UNIT 1.

INTRODUCTION TO ESP

THE ORIGIN OF ESP

1. The Demands of a Brave New World
The end of the Second World War in 1945 heralded an age of enormous and
unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale.
This expansion created a world unified and dominated by two forces (technology and
commerce) which in their relentless progress soon generated a demand for an international
language. For various reasons, most notably the economic power of the United States in the
post-war world, this role fell to English. English was the key to the international currencies of
technology and commerce and it became the accepted international language of technology
and commerce. Then it created a new generation of learners who knew specifically why they
were learning a language. For the example the doctors who needed to keep up with
developments in their field. The development was accelerated by the OIL Crises of the early
1970s, which resulted in a massive flow of funds and Western expertise into the oil-rich
countries. Time and money constraints created a need for cost-effective courses with clearly
defined goals. English now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other
than language teachers

2. A Revolution in Linguistics
At the same time as the use of English which was growing up for specific needs, it also
influenced the study of language itself. In the past, the purpose of Linguistics was only for the
usage of the language which is well known as grammar. However, as the time goes by the early
studies began to find out that the usage of language grammatically is actually different from the
real life usage, one of the example is the way we speak and write the language.
It can be explained that in the real life there are some differences of the usage of
language in some parts of life e.g engineering, hospital, and more. Then it developed that if the
use of language varies from one situation to another, it should be possible to decide the
features of specific situations and make these features as basis for learning the language. Since
then, especially in the late 60’s and 70’s, the research were developed into the varieties of
language. In conclusion, by analyzing linguistic characteristics of the specialist area of language

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 study, particular group of learners could be identified. This is as the principle of ESP that “Tell
me what you need English for and I will tell you the English that you need”.

3. Focus on the Learner

The developments in educational psychology contribute to the rise of ESP, by
emphasizing the central importance of the learners and their attitudes to learning. Learners
were seen to have different needs and interest, which would have an important influence on
their motivation to learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning. This lent support
to the development of courses in which relevance to the learners need and interest was
paramount. The assumption underlying this approach was that the clear relevance of the
English course to their needs would improve the learners’ motivation and thereby make learning
better and faster. The growth of ESP was brought about by a combination of three importance
factors. The expansion of demands for English to suit particular needs and developments in the
fields of linguistics and educational psychology. All three factors seemed to point towards the
need for increased specialization in language learning.

DEFINITION OF ESP
English for specific purposes (ESP) is a subset of English as a second or foreign
language. It usually refers to teaching the English language to university students or people
already in employment, with reference to the particular vocabulary and skills they need. As with
any language taught for specific purposes, a given course of ESP will focus on one occupation
or profession, such as Technical English, Scientific English, English for medical professionals,
English for waiters, English for tourism, etc. Despite the seemingly limited focus, a course of
ESP can have a wide-ranging impact, as is the case with Environmental English.
English for academic purposes, taught to students before or during their degrees, is one sort of
ESP, as is Business English. Aviation English is taught to pilots, air traffic controllers and civil
aviation cadets to enable clear radio communications.

Absolute characteristics
1. ESP is defined to meet psychological needs of the learners and how they will respond to
temptations (Maslow's hierarchy of needs).
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves.

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3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis,
register, study skills, discourse and genre.

Variable characteristics
Strevens' (1988) ESP may be, but is not necessarily:
1. restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);
2. not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology.
Dudley-Evans & St John (1998)
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;(Dabong, 2019)
2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general
English;
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used
with beginners

ESP is different from standard English teaching in the fact that the one doing the
teaching not only has to be proficient in standard English, but they also must be knowledgeable
in a technical field. When doctors of foreign countries learn English, they need to learn the
names of their tools, naming conventions, and methodologies of their profession before one can
ethically perform surgery. ESP courses for medicine would be relevant for any medical
profession, just as how learning electrical engineering would be beneficial to a foreign engineer.
Some ESP scholars recommend a "two layer" ESP course: the first covering all generic
knowledge in the specific field of study, and then a second layer that would focus on the
specifics of the specialization of the individual.

TYPES OF ESP
David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP
 English as a restricted language

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 The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a
restricted language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between
restricted language and language with this statement:
... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as special, in the sense that
the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined
situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess.However,
such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar.
Knowing a restricted language would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel
situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment.

 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational
Purposes. In the Tree of ELT (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three
branches:
a) English for Science and Technology (EST),
b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and
c) English for Social Studies (ESS).
Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP).
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP
and EOP: "· people can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the
language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student
takes up, or returns to, a job" (p. 16). An example of EOP for the EST branch is English for
Technicians whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is English for Medical Studies.
Perhaps this explains Carters rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of
ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the
same: employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to
achieve the end is very different indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of
focus on Cummins (1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal
skills.

 English with specific topics.

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 The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics.
Carter notes that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is
uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring
English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign
institutions.
However, I argue that this is not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral
component of ESP courses or programs which focus on situational language. This situational
language has been determined based on the interpretation of results from needs analysis of
authentic language used in target workplace settings.
(https://www.slideshare.net/josephkarltatlonghari/types-and-features-of-esp)

The Differences between EAP and EOP

EAP and EOP are branches of ESP.

The skills in EAP and EOP: reading, listening, listening and speaking, speaking and writing.

English for Academic Purposes (EAP) English for Occupational Purposes

(EOP)
1. EAP is a branch of ESP in that 1. EOP is a branch of ESP and
the teaching content is matched to cover situation in which learners are
the requirements of the learners. studying English for work related
2. EAP students are usually reasons.
higher education students. 2. EOP learners are likely to be
3. Learners need to learn English adults.
in order to succeed in their academic 3. Learners need to learn English
careers. in order to improve their job
4. EAP teaching is task based, performance.
using the types of academic task 4. EOP was also seen as an
commonly found in higher education opportunity for personal development
5. EAP courses is the close among those who have a long-term
attention that is paid to the learners’ goal to improve English
aims and what they are working on, communication skills of work and life.
studying or planning to study 5. They may have not succeed as
6. Students need to attend the a language learner in the past.
class. 6. Students maybe reluctant to
attend the class.

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 The Difference between EAP and EOP
EAP EOP

1. Suitable for students 1. Practices by workers

2. Teaching and learning process is 2. Teaching and learning process is
likely to be influenced by the syllabus likely to be influenced by cross-cultural
designed for the courses. differences.
3. Use English as a medium of 3. Learners use English as a tool to
training in the learners’ study-related roles. communicate in their work.
4. Learning process is focusing on the 4. Learning process is focusing on the
language of academic performance. language of job performance.
5. English as Cognitive Academic 5. English as Basic Interpersonal
Language Proficiency (CALP) – a language Communication Skills (BICS) – a language
proficiency uses to validate and utilize skill uses to collaborate with co-workers.
academic language. 6. Context-based
6. Content-based

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ESP

1. Register Analysis
In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a
particular social setting. Register analysis is an analysis of grammatical and lexical features of
the language used for particular purpose or in particular social setting. This concept comes from
the principle of ESP that English of a specific science differs from each other in terms of its
grammatical and lexical features of the registers. By register analysis, the lecturer or teacher
can produce a syllabus which gave high priority to the language forms students would meet in
their Science studies and in turn would give low priority to forms they would not meet. Ewer
and Hughes-Davies (1971), for example, compared the language of the texts their Science
students had to read with the language of some widely used school textbooks. They found that
the school textbooks neglected some of the language forms commonly found in Science texts,
for example, compound nouns, passives, conditionals, anomalous finites, (i.e. modal verb).
Their conclusion was that the ESP course should, therefore, give precedence to these forms.

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2. Rhetorical/ Discourse Analysis
In this stage, the second phase of development shifted attention to the level above the
sentence, as ESP became closely involved with the emerging field of discourse or rhetorical
analysis. It focuses to understand how sentence were combined in discourse to produce
meaning. The concern of research, therefore, was to identify the organizational patterns in texts
and to specify the linguistic means by which these patterns are signaled. These patterns would
then form the syllabus of the ESP course. Stages of ESP development:
1. First stage focused on language at the sentence level.
2. Second phase shifted attention the level above the sentence (putting into play discourse or
rhetorical analysis).
As in stage 1 there was a more or less tacit assumption in this approach that the rhetorical
patterns of text organization differed significantly between specialist areas of use: the rhetorical
structure of science text was regarded as different from that of commercial texts. The typical
teaching materials based on the discourse approach taught students to recognize textual
patterns and discourse markers mainly by means of text-diagramming exercises.
If we take this simple sentence: “I don’t have enough money”and we put it into two
different dialogues, we can see how the meaning changes.
Do you want a cup of milk?
I don’t have enough money
Have you get lunch?
I don’t have enough money
3. Target situation analysis
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), target situation analysis was aimed to take
student’s existing knowledge and setting it on a more scientific basis by establishing procedures
for relating language analysis more closely to learners’ reasons for learning. In ESP course,
there will be a process of knowing students’ purpose to learn English known as need analysis or
target situation analysis. Target situation analysis will lead the teacher to form a syllabus. John
Munby in Communicative Syllabus Desig , produces a detailed profile of the learners’ need in
term of communication purposes, communicative setting, the means of communication,
language skills, functions, structures, etc.
4. Skill and Strategies

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 In this stage, we concern to the two thing, thinking process underlie language use and
focus on underlying interpretative strategies. Some experts have made significant contributions
to work on reading skill to describe about this process where the medium of instruction is the
mother tongue but students need read a number of specialist texts which are available only in
English.
The principal idea behind the skill centered approach is that underlying all language use
there are common reasoning and interpreting processes, which, regardless of the surface
forms, enable us to extract meaning from discourse.
The focus should rather be on the underlying interpretative strategies, which enable the
learners to cope with the surface forms, for example guessing the meaning of words from
context, using visual layout to determine the type of the text, exploiting cognates, (i.e. words
which are similar in the mother tongue and the target language), etc. A focus on specific
subject registers is unnecessary in this approach, because the underlying processes are not
specific subject to any subject register.
5. A Learning-Centered Approach
ESP concern with language learning rather than language use. The importance and the
implications of the distinction that we have made between language use and
language learning will hopefully become clear as we proceed through the following chapters.
There are some main points that to be main focus in this stage:
· This is anyhow not the main concern of ESP since describing and exemplifying what people do
with language will not automatically enable someone to learn it.
· Therefore, a valid approach to ESP must be based on an understanding of the processes of the
language learning.

Reasons why we should have ESP in the Philippines

Swales (1980) describes his experience in ESP programming in the third world.
Swales (1980) proposes that to minimize the constraints, collaborative efforts should be made
between ESP teachers, subject teachers and administrators to make necessary modifications
towards the desired goals. In this respect, Swales also points out to the need for including the
learners' factors especially those related to their study habits and learning strategies. As he puts
it, "....it is very important for a course designer to know not only what his students can do and

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need to do but also to know what they would be willing to do or could be persuaded to do
within the confines of their particular educational environment"
1. The demand of English language teaching has been increasing both in private sectors and in
formal institutions such as those in state and private universities. This demand has been
generated by advances in commerce and industry which require people to have adequate
command of the language both spoken and written.
2. The result of English language teaching at the secondary level has not been very
encouraging despite four years' study of English. At the tertiary level, complaints from university
teachers and employers show that skills in English such as writing reports, reading scientific
books. Taking minutes or taking part in conversations or meetings.
3. To develop well-rounded and skilful citizens who are knowledgeable on multiple disciplines as
well as to promote systems thinking (i.e., each course should require understanding the link
between the environmental, economic, political, and social dimensions;
4. Popularize and develop preference for sustainable lifestyles: This can be done by increasing
citizens' access to information on sustainable practices at home, in the office, in school, in the
community, and in other settings through various media and creative communication means.
5. Prepare the learners to enter the workforce, to handle crises, to become resilient and
responsible citizens, to adapt to change, to recognize and solve local problems with global
roots, to respect other cultures, as well as to create a peaceful and sustainable society.
6. It bears the mark of a global curriculum in the sense that it advances evidence-based and
sound practices to equally meet global, national, and local educational expectations and needs.

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 UNIT II . Teaching English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

THE IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES

In today’s global world, the importance of English cannot be denied and ignored since
English is the most common language spoken everywhere. With the help of new technologies,
English has been playing a major role in many sectors including, medicine, engineering, and
education, which is the most important field where English is needed. Particularly, in a
developing country, one needs to make use of this world-wide spoken language in order to
maintain its international image. The rationale of this presentation is to talk about the teaching
and learning of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). Consequently, English should be the
medium of instruction in universities for the following three reasons: finding a high-quality job,
communicating with the international world, and accessing scientific and academic sources in
the students’ major fields.
The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning
English. ESP students are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and
are learning the language in order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform
particular job-related functions. An ESP program is therefore built on an assessment of
purposes and needs and the functions for which English is required .
ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language
structures. It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and
business management. The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated
from the students' real world (or wishes); instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area
important to the learners.
However, ESL and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also in the aim
of instruction. In fact, as a general rule, while in ESL all four language skills; listening, reading,
speaking, and writing, are stressed equally, in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which
language skills are most needed by the students, and the syllabus is designed accordingly. An
ESP program, might, for example, emphasize the development of reading skills in students who
are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the

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development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist
guides.
As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching. Such a
combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their
English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management,
economics, computer science or tourism. Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that
they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation.
The students' abilities in their subject-matter fields, in turn, improve their ability to acquire
English. Subject-matter knowledge gives them the context they need to understand the English
of the classroom. In the ESP class, students are shown how the subject-matter content is
expressed in English. The teacher can make the most of the students' knowledge of the subject
matter, thus helping them learn English faster.
The term "specific" in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English. Students
approach the study of English through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This
means that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work
and studies. The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and
enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their interest in
their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts.
ESP assesses needs and integrates motivation, subject matter and content for the teaching of
relevant skills.

The responsibility of the teacher

A teacher that already has experience in teaching English as a Second Language (ESL),
can exploit her background in language teaching. She should recognize the ways in which her
teaching skills can be adapted for the teaching of English for Specific Purposes. Moreover, she
will need to look for content specialists for help in designing appropriate lessons in the subject
matter field she is teaching.
As an ESP teacher, you must play many roles. You may be asked to organize courses, to
set learning objectives, to establish a positive learning environment in the classroom, and to
evaluate student s progress.

Organizing Courses

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 You have to set learning goals and then transform them into an instructional program
with the timing of activities. One of your main tasks will be selecting, designing and organizing
course materials, supporting the students in their efforts, and providing them with feedback on
their progress.

Setting Goals and Objectives

You arrange the conditions for learning in the classroom and set long-term goals and
short-term objectives for students achievement. Your knowledge of students' potential is central
in designing a syllabus with realistic goals that takes into account the students' concern in the
learning situation.

Creating a Learning Environment

Your skills for communication and mediation create the classroom atmosphere. Students
acquire language when they have opportunities to use the language in interaction with other
speakers. Being their teacher, you may be the only English speaking person available to
students, and although your time with any of them is limited, you can structure effective
communication skills in the classroom. In order to do so, in your interactions with students try
to listen carefully to what they are saying and give your understanding or misunderstanding
back at them through your replies. Good language learners are also great risk-takers , since
they must make many errors in order to succeed: however, in ESP classes, they are
handicapped because they are unable to use their native language competence to present
themselves as well-informed adults. That s why the teacher should create an atmosphere in the
language classroom which supports the students. Learners must be self-confident in order to
communicate, and you have the responsibility to help build the learner's confidence.

Evaluating Students
The teacher is a resource that helps students identify their language learning problems
and find solutions to them, find out the skills they need to focus on, and take responsibility for
making choices which determine what and how to learn. You will serve as a source of
information to the students about how they are progressing in their language learning.

The responsibility of the student

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 What is the role of the learner and what is the task he/she faces? The learners come to
the ESP class with a specific interest for learning, subject matter knowledge, and well-built adult
learning strategies. They are in charge of developing English language skills to reflect their
native-language knowledge and skills.

Interest for Learning

People learn languages when they have opportunities to understand and work with
language in a context that they comprehend and find interesting. In this view, ESP is a powerful
means for such opportunities. Students will acquire English as they work with materials which
they find interesting and relevant and which they can use in their professional work or further
studies. The more learners pay attention to the meaning of the language they hear or read, the
more they are successful; the more they have to focus on the linguistic input or isolated
language structures, the less they are motivated to attend their classes.
The ESP student is particularly well disposed to focus on meaning in the subject-matter
field. In ESP, English should be presented not as a subject to be learned in isolation from real
use, nor as a mechanical skill or habit to be developed. On the contrary, English should be
presented in authentic contexts to make the learners acquainted with the particular ways in
which the language is used in functions that they will need to perform in their fields of specialty
or jobs.

Subject-Content Knowledge
Learners in the ESP classes are generally aware of the purposes for which they will need
to use English. Having already oriented their education toward a specific field, they see their
English training as complementing this orientation. Knowledge of the subject area enables the
students to identify a real context for the vocabulary and structures of the ESP classroom. In
such way, the learners can take advantage of what they already know about the subject matter
to learn English.

Learning Strategies
Adults must work harder than children in order to learn a new language, but the
learning skills they bring to the task permit them to learn faster and more efficiently. The skills
they have already developed in using their native languages will make learning English easier.

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Although you will be working with students whose English will probably be quite limited, the
language learning abilities of the adult in the ESP classroom are potentially immense. Educated
adults are continually learning new language behaviour in their native languages, since
language learning continues naturally throughout our lives. They are constantly expanding
vocabulary, becoming more fluent in their fields, and adjusting their linguistic behaviour to new
situations or new roles. ESP students can exploit these innate competencies in learning English.

JUSTIFICATIONS FOR FILIPINO STUDENTS

Why should we have ESP in the Philippines?

ENGLISH occupied a venerable position in the social, political and economic life.

ENGLISH was the prestige language.

The Aim of Bilingual Education Policy

Provisions of the 1987 Policy State:

The policy on Bilingual Education aims at the achievement of competence in both

Filipino and English at the national level, gauges and their use as media of instruction at all
levels... the aspiration of the Filipino nation is to have its citizens possess skills in Filipino to
enable them to perform their functions and duties as Filipino citizens and in English in order to
meet the needs of the country in the community of nations.
The goals of Bilingual Education :
1. enhance learning through two languages to achieve quality education as called for by the
1987 Constitution;
2. the propagation of Filipino as a language of literacy;

3. the development of Filipino as a linguistic symbol of national unity and identity;

4. he cultivation and elaboration of Filipino as a language of scholarly discourse, that is to say,

its continuing intellectualization; and

5. the maintenance of English as an international language for the Philippines and as non-
exclusive language for science and technology.

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 UNIT III. Key Issues in ESP Curriculum Design

Curriculum Design: Definition, Purpose and Types

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate, and systematic
organization of curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words, it is a
way for teachers to plan instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will
be done, who will do it, and what schedule to follow.

Purpose of Curriculum Design

Teachers design each curriculum with a specific educational purpose in mind. The
ultimate goal is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ curriculum
design as well. For example, designing a curriculum for middle school students with both
elementary and high school curricula in mind helps to make sure that learning goals are aligned
and complement each other from one stage to the next. If a middle school curriculum is
designed without taking prior knowledge from elementary school or future learning in high
school into account it can create real problems for the students.

Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

 Subject-centered design
 Learner-centered design
 Problem-centered design

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or

discipline. For example, a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type
of curriculum design tends to focus on the subject rather than the individual. It is the most

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common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the United
States.

Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and how it

should be studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design that can be
standardized across schools, states, and the country as a whole. In standardized core curricula,
teachers are provided a pre-determined list of things that they need to teach their students,
along with specific examples of how these things should be taught. You can also find subject-
centered designs in large college classes in which teachers focus on a particular subject or
discipline.

The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-

centered. In particular, this form of curriculum design is constructed without taking into account
the specific learning styles of the students. This can cause problems with student
engagement and motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.

Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

In contrast, learner-centered curriculum design takes each individual's needs, interests,

and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and
adjust to those student needs. Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower
learners and allow them to shape their education through choices.

Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are differentiated, giving students

the opportunity to choose assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate
students and help them stay engaged in the material that they are learning.

The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it is labor-intensive. Developing

differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create instruction and/or find materials
that are conducive to each student's learning needs. Teachers may not have the time or may
lack the experience or skills to create such a plan. Learner-centered curriculum design also
requires that teachers balance student wants and interests with student needs and required
outcomes, which is not an easy balance to obtain.

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 Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a

form of student-centered design. Problem-centered curricula focus on teaching students how to
look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to
real-life issues, which helps them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.

Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and

allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The drawback to this form of
curriculum design is that it does not always take learning styles into consideration.

Curriculum Design Tips

The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the
curriculum design process.

 Identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum design
process. This can be done through needs analysis, which involves the collection and analysis of
data related to the learner. This data might include what learners already know and what they
need to know to be proficient in a particular area or skill. It may also include information about
learner perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses.
 Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the
intended purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve the
desired results. Learning goals are the things teachers want students to achieve in the course.
Learning outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should
have achieved in the course.
 Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example, time is a common
constraint that must be considered. There are only so many hours, days, weeks or months in
the term. If there isn't enough time to deliver all of the instruction that has been planned, it will
impact learning outcomes.

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 Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so that you can
properly evaluate the sequence and coherence of instruction. Curriculum mapping provides
visual diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation of the curriculum
is a good way to quickly and easily identify potential gaps, redundancies or alignment issues in
the sequencing of instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on paper or with software
programs or online services designed specifically for this purpose.
 Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and consider
how they will work with student learning styles. If the instructional methods are not conducive
to the curriculum, the instructional design or the curriculum design will need to be altered
accordingly.
 Establish evaluation methods that will be used at the end and during the school year
to assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum. Evaluation will help you determine if the
curriculum design is working or if it is failing. Examples of things that should be evaluated
include the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum and achievement rates related to
learning outcomes. The most effective evaluation is ongoing and summative.
 Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement is
a necessity. The design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined based on
assessment data. This may involve making alterations to the design partway through the course
to ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be achieved at the end of
the course.

COURSE DESIGN PROCESS | COURSE DESIGN STANDARDS

Effective course design is a continuous improvement process that includes five
interconnected components. The design process generally starts with analyzing and identifying
desired, measureable learning outcomes that support program objectives. The deliberate design
of learning experiences along with assessment will help to shape the optimal learning
environment. As faculty regularly measure learning outcomes, the instructional design can be
revised in the interest of achieving the Figure 2 which illustrates the interconnectivity of these
components.
 The Identification of learning outcomes: Learning outcomes should indicate the knowledge and
skills learners will demonstrate after completing a course and answer the question, “what
outcome will the learner achieve after successfully completing the course?”

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 The designing of effective learning experiences: Learning experiences should be comprised of
the following:
 Instructional Materials: These can include a variety of printed and online resources that meet
with varying learning styles.
 Interaction: These can include faculty-learner interaction, learner-instructional materials
interaction, learner-learner interaction, interface-learner interaction, and learner support.
 Learning Activities: These can include learner-centered activities that are engaging and
meaningful.

The development of feedback and measurement strategies that help learners to

achieve stated learning objectives.

The following is an example that outlines the effective course design components in a
Management Information Systems (MIS) course.

Explain how enterprise systems, such as supply chain management,

customer relationship management, and enterprise resource
Learning Objective planning systems, contribute to successful business communications.

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  Textbook
 Company website
 Business reports/Journals
Instructional Materials
Case Study: Learners will be assigned to a specific industry for a
case study assignment and are expected to perform the following
tasks:
 Research a company that fits the industry profile
 Contact the company IT department
 Discuss questions for site visits
 Conduct site visit to learn about the company’s management
information system, how the system informs the business about
supply chain management, customer relationship management, and
enterprise resource planning that should contribute to successful
business communications.
 Present findings to the class
Learning Activity
 Faculty discuss the assignment with learners
 Learners work in teams for the assignment
 Learners study the text, as well as the conduct of research
 Learners research information on company web site
 Learners post findings on iLearn
Interactions
 Grades are determined by all tasks listed in the Learning Activity box
 Learners provide feedback to other teams
 Learners conduct self-assessment as a team
 Faculty provide feedback regarding all tasks listed in the Learning
Feedback/Measurement Activity box

The roles of stakeholders in curriculum implementation

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1. Stakeholders are individuals or institutions that are interested in the school curriculum. Their
interests vary in degree and complexity. They get involved in many ways in the implementation,
because the curriculum affects them directly or indirectly. These stakeholders shape the school
curriculum implementation.

2. Learners at the Center of the curriculum. For a particular curriculum design mentioned
earlier, the learner is placed at the center. The learners are the very reason a curriculum is
developed. They are the ones who are directly influenced by it. Learners in all levels make or
unmake the curriculum by their active and direct involvement. How each individual learner
contributes to the realization of a planned curriculum would depend on the interactions and
internalization of the different learning experiences provided. After all, in curriculum
implementation, the concluding question will always be: has the learner learned?

3. Teachers as curriculum developers and implementers. In the teaching and learning process,
the other side of the coin is the teacher. Most curricula start to gain life from the time it is
conceived and written. Planning and writing the curriculum are the primary roles of the teacher.
A teacher is a curriculum maker. He/ she writes a curriculum daily through a lesson plan, a unit
plan or a yearly plan. The teacher designs, enriches, and modifies the curriculum to suit the
learner’s characteristics. Teachers are empowered to develop their own curricula taking into
consideration their own expertise, the context of the school and the abilities of the learners. By
so doing, teachers become architects of school curriculum.

4. Curriculum managers and administrators. In school organization, there is always a curriculum

manager or school administrator. In fact, for school principals, one of their functions is being a
curriculum manager. They supervise curriculum implementation, select and recruit new
teachers, admit students, procure equipment and materials needed for effective learning. They
also plan for the improvement of school facilities and physical plants. The role of the
administrators can never be ignored. The principle of command responsibility and institutional
leadership rests on the shoulders of the school administrators. The final decision making in
terms of the school’s purpose rests on the shoulders of school administrators. In the academic
institution, school administrators have a great stake or concern about what kind of curriculum
their schools offer and how these are implemented.

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5. Parents as supporters to the curriculum. “ My child and my money go to this school” reads a
car sticker. What is the implication of this statement to the school curriculum? It simply means
that the parents are the best supporters of the school, especially because they are the ones
paying for the child’s education. Parent’s voices are very loud and clear. In our country, it is a
general fact that even in college the parents are responsible for their child’s education. The
power of parent’s to influence curricula to include instructional materials and school activities is
great, such that success of curricula would somehow depend on their support. How do parents
shape the curriculum and why are they considered as stakeholders?

6. Here are some observations:

Effective parental involvement in school affairs may be linked to parent educational programs
which is central to high quality educational experiences of the children. The parent’s
involvement extends from the confine of the school to the home. In most schools the Parents
Association is organized

7. Community Members as curriculum resources:

The success in the implementation of the curriculum requires resources. However, most often
teachers complain that resources are very scarce. There are no books, materials nor facilities
available. These are usual complaints of teachers. The community members and materials in
the existing local community can very well substitute for what are needed to implement the
curriculum. Respected community members may be included in school boards as in some
schools.

8. Other stakeholders in curriculum implementation: There are other important stakeholders in

curriculum implementation. Professional organizations have shown great influence in school
curriculum. They are being asked by curriculum specialists to contribute in curriculum review
because they have a voice in licensure examinations, curriculum enhancement and many more.
Often, professional organizations are those of each profession, like teachers’ organization,
lawyers’ organizations, medical doctors’ association, engineers’ organizations and many others.
9. On the other hand, since all schools in the country, are under the regulation of the national
government as provided for in the Phil. Constitution, then the government has a great stake in

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curriculum implementation. The government is represented by the DepEd for basic education
curricula and the CHED for the tertiary and graduate education curricula. These two
government agencies have mandatory and regulatory powers over the implementation of any
curricula. The third government agency that has high stake in the schools’ curricula is the
professional regulation commission (PRC).

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What is assessment in curriculum development?

Assessment of student academic achievement is the process of evaluating whether

students are learning what we say they are learning. ... When integrated into the planning cycle
for curriculum development and review, assessment results can provide a powerful rationale for
securing support for curricular and other changes.
Assessment is embedded in the learning process. It is tightly interconnected
with curriculum and instruction. As teachers and students work towards the achievement
of curriculum outcomes, assessment plays a constant role in informing instruction, guiding the
student's next steps, and checking progress and achievement.

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 To evaluate curricular effectiveness we must identify and describe the curriculum and its
objectives first and then check its contents for accuracy, comprehensiveness, depth, timeliness,
depth and quality.

Is assessment part of curriculum?

These pieces describe the two major areas of curriculum
and assessment; curriculum involves learning core conceptual knowledge and strategic
processes, and assessment determines whether core conceptual knowledge and strategic
processes have been learned.

Purpose of assessment

Assessment drives instruction

A pre-test or needs assessment informs instructors what students know and do not know at the
outset, setting the direction of a course. If done well, the information garnered will highlight
the gap between existing knowledge and a desired outcome. Accomplished instructors find out
what students already know, and use the prior knowledge as a stepping off place to develop
new understanding. The same is true for data obtained through assessment done during
instruction. By checking in with students throughout instruction, outstanding instructors
constantly revise and refine their teaching to meet the diverse needs of students.

Assessment drives learning

What and how students learn depends to a major extent on how they think they will be
assessed. Assessment practices must send the right signals to students about what to study,
how to study, and the relative time to spend on concepts and skills in a course. Accomplished
faculty communicate clearly what students need to know and be able to do, both through a
clearly articulated syllabus, and by choosing assessments carefully in order to direct student
energies. High expectations for learning result in students who rise to the occasion.

Assessment informs students of their progress

Effective assessment provides students with a sense of what they know and don’t know about a
subject. If done well, the feedback provided to students will indicate to them how to improve

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their performance. Assessments must clearly match the content, the nature of thinking, and
the skills taught in a class. Through feedback from instructors, students become aware of their
strengths and challenges with respect to course learning outcomes. Assessment done well
should not be a surprise to students.

Assessment informs teaching practice

Reflection on student accomplishments offers instructors insights on the effectiveness of their
teaching strategies. By systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence we can
determine how well student learning matches our outcomes / expectations for a lesson, unit or
course. The knowledge from feedback indicates to the instructor how to improve instruction,
where to strengthen teaching, and what areas are well understood and therefore may be cut
back in future courses.

Role of grading in assessment

Grades should be a reflection of what a student has learned as defined in the student learning
outcomes. They should be based on direct evidence of student learning as measured on tests,
papers, projects, and presentations, etc. Grades often fail to tell us clearly about “large
learning” such as critical thinking skills, problem solving abilities, communication skills (oral,
written and listening), social skills, and emotional management skills.

When student learning outcomes are not met

Accomplished faculty focus on the data coming out of the assessments they complete before,
during and at the end of a course, and determine the degree to which student learning
outcomes are or are not met. If students are off course early on, a redirecting, reteaching of a
topic, referral to student learning centers, or review sessions by the instructor may remediate
the problem. Through careful analysis it is possible to determine the challenges and
weaknesses of instruction in order to support student learning better. Some topics or concepts
are notoriously difficult, and there may be a better approach to use. Perhaps a model,
simulation, experiment, example or illustration will clarify the concept for students. Perhaps
spending a bit more time, or going over a topic in another way will make a difference. If the
problem is noticed late in the course, an instructor may plan to make any instructional changes

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for the next time the course is taught, but it is helpful to make a note of the changes needed at
the time so that the realization is not lost.

UNIT IV. PREPARING AN ESP CURRICULUM

(SYLLABUS DESIGNING AND LESSON PLANNING)

SYLLABUS: DEFINITION
 An expression of opinion on the nature of language and learning
 Acts as a guide for teachers and learners by providing goals to be attained
 Hutchinson & Waters (1987: 80) define Syllabus as “... a document which says what
will (or at least what should) be learned”.
 Robinson (1991: 34) states that syllabus is “a plan of work and is, thus, essential for the
teacher, as a guideline and context of class content.”

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  Stern (1983: 434), holds that curriculum is a general term that covers “the entire
instructional process” while syllabus, for him, means “a list of content to be taught in a
course.”
 Yalden (1987:86) advocates that a syllabus is an instrument to link learners’ needs and
aims to activities that take place in the classroom.
 Munby (1978, in Nunan 1988), in another view, records in a syllabus the actual ability
of learners, the purpose from learning the target language and situations expected in
the course.
 Basturkmen (2006:20) argues that “in order to specify what language will be taught,
items are typically listed and referred to as the syllabus”.

Characteristics of a syllabus (Basturkmen)

A syllabus:
1. Consists of a comprehensive list of
- content items ( words, structures, topics)
- process items ( tasks, methods)
2. Is ordered ( easier, more essential items first)
3. Has explicit document
4. Is a public document
5. May indicate a time schedule
6. May indicate preferred methodology or approach
7. May recommend materials
Classification of Syllabus
According to Basturkmen (2006:21) syllabus can be “synthetic” in which the “language is
segmented into discrete linguistic items for presentation one at a time”, or “analytic” wherein
“language is presented whole chunks at a time without linguistic control”.
1. Synthetic Syllabus - relies on learners’(assumed) ability to learn a language in parts
independently of one another, and also to integrate, or synthesize the pieces when the time
comes to use them for communicative purposes.( Long & Crookes, 1993:12). That is to say
that the teaching/ learning process is based on providing the different language forms and
structures separately.

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 Ex. Structural (Grammatical), Functional-Notional, Lexical, Relational, Skill-Based,
Situational, Topical
2. Analytic Syllabus – relies on the learners' ability to induce and infer language rules, as
well as on innate knowledge of linguistic universals.
Ex. Task-Based, Procedural, Process, Content-Based, Learner-Centered, Natural Approach

Types of Syllabus
1. The Linear / Spiral Syllabus
The concept behind the "cyclical" or "spiral" syllabus is that chunks of language are
gradually learned by experiencing them alternatively in different contexts.
All the learning points were isolated and they were presented one after the other in a
given order. They required a great deal of practice before moving on to the next item.
Linear syllabi materials were mainly based on grammar and failed to account for learners’
progress in multi-focal directions (Rutherford 1987). Spiral syllabi have more pedagogical and
psychological advantages, but they are more difficult to organize.

2. The Lexical Syllabus

The lexical syllabus is mainly based on a detailed analysis of a carefully selected corpus
(general or specific) of language reflecting the discourse of the target language
community.
A lexical syllabus, in this case, includes grammar. The words and their contexts have
notional and functional aspects but the organization principle is lexical, and this syllabus
can offer a good deal of text explanation and a more considerable coverage of the
language of the target discourse situation than other syllabus types.
A lexical syllabus has one big failure when it comes to large lists of items for each
meaning of one word. Such a syllabus, then, would have a length and a size only
manageable by a devoted text-book writer.

3. The Structural Syllabus

Also known as the traditional syllabus, it is organized along grammatical items giving
primacy to language form. The structural syllabus holds the theory that functional ability
arises from structural knowledge. Structural patterns, organized according to such criteria

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 as structural complexity, difficulty, regularity, utility and frequency, are the basic units of
learning.
Wilkins (1976) redefines the language content of the structural syllabus through the
following items:
- The notions or concepts the learners need to talk about,
- The functional purposes for which language is used,
- The situations in which language would be used, and
- The roles the learners might possibly play.

4. The Notional-Functional Syllabus

Also described as “the semantically-based syllabus”, it stresses the communicative
properties of language where the central concern is the teaching of meaning and the
communicative use of patterns; it emphasizes what speakers communicate through
language and derives its content from an analysis of learners' needs to express certain
meanings.
Wilkins (1976) wanted to identify the meanings that learners might need to express
(the notions) and the communicative acts they would wish to engage in (the functions).

5. The Process Syllabus

The Process Syllabus is an approach to syllabus design sometimes thought of as ‘task-
based’ or ‘procedural’.
It focuses on the language learning process and the contributions of the learner to it
(Breen 1987: 159). It takes into account decisions and alternative procedures,
activities and tasks for the classroom group.
It addresses teaching and learning explicitly and makes possible the interrelationships
between subject matter, learning and the potential contributions of a classroom. In some
cases, learners are encouraged to choose for themselves, but with guidance, which ways
to follow through loads of activities and materials, motivated by their own interest.

6. The Procedural Syllabus

Advocated by Prabhu, its fundamental assumption is "that structure can best be
learned when attention is focused on meaning."

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 This syllabus is a substitute to the linguistic syllabus because it provides conceptually
graded tasks grouped by similarity, the tasks and activities being planned in advance but
not the linguistic content.
White (1988: 102) adds that in this syllabus the focus is on the task and that it is
learning-centred instead of learner-centred.
This syllabus answers the question of how language is to be learned; it is more
concerned with the methodology in terms of “processes of learning and procedures of
teaching” (White 1988: 94).

7. The Relational Syllabus

The relational syllabus was proposed by Crombie (1985). It is based on items such as
"notional relations such as cause-effect, or discourse relations, such as question-reply, or
clause structure...."
Like grammatical and notional/functional syllabuses, it just comprises certain parts and
is not meant to cover all aspects of the whole linguistic system.

8. Other Syllabus Types

A. The Content-Based Syllabus
Content-based instruction allows learners to acquire language through the study of a
series of relevant topics and each topic is exploited in a systematic way, as outlined in
Mohan's "knowledge framework".
The content syllabus might be supplemented with traditional (form-focused) activities,
such as vocabulary development, spelling, specific and intensive writing activities.

B. The Task-Based Syllabus

Nunan (1988: 159) defines a task as “a unit of planning/teaching containing language
data and an activity or sequence of activities to be carried out by the learner on the data.”
- According to Long (1985), a task is “a piece of work undertaking for oneself or
others, freely or for some reward.
According to Kramke (1987), “The defining characteristic of task-based content is that
it uses activities that the learners have to do for language learning. Tasks are distinct
from other activities to the degree that they have non-instructional purposes.”

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 According to Nunan (1989), “A piece of classroom work which involve learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their
attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form. The task should also have a
sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right.’
Task-based Syllabi grew from Prabhu’s assertion that “structure can best be learned
when attention is focused on meaning”
Language learning is subordinate to task performance, and language teaching occurs
only as the need arises during the performance of a given task. The language skills are
improved as learners use language in specific settings.
The selection and grading in this type of syllabuses is ‘roughly tuned’ in terms of task
difficulty and successful task completion is decided by teacher and students together.
Task-based teaching differs from situation-based teaching in that while situational
teaching focuses on teaching the specific language content that occurs in the situation (a
predefined product), task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students to draw on
resources to complete some piece of work (a process).

C. The Cultural Syllabus

Stern (1992) introduces the ‘cultural syllabus’ to be incorporated into second/foreign
language instruction.
There have been different views to define the concept of culture: Seelye (1984:26), in
refusing to define it, calls it ‘a broad concept that embraces all aspects of the life of man’,
and Brown (1994) calls it the “glue” that binds a group of people together.
Believing in the fact that there is a consensus on the objectives of teaching culture,
Stern (1992) indicates that aims should be:
A research-minded outlook
The learner’s own country
Knowledge about the target culture
Affective goals; interest, intellectual curiosity, and empathy.
Awareness of its characteristics and of differences between the target culture
Emphasis on the understanding socio-cultural implications of language and language
use

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D. The Skill-Based Syllabus
Its content relies on learners’ particular skills in using the language. Skills are what
learners are expected to be able to do for them to be competent in a language, relatively
independently of the situation or context in which the language use may occur.
The skill-based syllabus combines various linguistic competencies (pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar, and discourse) into generalized types of behaviour, such as
listening to spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving
effective oral presentations, etc.
These syllabi have as a chief principle the development of learners’ abilities and
competence in a foreign/second language and a secondary purpose of learning
information incidentally available while applying the language skills.

E. The Objective-Based Syllabus

Also known as "Learning-centred Syllabus", it is described by Danielle Mihram (2003)
as:
1) A reflective exercise that addresses the question: What do students need to know in
order to derive maximum benefit from this educational experience?
2) A systematic sharing of knowledge (learning content) and an understanding of how
knowledge can be comprehended and shared in different ways.
3) A change in focus that affects the students’ role: accepting responsibility for their
own learning (this can be difficult for students who have been educated as passive
learners).
4) It provides a clear statement of intended learning goals and student learning
outcomes.
5) It answers questions such as: What do you want your students to learn? (What are
the learning outcomes which you expect from the course?) - What assignments,
classroom activities, and pedagogical approaches will help your students master the
identified knowledge, skills, or attitude changes? - How will you determine that students
have accomplished what you set out to teach them? (How will you evaluate their
achievements?)
6) Requires substantial reflection and analysis in the planning stage.
7) It includes goals on content, process, and product.

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 8) It allows the instructor to engage into a scholarly approach to the knowledge and
research relating to the course.
9) It engages students in the discovery of knowledge.
10) Because it is a “learning tool”, it reinforces the intentions, roles, attitudes and
strategies of the instructor.
11) It is a “learning contract”.
12) It clarifies the mutual responsibilities of both the teacher and the students in
successfully meeting course goals.
13) It allows students to achieve some personal control over their learning process.

Why is a syllabus required?

 According to Parkes and Harris(2002);
 As a contract
 As a permanent record
 As a learning tool

 According to Hutchinson and Waters(1987);

 Better management of study time, assessments, and reading materials
 Provides moral support
 Reassures sponsors and students
 Acts as a road maps
 Emphasizes the most important aspect of language
 A set of criteria in selecting and producing materials
 Assures uniformity
 Basis for evaluating students

ON WHAT CRITERIA SHOULD A SYLLABUS BE ORGANIZED?

1. Focus - To identify which and what materials to be focused on
2. Select - To select materials to be taught
3. Subdivide - To put things into subtopics
4. Sequence- To decide which comes first and what comes next

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Syllabus Design
In addition to serving as an informational resource for students, many view the
syllabus as a form of contract between the teacher and the student: what does each need to
do in order for students to accomplish the established learning goals? Directing each section
of the syllabus back to the goals you set is a useful way to go about writing a learning-
centered syllabus. Begin by spending some time thinking about the types of students that will
be taking the course. Are they majors or non-majors? Are they first-year students or students
preparing for graduation? Then begin planning what topics, materials, and activities will best
facilitate the students’ abilities to accomplish your learning goals.
Next, it’s time to begin writing your syllabus. The syllabus is a chance to communicate
your expectations for your students and to answer students’ questions before they ask. A
good place to get ideas for formatting or sections to include is to look at syllabi of courses
similar to yours or used by professors whose teaching skills you admire. At the top of the
syllabus should be the course information and your contact information (email, office location,
office hours, etc.), followed by a description of the course and your learning goals. Additional
sections that commonly follow include (but are not limited to): a list of course materials, a list
and/or description of assignments, grading information, a schedule of readings and
assessments, additional resources for students, and a list of course policies. Among the
policies that should be addressed are accommodating students with disabilities, attendance,
the honor code, inclusiveness, technology in the classroom, late work, and extra credit. Most
syllabi also include a statement reserving the right to make changes to the syllabus if it is in
the best interest of the students.

Lesson Plans
One of the most time-consuming parts of designing a course is planning a semester’s
worth of reading assignments and course activities. A helpful way to begin is to obtain a copy
of the academic calendar and see how many class meetings you have and other university
events to take into consideration. Next, plot out when you would like your course assessments
to occur. For example, how long will the students need to develop the prerequisite knowledge
to write their first paper or turn in a particular lab report? In the meantime, continue
reviewing course materials that will help prepare students to meet the learning goals of the

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course and begin grouping them in a framework that makes sense (for example,
chronologically, into broad theories, moving from theory to application, or vice versa).
Once you have an idea of the topics you want to cover and the materials to use, you can
begin plugging reading assignments into the calendar. Remember that, sometimes, less
reading is more when assigning textbooks or other readings, also consider the quality,
accessibility to students, length, and price. You might also think about how the readings will
prepare students for your lectures, classroom discussions, or other activities. In sum, choose
the readings that best reflect your learning goals: ones that will help the students meet your
expectations for them in the course and ones that will enhance and extend your teaching in
the classroom.

What to Consider When Writing a Lesson Plan

What's All the Hype?
Even though there are so many lesson plan resources on the net, we believe that there
can be no substitute for a lesson plan that is created by you, the teacher, that is tailored to
the specific student populations you are serving. This tutorial is meant to assist you in
developing a plan that is designed to meet the needs of your students and that is framed
according to what is considered to be best practices in teaching and learning. It is also our
belief that the infusion of technology in teaching is a necessary element to meeting the needs
of today's 21st Century digital learner.

The following should be considered for lesson planning:

1) Know who your students are. Know ability levels; backgrounds; interest levels; attention
spans; ability to work together in groups; prior knowledge and learning experiences; special
needs or accommodations; and learning preferences. This may not happen as quickly as you
would like, but it is important for designing instruction that will meet the needs of your
students. That's key in successful teaching and learning!

2) Know your content. It is important for you to research the subject matter that you will be
teaching. You should also utilize curriculum guides published by the state in which you teach
and the local school district that employs you. It is also a good idea to know the national
standards and state standards that drive curriculum in each subject area that you are

38
responsible for. You can visit web sites that are devoted to curriculum frameworks and that
will give you a lot of information relative to your subject area.

3) Know the materials that are available to help you teach for success. Take and keep an
inventory of the materials and resources that are available to you as a teacher. For example:
technology, software, audio/visuals, teacher mentors, community resources, equipment,
manipulative, library resources, local guest speakers, volunteers, or any materials that can
assist you in teaching.

Planning For Instruction

1) Content- List the important facts, key concepts, skills, or key vocabulary terms that you
intend to cover. You can also prepare an outline with key learning outcomes. Remember to
refer to your curriculum guides.
2) Goals- Identify the aims or outcomes that you want your students to achieve as a result of
the lesson you plan to teach. Goals are end products and are sometimes broad in nature.
Goals relate directly to the knowledge and skills you identify in part one: content.
3) Objectives- Identify the objectives that you hope your students will achieve in the tasks
that will engage them in the learning process. Objectives are behavioral in nature and are
specific to performance. Objectives tell what you will be observing in student performance and
describe criteria by which you can measure performance against. In many ways, objectives
represent indicators of performance that tell you, the teacher, to what extent a student is
progressing in any given task. Instructional objectives can start with a "given" that describes a
condition that enables your students to perform any given task. A "given" could be an activity,
a specific set of directions, materials needed to perform a task, an assignment, or anything
that sets up a condition for students to engage in the task being observed and measured for
performance. The heart of the objective is the task that the student is expected to perform. It
is probably one of the most important parts of the lesson plan because it is student centered
and outcomes based. Objectives can range from easy to hard tasks depending on student
abilities.
3) Materials- List the materials and resources that will be needed for the lesson to be
successful. In this case, you should also list technology resources needed to achieve
objectives.

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4) Introduction- Describe or list a focusing event or attention grabber that will motivate
your students to want to pay attention and learn about what you plan to teach. This will
depend on the ages and stages and of your students and will rely on students' interests and
backgrounds. Remember, getting your students to attend and respond to your introduction
will set the stage for the rest of the lesson.
5) Development- Describe how you plan to model or explain what you want your students
to do. Modeling the learning behaviors you expect of your students is a powerful development
tool and provides demonstration that students can then imitate or practice on their own.
During development, models of teaching are used to facilitate student learning. Models can
include direct instruction, inquiry, information processing strategies, or cooperative learning
strategies. More information on models of teaching can be found on the following link:
6) Practice- List or describe ways in which you will provide opportunities for your students to
practice what you want them to learn. The more opportunities you provide, the better chance
they have to master the expected outcomes. These opportunities are in-classroom
assignments or tasks that give you, the teacher, the chance to guide and monitor progress.
There are tons of activities that you can download from the net; TeAch-nology.com provides a
comprehensive source of links to activities for all subject areas. Go to the Teacher Resources
section of the site and click on lesson plans, quick activities, etc.
7) Independent Practice- List or describe ways to provide opportunities for your students
to complete assignments to measure progress against the goal of instruction. These
assignments are meant to give teachers the chance to determine whether students have truly
mastered the expected outcomes. Remember to only plan for tasks that you believe students
can accomplish without your guidance.
8) Accommodations- List or describe ways that you will differentiate instruction according
to students' needs. This can include any curricular adaptations that are needed to meet special
needs students.
9) Checking For Understanding- - List or describe ways that you will check for
understanding. Assessment and ongoing feedback are necessary for monitoring progress. This
can include questioning, conferencing, or journal writing/reflection writing.
10) Closure- List or describe ways that you can wrap up a lesson. This can include telling
students the most important concepts that were covered in the lesson, asking them what they
thought were the key concepts (or what they learned), or preparing them for the next lesson

40
building upon what was presented. The key is to leave your students with an imprint of what
you hoped to achieve in any given lesson.
11) Evaluation- List or describe ways that you will assess or measure student success in
achieving the outcomes that you planned to reach. This can include a variety of ways to
evaluate student performance.
12) Teacher Reflection- This section is to be completed after lesson. It represents what you
think worked, or what did not work, and why. It is meant to give you some insight into
practice and will hopefully help you to make adjustments and modifications where necessary.

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE AND ITS COMPONENTS

Overview
This lesson discusses what an instructional module is all about, its parts, and the
different formats used in writing it. Also included are pointers in writing instructional objectives
and some tips for effective writing.

Modules allow the learners to go through the material at their own pace. They may be
used for self-instruction or to complement instruction. Knowing how to write learning material
in module format is an important skill that trainers should develop.
Objectives

At the end of this presentation, you are expected to:

1. define what an instructional module is;
2. discuss the different components of a module;
3. write objectives in behavioral terms; and
4. discuss some tips in effective writing.

What is a module?
Definition of Module:

41
 “A module is a set of learning opportunities, organized around a well- defined topic
which contains the elements of instruction, specific objectives, teaching learning activities and
evaluation using criterion reference measure.”
Russel (1974) defines module as an instructional package dealing with a single
conceptual unit of subject-matter. Modules are designed to help the students accomplish
certain well-defined objectives. With the use of a module, instruction can be individualized.
The learners can go through the material at their own pace and at their own time. They may
also be used to complement instruction.

Characteristics of Module:
– It is a self sufficient and complete instructional material for a student.
– Students can learn by themselves without the presence of their teacher.
– Students can evaluate themselves according to the instruction of the module and they can
also take remedial for that.
– Modules are divided into small units. Thus the learners can learn easily.
– There is both formative and summative assessment in a module. Thus a student can
assess himself.

What are the components of a module?

The format and style of a module may differ depending on its purpose and the
institution where it is developed.
Any country can make module according to their needs. So the components can vary
from each other. But UNESCO specified some components of a module.
They are:
1. title
2. general introduction (including the background)
3. overview
4. introduction to the learners
5. pre-test evaluation and feedback
6. specific objective
7. learners activities

42
8. formative test, evaluation and feedback
9. summative test, evaluation and feedback

In our country the following steps are followed to prepare a module:

1. Guideline for use or introduction
2. General introduction to the module
3. General objectives
4. Pre-test on complete module
5. Unit or lesson:
title
introduction
behavioral objectives
Pre-test
Content
Self assessment
Post- test or summative evaluation

Title. It shows the specific topic of the module. A good title should be clear, concise,
and reflective of its content.
Overview. It serves as the introduction of the module and describes its scope and
rationale. The overview summarizes the content and importance of the module. In some
modules, this section is called introduction, prospectus, or rationale.
Table 1. Comparison of Module Formats

Duldulao (2000) IRRI PCARRD (1997) CLSU-ILO (2000)

Title Title Title Title -
About the Module Prospectus Rationale Scope
Description and
Topic Opener Rationale Overview
Scope
Objectives & Topics Objectives Objectives Objectives
Suggested Discussion of Discussion of
Strategies
Methodology Topics Topics

43
 Materials/visuals Resources Self-check Test &
Evaluation
References Requirement
Activities
Evaluation Topics Reference

Objectives. A common feature of most modules is a statement of learning

objectives. They explain the knowledge, skills, and attitudes you want to teach. They should
be stated in terms of the learners' behaviors. Objectives help you to focus and organize the
information you would like to present. They also help the learners do self -evaluation.

Verbs such as "know" and "understand" are vague and do not tell us what the
learners will be doing to demonstrate their understanding. See Table 2 for a list of specific
verbs that may be used in stating your instructional objectives. Remember the acronym
SMART when writing your objectives.

Table 1. List of Specific Verbs Based on Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives in the Cognitive Domain

Knowledge Comprehension. Application

Define Translate Interpret

Record Discuss Apply
List Describe Employ
Recall Recognize Use
Name Explain Demonstrate
Relate Express Dramatize

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 Underline Identify Practice
Repeat Locate Illustrate
Review Operate
Report Schedule
Tell Sketch

Analysis Synthesis Evaluation

Criticize Compose Judge

Distinguish Plan Appraise
Analyze Propose Evaluate
Differentiate Design Rate
Appraise Formulate Compare
Calculate Arrange Value
Experiment Assemble Revise
Compare Collect Score
Diagram Construct Select
Test Create Choose
Relate Set-up Assess
Examine Organize Estimate
Categorize Manage Measure
Relate Prepare

S-----M-----A-----R-----T
S - pecific
M - easurable
A – ttainable
R - ealistic
T - ime bound

Discussion. In IRRI and Duldulao's models, objectives and topics are presented
together. The suggested format is to present all the objectives at the beginning and the

45
 presentation of content follows based on the stated objectives.
Organize your content for clarity. As Reddout (1987) noted, the structure is almost as
important as the content. Organize your material from simple to complex. Include pictures,
diagrams, and other illustrations that may help clarify the information presented including
exercises and hands-on activities that the learners should engage in. Emphasize the scientific
principles and the "why" in the topics being presented.

Evaluation. A self-check test, exercise, or other means of assessing learning

outcomes are common features of a module. Follow-up activity or topics for discussion to
reinforce learning may also be included.

References. This a list of books or guides used in preparing the module or other
materials that may be consulted for further understanding or appreciation of the lesson
presented.

Style
Another consideration is the style that you should use. Should it be formal, informal,
or conversational? Decide on the treatment you wish to adapt for your module. Regardless of
the style used, what is important is clarity arid simplicity.

Tips for Effective Writing

Van Daele (1995) gives a number of suggestions on writing training manuals that are
easy to read. They are as follows:
 Write for your audience
 Organize your material
 Rewrite, revise, and edit your material
 Use charts and illustrations to support your message Identify your subject
 Use clear, short, familiar words

46
 Eliminate unnecessary words
 Keep sentences short and simple
 Use the active voice
 Use the imperative mood
 Use notes
 Use emphasis
 Use ordering techniques
 Use point form
 Avoid using only male pronouns.

In the introduction there is a general concept of the subject or topic. Here we would
know why the topic is necessary for the learners. Then the learners come to know about some
specific objectives of that subject matter. Then students have to attend in a pre-test. By
answering the pre-test the students get aware about their knowledge level concerning that
topic. It also motivates and makes them interested in learning. If one can give correct answer
of all the questions, he/she can go to the next lessons.
Every lesson contains title, introduction, behavioral objectives, pre-test, content and post test.
Graphs, charts, activities etc can be included in the content of a lesson. Then there is a post
test at the end of a lesson for the students. The questions are very closely related to the
content. It can be essay type or multiple choices. Thus one can easily evaluate himself after
finishing the chapter.

Advantages
1. It is very useful in distant learning. One can learn from any place and any suitable
time. She/ he needs not to go in an institution for the help of a teacher.
2. Students can learn according to their need and interest.
3. Students can evaluate themselves. So there is no chance of embarrassment in
front of other students.
4. It can be used for many students at a time.

Teacher’s Guide

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 The teacher’s guide aims to help the teachers. The major purpose of the guide is to
provide detailed instructions for teaching each particular lesson. There is a general
introduction of whole subject and necessary instructions for specific sections thus teachers can
select the suitable way for his class and his personality.

Advantages
1. Teacher’s guide has introduction to the curriculum of that certain level and
specific subject.
2. Lesson plan, teaching methods, techniques and suitable teaching aids are included
in the teacher’s guide according to the content.
3. There are proper instruction for teaching specific content of the textbook as well
as classroom management, assessment and evaluation.

Instructional Card
Sometimes teachers can use instructional cards instead of textbooks. Textbook and
instructional card both are used in classroom. Every chapter contains different lessons in a
textbook. Again there are separate instructional cards for every lesson. This is mainly used for
the students. There is also a different instructional manual or guide of using instructional card
for the teachers.

Advantages
1. There are many pictures, illustrations, dimensions in instructional card related to
the subject. Instructional cards are very attractive and colorful.
2. Instructional cards are made of thick papers. So it can be used several times.
3. Instructional cards can be changed easily according to the change of the
curriculum.
4. It is costly but teachers need not to make instructional cards for every year, so it
is cost bearable.

Disadvantages
1. Teachers do not allow the students to take the instructional card with them. So
the students put into trouble in the time of examination.

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 2. It is possible for school based assessment. But it is very difficult for yearly
assessment system.
3. It is very costly to make new card for every year. So instructional card needs
proper maintenance; otherwise it will get damage or lost.

Supplementary Reading Materials

Supplementary reading materials are used to gain more information and advance knowledge
besides textbooks. It is applicable for both teachers and students.

Advantages
1. It helps to increase knowledge of a particular subject.
2. It creates a regular reading habit and gives reinforcement.
3. It helps in the language development.

Resource Materials
Resource books, documents and data constitute resource materials. They are also like
supplementary reading materials. But there are some differences between them. Resource
books are mainly for the teachers to increase their knowledge of that particular subject and it
also to help improve their professional skill. By using resource books teachers can update their
knowledge.
Though textbook is widely used instructional material, the above materials also now
become popular to the learners for their advantage.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
The development of several types of instructional materials is one of the major steps of
each curriculum planning and development procedure. Though the textbook is widely used
instructional material, it is found that different types of instructional materials are now being
used to achieve learning outcomes or to improve quality education and for the benefit of both
the teachers and the students. Such as: text materials, teacher’s guide, student’s workbook,
teacher training materials, and assessment materials, supplementary materials specially for
students and resource books for the facilitators. So instructional materials contain all together

49
and they are each for another one. One supplements another, which means, one is not
sufficient without others.
As we see, a Text Material reflects some distinguished characteristics like assessing the
prior learning, clarification of concepts, easy and life oriented examples, using pictures to
clarify the difficult concepts in the text, exercises for specific content.
On the other hand, Teacher’s Guide also reflects some features like introduction to the
curriculum of specific class, teaching methods and techniques, teaching aids for different
contents, lesson plan, classroom management, assessment and evaluation. Thus, proper
instruction for teaching specific content of the textbook is the main area of a teacher’s guide.
Furthermore, Student’s Workbook includes some characteristics as materials use prior
knowledge for developing concept. Exercises on those concepts are given for practice and
self-evaluation in student’s workbook.
In some cases classroom materials, such as demonstration charts, slides and
equipment are also included as supplementary materials.

Types of Instructional Materials

Two types of instructional materials are used in classrooms. They are: Projected
display materials and non projected display materials. Photographs of objects or places, leaf
etc are non projected display material. Again, projected display materials can be divided into
two types. They are: still picture (with audio/ without audio) and motion pictures. Motion
pictures can also be of two types like audio visual and only visual.

Self Learning Material

There are some instructional materials which can be easily understood by the students
without the help of a teacher. It has a special pedagogical and psychological approach that a
student can follow the instructions by themselves. These are called module or self learning
materials. Different types of self learning aids are used for this purpose, like: audio visual
materials, computer aided learning, projector, multimedia etc.

ESP Materials

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 Materials selection, adaptation, or writing is an important area in ESP teaching,
representing a practical result of effective course development and providing students with
materials that will equip them with the knowledge they will need in their future business life.
One of the most important issues regarding ESP materials selection and/or writing is whether
the materials selected should be solely or primarily subject specific and what the most
appropriate ratio of general materials to subject-specific materials is. General materials focus
on one’s general ability to communicate more effectively, while subject-specific materials focus
on a particular job or industry (Ellis and Johnson, 1994). When carefully selected, both general
and subject-specific materials will equip the students with the necessary skills and knowledge,
but subject-specific materials nevertheless better cater for ESP learners’ specific needs.
Consequently, ESP learners will very often feel more affinity for materials that they find
relevant to their area of specialism.

The use of subject-specific textbooks is also more in line with the realization that
students are individuals with different needs, styles, and interests and with some central traits
of cognitive theory, which, as Skela points out, are the following:

- It focuses on purposeful learning;

- The learner is seen as an active processor of information;
- Learning is the process by which the learner tries to make sense of the information
by imposing a meaningful interpretation or pattern on it;
- One of the basic teaching techniques is problem-solving;
- Recently it has been associated with a focus on deliberate acquisition of a language
as a logical system;
- The importance of carefully selected rules, which can provide an important shortcut
in learning process (adapted from Skela, 2008: 159).

According to Prabhu (1994: 94), another important issue regarding materials is that
they should be used as sources: “The fact that materials need to be used as sources rather
than as pre-constructed courses should not be regarded as a weakness of task-based
teaching; it can in fact be a strength for any form of teaching”.
Materials selection

51
 As Ellis and Johnson (1994: 115) emphasize, the choice of materials has a major
impact on what happens in the course. This impact is demonstrated on the following three
levels:
- It “determines what kind of language the learners will be exposed to and, as a
consequence, the substance of what they will learn in terms of vocabulary, structures, and
functions”;
- It “has implications for the methods and techniques by which the learners will learn”;
- Last but not least, “the subject of or content of the materials is an essential
component of the package from the point of view of relevance and motivation”.

The selection of ESP materials should thus above all depend on the needs of the
learners in relation to their future or present jobs: that is, materials should focus on the
appropriate topics and include “tasks and activities that practice the target skills areas” (Ellis
and Johnson, 1994: 115). Another important criterion that should be taken into account when
selecting materials is the level of language knowledge students have already acquired and the
target level they will need to communicate successfully in their jobs.
ESP is predominantly student-centered, and consequently students’ considerations
should be at the top of the list of selection criteria. According to Lewis and Hill, students’
considerations include the following:
- Will the materials be useful to the students?
- Do they stimulate students’ curiosity?
- Are the materials relevant to the students and their needs?
- Are they fun to do?
- Will the students find the tasks and activities worth doing (adapted from Lewis and
Hill, 1993: 52-53)?
To sum up, after analyzing learner needs and setting objectives for the course, the ESP
teacher has to select materials that will help the students achieve the course objectives (Ellis
and Johnson, 1994). These materials should also relate closely to the learners’ specific skills
and content needs, which is an important precondition for full exploitation of the materials as
well as the learners’ motivation.

Readily Available Textbooks vs. Tailor-made Materials

52
 The decision on whether to use a readily available textbook or tailor-made materials is
primarily based on the learners’ subject area. If their subject area is more general, the
likelihood of finding suitable published materials is much higher. Accordingly, ESP teachers will
most often select suitable materials from existing printed materials. In the case of more
specific subject areas, the most widely accepted view is that ESP teachers should also first
“question whether the learners’ needs are significantly different from those of other groups”
and, if possible, select from existing printed materials and resort to writing materials “when all
other possibilities of providing materials have been exhausted” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994:
125). The findings of research conducted by Djurić, Godnič Vičič and Jurković (2008), in
Slovenia indicate that another decisive factor in materials selection or writing is the
institution’s view on materials writing. If the institution encourages teachers to develop tailor-
made materials and if there are several teachers of foreign languages for specific purposes,
the institutions are more likely to provide their students with tailor-made materials. To meet
this end, they either adapt commercial textbooks to the specific needs of the specific subject
area and to the level of students’ language knowledge or prepare in-house materials if no
suitable printed materials are available in the market (Djurić, Godnič Vičič and Jurković 2008).
If a teacher resorts to using a readily available textbook, the selection of structures,
vocabulary, skills, functions, and so on is conditioned by the textbook to a large extent and
can be extended into other areas teachers find relevant to their students. Tailor-made
materials, on the other hand, provide the teacher with the opportunity to decide on
combinations of vocabulary, functions and structures and to develop materials that will
introduce most relevant vocabulary and related functions and structures. A final but significant
factor is that psychologically a textbook represents something concrete and thus gives a
measure of progress and achievement throughout the course (Haycraft, 1987). Consequently,
when designing materials teachers should bear this in mind and prepare materials that
present a logical whole and in which the sequence of units is logical and enables the students
to see and evaluate their progress. Although learners can undoubtedly learn most of the
needed skills, functions and to a great extent also general terminology from general business
textbooks, they will undoubtedly gain even more when using tailor-made materials or a
combination of a general business textbook and tailor-made materials because these two
options are more likely to provide them with directly applicable knowledge.

53
Tailor-made Materials
Tailor-made materials will provide students with activities that suit the specific needs of
their future or current jobs or, as Sheerin (1989: 25) points out: “In-house produced material
is extremely valuable as it is inevitably more precisely geared to the needs of students than
published material”. When determining what tasks to include in ESP materials, teachers should
thus above all strive to select and/or design tasks that will simulate the learner’s real-life
business situations as closely as possible. No matter how good these materials are, they
should leave some room for flexibility and give the teacher the opportunity to respond to the
needs of individual learners (Ellis and Johnson, 1994). At the same time they should
encourage students to share their thoughts and experience because both pre-experience and
certainly job-experienced students are highly motivated to do so. When designing tailor-made
materials, teachers can rely on some general considerations that can also be used when
deciding on the appropriate textbook. According to Haycraft (1987: 127), some of the most
important considerations are as follows:

- The length of the course;

- The target audience of the course;
- The appropriate structural grading: students should be taught what they need to
know “in the right order with the right priorities”;
- The vocabulary should be useful and in current use;
- The appropriate idiomatic English;
- The materials should be “visually alive” and “well presented”.

Materials Evaluation
Materials evaluation is an important part of materials selection as well as the materials
development process. In both cases, evaluation is primarily “concerned with relative merit.
There is no absolute good or bad – only degrees of fitness for the required purpose”
(Hutchinson and Waters, 1994: 96). An evaluation of printed ESP materials will thus above all
serve to locate the materials that will best suit the learners’ needs with regard to their future
or current work area. When no suitable printed materials are found, the evaluation of existing
materials can serve as a springboard for development of in-house produced materials. In-
house produced, tailor-made materials themselves should also be evaluated in order to

54
provide the basis for their revision with a view to improving their quality and their suitability to
the target learners’ needs. The evaluation process of either commercial or tailor-made
materials is an ongoing process which is viewed differently by different writers. In her paper
on selecting the most appropriate Business English textbook, Čepon (2008) stresses that
textbook evaluation should be a multiphase process, in which textbooks are evaluated using
various methodologies and ongoing information collection. According to Cunningsworth, the
three different types of evaluation are pre-use evaluation, in-use evaluation, and post-use
evaluation (cited in Čepon 2008: 107).

UNIT 5- LANGUAGE TESTING

The definition of Language Testing

In plain words, testing or administering a test is a method of measuring a
person’ s ability or knowledge in a given domain. It is a set of techniques, procedures
or and items that constitute an instrument of some sort that requires performance or
activity on the part of the test-taker (and sometimes on the part of the tester as well).
A test is an instrument or procedure designed to elicit performance from learners with

55
the purpose of measuring their attainment of specified criteria. The method may be
intuitive and informal or may be structured and explicit (Brown, 2001).
Language testing is the administration of test in order to assess and measure a person’s
language competence and performance or testing language ability. It is an evaluation of
an individual’s language proficiency.

The relationship between language testing and language teaching

Tests have become a way of life in the educational world and tests are often
used for pedagogical purposes, either as a means of motivating students to study, or as
a means of reviewing material taught (Bachman, 1990). In every learning experience
there comes a time to pause and take stock, to put our focal processes to their best
use, and to demonstrate accumulated skills or knowledge. For optimal learning to take
place, a good teacher never ceases to assess students, whether those assessments are
incidental or intended. Thus language tests can be valuable sources of information the
effectiveness of learning and teaching. Language teachers regularly use tests to help
diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses, to assess student progress, and to assist
in evaluating student achievement. As sources of feedback on learning and teaching,
language tests can thus provide useful input into the process of language
teaching (Bachman, 1990).

The purposes of administering tests

Tests may be constructed primarily as devices to reinforce learning and to
motivate the student, or primarily as a means of assessing the students’ performance in
the language (Heaton, 1975).
There are four reasons for having a test:
(1) To indicate future ability
(2) To discover what is already known
(3) To discover what has been learned
(4) To discover what is still to be learned (Bell, 1981)

56
What to be tested
In the language testing, what to be tested includes assessing in the four major
skills:
(1) listening (auditory) comprehension, in which single utterances, dialogues,
talks and lectures are given to the testee,
(2) speaking ability, usually in the form of an interview, a picture description,
and reading aloud,
(3) reading comprehension, in which questions are set to test the student’s
understanding of a written text
(4) writing ability, usually in the form of essays, letters, and reports (Heaton,
1975)
In addition, items designed to test areas of the following components of the
language skills:
(1) phonology (concerned with pronunciation, stress and intonation)
(2) vocabulary (concerned with word meanings and word arrangements)
(3) grammar (Heaton, 1975)

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What is a test?
2. What is language testing?
3. What is the importance of language testing in language teaching?
4. To what language areas are tests designed?
5. Explain the procedure of language testing.
6. Do you think that testing is carried out only after the teaching is done? Why/Why
not? Clarify your answer.

THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEST

57
The general learning objective:
Ø To understand the basic notions of the qualities or criteria of a good
test
The specific learning objectives:
Ø To be able to mention the qualities of a good test
Ø To be able to describe each of the qualities
Ø To be able to analyze a test based on the qualities

The essential qualities of a good test

When we evaluate a test we are forced to ask two fundamental questions: what
does this test actually test? And how well does it do it? The test which measures what
we measured and measures it in a manner which we find acceptable is a valid test. If it
does this without significant variation when the examiners and other test conditions are
not altered it is a reliable test. And, if it can do this with ease and economy, it is a
practical test (Bell, 1981)
If we are to interpret the score on a given test as an indicator of an individual’s
ability, that score must be both reliable and valid. These qualities are thus essential to
the interpretation and use of measures of language abilities, and they are the primary
qualities to be considered in developing and using tests (Bachman, 1990).

The validity
The most important quality of test interpretation or use is validity, or the extent
to which the inferences or decisions we make on the basis of test scores are
meaningful, appropriate, and useful. In order for a test score to be a meaningful
indicator of a particular individual’s ability, we must be sure it measures that ability and
very little else (Bachman, 1990).
The validity is concerned with relevance: does the test actually measure what we
want it to measure and does it do it well enough for us to have faith in the results?

58
(Bell, 1981). If you are trying to assess a person’s ability to speak a second language in
a conversational setting
There are four kinds of validity:
(1) content validity:
If the tasks which the candidates are required to perform in the test are a true
reflection of the skills which are actually required in real life, the test can be said to
have content validity.
If you are trying to assess a person’s ability to speak a second language in a
conversational setting, a test that asks the learner to answer a paper-and-pencil
multiple-choice questions requiring grammatical judgments does not achieve a content
validity. Instead, a test that requires the learner actually to speak within some sort of
authentic context can be said to have a content validity.
(2) construct validity:
If the test is able to satisfy some previously stated theoretical requirements, it can be
said to possess construct validity (Bell, 1981). One way to look at construct validity is to
ask the question “Does this test actually tap into the theoretical construct as it has been
defined?”. “Proficiency” is a construct. “Communicative competence” is a construct.
Virtually every issue in language learning and teaching involves theoretical constructs
(Brown, 2001).
(3) empirical validity:
If the test results correlate positively and strongly with some trustworthy external
criterion, the test can be said to have empirical validity.
Time is normally taken as a key variable here- whether the correlation is carried out
simultaneously or with some subsequent criterion- and this provides a subdivision of
empirical validity into two varieties:
(a) Concurrent (or status) validity
A typical example might be where a group of students is given the test and is
immediately rated by an experienced teacher.
(b) Predictive validity

59
We might give the students the test and, after a period of time has passed, have them
rated again in some way.
(4) face validity:
If the test is accepted as appearing to be appropriate by those who administer it and
those who take it, it can be said to have face validity (Bell, 1981)

The reliability
Reliability is a quality of test scores, and a perfectly reliable score would be one
which is free from errors of measurement. There are many factors other than the ability
being measured that can affect performance on tests, and that constitute sources of
measurement error. Individual’s performance may be affected by differences in testing
conditions, fatigue, and anxiety, and they may thus obtain scores that are inconsistent
from one occasion to the next. If, for example, a student receives a low score on a test
one day and a high score on the same test does not yield consistent results, and the
scores cannot be considered reliable indicators of the individual’s ability (Bachman,
1990).
Reliability is thus has to do with the consistency of measures across different
times, test forms, raters, and other characteristics of the measurement context.

The practicality
Practicality is concerned the usability of the test. Two parameters appear to be
involved:
(1). Economy: the cost in time, money, and personnel of administering a
particular test.
(2) Ease: the degree of difficulty experienced in the administration and scoring of
the test and the interpretation of the test results.
Finally, the ideal test would be one which was reliable in that it provided
dependable measurements, was valid in that it not only measured what it was
supposed to measure, supported what we already believed about the nature of
language and of learning and agreed with trustworthy outside criteria but also looked as

60
though it dill all these things. In addition, it would be cheap and easy to use (Bell,
1981)

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Mention the three qualities of a good test.
2. Explain what the test validity means.
3. Mention the four kinds of the test validity and explain each of them.
4. Explain what the test reliability means.
5. Explain what the practicality of a test means.
6. What are the two parameters involved in the test practicality?
7. Does a test having a good validity always have a good reliability? Why/Why not?
8. Does a test which has its perfect validity and reliability always have a good
practicality?
9. A dictation and a cloze test were administered as a placement test for an English
course. What do you think of the test in terms of its validity, reliability, and practicality?
10. To measure writing ability, a test that asks the student to write as many words as
they can in fifteen minutes was given and for the final score, the words were simply
counted. What do you think of the test in terms of its validity, reliability, and
practicality?

THE KINDS OF TESTS

The general learning objective:
Ø To understand some kinds of tests
The specific learning objectives:
Ø To be able to mention some kinds of tests

61
Ø To be able to describe each of them
Ø To be able to describe some advantages and disadvantages of using
them.

A. The kinds of tests in a language curricula

There are many kinds of tests, each with a specific purpose, a particular criterion
to be measured. The following describes the five test types that are in common use in
language curricula (Brown, 2001)
(1) Proficiency tests
Proficiency tests aim at toping global competence in a language. A proficiency
test is not intended to be limited to any one course, curriculum or single skill in the
language. Proficiency tests have traditionally consisted of standardized multiple choice
items on grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, aural comprehension, and
sometimes a sample of writing.
(2) Diagnostic tests
A diagnostic test is designed to diagnose a particular aspect of a language. A
diagnostic test on pronunciation might have the purpose of determining which
phonological features of English are difficult for a learner and should therefore become
a part of a curriculum.
(3) Placement tests
A placement test aims at placing a student into an appropriate level or section of
a language curriculum or school. A placement test typically includes a sample of
material to be covered in the curriculum.
(4) Achievement tests
An achievement test is related to directly to classroom lessons, units, or even a
total curriculum. Achievement tests are limited to particular material covered in a
curriculum within a particular time frame, and are offered after a course has covered
the objectives in question. It is to determine acquisition of course objectives at the end
of a period of instruction.
(5) Aptitude tests

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 An aptitude test is a test that predicts a person’s future success. A language
aptitude test is designed to measure a person’s capacity or general ability to learn a
foreign language and to be successful in that undertaking.

B. Subjective and objective testing

Subjective and objective testing are terms used to refer to the scoring of tests.
All test items, no matter how they are devised, require candidates to exercise a
subjective judgment; the testee must think what to say and then express his ideas as
well as possible. Whereas in objective testing, a testee will score the same mark no
matter which examiner marks his test (Tuckman, 1975). The discussion of this kind of
tests will be presented in the next chapter.

C. Teacher-made tests and standardized tests

A teacher-made test is a test designed by the teacher to meet his or her own
course objectives. The teacher prepares the test items to fit the instructional objectives
and uses the items in classroom setting. It is usually built without careful and thorough
analyses and considerations how the test should be. It also constitutes a major portion
of the school testing program (Tuckman, 1975).
Whereas a standardized test means a test for which comparative norms have
bee derived, their reliability and validity have been established, and directions for
administration and scoring prescribed (Ary, et.al., 1990). A standardized test is a test
designed to provide a systematic sample of individual performance, administered
according to prescribed directions, scored in conformance with definite rules, and
interpreted in reference to certain normative information (Tuckman, 1975). It possesses
three properties:
(1) items that have been tried out, analyzed, and revised, (2) widespread and
standard use and reuse, and (3) the availability and use of norms for interpretation
(Tuckman, 1975).

D. Written tests and oral tests

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 A written test is a test in which the test items and their answers are written.
While an oral test is a test in which the test items and their answers are given orally.

E. Individual tests and group tests

An individual test is a test that can be administered to only one person at a time,
whereas a group test is a test that may be administered to a number of individuals at
the same time by one examiner (Tuckman, 1975).

F. Criterion- referenced achievement tests and norm-referenced

achievement tests
A criterion-referenced achievement test is a test designed to measure the degree
of proficiency attained on a given set of objectives . One of its examples is a teacher-
made test. This helps the teacher to monitor student progress, diagnose strengths and
weaknesses, and prescribe instructions.
A norm-referenced achievement test is a test designed to provide a systematic sample
of individual performance, administered according to prescribed directions, scored in
conformance with definite rules, and interpreted in reference to certain normative
information (Tuckman, 1975). One example is a standardized test.

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Mention the kinds of tests commonly found in language curricula.
2. Describe each of them.
3. What is the meaning of:
a. objective testing
b. subjective testing
4. What is the meaning of an individual and group test? Give examples for each of
them.
5. Mention some examples of standardized tests.
6. What are some advantages and disadvantages of using teacher-made tests and
standardized tests?

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 THE OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE TESTING
The general learning objective:
Ø To understand objective and subjective testing
The specific learning objectives:
Ø To be able to explain the meaning of objective and subjective testing
Ø To be able to mention some kinds of objective and subjective testing
Ø To be able to describe some advantages and disadvantages of using
them.

I. The objective testing

Objective testing are usually found in short-answer items. The short-answer
items include (Tuckman, 1975)
(1) unstructured format
This format utilizes a question that can be answered by a word, phrase, or
number.
Examples:
a. Where do rain forests grow?
b. What is unusual or unique about rain forests?
The most attractive features of this format are:
a. it minimizes the likelihood of guessing
b. the student is not given clues as in multiple choice item
c. it is a relatively easy type of item to write since the test maker does not have to think
of alternative answers.
The undesirable aspects of this format have to do with scoring (keying and
correcting) because the unstructured items invite any number of answers, many of
which resemble the correct one to some degree. For example, the question ‘What
chemical is often added to drinking water to help prevent tooth decay?’ may invite
answers such as fluorine, fluoride, sodium fluoride, fluoride, and many more. In

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scoring, the teacher will have to decide what the student had in mind. Mind reading
adds a difficult dimension to item scoring.
This format works best for the measurement of specific knowledge, most
commonly in math, science, and history.
To write an unstructured item, we should:
a. write the item so that the correct response will require the fewest words possible.
b. keep the item itself brief and to the point so that one response and only one will
suffice as the correct response.
c. write the item in the simplest language
d. write the item in question form rather than statement form

(2) completion format

The completion or fill-in item format is also a free choice format that the
students must construct their own response rather that chooses from among given
choices. It requires the student to fill in or complete a sentence from which a word or
phrase has been omitted.
Examples:
a. “Give me liberty and give me … ” was the pronouncement of a famous American
revolutionary.
b. … produces more copper ore than any other state in the Union.
The completion format has many of the same advantages and disadvantages as the
unstructured response format. Completion items when properly written are easier to
score. They should have a single correct answer, preferably a word or short phrase.
The completion items are useful in measuring the acquisition of specific knowledge.

(3) true-false (yes-no) format

This format provides two response choices. These two-choice items often include
the options :”true-false” or “yes-no”.
Examples:
a. Australia, the island continent, was discovered by Columbus. (TRUE/FALSE)

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 b. Sydney is the capital of Australia
(TRUE/FALSE)
c. Below is a list of plural animal words. Circle YES for those that have been done
properly and NO for those that have been done improperly.
Oxes YES NO
Deer YES NO
Mouses YES NO
Bear YES NO
Monkeys YES NO

One big advantage of true-false items is that they are the easiest type of item to
write and can be answered quickly by students. True-false items are best used for
measuring the recognition of fact. They are considered to work well in the
measurement of objectives that call for discrimination between absolutes, requiring the
student to distinguish or discriminate between statements of correct and incorrect fact
or interpretation. Their biggest weakness is perhaps the matter of guessing. The
purpose of a test is to measure what students are capable of, not how lucky they are.
To write this kind of test, we should avoid giving too many clues or to build in tricks and
to avoid the use of absolute terms like ‘always’ and ‘ never. We should write only true
items and then afterward turn about half of them around to make false items. Also, the
items should be placed in a random order and include only a single major point in each
item.

(4) two–choice classification format

In most cases, these formats ask the student to apply classification to a set of
stimuli as shown in the examples below.
Examples:
 Underline the words that could be used as verbs and draw lines through ones that could
not:
a. eat c. wrist d. flew e. myself

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 b. cat d. knit e. helps f. were
 Use a or an before each word:
… oak … hour
… ear … mountain
… uniform … orange
… umbrella … MP
This format usually fits the task of a one-variable, two-level classification. The
task of classification can normally be cast into at least two categories- the presence of a
quality versus its absence. It works best for factual knowledge, is susceptible to
guessing, and is invalidated by ambiguous items. This format is useful and stimulating
means of measuring knowledge acquisition.
To write this test item, we should make sure that the category to be used is clear
and distinct from other potentially confusable categories. Also, we should make the
stimuli to be classified clear instances or no instances of that category. Identify the
classification category first and then thinking of exemplars (correct choices) and non-
exemplars (incorrect choices).

(5) multiple-choice format

The multiple choice format is the most commonly used short-answer format. It
typically offers from three to five alternative answers of which one is correct; the rest
are incorrect choices. Well-constructed multiple choice items have the potential to
measure comprehension and application.
These test items are easier to score and easier to analyze in terms of patterns of
incorrect responses, however, they are difficult to write because:
A. they demand plausible response options
B. they usually require some preliminary testing, analysis, and refinement in
order to sharpen the contrast between incorrect choices.
A shortcoming of this test item is that the correct answer can sometimes be
determined without any prior knowledge or instruction. A certain degree of success on
multiple choice items can be obtained through guessing.

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 In writing this test, the most critical part of the construction of a multiple choice
item is the selection of the response alternatives- the correct answer and the incorrect
choices, especially the selection of incorrect choices. Not only should incorrect choices
separate correct performance from incorrect performance, they should also help
diagnose the kinds of incorrect notions that students have acquired. To write the item,
we should:
A. consider the kinds of mistakes a student is likely to make and use them as a
basis for writing the incorrect response choices.
B. construct incorrect choices that are, in fact, incorrect.
C. construct incorrect answers that are comparable in length, complexity, and
grammatical form to the correct answer.
It is important to avoid giving clues in the construction of response alternatives.
The purpose of an item is to measure what a student knows and understands and not
how clever a test taker or he or she is.
D. write the questions and choices in language that your students can
understand.
E. state the items so that there can be only one interpretation of their meaning.
F. avoid the use of such words as ‘always’, ‘never’, and ‘all’ whenever possible in
constructing response choices.
G. not provide extra clues to correct answer within the item statement itself.
H. not test more than one points in a single item, however, multiple points can
be made in a single item, where appropriate, by providing choices that specifically
include two or more of the choices already given.
I. vary the location of the correct choice on as random basis as possible as
possible, after the test items are written.
J. write short, unique from one another, and not specifically clued by the
questions for the response alternatives (Tuckman, 1975)
K. write options in a correct grammar, except course in the case of specific
grammar test items.

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 The initial part of each multiple choice item is known as the stem; the choices
from which the students select their answers referred to
as options/responses/alternatives. One option is the answer, correct option or
key, while the other options are distracters.
The primary purpose of the stem is to present the problem clearly and concisely.
It should reveal a very general idea of the problem and the answer required. The
stem may take the following forms:
A. an incomplete statement:
e.g. She is thinking of … the cost of the workshop.
A. negotiate B. negotiating C. to negotiate D. negotiates
B. a complete statement:
e.g. Indians and Asians share a common and distinctive pattern in the
arrangement of teeth.
A. new B. simple C. different D. particular
C. a question
e.g. Why does the man go to see his professor?
A. To borrow a reference book.
B. To ask a question about the material.
C. To get advice about studying for a test
D. To pick up some handouts from the class.
The correct option should be clearly the correct or best option. It is very
important, however, to avoid confusing the student by having a different number of
correct options for each item, and this practice is not recommended. The correct option
should be approximately the same length as the distractors.
Each distractor, or incorrect option, should be reasonably attractice and
plausible. It should appear right to any testee who is unsure of the correct option. Each
distractor should be grammatically correct when it stands by itself. Distractors should
not be too difficult nor demand a higher proficiency than the correct option (Heaton,
1975).

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(6) matching
Matching items deal with multiple questions or stems and multiple responses at
the same time. These items are intended to measure the student’s ability in
distinguishing similar ideas or facts.
Examples:
A. was son of a president 1. Andrew Jackson
B. wrote America’s Independence 2. John Quincy Adams
Declaration 3. Thomas Jafferson
C. won the Battle of New Orleans 4. Ronald Reagan
5. Bill Clinton
These items enable the teacher to cover a lot of ground in single item therefore
it represents a certain degree of efficiency. However, matching items also have
shortcomings; they are difficult and time consuming to write well.
To write these items, we should deal first with common elements of a single
category (e.g. all leaders, all parts of flower, etc.). Secondly, avoid cluing or giving clues
where possible. This is a rule for writing any type of test items, particularly those whose
response options are given. Next, keep the responses short, makes the responses short,
make them distinct and no overlapping, provide plausible incorrect responses that do
not match with any stem (Tuckman, 1975).

II. The subjective testing

In subjective testing or essay items, the student structures and composes his
own response within relatively broad limit. These items enable him (A) to apply
knowledge, (B) to analyze, (C) to synthesize, and (D) to evaluate new information in
the light of his knowledge.

A. Essay items to measure application:

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 These items require the student use knowledge that has been acquired to
describe a way of dealing with a concrete situation. In writing the items, we should
provide or present a concrete situation, some actions to be taken or choice to be made
in the situation to accomplish a given task. All is based on knowledge that has been
transmitted.
Example:
You are interested in a summer job and have learned of one as a camp
counselor that interests you. Write a letter in proper form to the director of the camp
describing yourself and why you want the job. You will be graded on the basis of how
clear, interesting, and well-written your letter is, on its neatness, form, and spelling,
and how convincing you are.
This kind of item is subdivided into three:
1. situation parts: the statement of the situation
2. problem parts: the statement of the situation
3. response instructions: minimum or maximum length, specific points to be
covered or performance required (explaining a solution, stating the number of
suggested solution, etc.), and various criteria for evaluating performance such as
organization of material, neatness, and spelling.

B. Essay items to measure analysis:

These items are to identify elements or parts of concepts or objects,
relationships between the parts, or organizational principles among the parts.
Example:
 Identify four reasons why Hamlet did not kill King Claudius until the end of the play
despite his commitment to do so at the beginning. Describe how you determined what
these reasons were.
 You have just heard a story about a girl who was severely and unfairly punished.
Describe some of the feelings that such punishment might have aroused in her. Can
you think of times in your own life when you had these feelings? Describe one such
time.

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 An analysis item typically includes:
1. a situation or setting: containing elements, relationships, or organizational
principles to be analyzed
2. response instructions: identifying certain elements, relationships, or
organizational principles and describing the basis by which analysis was accomplished
and then comparing/contrasting
These items are useful for measuring students’ intellectual, emotional, and
aesthetic experiences and provide a basis for determining whether the students can
analyze component ideas and feelings contained in and provoked by the experience.

C. Essay items to measure synthesis:

A synthesis item deals with the production of:
 a unique communication (like a story)
 a plan or proposed set of operations (like a machine)
 a set of abstract relations (like a theory)
Examples:
 Add a second verse of four lines to the verse written below:
Men cannot swim
As fishes do
They only slave
A hard way through
 Suppose you have been put in charge of raising money to build a clinic aimed at
providing health services for the poor people in your community. Plan and describe a
promotion campaign for soliciting donations.
A synthesis item consists of a statement of problem in which the students are to
create new and unique thoughts and productions, and response instructions in which
the students are familiarizing themselves with the task, exploring different interpreting
and analyzing relevant materials, and trying out various schemes and organization.
It is preferable to have synthesis items in a form of a take-home examination rather
than a conventional classroom test. The synthesis should be measured under conditions

73
favorable to creative work in which untimed tests, instructions reinforcing the idea that
creativity or novelty or originality is to be achieved.

D. Essay items to measure evaluation:

An evaluation item deals with making judgments about the value of ideas, works,
solutions, methods, material, etc. The criteria for the evaluation include accurate,
effective, economical, satisfying, etc.
Example:
Write an essay of 250-300 words, evaluating the poem given below. The
evaluation should include, for example, the poem’s structure, meter, organization, form,
meaning, and symbolism. Your principles of evaluation should be made clear. Take time
to organize your essay carefully. Save time for revisions and proofreading so that the
essay as it appears in your examination booklet represents your best intention. It is
suggested that you give twenty minutes to planning, eighty to writing, and twenty to
revising your essay. Please try to write legibly.

Since there’s no help, come let us kiss and part;

Nay, I have done, you get no more of me,
And I am glad, yea glad with all my heart
That thus so cleanly I myself can free;
Shake hands forever, cancel all our vows,
And when we meet at any time again,
Be it not seen in either of our brows
That we one jot of former love retain.
Now at the last gasp of love’s latest breath,
When, his pulse failing, passion speechless lies,
When faith is kneeling by his bed of death,
And innocence is closing up his eyes,
Now if thou wouldst, when all have given him over,
From death to life thou mightst him yet recover.

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 Evaluation items contain:
1. that which is to be evaluated
2. response instructions: criteria that are to be used in the evaluation

E. Criteria for scoring essay items

In essence, scoring an essay item confronts the teacher with the task of
evaluation, a process that requires criteria. These criteria include:
1. content criterion:
It deals with only the presence of knowledge and its accuracy to conclude that
he or she knowledgeable in the area of the essay.
2.organization criterion
It deals with the organization of the essay (introduction, body, and conclusion),
logical mind, grammar, spelling, etc.
3. process criterion
It deals with the adequacy of the solution and the adequacy of reasons behind it,
accuracy or reasonableness, completeness and consistency, and originality or creativity.

A. QUESTIONS
Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What is the meaning of:
A. objective tests
B. subjective tests
2. Mention some examples of:
A. objective tests
B. subjective tests
3. Mention the criteria for scoring essay items.
4. Describe some advantages and disadvantages of:
A. objective tests
B. subjective tests

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 TESTING THE LANGUAGE SKILLS
The general learning objective:
Ø To understand and use some kinds of tests on language skills
The specific learning objectives:
Ø To be able to mention some kinds of tests on language skills
Ø To be able to describe each of them
Ø To be able to construct tests on language skills

I. Listening tests
There are mainly two kinds of listening or auditory tests:
A. Phoneme discrimination tests and of sensitivity to stress and into nation:
Examples:
1. Production:
Pronounce the following by pushing the lips forward and blowing out with a voiced
sound.
a. west
b. way
c. between
d. twenty
2. Comparison:
Which word is spoken by the man? Circle the corresponding word being spoken.
a. west – vest
b. wine – vine
c. worse – verse
d. went – vent

3. Phrasing and intonation

Pronounce each phrase/sentence and use the appropriate intonation.

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a. white wine
b. somewhat wet
c. when and where?
d. Which do you prefer, white wine or red?
e. He painted all the woodwork white.
B. Listening or auditory comprehension tests

Examples:
1. Look at the given pictures, select the appropriate picture being described by the
speaker.
(Spoken) Both car doors are open. It is daylight but both headlamps are on. The man
who’s repairing the car is lying underneath it. Although the boy sees the man working
hard, he does not help him.
2. Listen to the following conversation and choose the best option.
(Spoken) “Would you like to watch TV tonight, Tina?”
“No, John. I’m looking forward to a game of
Chess. What about you?
“I’m not worried as long as we do something.
Let’s do what you want.”
a. John doesn’t really mind what he does.
b. Tina wants to look at TV.
c. John doesn’t want to play chess.
d. John won’t be worried for long if he is with Tina.

II. Oral production tests

Oral communication is generally rated so highly in language learning.
Examples:
a. Using pictures for assessing oral production:
Look at these pictures and tell what is happening.
b. Oral interview:

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You are having a job interview. As a candidate, you must answer the questions given by
the interviewer.
c. The short talk:
You are asking for information about where the post office is.
d. Group discussion
Discuss the following topic with your group and present the result of the discussion in
class:
“Do demonstrations serve any really useful purpose?”
e. Role-playing
With your partner, make a dialogue based on the following situation:
You are examining a patient. The patient is complaining of a shooting pain in his/her
tooth. He/She has got swollen gum. He/She has suffered from a gum infection. You are
then explaining how to administer the medication.

III. Reading comprehension tests

The reading tests usually deal with the ability to:
A. distinguish between letters and recognize letter-sound relationships:
Example:
Pan/man/fan, etc.
B. Recognize words and words groups, requiring ability to associate sounds with
their corresponding graphic symbols and understand meaning:
Example:
/kau/=cow, “kan:t/=can’t, etc.
C. Understand words and words groups in the context in which they appear:
The man is wearing false hair.
D. Recognize structural clues and comprehend structural patterns:
I wish she had come.
E. Comprehend the meaning of a sentence and any complete sequence of words:
The player kicked off the ball.

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F. Perceive relationships (temporal and spatial) and sequences of ideas (as denoted
by linkage and reference features):
Although it was raining heavily, everybody went on picnic.
G. Comprehend paragraphs and longer units of prose and select the main idea and
other features:
H. Scan and read for specific information:
I. Read critically:
The following is examples of reading tests:
A. Matching
Match the following sentences with the suitable expressions
1. The man died because …
2. The woman doesn’t have any saving accounts although …
a. she earns a great deal of money.
b. the car he was driving hit the big trucks.
B. True/False
Say whether the following statement is True or False:
1. When ice melts, it turns into water. …
2. The sun rises in the west. …
C. Multiple choice
Choose the best option.
1. In spite of the loud music, I soon managed to fall asleep
a. The loud music soon helped me to fall alseep.
b. The loud music made me unable to fall alseep.
c. I soon fall alseep although the music was aloud.
d. I soon fall alseep as a result of the loud music.
D. Completion
Complete the following sentences.
1. The man lives at …
2. He wrote the letter on …
E. Cloze procedure

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Once upon a time a farmer had three sons. The farmer was rich and had main fields,
but his sons were lazy. When the farmer was dying, he called his three sons to him, “I
have left you … which will make you … ” he told them. “But … you must dig in all …
fields to find the … where the treasure is … ”

IV. Writing tests

The writing tests may consist of:
A. Letter-writing
Example:
Study the following job-vacancy advertisement and write an application letter to the
personnel manager of the company.
B. Report-writing
Example:
You are attending a workshop on ‘Research on English Literature’ and write a report on
that.
C. Paper-writing
Example:
Write a paper on the following topic: Do men drive better that women?
The evaluation of the writing performance covers:
A. Grammatical skill:
It is the ability to write correct sentences.
B. Stylistic skill:
It is the ability to manipulate sentences and use language effectively
C. Mechanical skill:
It is the ability to use correctly those conventions peculiar to the written language, e.g.,
spelling and punctuations
D. Judgment skill:
It is the ability to write in an appropriate manner for a particular purpose with a
particular audience in kind, together with an ability to select, organize and order
relevant information.

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Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What listening skills are covered in the listening tests?
2. Give some different kinds of listening tests.
3. What speaking skills are covered in the speaking/oral production tests?
4. Give some examples of oral production tests
5. What reading skills are covered in the reading tests?
6. Give some examples of reading tests.
7. Give some examples of writing tests.
8. The evaluation of students’ writing performance is based on … .

TESTING THE LANGUAGE COMPONENTS

The general learning objective:
Ø To understand some kinds of tests of language components
The specific learning objectives:
Ø To be able to mention some kinds of tests of language components
Ø To be able to describe each of them
Ø To be able to construct good tests of language components.

I. Tests of Grammar and Usage

Items which appear in a test of grammar and structure should me made as natural as
possible. The tests of grammar and structure may consists of:
A. Structure recognition tests
Example:
Don’t talk so loudly; my baby …
A. sleep
B. sleeps

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 C. is sleeping
D. will sleep
B. Error recognition tests
Example:
My car had broken down, so I went there by foot.
A B C D
C. Word order items
Example:
“Won’t I need a coat?”
“Well, you know how … ”
A. today is it warm
B. today it is warm
C. warm it is today
D. warm is it today
D. Completion items:
Examples:
1. The old man enjoys looking … the children play hides and seeks.
2. It’s a long time since … .
E. Transformation items
Example:
In sunny weather, I often go for a walk.
When the weather …

II. Tests of Vocabulary

The vocabulary tests may consist of:
A. Recognition items:
Example:
a. fixing a car
b. catching a train
c. talking to someone

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 d. returning a briefcase
B. Definition
Example:
A person who forges iron and shoes horses
a. mason
b. blacksmith
c. caretaker
d. janitor
C. Synonym
Example:
Flee
a. escape
b. advocate
c. empower
d. consult
D. Vocabulary in context
Example:
It is raining cats and dogs.
a. hardly
b. heavily
c. nearly
d. immediately
E. Sets (associated words)
Example:
Education (a) degree principal traffic
(b) cohort factory electives
(c) term casts inauguration

III. Tests of Pronunciation

A. Recognition items

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 Example:
Encircle the words that have /sh/ sound
a. garage
b. pleasure
c. ship
d. cash
e. assess
B. Discrimination items
Example:
Write ‘S’ if the pair have the same sound and write ‘D’ if the pair have the
different sound.
a. sink – zinc
b. look – Luke
c. life – live
d. deer – dear
e. love – laugh
C. Sound-pronunciation items
Example:
Pronounce the following English sounds clearly.
a. [f]
b. [ou]
c. [v]
d. [a:]
e. [r]
D. Word-pronunciation items
Example:
Pronounce the following words clearly.
a. leisure
b. myth
c. thorough

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 d. hitchhiker
e. admirable
E. Minimum-pair-pronunciation
Example:
Pronounce the following pairs of words clearly.
a. then – than
b. sheep – ship
c. kick – cake
d. sew – saw
e. three – tree
F.Sentence-pronunciation
Pronounce the following sentences clearly.
a. She shall sell sea shells on the sea shore.
b. Peter Piper picked a pack of pickled pepper.
c. How many cans can a canner can if a canner can can.
d. I thought a thought but the thought I thought wasn’t the
thought I thought I thought.
G. Reading aloud
Read the following passage loudly.
She wanted her children to feel loved and lovable, creative and
imaginative, imbued with a sense that there was magic in the world and beauty
and even in the face of adversity. In truth, my mother wanted her children to
see themselves much like the gardenia- lovely, strong, and perfect- with an aura
of magic and perhaps a bit of mystery.

Give what is asked:

Kinds of grammar tests.
Examples of each of the grammar tests.
Kinds of vocabulary tests.
Examples of each of the vocabulary tests.

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Kinds of pronunciation tests.
Examples of the pronunciation tests.

REFERENCES
Bachman, Lyle F. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Bell, Roger T. 1981. An Introduction to Applied Linguistics: Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd.
Brown, Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to language
Pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

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Heaton, J.B. 1975. Writing English Language Tests. London: Longman Group (UK) Ltd.

Bachman, Lyle F. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.
Bell, Roger T. 1981. An Introduction to Applied Linguistics: Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd.
Brown, Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to language
Pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.

Ary, Donald, et.al. 1990. Introduction to Research in Education. Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston.
Brown, Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Pedagogy. New York: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Tuckman, Bruce W. 1975. Measuring Educational Outcomes: Fundamentals of
Testing. Harcourt Brace Javanovich, Inc.

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