UNIT IV

ADVANCED TOPICS IN
SURVEYING
DR. JIJO JAMES
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
SSN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING

• Hydrographic Surveying is the that branch of surveying which

deals with the measurement of bodies of water
• Art of delineating submarine levels, contours and features of seas,
gulfs, lakes and rivers
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• Hydrographic surveying applications

• Making nautical charts and maps for navigation
• For subaqueous investigations to secure data
• For planning dredging operations
• Controlling and planning of engineering projects
• Establishing mean sea level and observation of tides
• Determination of shorelines
• Measurement of discharge of rivers
 TIDES

• The forces ofattraction between earth and celestial bodies cause

a periodic variation in water levels, commonly known as tides
• The
most agreed upon theory for the phenomenon of tides is the
Newton’s Equilibrium theory
• Types of tides
• Lunar tides
• Solar tides
• Combined effect: Spring and neap tides
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• The tides produced due to the force of attraction of the moon are
called as lunar tides
• The tides caused due to the force of attraction of the sun are
called as solar tides, however, its effect is much less when
compared to the moon due to its distance from the earth
• Thecombined effect of sun and moon produce the spring and
neap tides
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• Prediction of tides
• Two elements are required for the prediction of tides at a location
• Time of occurrence of tide
• Height of tide above datum
• Principal methods of tide prediction
• By use of Non-harmonic constants
• By use of Harmonic constants
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Non-harmonic constants
• Age of tide
• The time which elapses between the generation of spring tide and its
arrival at a place is called as the age of the tide
• Itvaries from place to place up to a maximum of three days and is
obtained as mean of several observations
• Lunitidal interval
• It is the time interval between the transit of the moon and the occurrence
of next high water
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• Mean establishment
• The average value of lunitidal interval at a place it is known as its
mean establishment
• If the value of mean establishment is known, the lunitidal interval and
the time of high water can be estimated provided the age of the
tide is known
• Vulgar establishment
• It is defined as the value of lunitidal interval on the day of full moon
or change of moons
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• Height of Tide
• It is the vertical distance of the high water level from a suitable
datum, which is commonly the low water level of ordinary spring
tides for the place
• The vertical distance from the low water level to the high water level
is known as the range of the tide
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• Harmonic constants
• Prediction by non-harmonic constants are not very much used
because of erroneous results
• There are 36 different tidal constituents of harmonic type like lunar
semi-diurnal, solar semi-diurnal, luni-solar semi-diurnal, luni-solar
diurnal to name a few
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• Tide Gauges
• They are used to determine the height of the high and low waters
with time
• Types of tide gauges
• Non-registering gauges
• Staff gauge
• Float gauge
• Weight gauge
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• Staffgauge is the simplest type of

gauge which consists of a firmly
fixed vertical staff from which the
level of the water can be directly
read from a distance
• Consists of board, 15 to 25 cm wide
and having graduations to a least
count of 5 to 10 cm
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• Float gauge consists of a float

with a graduated vertical rod
• The water entering into the gauge
lifts the float and the level of the
water is read from a slit on the
graduated rod
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• Weight gauge consists of a weight

attached to a chain passing through
a pulley along a graduated board
is lowered to touch the surface of
the water
• Reading it taken against an index
attached to the chain to know the
level of the water
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• Self registering gauges

automatically register the level of
the water with time
• Consistsof a float and pully system
which is connected to stylus for
automatically plotting the water
level with time by attachment to a
clockwork mechanism
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• Mean Sea Level

• It is the average level of the surface of the sea obtained by taking
mean of all heights of tides at hourly intervals over a stated period
covering whole number of complete tides
• This stated period is usually 19 years wherein the moon’s nodes
complete one entire revolution
• It is referred to the datum of the tide gauge at which the
observations are taken
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• The station where the readings are taken is called as tidal station
• If there are two stations from which observations are taken, one is
called as primary tidal station and the other secondary tidal station,
usually 200 to 500 kms apart on a coast line
 SOUNDING

• The measurement of the depth of the water is called as sounding

• The objectives of soundings are
• Making nautical charts
• Measurements of areas subject to scour and silting for planning of
dredging operations
• Making sub-aqueous investigations for infrastructure projects
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• Equipment for taking soundings, usually from a small boat

• Sounding boat
• Should be roomy and stable
• Flat bottomed boat for calm waters and round bottomed boat for
rough waters
• Sounding well may be provided for regular soundings; for smaller
boats sounding platform should be provided
• Motor boat may be used when currents are strong
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• Sounding poles
• Made of sound well seasoned timber of 5 to 8 cm diameter and 5 to
8 metres
•A arrow or lead shoe of sufficient weight is attached at the end for
stability with sufficient area for preventing it from sinking
• Lead lines
•A sounding line is usually a cord or tiller rope of hemp or flax or
brass chain with sounding lead attached to the end
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• Sounding lines are used for depths greater than 6m

• A cotton or flax line should be soaked in water for one hour before
use as they may stretch when they get wet
• A sounding lead is a weight made of lead of conical shape weighing
between 4 to 12 kg depending upon the depth of the water and the
strength of the current for stabilizing the sounding line
• Sounding machine
•A sounding machine is a device used for sounding when extensive
sounding needs to be done
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• Consists of a lead weight attached at the end of flexible wire cord

attached to a barrel
• Canbe lowered at a desired rate, the speed being controlled by
means of a brake
• Has two dials showing the depth in feet and tenths of a foot
• Has a winding handle for raising or dropping the cord and can be
suspended with a pawl and ratchet
• Can be used as a maximum depth of 100 feet
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LEAD LINE SOUNDING MACHINE

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• Fathometer
• Used for ocean sounding when the depth is great for accurate and
continuous recording of the depth
• It is an echo sounding device wherein the depth is calculated based on
the time taken for sound waves to travel in water and back to the
device
• It consists ofa transmitter or power unit, a transmitting and receiving
oscillators and a recorder unit
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• Advantages of Echo Sounding

• More accurate as truly vertical sounding is achieved
• Can be used even in strong currents and poor weather conditions
• More sensitive than lead line
• A continuous record of the depth is automatically plotted
• Quicker sounding and plotting
• Error due to instability of the boat is greatly reduced
• Rock underlying soft deposits is easily and cheaply identified
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• Methods of locating soundings

• By conning the survey vessel
• By cross rope
• By range and time intervals
• By observations with sextant or theodolite
• By range and one angle from the shore
• By range and one angle from the boat
• By two angles from the shore
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• By two angles from the boat

• By one angle from the shore and one from boat
• By intersecting ranges
• By tacheometry
• By theodolite angles and EDM distances from shores
• By microwave systems
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• Conning of survey vessel

• Process of keeping the boat on a known course
• Common methods of conning is to fix markers on the shore, providing
ranges along which the boat is run
• This method is suitable for rivers and open seas up to 5 km offshore
• Location by cross rope
• Cross rope with tags at regular intervals is stretched across the
channel
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• The soundings are taken using sounding poles at the locations of tags
• Suitable for narrow water bodies
• Location by range and time interval
• Boat is kept in range by using two signals on the shore and rowed at
constant speed
• The soundings are taken at regular intervals of time
• Knowing the speed of rowing and the time of sounding, the location of
the points where soundings were taken can be easily determined
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• By observations from sextant

or theodolite
• Location by range and one
angle from shore
• The location of the sounding
is fixed by range and angle
from shore
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• Location by range and one angle

from boat
• The boat is kept in range by two
shore signals and the position of
sounding is fixed by taking
angle subtended to another
prominent point on the shore
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• Advantages
• Better control over operations
• Reduced errors in booking as it is done as readings are taken
• Check may be done by taking secondary angle towards some other
signal
• Different shore objects may be used for better intersections throughout
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• Location by two angles from the

shore
• two angles are measured to the
boat from two instrument stations
simultaneously
• The distance between the two
stations is also accurately
measured
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• Advantages
• Preliminary work of setting out and erecting signals is eliminated
• It is useful when there are strong currents due to which it is difficult to
row along the range line
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• Location by two angles from boat

• Simultaneous measurement of
angles between three prominent
point from the boat
• Location of boat is identified by
solving the three point problem
• Adopted for soundings of
isolated points
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• Location by one angle from shore

and other from boat
• Combination of previous two
methods
• Used to located isolated
soundings
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• Location by intersecting ranges

• Adopted when periodic sounding
of the same points need to be
done for determination of
scouring and silting
• The position of sounding is
located by intersection of ranges
avoiding angular observtions
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• Location by tacheometric
observations
• Soundings are located by
readings taken on a staff held
vertical on a boat
• Direction of boat is determined
by taking angle from prominent
points on the shore
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• Fixing by theodolite angles and EDM

• Modern method wherein EDM instrument is used to fix the boat by
polar method of range and bearing
• Fixing by Microwave systems
• Microwave based devices like Tellurometer is adopted for fixing
stations, for positions upto 100 km from the shore
 PLOTTING OF SOUNDING LOCATIONS

• Plotting of sounding depends on the method adopted for sounding

• It requires the simple knowledge of geometry when range lines and
angular methods are adopted for locating the sounding
• However, when angles are measure from the boat to three prominent
points on the shore, the position of the location of the boat is obtained
by solving the three point problem
• The three point problem can be solved by (a) mechanical method (b)
graphical method (c) analytical method
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• Three point problem

• Given the three shore signals A, B and C and the angles α and β
subtended by AP, BP and CP at the boat P, it is required to plot the
position of P.
• Solution
• Mechanical Method by tracing paper
• Draw three lines originating from a point subtending angles α and β
between them on a tracing paper
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• After plotting the positions of A, B and C in plan, superimpose the tracing

paper such a way that the three rays simultaneously pass through A, B and C
• The origin of the three rays gives the position of the boat
• Mechanical method by station pointer
• The station pointer is a three armed protractor and consists of a central
fixed arm and two movable arms
• The position of the boat can be found similar to the tracing paper method
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• Graphical solution
• It involves determining the position of the boat by means of
geometrical construction involving simples principles of geometry
 ASTRONOMICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

• Celestial Sphere
• The imaginary sphere on which
the stars appear to lie or
studded is known as the celestial
sphere
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• Zenith
• The point on the celestial sphere
immediately above the
observer’s station
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• Nadir
• The point on the celestial sphere
vertically below the observer’s
station
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• Great circle
• Great circle is the section of
the
sphere when the cutting plane
passes through the centre of the
sphere
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• Celestial Horizon
• It is the great circle traced upon
the celestial sphere by that
plane which is perpendicular to
the Zenith-Nadir line and which
passes through the centre of the
earth
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• Terrestrial Poles and Equator

• The terrestrial poles are the two
points in which the earth’s axis of
rotation meets the earth’s sphere
• The terrestrial equator is the
great circle of the earth, the
plane of which is at right angles
to the axis of rotation
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• Celestial Poles and Equator

• The two points where the earth’s
axis of rotation meets the
celestial sphere is north and
south celestial poles
• The celestial equator is the great
circle of the celestial sphere in
which it is intersected by the
plane of terrestrial equator
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• The Sensible Horizon

• It is a circle in which a plane
passing through the point of
observation and tangential to
the earth’s surface (or
perpendicular to the Zenith-
Nadir line) intersects with
celestial sphere
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• Visible horizon
• It is the circle of contact, with the
earth, of the cone of visual rays
passing through the point of
observation
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• Vertical Circle
• It is a great circle passing
through the zenith and nadir and
intersects the celestial horizon at
right angles
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• Observer’s Meridien
• It is a circle passing through the
zenith and nadir as well as the
through the poles
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• Prime vertical
• Vertical circle perpendicular to
the observer’s meridian and
passing through east and west of
horizon
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• Latitude
• It is the angle between the zenith
and the celestial equator
• Co-latitude
• It is the angle between the zenith
and the pole (complementary of
latitude)
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• Longitude
• Itis the angle between a fixed
reference meridian called the
prime meridian (Greenwich) and
meridian of the place
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• Altitude
• Itis the angular distance above
the horizon, measured on the
vertical circle passing through
the body
• Co-altitude and zenith distance
• It is the angular distance of
heavenly body from the zenith
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• Azimuth
• The azimuth of the heavenly
body is the angle between the
observer’s meridian and the
vertical circle passing through
the body
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• Declination
• The declination of the celestial
body is the angular distance from
the plane of the equator, measured
along the star’s meridian, generally
called the declination circle
• Co-declination or polar distance
• It is the angular distance of the
heavenly body from the nearer
pole
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• Hour Circle
• Great circles passing through the
north and south celestial poles
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• Hour Angle
• Angle between the observer’s
meridian and the declination
circle passing through the body
measured westwards
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• Right Ascension
• It is the equatorial angular
distance measured eastward
from the first point of Aries to
the hour circle through the
heavenly body
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• Ecliptic
• Ellipticis the great circle of the
heavens which the sun describes
on the celestial sphere
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• Equinoctial Points
• The points of intersection of the
elliptic with the equator
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• Solstices
• Points at which north and south declination of the sun is maximum
 MOTION OF THE SUN

• The sun has tow apparent motions, one with respect to earth from east
to west and the other with respect to fixed stars in the celestial sphere
• The former apparent path is called the ecliptic traced by the motion of
the sun on the celestial sphere
• The points of intersection between the ecliptic and the equator are
called as equinoctial points, the first point of Aries (Vernal Equinox)
where declination of sun changes from south to north and first point of
Libra (Autumnal Equinox) where the vice-versa happens
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• Vernal and autumnal equinox are the two points when the sun
directly lies above the equator wherein the lengths of the day and
night are equal (March 20/21 and September 21)
• Solstice is the point when the sun’s declination is the maximum
• When north declination is maximum, it is called as summer solstice
and when the south declination is maximum, it is called as winter
solstice (June 21 and December 21)
 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS

• The position of a heavenly body can be specified by two spherical

coordinates i.e. by two angular distances measured along arcs of
two great circles which cut each other at right angles
• One is known as the primary circle of reference and the other as
secondary circle of reference
• The different coordinate systems adopted are
• The horizon system
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• The independent equatorial system (Declination and right ascension

system)
• The dependent equatorial system (Declination and hour angle
system)
• The celestial latitude and longitude system
 CONTINUED…

• The horizon system

• Horizon (primary) and observer’s
meridian (secondary) are the
two great circles of reference
• Coordinates are
• Azimuth
• Altitude

• The system is dependent on the

observer’s position
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• Declination and right ascension

system
• The two great circles are
equatorial (primary) circle and
declination (secondary) circle
• Coordinates
• Right ascension
• Declination
• The system is independent of
observer’s position
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• Declination and hour angle

system
• Horizon (primary) and
declination circle (secondary)
are the two great circles of
reference
• Coordinates
• Hour Angle
• Declination
 CONTINUED…

• Celestial latitude and longitude

• Ecliptic (primary) circle and
great circle through point of
Aries (secondary) are the two
circles of reference
• Coordinates
• Celestial latitude
• Celestial longitude
 TIME SYSTEMS

• The different systems of time available for measuring time are

• Sidereal time
• Solar apparent time
• Mean solar time
• Standard time
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• Sidereal time
• The sidereal time is based on the apparent motion of the celestial bodies
across the celestial sphere
• The sidereal day is the interval of time between two successive upper
transits of the first point of Aries
• The sidereal day is divided into 24 hours, each hour into 60 minutes and
each minute into 60 seconds
• Local Sidereal time is the time interval that has elapsed since the transit of
the first point of Aries over the meridian of the place
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• Solar Apparent Time

• It is based on the motion or the rising and setting of the sun
• A solar day is the interval of time that elapses between two
successive lower transits of the sun’s centre over the meridian of the
place
• The apparent solar time is the right ascension of the sun’s centre and
is indicated by a sun dial
• The solar day is about 4 minutes longer than the sidereal day
 CONTINUED…

• Mean Solar Time

• It is based on the uniform movement of a fictitious sun called mean sun
• The mean solar day may be defined as the interval between successive
transits of the mean sun
• The mean solar day is the average of all the apparent solar days of the
year
• The local mean noon is the instant when the mean sun is on the meridian,
however, for convenience, it is considered that the day begins at midnight
and hence, zero hour of the day begins at local mean midnight
 CONTINUED…

• Local mean time is the time calculated from local mean midnight
• Equation of Time
• The difference between the mean solar time and the apparent solar
time is called as the equation of time
• In modern times, equation of time is considered as the correction that
needs to be applied to mean time to obtain apparent solar time
• The value of the equation of sun is given by the nautical almanac
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• Standard Time
• Different meridians will have different local times as the mean times are
calculated based on the transit of the sun at a particular place
• Inorder to avoid confusion, it is necessary to adopt the mean time at a
particular meridian as the standard time of the whole country
• Such standard meridians lie at exact number of hours from Greenwich
• The mean time associated with the standard meridian is called as
Standard time
 NAUTICAL ALMANAC

• It is a database of astronomical data

• Greenwich hour angle of Sun and declination are given for every
angle of GMT to 0.1’
• Tables for increments and corrections for every minute and second
• Equation of time (ET) is given to nearest second for intervals of 12
hours and time of meridian passage every day
• ET is the quantity to be added to mean solar time to get apparent
solar time
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• Semi-diameter of sun is given to 0.1’ for every 3 day period

• Sidereal hour angle and declinations are given for 173 stars
including 57 selected stars (accuracy = 0.1’)
• Polar star table are given
 SPHERICAL TRIANGLE

• A spherical triangle is that triangle formed upon the surface of a

sphere by intersection of three arcs of great circles
• Properties
• Any angle is less than two right angles or π
• Sum of three angles is less than six right angles or 3 π and greater
than two right angles or π
• Sum of any two sides is greater than the third
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• If the sum of any two angles, is equal to two right angles to π, the
sum of the angles opposite them is equal to two right angles or π
• The smaller angle is opposite the smaller side and vice-versa
CONTINUED…
 CORRECTIONS TO ALTITUDE AND AZIMUTH

• Corrections to observed values of altitude and azimuth can be

• Instrumental corrections
• Astronomical corrections
• Correction for Altitudes
• Correction for index error
• When the vertical circle verniers do not read zero when the line of
sight is horizontal, then the error introduced is called as index error
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• The correct vertical angle is given by  ' = 1 +  2

2
• Correction for bubble error
• This error is introduced when the altitude bubble does not remain in the
centre for all observations taken
O − E
C = v
n
Where, C is the correction for bubble error in seconds
ΣO is the sum of readings of the object end of the bubble
ΣN is the sum of readings of eye piece end of the bubble
n is the number of bubble end reads
v is the angular value of one division
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• Corrections to azimuth
• Correction to trunnion axis non-horizontality
• This error is introduced if the trunnion axis is truly not horizontal and
can be identified by the bubble readings on the striding level
c = b tan α seconds
Where, c is the correction for azimuth
b is the inclination of the horizontal axis
α is the vertical angle to the high point
 CONTINUED…

• Astronomical Corrections
• Correction for parallax
• The correction for parallax is due to the
difference in position of the body when
viewed from the centre of the earth and a
point on the surface of the earth
• Parallax in altitude is called as diurnal
parallax
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• Correction for parallax = horizontal parallax x cosine (apparent

altitude)
pa = ph cos  '
• Correction for parallax is always additive
• Correction for refraction
• Itis due to the bending of incident light from celestial body when
entering the earth’s atmosphere due to differences in atmospheric
density
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• The angle of deviation of the ray from its direction on entering the
atmosphere to its direction at the surface of the earth is called as the
refraction angle of correction
• It is always subtractive
Correction for refraction ( in sec) = 58“ cot α = 58” tan z
Where, α is the apparent altitude of the heavenly body
z is the zenith distance of the heavenly body
 CONTINUED…

• Correction for dip of the horizon

• The angle of dip is the angle between the
true and visible horizon

Where, β is the dip angle

h is the height of the observer
R is the radius of the earth
 CONTINUED…

• Correction for semi diameter

• The semi-diameter of the sun or star is half the angle subtended by
the diameter of the body at the centre of the earth
• It varies because the distance of the sun is not constant from the earth
 CONTINUED…

• γ/2 is semi diameter

 
 = 1 + = 2 −
2 2
• When horizontal angle is measured to right or
left limb
• Correction for semi-diameter in azimuth = semi
diameter x secant α
 DETERMINATION OF TIME

• The observations for determining the local time consists of mainly

finding the error in the chronometer watch which is read at the
instant the observations are taken
• If it keeps sidereal time, hour angle of vernal equinox or star
needs to be determined, if it keeps solar time, the hour angle of
the centre of the sun needs to be determined
• The various methods for determination of time are
• By meridian observation of star or sun
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• by ex-meridian altitude of star or sun

• By equal altitudes of star or sun
 DETERMINATION OF AZIMUTH

• Azimuth is the horizontal angle between the observer’s meridian

and the vertical circle passing through the celestial body
• The various methods for determination of azimuth
• By observations on star at equal altitudes
• By observation on circumpolar star at elongation
• By hour angle of sun or star
• By observation of Polaris
• By ex-meridian observations of sun or star
 DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE

• The various methods for determination of latitude are

• By meridian altitude of sun or star
• By zenith pair of observations
• By meridian altitude of a star at upper and lower culmination
• By ex-meridian observation of sun or star
• By prime vertical transits
• By determining the altitude of pole star
• By circum-meridian altitude of sun or star
 DETERMINATION OF LONGITUDE

• Difference in longitudes between two places is equal to difference in

their local times
• The longitude of a place can be determined by determining the local
time at the place and subtracting from the Greenwich time
• If the local time is greater than Greenwich time, it is to the east of
Greenwich and vice versa
• The various methods of determination of longitudes are
• By transportation of chronometers
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• By electric telegraph
• By wireless time signals
• By observing moon and the stars which culminate at the same time
• By celestial signals
• By lunar distances
THANK YOU