve changes in the chemical bonds that join atoms in
compounds. An important chemical reaction in your bloodstream
that enables carbon dioxide to be removed from the body is shown
in Figure 2–19.
Activate Prior Knowledge
Body Tissues Lungs
Ask students if they have ever put together a jigsaw
puzzle. Call on a volunteer to draw a simple sketch CO2 CO2
that shows how two adjacent puzzle pieces might
look. Ask students how they can tell that the two
puzzle pieces fit together. (They have complemen-
tary shapes.) Tell them that certain proteins called Capillary H2O
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
FIGURE 2–19 Carbon Dioxide in
enzymes fit together with other molecules in a the Bloodstream As it enters the
similar way. blood, carbon dioxide reacts with
water to produce carbonic acid
(H2CO3), which is highly soluble.
This reaction enables the blood to CO2 Air sac
carry carbon dioxide to the lungs.
In the lungs, the reaction is reversed
and produces carbon dioxide gas,
which you exhale.

50 Lesson 2.4 • Lesson Overview • Lesson Notes
II, III, IV, V
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S4.indd 1 6/2/09 5:59:47 PM

B.3, B.5, C.1.a, C.1.b, C.1.d, C.1.e, C.5.b, C.5.c
INQUIRY
GUIDING QUESTION How do chemicals combine and break apart inside living things?
A.2.d
following assessment to show they understand how enzymes work. Ask small groups
of students to use various small items (such as different shapes of dry pasta and
modeling clay) to create a three-dimensional model of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
Their model should include symbols for the substrates, enzyme, and products. It
should represent each step of the reaction and show how the enzyme is unchanged
and ready to catalyze another reaction after it releases the products.
LESSON 2.4
Energy in Reactions
How do energy changes affect whether a chemical reaction
will occur?
Teach
Energy is released or absorbed whenever chemical bonds are formed
or broken. This means that chemical reactions also involve changes Use Visuals
in energy.
Use Figure 2–20 to help students understand energy
Energy Changes Some chemical reactions release energy, and
other reactions absorb it. Energy changes are one of the most impor-
changes in reactions. Have each student copy the
tant factors in determining whether a chemical reaction will occur. two graphs in the figure, including all the arrows and
Chemical reactions that release energy often occur on their labels. When they finish copying the graphs, have
own, or spontaneously. Chemical reactions that absorb energy will them point out the arrows that represent activation
not occur without a source of energy. An example of an energy- energy in the graphs. Then, have students draw
releasing reaction is the burning of hydrogen gas, in which hydrogen
reacts with oxygen to produce water vapor.
similar arrows to represent the difference in energy
between the reactants and products in the two reac-
2H2 + O2 2H2O tions. Call on volunteers to describe, in their own
FIGURE 2–20 Activation Energy
The energy is released in the form of heat, and sometimes—when The peak of each graph represents words, the difference between the two graphs.
the energy needed for the reaction to
hydrogen gas explodes—light and sound. go forward. The difference between Ask What happens during a chemical reaction when
The reverse reaction, in which water is changed into hydrogen and this required energy and the energy products contain more energy than the reactants?
oxygen gas, absorbs so much energy that it generally doesn’t occur by of the reactants is the activation
itself. In fact, the only practical way to reverse the reaction is to pass energy. Interpret Graphs How (Energy is absorbed.)
do the energy of the reactants and
an electrical current through water to decompose water into hydro- products differ between an energy- Ask What happens during a chemical reaction when
gen gas and oxygen gas. Thus, in one direction the reaction produces absorbing reaction and an energy- products contain less energy than the reactants?
energy, and in the other direction the reaction requires energy. releasing reaction?
(Energy is released.)
Energy Sources In order to stay alive, organisms Energy-Absorbing Reaction Ask Which graph could represent a reaction in
need to carry out reactions that require energy. Because
which food is broken down for energy? (the energy-
matter and energy are conserved in chemical reactions,
every organism must have a source of energy to carry releasing reaction)
out chemical reactions. Plants get that energy by trap- Products
ping and storing the energy from sunlight in energy-rich DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION
compounds. Animals get their energy when they con-
Energy
Activation energy
sume plants or other animals. Humans release the energy ELL English Language Learners Remind students
needed to grow tall, to breathe, to think, and even to Reactants that reactants are the chemicals at the beginning of
dream through the chemical reactions that occur when a reaction and products are the chemicals at the end
we metabolize, or break down, digested food. Course of Reaction
of a reaction. One mnemonic device to help the stu-
Activation Energy Chemical reactions that release dents remember which is which, would be: “Reac-
Energy-Releasing Reaction
energy do not always occur spontaneously. That’s a good tants react to produce products.”
thing because if they did, the pages of this book might
burst into flames. The cellulose in paper burns in the
presence of oxygen and releases heat and light. However, Activation
energy
paper burns only if you light it with a match, which sup-
plies enough energy to get the reaction started. Chemists
Address Misconceptions
Energy
call the energy that is needed to get a reaction started Reactants Spontaneous Chemical Reactions Students may tend
the activation energy. As Figure 2–20 shows, activation to equate “spontaneous” with “fast.” Explain to
Products
energy is involved in chemical reactions regardless of students that spontaneous reactions do not neces-
whether the overall chemical reaction releases energy or Course of Reaction sarily occur quickly. A spontaneous reaction proceeds
absorbs energy.
on its own without an added source of energy, but it
could take quite a long time. For example, diamonds
The Chemistry of Life 51 spontaneously decay into graphite, but this process
takes millions of years!
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S4.indd 2 6/2/09 5:59:55 PM
Biology In-Depth
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF METABOLISM
Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in living cells.
The reactions include both exothermic (energy-releasing) and endothermic (energy-
absorbing) reactions. Exothermic reactions make up catabolism—reactions that break
down molecules and release energy. An example of catabolism is the breakdown of
ATP to form ADP and a phosphate group. This reaction releases about 13 kilocalo- Answers
ries of energy per mole and provides most of the energy used by cells. Endothermic
FIGURE 2–20 Energy-absorbing reaction—the
reactions make up anabolism—reactions that synthesize macromolecules and
energy of the reactants is less than the energy
absorb energy. An example of anabolism is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and a
of the products; Energy-releasing reaction—the
phosphate group.
energy of the reactants is greater than the energy
of the products.

LESSON 2.4 FIGURE 2–21 Effect of Enzymes
Notice how the addition of an Enzymes
Teach continued
enzyme lowers the activation energy
in this reaction. The enzyme speeds
What role do enzymes play in living things and
what affects their function?
up the reaction.
Some chemical reactions that make life possible are too
Use Visuals Effect of Enzymes slow or have activation energies that are too high to
make them practical for living tissue. These chemical
Discuss the importance of enzymes and the way Reaction pathway
without enzyme
Activation energy reactions are made possible by a process that would
without enzyme
enzymes work. Ask students how the reaction repre- make any chemist proud—cells make catalysts. A
sented by Figure 2–21 is different with the enzyme catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a
Activation chemical reaction. Catalysts work by lowering a reac-
than without it. (The activation energy is lower with energy
tion’s activation energy.
Energy
Reactants with enzyme
the enzyme.) Explain how lowering the activation Reaction pathway
energy speeds up the reaction by allowing many with enzyme Nature’s Catalysts Enzymes are proteins that act as
biological catalysts. Enzymes speed up chemical
more molecules to react. Have students look at
Products reactions that take place in cells. Like other catalysts,
Figure 2–22, and point out the cyclic nature of enzymes act by lowering the activation energies, as
Course of Reaction
the diagram. illustrated by the graph in Figure 2–21. Lowering the
Ask Why is a cycle diagram appropriate to show activation energy has a dramatic effect on how quickly
the reaction is completed. How big an effect does it
how an enzyme works? ( The enzyme can be used have? Consider the reaction in which carbon dioxide
over and over again, which allows the process to combines with water to produce carbonic acid.
keep repeating.)
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
FIGURE 2–22 An Enzyme-Catalyzed
Reaction The enzyme carbonic anhydrase
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION converts the substrates carbon dioxide
Left to itself, this reaction is so slow that carbon
and water into carbonic acid (H2CO3). dioxide might build up in the body faster than the
L1 Struggling Students Have students make a
Predicting What happens to the carbonic bloodstream could remove it. Your bloodstream contains
simplified Cycle Diagram of Figure 2–22 to show anhydrase after the products are released? an enzyme called carbonic anhydrase that speeds up the
the sequence of steps in an enzyme-catalyzed reac- Carbon dioxide
reaction by a factor of 10 million. With carbonic anhy-
tion. For each step in the diagram, they should write drase on the job, the reaction takes place immediately
Water and carbon dioxide is removed from the blood quickly.
a sentence describing in their own words what hap- Enzyme Substrates Enzymes are very specific, generally catalyzing
pens in that step. (carbonic bind to
enzyme only one chemical reaction. For this reason, part of an
anhydrase)
enzyme’s name is usually derived from the reaction it
Study Wkbks A/B, Appendix S23, Cycle Diagram. catalyzes. Carbonic anhydrase gets its name because it
Transparencies, GO6. also catalyzes the reverse reaction that removes water
Active site
from carbonic acid.
The Enzyme-Substrate Complex How do enzymes
Enzyme -
substrate do their jobs? For a chemical reaction to take place,
Carbonic complex the reactants must collide with enough energy so that
Discuss Figure 2–23, the lock-and-key analogy, with acid
existing bonds will be broken and new bonds will be
Products
the class. Have students identify what the lock, key, are released
formed. If the reactants do not have enough energy,
and keyhole represent in the analogy. (lock—enzyme; they will be unchanged after the collision.
Enzymes provide a site where reactants can be
key—substrates; keyhole—active site) Tell students
brought together to react. Such a site reduces the energy
that the analogy is a simplified representation of needed for reaction. The reactants of enzyme-catalyzed
Substrates
what happens when substrates bind to the active site are converted reactions are known as substrates. Figure 2–22 pro-
of an enzyme. For example, rather than being rigid into products vides an example of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
like a keyhole, the active site may actually change
shape when substrates bind to it.
With the Visual Analogy: Lock

and Key, students can interact with an ani- 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S4.indd 3 6/2/09 5:59:59 PM
mation to learn more about enzymes and Check for Understanding

substrates.
ONE-MINUTE RESPONSE
Ask students to write a one-minute response to the question: What role do enzymes
play in living things?
ADJUST INSTRUCTION
Collect and review students’ responses. Their responses should show an understand-
ing that enzymes lower the activation energy of chemical reactions and, thereby,
greatly speed up chemical processes in cells. Share with the class a few responses that
correctly explain the role of enzymes. Clear up any misunderstandings revealed by
Answers incorrect responses.
FIGURE 2–22 The carbonic anhydrase is free to
catalyze another reaction.
LESSON 2.4
The substrates bind to a site on the enzyme called the active site.
The active site and the substrates have complementary shapes. The fit
is so precise that the active site and substrates are often compared to a Frigid water would reduce the fish’s
lock and key, as shown in Figure 2–23. need for oxygen, because the
The chemical reactions
Regulation of Enzyme Activity Enzymes play essential roles in con- of living things, fish’s chemical reactions would occur
trolling chemical pathways, making materials that cells need, releasing including those that more slowly at lower temperatures. Students can go
require oxygen, occur
energy, and transferring information. Because they are catalysts for more slowly at low
online to Biology.com to gather their evidence.
reactions, enzymes can be affected by any variable that influences a temperatures. How
chemical reaction. Temperature, pH, and regulatory molecules would frigid antarctic
can affect the activity of enzymes. waters affect the ice
Many enzymes are affected by changes in temperature. Not surpris-
ingly, those enzymes produced by human cells generally work best at
fish’s need for oxygen?
Assess and Remediate
temperatures close to 37°C, the normal temperature of the human EVALUATE UNDERSTANDING
body. Enzymes work best at certain ionic conditions and pH values. Ask students to write a paragraph explaining
For example, the stomach enzyme pepsin, which begins protein diges- how chemicals combine and break apart inside
tion, works best under acidic conditions. In addition, the activities of UNLOCKING ENZYMES
most enzymes are regulated by molecules that carry chemical signals FIGURE 2–23 This space-filling living things. Then, have them complete the
within cells, switching enzymes “on” or “off ” as needed. model shows how a substrate binds 2.4 Assessment.
to an active site on an enzyme.
The fit between an enzyme and its
substrates is so specific it is often REMEDIATION SUGGESTION
compared to a lock and key.
L1 Special Needs If students have trouble with
Question 3c, have them reexamine Figure 2–23.

Explain that a change in the shape of an enzyme can
be compared to changing the shape of the lock’s
keyhole. When an enzyme changes shape, it may not
fit with its substrate any more.
Students can check their under-

standing of lesson concepts with the Self-
Test assessment. They can then take an online
Review Key Concepts c. Use Analogies A change in pH can change
1. a. Review What happens to chemical bonds the shape of a protein. How might a change in
during chemical reactions? pH affect the function of an enzyme such as
carbonic anhydrase? (Hint: Think about the
b. Apply Concepts Why is the melting of ice
analogy of the lock and key.)
not a chemical reaction?
2. a. Review What is activation energy?
b. Compare and Contrast Describe the differ-
ence between a reaction that occurs spontane- 4. Make a model that demonstrates the fit
ously and one that does not. between an enzyme and its substrate. Show
3. a. Review What are enzymes? your model to a friend or family member and
explain how enzymes work using your model.
b. Explain Explain how enzymes work, includ-
ing the role of the enzyme-substrate complex.
Lesson 2.4 • Self-Test • Lesson Assessment • Visual Analogy
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S4.indd 4 6/2/09 6:00:01 PM
Assessment Answers 3b. Enzymes provide a site where reactants,

called substrates, can be brought together
1a. The bonds change—often they are formed 4. Students’ models should show that
to react. The substrates bind to a site on
or broken. the substrates and the active site of
the enzyme called the active site, forming
1b. because new chemicals are not formed an enzyme-substrate complex. This reduces the enzyme fit together because they
2a. the energy that is needed to get a reaction the activation energy needed for the have complementary shapes like a lock
started reaction. and key or like two adjacent pieces of a
jigsaw puzzle.
2b. A reaction that occurs spontaneously 3c. If a change in pH changes the shape
releases energy. A reaction that does not of an enzyme, it might result in the enzyme
occur spontaneously absorbs energy. and substrates no longer fitting together
3a. proteins that act as biological catalysts properly. As a result, the enzyme would
no longer be able to speed up the chemi-
cal reaction.
CHAPTER LAB GUIDED INQUIRY
Pre-Lab
Introduce students to the concepts they will explore
in the chapter lab by assigning the Pre-Lab questions.
Pre-Lab: Temperature Affects Enzymes
Problem How does temperature affect the rate of Pre-Lab Questions
Lab an enzyme-catalyzed reaction? Preview the procedure in the lab manual.
Tell students they will perform the chapter lab Tem- Materials raw liver, forceps, petri dish, dropper 1. Relate Cause and Effect How will you know that
pipette, 1% hydrogen peroxide solution, 25-mL gradu- a chemical reaction is taking place in Part A? How
perature Affects Enzymes described in Lab Manual A.
ated cylinder, 50-mL beaker, puréed liver, filter paper will you know in Part B?
L1 Struggling Students A simpler version of the disks, paper towels, clock or watch with a second hand,
2. Control Variables In Part B of the lab, which variable
water baths, thermometers, beaker tongs
chapter lab is provided in Lab Manual B. will you manipulate? Which variable is the dependent
variable?
SAFETY 3. Relate Cause and Effect How is the time required
Lab Manual Chapter 2 Lab for the filter-paper disk to float related to the activity
Remind students to wear goggles, gloves, and of the enzyme?
aprons during the lab, because hydrogen peroxide Skills Focus Form a Hypothesis, Design an
Experiment, Measure, Interpret Graphs
irritates skin and bleaches clothing. Tell them that the Chapter 2
puréed liver is raw and may contain bacteria, so it is Connect to the Many chemical reac-
very important for them to wash their hands after tions in living organisms could not take place without Visit Chapter 2 online to test yourself on chapter con-
they finish the lab. enzymes. Enzymes catalyze the reactions that release tent and to find activities to help you learn.
energy from nutrients. They also catalyze the synthesis Untamed Science Watch the Untamed Science crew
of the complex molecules that organisms need to grow find answers to the mystery of why water is such a
and stay healthy. One factor that affects the action of special compound.
enzymes is temperature. Think about why people store
Look online for Editable Lab Art Review Learn about ionic and covalent bonding.
some foods in a refrigerator. The cold temperature
Worksheets. limits the ability of enzymes to break down, or spoil, Art in Motion View an animation that shows the
those foods. process of a salt crystal dissolving in water.
Do high temperatures have the opposite effect on
For corresponding pre-lab in the enzymes? Do they become more and more active as the Data Analysis Analyze data that explains the physi-
Foundation Edition, see page 46. temperature rises? In this lab, you will investigate the ological effects of low pH, and the ecological impact of
effect of temperature on an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. acid rain.
Visual Analogy Compare enzymes and substrates to
a lock and key.
Background Questions
a. Review Why do many reactions that occur in
cells require enzymes? How do enzymes speed up
chemical reactions?
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS b. Review Name three variables that can affect enzyme
activity.
UCP I, II, III c. Use Analogies Use eggs and a frying pan on a stove
as an analogy for reactants and an enzyme. Use the
CONTENT B.3, C.1.d control knob on the stove burner as an analogy for
INQUIRY A.1.b how a variable can affect the action of an enzyme.
54 Chapter 2 • Pre-Lab
Pre-Lab Answers
BACKGROUND QUESTIONS
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_SCA.indd 54 6/9/09 1:24:01 PM
a. Reactions in cells are often too slow or PRE-LAB QUESTIONS produces the oxygen depends on the activity
require an activation energy that is not prac- of the enzyme. The more active the enzyme,
1. I will observe bubbles of oxygen on the sur-
tical for living tissue. Enzymes lower the acti- the faster the oxygen is produced, and the
face of the liver. The filter paper disk will rise
vation energy of reactions. quicker the disk will rise.
to the top of the purée.
b. pH, temperature, and regulatory molecules
2. temperature; reaction time
c. Sample answer: The frying pan is like an
3. Oxygen produced in the reaction causes the
enzyme. It provides a location where the
disk to float. The rate of the reaction that
eggs can be cooked. The control knob
allows the user to control the temperature
of the frying pan, which affects how fast the
eggs cook.
54 Chapter 2 • Pre-Lab
STUDY GUIDE
2 Study Guide Study Online
Living things use carbohydrates as their main
Matter and Energy
source of energy. Plants, some animals, and other
Chemical bonds join together the molecules and organisms also use carbohydrates for structural REVIEW AND ASSESSMENT
compounds of life. Water and carbon compounds play purposes. RESOURCES
essential roles in organisms, which carry out chemical
reactions in their daily life processes. Lipids can be used to store energy. Some lipids
are important parts of biological membranes and Editable Worksheets Pages of Study Workbooks
2.1 The Nature of Matter waterproof coverings. A and B, Lab Manuals A and B, and the Assessment
Resources Book are available online. These docu-
Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary, or
The subatomic particles that make up atoms are genetic, information. ments can be easily edited using a word-processing
protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Some proteins control the rate of reactions and program.
All isotopes of an element have the same chemi- regulate cell processes. Some proteins build tissues
cal properties, because they have the same number such as bone and muscle. Others transport materials Lesson Overview Have students reread the Lesson
of electrons. or help to fight disease. Overviews to help them study Chapter 2 concepts.
The physical and chemical properties of a com-
monomer (46) nucleic acid (48) Vocabulary Review The Flash Cards and Match
pound are usually very different from those of the polymer (46) nucleotide (48)
elements from which it is formed. carbohydrate (46) protein (48) It provide an interactive way to review chapter
The main types of chemical bonds are ionic monosaccharide (46) amino acid (48) vocabulary.
bonds and covalent bonds. lipid (47)
Chapter Assessment Have students take an online
atom (34)
nucleus (34)
ionic bond (37)
ion (37)
2.4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes version of the Chapter 2 Assessment.
electron (34) covalent bond (37) Chemical reactions always involve changes in the Standardized Test Prep Students can take an
element (35) molecule (37) chemical bonds that join atoms in compounds.
isotope (35) van der Waals forces (38) online version of the Standardized Test Prep. You will
compound (36) Chemical reactions that release energy often receive their scores along with ideas for remediation.
occur spontaneously. Chemical reactions that absorb
2.2 Properties of Water energy will not occur without a source of energy. Diagnostic and Benchmark Tests Use these tests
Water is a polar molecule. Therefore, it is able Enzymes speed up chemical reactions that take to monitor your students’ progress and supply
to form multiple hydrogen bonds, which account for place in cells. remediation.
many of its special properties. Temperature, pH, and regulatory molecules can
Water’s polarity gives it the ability to dissolve affect the activity of enzymes.
both ionic compounds and other polar molecules. chemical reaction (50) catalyst (52)
Buffers play an important role in maintaining reactant (50) enzyme (52)
homeostasis in organisms. product (50) substrate (52)
activation energy (51)
hydrogen bond (41) solution (42) pH scale (43)
cohesion (41) solute (42) acid (44) Think Visually Create a table in which you com-
adhesion (41) solvent (42) base (44) pare the structures and functions of the following
mixture (42) suspension (42) buffer (44) macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
2.3 Carbon Compounds and nucleic acids.
Carbon can bond with many elements, including

hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, and nitrogen
to form the molecules of life.
Chapter 2 • Match It • Chapter Assessment 55

Answers
THINK VISUALLY
Student tables should show that
Performance Tasks
• carbohydrates consist of simple sugars called
SUMMATIVE TASK Have students work in pairs to create a simple storybook for monosaccharides or chains of sugars called poly-
younger children on the chemistry of living things. In addition to introducing basic saccharides; they provide energy or structure.
concepts such as atoms, molecules, and chemical reactions, students should describe • lipids consist of glycerol and fatty acids; they store
the structure and functions of the four groups of carbon compounds in living things. energy or are part of membranes and waterproof
TRANSFER TASK Introduce inherited defects in enzymes that are needed for coverings.
metabolism, or the chemical reactions inside cells. Explain that inherited defects of • nucleic acids consist of chains of nucleotides; they
metabolism can cause serious health problems. Have students work in small groups store and transmit genetic information.
to identify a particular metabolism defect, such as phenylketonuria (PKU), and create
a presentation about it. In their presentation, students should identify the enzyme • proteins consist of chains of amino acids; they con-
that is defective, its normal role in metabolism, and how a defect in the enzyme trol the rate of reactions, regulate cell processes,
affects metabolism and health. form cell structures, transport substances into or
out of cells, or help fight disease.

ASSESSMENT
Lesson 2.1 2 Assessment
UNDERSTAND KEY CONCEPTS
2.1 The Nature of Matter 11. A compound that produces hydrogen ions in
solution is a(n)
1. c 2. d 3. b
a. salt. c. base.
Understand Key Concepts
4. Elements are composed of atoms. Compounds b. acid. d. polymer.
1. The positively charged particle in an atom is
are composed of atoms of two or more elements called the 12. Compared to most other substances, a great deal
combined in definite proportions. a. neutron. c. proton. of heat is needed to raise the temperature of water
b. ion. d. electron. by a given amount. This is because water
5. A radioactive isotope is an isotope with an
a. is an acid.
unstable nucleus that breaks down at a constant 2. Two or more different atoms are combined in b. readily forms solutions.
rate over time. Scientific uses of radioactive definite proportions in any c. has a high heat capacity.
isotopes include determining the age of rocks, a. symbol. c. element. b. acts as a buffer.
b. isotope. d. compound.
treating cancer, killing bacteria in food, and 13. Explain the properties of cohesion and adhesion.
tracing the movements of substances within 3. A covalent bond is formed by the Give an example of each property.
a. transfer of electrons.
organisms. b. sharing of electrons.
14. What is the relationship among solutions, solutes,
and solvents?
6. Atoms in a compound are held together by c. gaining of electrons.
d. losing of electrons. 15. How are acids and bases different? How do their
chemical bonds. pH values differ?
7. Two electrons are shared in a single covalent 4. Explain the relationship among atoms, elements,
and compounds. Think Critically
bond, four in a double bond, and six in a
5. What is a radioactive isotope? Describe two scien- 16. Propose a Solution Silica is a hard, glassy material
triple bond. tific uses of radioactive isotopes. that does not dissolve in water. Suppose sodium
THINK CRITICALLY 6. Describe how the atoms in a compound are held chloride is accidentally mixed with silica. Describe
together. a way to remove the sodium chloride.
8. The diagram should show that hydrogen and 17. Predict As part of the digestive process, the
7. Distinguish among single, double, and triple
chlorine form a covalent bond. Students can use covalent bonds. human stomach produces hydrochloric acid, HCl.
the chlorine atom in Figure 2–4 as a starting Sometimes excess acid causes discomfort. In such
point and pair one of the seven electrons in its Think Critically a case, a person might take an antacid such as
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2. Explain how
outer level with hydrogen’s single electron. 8. Use Models Make a diagram like the one in
this substance can reduce the amount of acid in
Figure 2–4 to show how chlorine and hydrogen
9. 0.1 nm; If 100 million atoms lined up are 1 cm form from the compound hydrogen chloride,
the stomach.
in length, then the diameter of one atom HCl.
equals 1 cm divided by 100,000,000. This yields 9. Calculate A nanometer (nm) is one billionth of
2.3 Carbon Compounds
1 × 10-8 cm, or 1 × 10-10 m, which equals 0.1 nm. a meter (1 nm = 10−9 m). If 100 million atoms
make a row 1 cm in length, what is the diameter
of one atom in nanometers? 18. What does the following formula represent?
Lesson 2.2
2.2 Properties of Water
10. b 11. b 12. c Understand Key Concepts
a. a sugar c. an amino acid
13. Cohesion is an attraction between molecules 10. When you shake sugar and sand together in a test b. a starch d. a fatty acid
tube, you cause them to form a
of the same substance. An example is water a. compound. c. solution. 19. Proteins are polymers formed from
molecules drawing together, forming beads b. mixture. d. suspension. a. lipids. c. amino acids.
on a smooth surface. Adhesion is an attraction b. carbohydrates. d. nucleic acids.
between molecules of different substances. An

56 Chapter 2 • Assessment
example is capillary action.
14. A solution is a mixture in which one substance is
dissolved in another. The solute is the substance 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_SCA.indd 56 6/3/09 3:57:59 PM
that is dissolved. The solvent is the substance in THINK CRITICALLY

which the solute is dissolved. Lesson 2.3
16. The mixture could be separated by
15. An acid is a compound that forms hydrogen adding water. The sodium chloride UNDERSTAND KEY CONCEPTS
ions in solution. Acidic solutions have pH values would dissolve in the water, but the 18. c 19. c
less than 7. A base is a compound that forms silica would not. The salt could then be 20. Polymers are large macromolecules
hydroxide ions in solution. Basic solutions have retrieved by filtering the silica out of made up of smaller molecules called
pH values greater than 7. the mixture and evaporating the water. monomers. For example, monomers
17. Students should infer that magnesium called monosaccharides join together to
hydroxide is a base. The base reacts form polymers called polysaccharides.
with the acid in the stomach and forms 21. Proteins control the rate of chemical
a less acidic product. reactions, regulate cell processes, form
important cellular structures, transport
substances into or out of cells, and help
fight disease.
ASSESSMENT
20. Explain the relationship between monomers
and polymers, using polysaccharides as an
example. After students have read through
21. Identify three major roles of proteins. the Chapter Mystery, call on
22. Describe the parts of a nucleotide. volunteers to summarize facts
THE GHOSTLY FISH about antarctic waters and ice fish that help explain
Think Critically how the fish can survive without hemoglobin in
The oxygen-binding abilities of hemoglobin
23. Design an Experiment Suggest one or two their blood.
enable the blood of most fish to carry nearly
simple experiments to determine whether a solid
50 times the oxygen it would without the pro-
white substance is a lipid or a carbohydrate. Ask How does the low temperature of the water
tein. The ghostly white appearance of the ant-
What evidence would you need to support each
hypothesis?
arctic ice fish results from its clear blood—blood help ice fish survive? (The cold temperature allows
without hemoglobin. Ice fish, however, are able the water to dissolve more oxygen. The cold tem-
24. Infer Explain what the name “carbohydrate” to survive without hemoglobin because of the
might indicate about the chemical composition properties of water at low temperatures.
perature also slows the fishes’ metabolism so they
of sugars. Oxygen from the air dissolves in seawater, need less oxygen.)
providing the oxygen that fish need to survive. Ask What physical adaptations in ice fish help them
2.4 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes Fish absorb dissolved oxygen directly through
their gills, where it passes into their bloodstream. survive? (Large gills and scaleless skin allow the fish
The solubility of oxygen is much greater at low to absorb more oxygen into their blood. High blood
temperatures. Therefore, the icy cold antarctic volume, thin blood, and a large heart allow the
25. An enzyme speeds up a reaction by waters are particularly rich in oxygen. blood to be pumped around the body faster.)
a. lowering the activation energy. The large, well-developed gills and scaleless
b. raising the activation energy. skin of ice fishes allow them to absorb oxygen CHAPTER MYSTERY ANSWERS
c. releasing energy. efficiently from the water. Compared to red-
d. absorbing energy. blooded fishes, ice fishes have a higher blood 1. Low body temperature would increase the
26. In a chemical reaction, a reactant binds to an
volume, thinner blood, and larger hearts. So, blood’s ability to carry dissolved oxygen.
enzyme at a region known as the their blood can carry more dissolved oxygen
and the large hearts can pump the thinner blood 2. At high altitudes, less oxygen is available in the
a. catalyst. c. substrate. atmosphere than at low altitudes. Therefore,
through the body faster. These and other physical
b. product. d. active site.
features, combined with the chemistry of oxygen people (and other organisms) need more hemo-
27. Describe the two types of energy changes that can in water at low temperatures, enable ice fish to globin to ensure that enough oxygen is obtained
occur in a chemical reaction. survive where many other organisms cannot.
to supply the tissues of the body.
28. What relationship exists between an enzyme and 1. Relate Cause and Effect Ice fish produce anti-
a catalyst? 3. Sample answer: There would be less dissolved
freeze proteins to keep their blood from freezing;
29. Describe some factors that may influence enzyme their body temperature stays below 0°C. How oxygen available for the ice fish, and at the
activity. does low body temperature affect the blood’s same time, their need for oxygen would increase
ability to carry dissolved oxygen? because warmer water temperatures would
Think Critically
2. Infer People living at high altitudes generally speed the fish’s metabolism. The fish might
30. Infer Why is it important that energy-releasing have more hemoglobin in their blood than migrate to colder waters farther south to avoid
reactions take place in living organisms? people living at sea level. Why do you think
this is so?
the temperature change. If, however, colder
31. Predict Changing the temperature or pH can
change an enzyme’s shape. Describe how chan- waters could not be found, the fish would not
3. Predict If the antarctic oceans were to warm
ging the temperature or pH might affect the up, how might this affect ice fish?
thrive and might even go extinct. Or, if the
function of an enzyme. change is gradual, the fish may evolve methods
4. Connect to the The chemical
32. Use Analogies Explain why a lock and key
reactions in all living things slow down at low
to transport oxygen and survive in warmer water.
are used to describe the way an enzyme works.
Describe any ways in which the analogy is not
temperatures. Since some of the most impor- 4. Low temperatures would reduce the
tant reactions in our body require oxygen, ice fish’s need for oxygen.
perfect.
how would low temperatures affect the ice
fish’s need for oxygen?
Chapter 2 • Untamed Science Video • Chapter Mystery 57

Have students take a video field
trip with the Untamed Science
crew to learn more about the
unique properties of water in Not a Drop to Drink.
22. a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, Lesson 2.4

and a nitrogenous base
THINK CRITICALLY
25. a 26. d
23. Sample answer: Students might sug-
gest trying to dissolve the solid in 27. A chemical reaction can either release
water, because lipids are generally not or absorb energy.
water soluble. They also might suggest 28. An enzyme is a biological catalyst.
warming the solid to see if it would 29. Factors that may influence enzyme
soften, because solid lipids tend to activity include pH, temperature,
soften when heated. and regulatory molecules that switch
24. “Carbo” indicates that carbon is pres- enzymes “on” or “off” as needed.
ent; “hydrate” suggests oxygen and
hydrogen are present.

ASSESSMENT THINK CRITICALLY
Connecting Concepts 34. Draw Conclusions Describe the results of each
reaction. How can you explain these results?
Use Science Graphics 35. Predict A student performs the same chemical
30. To carry out all life processes, living things need The following graph shows the total amount of product reaction at 30°C. Approximately how much
the energy released in chemical reactions. from a chemical reaction performed at three different product can she expect to obtain?
31. If changing the temperature or pH changed temperatures. The same enzyme was involved in each
Write About Science
case. Use the graph to answer questions 33–35.
the enzyme’s shape, the enzyme might lose its 36. Explanation Write a paragraph that includes
ability to bind with substrates, and an enzyme- Effect of Temperature on a Reaction the following: (a) a description of the four major
substrate complex would not form. As a result, classes of organic compounds found in living
the enzyme would not be able to speed up the 2
things, and (b) a description of how these organic
Total Product (mg)

compounds are used by the human body.
reaction it normally catalyzed.
32. The fit of an enzyme and its substrates at the 37. Assess the What properties of
1 carbon allow it to play such a major role in the
enzyme’s active site is so precise that the sub-
chemistry of living things?
strates are like a key and the enzyme is like a
lock. Similar to a key in a lock, only substrates 0 a2155
25º FPO 35º 45º
of a certain shape can fit into the active site of
Temperature of Reaction (ºC)
the enzyme. The analogy isn’t perfect because
inserting a key into a lock is a physical process,
whereas the binding of substrates at the active 33. Interpret Graphs At which temperature was the
site of an enzyme is a chemical process. Also, the greatest amount of product formed?
way substrates fit enzymes is not a rigid process.
Connecting Concepts
USE SCIENCE GRAPHICS
33. 35°C A student measured the pH of water from a small 38. Interpret Graphs At what time of day is the
34. The total product was doubled when the tem- pond at several intervals throughout the day. Use the pond most acidic?
graph to answer questions 38 and 39. a. between noon and 6:00 p.m.
perature of the reaction increased from 25°C b. at noon
to 35°C. It decreased to almost zero when the pH of a Local Pond c. between midnight and 6:00 a.m.
temperature was increased to 45°C. Enzymes 8.5 d. at 6:00 p.m.
work best at certain temperatures. The enzyme 8.0 39. Form a Hypothesis Which of the following is
involved in this reaction works best at about the most reasonable hypothesis based on the
7.5 results obtained?
35°C. A much higher temperature inhibits the
pH
a. Pond water maintains constant pH through-

enzyme’s function. 7.0
out the day.
35. about 1.5 mg 6.5 b. pH rises with increasing daylight and falls
with decreasing daylight.
WRITE ABOUT SCIENCE 6.0 c. Living things cannot survive in this pond
.
.
.
.
.
M
M
M
M
M
n
t
gh
P.
A.
A.
P.
oo
P.
A.
because enzymes will be destroyed.
36. Students’ paragraphs may vary. However, they
00
00
00
ni
00
00
00
id
3:
9:
6:
6:
9:
3:
d. pH is higher at night than during the day.

M
should include a description of the composition Time of Day

and functions in living things of carbohydrates,
lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
37. Carbon atoms have four valence elec-
trons, allowing them to form strong 58 Chapter 2 • Assessment
covalent bonds with many other

elements, including hydrogen, oxygen, phospho-
rus, sulfur, and nitrogen. Carbon atoms can also 0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_SCA.indd 58 6/12/09 10:45:36 AM
bond to each other, which gives carbon the abil-

ity to form chains that are almost unlimited in
length. Therefore, carbon has the ability to form
millions of different large and complex molecules PURPOSE Students will interpret data in a graph and form a ANSWERS
that are the basis of life. hypothesis to explain the data. 38. c
PLANNING Remind students that acids have a pH less than 39. b
7 and bases have a pH greater than 7.
ASSESSMENT
Standardized Test Prep Answers
Multiple Choice Questions 8–9 1. D
1. The elements or compounds that enter into a The enzyme catalase speeds up the chemical reaction
2. B
chemical reaction are called that changes hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water.
A products. C active sites. The amount of oxygen given off is an indication of the 3. C
B catalysts. D reactants. rate of the reaction.
4. A
2. Chemical bonds that involve the total transfer of Concentration of Catalase and 5. D
electrons from one atom or group of atoms to Amount of Oxygen Given Off
another are called 3.5
6. C
A covalent bonds.
7. C
Production (mL/s)
3
Rate of Oxygen
B ionic bonds.
2.5
C hydrogen bonds. 8. C
2
D van der Waals bonds.
1.5 9. D
3. Which of the following is NOT an organic 1
molecule found in living organisms? 10. Sample answer: Properties of water that make it
0.5
A protein such a unique substance include the polarity of
0
B nucleic acid 0 5 10 15 20 its molecules, which allows them to form hydro-
C sodium chloride Concentration of Catalase (%) gen bonds with each other. Because of these
D lipid
properties, water exhibits cohesion, adhesion,
4. Which combination of particle and charge is 8. Based on the graph, what can you conclude about high heat capacity, and the ability to dissolve
correct? the relationship between enzyme concentration
A proton: positively charged
many substances.
and reaction rate?
B electron: positively charged A Reaction rate decreases with increasing enzyme
C neutron: negatively charged concentration.
D electron: no charge B Reaction rate increases with decreasing enzyme
5. In which of the following ways do isotopes of the
concentration.
same element differ? C Reaction rate increases with increasing enzyme
A in number of neutrons only concentration.
B in number of protons only D The variables are indirectly proportional.
C in numbers of neutrons and protons 9. Which concentration of catalase will produce the
D in number of neutrons and in mass fastest reaction rate?
6. Which of the following molecules is made up of
A 5%
glycerol and fatty acids? B 10%
A sugars C lipids C 15%
B starches D nucleic acids D 20%
7. Nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, a Open-Ended Response

nitrogenous base, and a 10. List some of the properties of water that make it
A fatty acid. C 5-carbon sugar. such a unique substance.
B lipid. D 6-carbon sugar.
If You Have Trouble With . . .

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
See Lesson 2.4 2.1 2.3 2.1 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.2
0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_STP.indd 59 6/12/09 10:47:22 AM
Test-Taking Tip
USE TIME WISELY
Advise students to skip to the next question if they get stuck on a difficult one. Sug-
gest they respond to the questions they can answer easily first, and then go back to
questions they have trouble answering. For these difficult ones, make sure they take
the time to reread the entire question before attempting to answer it.

UNIT 1
Plan Ahead
The Nature of Life
After students have read what their task will be
in the Unit 1 Project, suggest they review how to
design a controlled experiment and what indepen- Unit Project
dent and dependent variables are. Also, make sure
students understand acids, bases, and pH. If students Design the Experiment For each experiment,
haven’t already tested pH during a previous activity, Did you ever wonder how a medication goes from • identify clear independent
consider demonstrating how pH paper is used. You the lab to your local drug store shelf ? A lot of and dependent variables.
may want to direct students to selected experiments research and experimentation by scientists goes into • identify a control.
testing a new medication to make sure it is safe and • form a hypothesis—
in a lab manual to help familiarize them with experi- predict the results
effective. Imagine you are a scientist working for a
mental procedures. pharmaceutical company. Your current project is to you’d expect to find
test a new medication for heartburn. Heartburn is if the medication
a painful condition in which acid inside the stom- worked.
ach backs up into the esophagus—the connection • write a specific
Monitor the Project between your throat and stomach. This new medica- procedure that tests
tion helps neutralize stomach acid to prevent your hypothesis.
Suggest students begin by writing a hypothesis for
irritation.
the first of their three experiments. Briefly check
Your Task Design three possible experiments to test Reflection Questions
that each student’s hypothesis can be tested with
the safety and effectiveness of the new heartburn 1. Score your experimental designs using the rubric
a controlled experiment. Then, as they design their below. What score did you give yourself?
medication. Before you begin, think about how you
experiments, ask individual students questions that will know if the medication actually neutralizes 2. What did you do well in this project?
will help them identify variables, write a procedure, stomach acid. Once you’ve written your procedures, 3. What about your designs needs improvement?
and think of ways to collect and record data to test you will propose the experiments to your company’s
ONTENT C.1.a, C.1.b, C.1.c,
CONTENT
CO 4. Are there any ethical dilemmas related to your
the hypothesis. Executive Board for Research and Development. experiments? Explain.
C.1.d,
C. 1.d, C.1.e, C.1.f
Ask What are the independent and dependent vari- Assessment Rubric
ables in your experiment?
Score Scientific Content Quality of Experiments
Ask How will data be collected in this experiment
4 Correctly and extensively applies knowledge and Experimental designs are clever and effectively test the
to show whether the medication actually neutralizes understanding of unit concepts (i.e., pH scale) to hypotheses. Experimental conditions are carefully
stomach acid? experimental designs and predictions. controlled and variables are correctly identified.
3 Applies relevant knowledge and understanding of Experimental designs are logical and test the hypotheses.
unit concepts (i.e., pH scale) to experimental designs Experimental conditions are controlled and variables are
and predictions. correctly identified.
Project Assessment 2 Applies relevant knowledge and understanding of Experimental designs need some revisions—some parts
unit concepts (i.e., pH scale) incompletely to are unclear or do not fully test the hypotheses. Variables
Make sure students use the rubric and reflection experimental designs and predictions. and controls need corrections.
questions to assess their work. Then, use the rubric
1 Does not correctly apply knowledge and understand- Experimental designs are unclear and do not test the
to assign a final score. Note that it is important to ing of unit concepts (i.e., pH scale) to experimental hypotheses. Variables and controls listed are incorrect or
value the creativity of students’ work as well as the designs and predictions. absent.
content when you score their projects. If desired, talk
with students about any differences between their
self-assessment scores and your assigned score.
60 Unit 1 Project
0001_Bio10_se_U1R.indd 60 9/23/08 6:55:58 PM
To be successful in the 21st century, students need skills and learning experiences that
NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS extend beyond subject area mastery. The Unit 1 Project helps students build the fol-
lowing 21st Century Skills: Critical Thinking and Systems Thinking; Problem Identifica-
tion, Formulation, and Solution; Self-Direction; and Accountability and Adaptability.
UCP II, III
FOCUS ON COMMUNICATION Extend this Unit Project by having small groups of
CONTENT B.2, F.1
students design and create a magazine advertisement for a hypothetical heartburn
INQUIRY A.1.a, A.1.b, A.2.a medication. Suggest that the advertisement not only extol the virtues of the
medication but also teach the consumer about heartburn medications by briefly
describing an experiment that supports the medication’s effectiveness. Have groups
present their ads to the class.
For more practice building 21st Century Skills, see The Chapter Mystery pages in
Study Workbook A.
60 Unit 1 Project

Chemistry of Life

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CHAPTER 2

Connect to the Big Idea

The Chemistry of Life

Have students preview the chapter

NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS Chapter 2 • Flash Cards

CONTENT Understanding by Design

Never Stop Exploring Your World.

Chapter 2 EQ: 2.2 GQ: Why are the properties of water

2.4 GQ: How do chemicals combine and

The Chemistry of Life 33

CONTENT Teach for Understanding

L1 Struggling Students To further help students

Check for Understanding Students can use drag-and-drop

The Chemistry of Life 37

VAN DER WAALS

allows geckos to scurry up walls and

Lesson 2.1 • Self-Test • Lesson Assessment

relating the nanostructures in the images to the sur-

Technology and Biology 39

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_TB.indd 1 6/2/09 6:01:41 PM

Quick Facts Answers

Technology and Biology 39

Vocabulary The Water Molecule

NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

UNIFYING CONCEPTS AND PROCESSES

CONTENT Teach for Understanding

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S2.indd 2 6/2/09 5:58:18 PM

The Chemistry of Life 41

42 Lesson 2.2 • Art in Motion • Data Analysis

Have students further explore solu-

Check for Understanding

Assess and Remediate Buffered base + acid = basic pH

FIGURE 2–12 Carbon Structures Carbon can form single, H H

Teach for Understanding CONTENT

The Chemistry of Life 45

together, a molecule of water (H2O) C O

LPR Less Proﬁcient Readers Have students read

the roles of saturated and unsaturated lipids in nutri-

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 3 6/2/09 5:59:17 PM

Check for Understanding

The Chemistry of Life 47

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 4 6/2/09 5:59:19 PM

PURPOSE Students will interpret data ANSWERS

Review Key Concepts

b. Explain Describe at least one function

Lesson 2.3 • Self-Test • Lesson Assessment

The Chemistry of Life 49

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S3.indd 5 6/2/09 5:59:22 PM

NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS

CONTENT Teach for Understanding

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S4.indd 2 6/2/09 5:59:55 PM

The Chemistry of Life 51

With the Visual Analogy: Lock

mation to learn more about enzymes and Check for Understanding

Question 3c, have them reexamine Figure 2–23.

Students can check their under-

Lesson 2.4 • Self-Test • Lesson Assessment • Visual Analogy

The Chemistry of Life 53

0001_Bio10_se_Ch02_S4.indd 4 6/2/09 6:00:01 PM

Assessment Answers 3b. Enzymes provide a site where reactants,