Audit Smart Notea PDF

PAPER 6
AUDITING AND ASSURANCE

SMART NOTES
ICAI SHRESHTA CHAPTER NAME START
ORDER ORDER PAGE NO.
NA 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF AUDITING 2
1 2. NATURE, OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF AUDIT 6
10 3. COMPANY AUDIT 27
11 4. AUDIT REPORT 52
13C 5. COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES AUDIT 90
3 6. DOCUMENTATION AND EVIDENCE 104
5 7. FRAUD RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE AUDITOR 126
4 8. RISK ASSESSMENT AND INTERNAL CONTROL 140
7 9. AUDIT SAMPLING 162
8 10. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES 179
2 11. AUDIT STRATEGY, PLANNING AND 189
PROGRAMME
6 12. AUDIT IN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT 203
PRON. 13. STANDARDS ON AUDITING 210
12 14. AUDIT OF BANKS 240
13A 15. GOVERNMENT AUDIT 266
13B 16. AUDIT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENTITIES 276
9 17. AUDIT OF ITEMS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS 299
DISCLAIMER: Reasonable Skill, Care and Diligence has been taken while preparing this
material. This will provide reasonable assurance for your success in Audit Exam. The only
inherent limitation is your preparation after attending our lectures. Hope you will overcome
those limitations by implementing proper internal control such as listening at Standard speed,
thorough reading after coaching and revising as per instructions given by CA Ram Harsha.
Further Pls note that this is a Smart Notes and this cannot be a substitute for
Main Book or Lectures.
THIS NOTES SHALL BE RECOMMENDED ONLY FOR THE STUDENTS OF REGULAR

OR REVISION COURSE OF CA RAM HARSHA SIR.
Author: Ram Harsha, FCA, DISA, B. Com

Mail: shreshtacomplaints@gmail.com
Telegram: +91 9700273087
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CA INTER - AUDITING – P6 - SMART NOTES – EDITION 2022 – BY CA RAM HARSHA
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF AUDITING
1. MEANING OF AUDIT:
An audit is an independent examination of financial information of any
entity, whether or not profit oriented and irrespective of its size or legal
form, when such an examination is conducted with a view to express an
opinion thereon.
2. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDIT/AUDITOR:

To express opinion (Audit Report) on financial statements:
a. Whether the financial statements are free from material misstatements
and
b. Whether they are prepared as per Applicable Financial Reporting
Framework.
3. AUDITOR:
“Auditor” is used to refer to the person or persons conducting the audit,
usually the engagement partner or other members of the engagement
team, or the firm.
When it comes to acceptance of Responsibility or being accountable to
regulatory authorities then engagement partner shall only be referred as
auditor.
Practically the meaning of auditor includes the following persons:
ENGAGEMENT TEAM:
a. Engagement Partner
b. Audit Manager
c. Paid assistant
d. Senior article assistant
e. Junior article assistant
f. Any other designation
4. BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS:
As per company’s act, 2013 “books of account” as defined in Section 2(13)
includes records maintained in respect of:
a. All sums of money received and expended by a company and matters in
relation to which the receipts and expenditure take place.
b. All sales and purchases of goods and services by the company.
c. The assets and liabilities of the company and
d. The items of cost as may be prescribed under section 148.
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5. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS:
a. Definition as per SA 200:
A structured representation of historical financial information, including
related notes, intended to communicate an entity’s economic resources
or obligations at a point in time or the changes therein for a period of
time in accordance with applicable financial reporting framework.
The related notes ordinarily comprise a summary of significant
accounting policies and other explanatory information.
b. Definition as per Companies Act:
Financial statements include the following:
• Balance Sheet
• Profit and Loss account or Income and Expenditure account
• Cash flow Statement
• Statement of change in equity, if applicable
• Any explanatory notes annexed to or forming part of financial
statements.
c. USERS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS:
Users Purpose
Management For day-to-day decision-making and performance
evaluation.
Proprietor / To analyse performance, profitability and financial
shareholders position. Prospective investors are interested in
the track record of the company.
Lenders - banks To determine the financial position and strength of
& fin. the Company, Debt Service Coverage, etc.
Institutions
Suppliers To determine the credit worthiness of the company.
Customers To know the general business viability before
entering into long-term contracts and
arrangements.
Government • To ensure prompt collection of Direct and Indirect
Tax revenues.
• To evaluate performance and contribution to
social objectives.
Research
For study, research and analysis purpose.
scholars
Employees Job security, bonus.
6. APPLICABLE FINANCIAL REPORTING FRAMEWORK:

A financial reporting framework is nothing but, set of rules and regulations
that are to be followed for preparation and presentation of financial
statements. 3
E.g., For a company the AFRFW is SCH III and Accounting standards.
7. GENERAL PURPOSE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (GPFS):

If the F/S are prepared in accordance with General Purpose Framework
(GPFW) then they are called as GPFS.
8. SPECIAL PURPOSE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (SPFS):

Financial statements prepared in accordance with a special purpose
framework.
In other words, if the financial statements are prepared as per the
requirement of a specific user, then they are known as SPFS.
9. GENERAL PURPOSE FRAMEWORK:

A financial reporting framework designed to meet the common financial
information needs of a wide range of users. (Framework may be understood
as Rules and Regulations)
Characteristics of GPFW:
a. Fundamental accounting assumptions are used in this type of
framework.
b. Compliance with GAAP.
c. Accounting standards as per AFRFW.
d. Annual Preparation, periodically.
Further this financial reporting framework may be a Compliance
Framework (or) a Fair Presentation Framework.
10. COMPLIANCE FRAMEWORK (CFW):

It refers to a framework where F/S are prepared and presented in
accordance with the requirements of such framework without any
deviation.
a. The words “True and Fair View” do not appear in the financial
statements in this type of framework.
b. E.g., Most of the special purpose financial statements are prepared as
per compliance framework.
11. FAIR PRESENTATION FRAMEWORK:

It refers to a framework where F/S are prepared and presented in
accordance with the requirements of such framework (CFW) AND
a. Contains disclosures beyond the requirements of such framework
(Explicitly / Implicitly) or
b. May deviate from the requirement of the framework” so as to achieve
fair presentation. (Explicitly)
c. The words true and fair view appears only in this type of framework.
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E.g., Most of the general-purpose financial statements are prepared as
per fair presentation framework.
12. MISSTATEMENT:
A difference between the Amount, Classification, Presentation, Or
Disclosure of a reported financial statement item AND the Amount,
Classification, Presentation, Or Disclosure that is required as per applicable
financial reporting framework.
Misstatements can arise from error or fraud.
13. FRAUD:
An intentional act by one or more individuals among management, those
charged with governance, employees, or third parties, involving the use of
deception to obtain an unjust or illegal advantage.
a. FRAUDULENT FINANCIAL REPORTING:
It involves intentional misstatements, including omissions of amounts
or disclosures in financial statements, to deceive financial statement
users. Either Overstatement or understatement of performance /
position.
b. MISAPPROPRIATION OF ASSETS:
Involves the theft of an entity’s assets and is often perpetrated by
employees in relatively small and immaterial amounts. Also, it involved
misuse of resources.
14. ERROR:
The term “error” refers to unintentional mistakes in financial statements
such as:
a. Clerical errors, like errors of omission, errors of commission, errors of
duplication and compensating errors.
b. Misapplication of accounting policies (Called errors of principle). From
the point of view of audit these errors are two types namely:
a. Self-revealing errors (Apparent on record and easily
identifiable) and
b. Non-self-revealing errors (Not apparent and require
additional efforts to detect them).
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2. NATURE, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVE OF
AN AUDIT
1 PART – I INTRO AND CONCEPTS TO AN AUDIT
2 PART – II ENGAGEMENT ACCEPTANCE AND OTHER PRELIMINARY
FORMALITIES
3 PART – III CONCEPT OF INDEPENDENCE AND RELATIONSHIP WITH
OTHER SUBJECTS
4 PART – IV SQC - STANDARD ON QUALITY CONTROL
PART – I (INTRO AND CONCEPTS OF AUDIT)
DEFINE THE TERM “AUDIT” AND EXPLAINING THE POINTS THAT AN AUDITOR
HAS TO SATISFY HIMSELF BEFORE EXPRESSION ON OPINION
A. DEFINITION:
An audit is an independent examination of financial information of any
entity, whether profit oriented or not, and irrespective of its size or legal
form, when such an examination is conducted with a view to expressing
an opinion thereon.
B. PURPOSE OF AN AUDIT: [Different from Objective of Audit]

Audit enhances degree of confidence of users of financial statements as they
are verified for its validity and accuracy by an independent competent
person.
C. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED:
The auditors verify that the financial statements shall not mislead
anybody by ensuring the following:
1. The Financial statements are in conformity with entries in books of
accounts.
2. Entries in Books are supported by sufficient and appropriate (Proper)
evidence.
3. No omissions or duplications or fictitious entries in the financial
statements.
4. The information in the financial statements is clear and unambiguous
(without confusion).
5. The amounts, classification, presentation and disclosures are as in
conformity with accounting standards.
6. The financial statements present true and fair view of operational results
and of assets and liabilities. 6
D. IMPLICATIONS OF AUDIT OPINION:
1. The Auditors opinion does not guarantee regarding:
a. Future viability of the entity
b. Efficiency and effectiveness of management.
2. The audit is just an opinion on historical financial information as to
whether they are reliable or not.
OBJECTIVES OF AN AUDITOR AS PER SA 200
As per SA-200 the overall objectives of the auditor are:
a. To obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as

a whole are free from material misstatements, whether due to fraud or
error, thereby enabling the auditor to express an opinion on whether the
financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance
with an applicable financial reporting framework AND
b. To report on the financial statements as per relevant SA’s based on the

auditor’s findings.
Note: The SA 200 deals with “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor
and conduct of an audit in accordance with Standards of auditing”.
SCOPE OF AUDIT
The auditor should consider the following while determining scope of audit:
A. COVER ALL ASPECTS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: The audit should cover all
aspects of the enterprise relevant to the financial statements.
B. RELIABILITY OF SOURCE DATA: The auditor should confirm whether the
financial statements are prepared based on a reliable source data i.e.,
Underlying records. The reliability and sufficiency of underlying
accounting records [i.e., source data] can be verified by:
1. Evaluation of accounting systems and internal controls and
2. By performing various tests, enquiries and other procedures of
account transactions and account balances.
C. PRESENTATION AND DISCLOSURE: The auditor shall ensure that the
information presented and disclosed in financial statements is as per the
relevant statute. This can be done by:
1. Comparing the financial statements with the underlying accounting
records to see that the transactions and events recorded properly.
2. Considering the judgments (Assumptions and estimates) that
management has made to determine their reasonableness.
3. Verify the selection and consistency of accounting policies followed. 7
4. Whether the classification, presentation and disclosure of information is
appropriate.
D. LIMITATION ON SCOPE: If there is a limitation on the auditor’s scope that

impair auditors’ ability to express unqualified opinion then the auditor can
report the same in his audit report by way of a Modified opinion.
E. TECHNICAL DUTIES ARE EXCLUDED: The auditor is not expected to perform

duties which fall outside the scope of his competence.
PRINCIPAL ASPECGS TO BE COVERED IN AUDIT
The principal aspects to be covered in an audit of financial statements are:
1. INTERNAL CONTROLS: An examination of the system of accounting and

internal control to ascertain whether it is appropriate for the business and
helps in properly recording all transactions.
2. SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES: Reviewing the system and procedures to find

out whether they are adequate and comprehensive and incidentally
whether material inadequacies and weaknesses exist to allow frauds and
errors going unnoticed.
3. ARITHMETICAL ACCURACY: Checking of the arithmetical accuracy of the

books of account by the verification of postings, balances, etc.
4. AUTHORISATIONS: Verification of the authenticity and validity of

transactions entered into by making an examination of the entries in the
books of accounts with the relevant supporting documents.
5. ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES: Ascertaining that a proper distinction has been

made between items of capital and of revenue nature and that the amounts
of various items of income and expenditure adjusted in the accounts
corresponding to the accounting period.
6. OVERALL REVIEW: Comparison of the balance sheet and profit and loss
account or other statements with the underlying record in order to see
that they are in accordance therewith.
7. VERIFICATION OF ASSETS: Verification of the title, existence and value of the

assets appearing in the balance sheet.
8. VERIFICATION OF THE LIABILITIES stated in the balance sheet. 8

9. STATUTORY COMPLIANCES: Where audit is of a corporate body, confirming
that the statutory requirements have been complied with.
10. AUDIT CONCLUSIONS AND REPORTING: Reporting to the appropriate

person/body whether the statements of account examined do reveal a true
and fair view of the state of affairs and of the profit and loss of the
organization.
VARIOUS TYPES OF AUDITS
Audit is not mandatory for all forms of organisations. Depending on

requirements of law the audits are classified into two types:
A. Statutory audit - Audit mandatory under any Law for time being in
force.
B. Non-Statutory audit - Voluntary audit.
A. STATUTORY AUDIT:
1. The organisation which requires compulsory audit under law is known as
statutory audit.
E.g.: Company audit u/s 139 of company’s act, 2013. Tax audit u/s 44AB
of Income tax Act, 1961, Bank audit under Banking regulation act, 1949
etc.
2. The auditor shall be independent in case of statutory audits. (Both Mind
and Appearance)
3. The rights and duties of the auditor are determined under the law and
terms of engagement.
B. NON - STATUTORY AUDIT / VOLUNTARY AUDIT:

1. NO REQUIREMENT UNDER LAW: The Appointment of auditors even
though, is not mandatory under the law is known as Non statutory audit.
Also known as VOLUNTARY AUDIT. E.g., Audit of sole proprietary
concern, audit of partnership firms and HUF’s. In these voluntary
audits, there is no basic Legal Requirement.
2. NEED FOR TERMS OF ENGAGEMENT: The auditor should get the scope of
his duties and responsibilities defined by obtaining instructions in writing
[Engagement Letter]. It is always a wise precaution to state in the
report, the nature of the work carried out and explain the important
features of the financial statements on which a report has been made.
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3. BENEFIT UNDER VOLUNTARY: Audit A special reference is necessary for
non-profit making institutions like schools, clubs, hospitals, etc. Most
of these have some internal rules to govern their affairs and generally a
provision about the requirement of audit is inserted. What makes them
distinct, is the absence of the question of division of profit. Any surplus
which may arise can only be used for achieving the objects of the
institution. Educational institutions, hospitals, associations, etc.,
irrespective of any internal rules, get their accounts audited because
most of them enjoy government or municipal grants and, generally, for
this purpose audited accounts are insisted upon.
4. INDEPENDENCE OF MIND ENOUGH: The auditor need not be independent

in terms of appearance but the audit process may be carried out
independently (Mind).
5. AUDIT OF TRUSTS: [4 MARKS QUESTION]

a. The trust’s may be public trusts or private trusts. Trusts can carry
on business as well. In the majority of cases trustees are private
persons.
b. Trusts generally have 2 classes of beneficiaries:
i. Tenants for life and
ii. Remainders
c. Persons to whom the accounts are of the supreme importance are
often widows and minors, who cannot criticize the accounts in any
effective manner.
d. Audit of trusts is not mandatory for private trusts, yet most of
the trust deeds contain a clause for audit of accounts.
e. Private trustees also recognise the advantages of audit in their own
interest, since any erroneous treatment in the accounts for which
they might be personally liable will be pointed out by the auditor.
ADVANTAGES OF AN INDEPENDENT AUDIT
1. It safeguards the financial interest of persons who are not associated with
the management of the entity, whether they are partners or shareholders,
bankers, FIS, Public at large etc.
2. It acts as a moral check on the employees from committing frauds or

errors.
3. For negotiating loans from lenders.
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4. For determining the purchase consideration for a business in case of
amalgamations.
5. For detection of weakness in internal controls those are leading to

wastages and losses.
6. To help in the settlement of accounts at the time of admission or death of

partner.
7. Government may require audited and certified statement before it gives

assistance or issues a license for a particular trade.
8. To ascertain whether the necessary books of account and allied records

have been properly kept.
9. Also helps to settle insurance claims in case of any catastrophe.
INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF AUDIT

The opinion expressed by auditor can only be a reasonable assurance. He
cannot obtain absolute assurance. Further the audit risk cannot be reduced to
zero but can only be minimized through a proper conduct of audit in
accordance with standards on auditing. Reasonable assurance is a high level
of assurance but not absolute assurance. The Inherent limitations are as
below:
A. NATURE OF FINANCIAL REPORTING:

1. The financial statements preparation involves many judgements and
assumptions which may vary considerably from entity to entity. Hence
these statements may get materially misstated which may not be
easily rectified by management or those charged with governance.
2. Many financial statement items involve subjective decisions or
assessments or a degree of uncertainty, and there may be a range of
acceptable interpretations or judgments that may be made.
B. NATURE OF AUDIT PROCEDURES: [4 MARKS QUESTION]

1. There is the possibility that management or others may not provide,
intentionally or unintentionally, the complete information that is
relevant to the preparation and presentation of the financial
statements or that has been requested by the auditor.
2. Normal audit procedures may not be effective to detect frauds which are
sophistically carried out.
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3. An audit is not an official investigation into alleged wrongdoing.
Accordingly, the auditor is not given specific legal powers, such as the
power of search, which may be necessary for such an investigation.
4. The nature of audit process is determined by using the auditor’s
professional judgement.
5. AUDIT VS INVESTIGATION: [IMP FOR 4 MARKS QUESTION]

a. An audit is not an official investigation into alleged wrongdoing.
Accordingly, the auditor is not given specific legal powers, such as
the power of search, which may be necessary for such an
investigation.
b. Investigation is a critical examination of the accounts with a special
purpose.
c. The objective of audit is to obtain reasonable assurance about whether
the financial statements as a whole are free from material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, thereby enabling the
auditor to express an opinion.
d. Therefore, audit is never started with a pre-conceived notion about:
a. About state of affairs.
b. About wrong doings.
c. About some wrong having been committed.
e. The auditor seeks to report what he finds in normal course of
examination of accounts.
f. It may happen that auditor has given some findings of serious
concern. Such findings may prompt for calling an investigation.
C. TIMELINESS OF F/R AND COST-BENEFIT BALANCING:

1. The auditor cannot escape saying time and cost as a reason for not
obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
2. The relevance of information, and thereby its value, tends to diminish
over time, and there is a balance to be struck between the reliability of
information and its cost.
3. Further due to certain external factors, the audit shall be completed
within a limited period of time. E.g., Legal or regulatory requirements.
D. OTHER LIMITATIONS: [JULY 2021 – 3 MARKS]
In the case of certain assertions or subject matters, the potential effects

of the inherent limitations on the auditor’s ability to detect material
misstatements are particularly significant. Such assertions or subject
matters include:
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The following are various other events or transactions that cause
limitations on audit.
1. Frauds involving senior management or Collusion.
2. Future events or conditions that may cause an entity to cease to
continue as a going concern.
3. The existence and completeness of related party relationships and
transactions.
4. The occurrence of non-compliance with laws and regulations.
QUALITIES OF AN AUDITOR
He is concerned with the reporting on financial matters of business and

other institutions. Financial matters inherently are to be set with the
problems of human fallibility tendency of error. Hence there is a need for
certain qualities, and they are:
A. PROFESSIONAL QUALITIES / TECHNICAL QUALITIES:
1. KNOWLEDGE OF ACCOUNTING: He is called upon constantly to critically

review financial statements and it is obviously useless for him to
attempt that task unless his own knowledge is that of an expert in
accounting. An exhaustive knowledge of accounting in all its branches is
the absolute need of the practice of auditing. He must know thoroughly
all accounting principles and techniques.
2. KNOWLEDGE OF LAW AND TAXATION: The Companies Act need special

mention but mercantile law, specially, the law relating to contracts, is
no less important. Where undertakings are governed by a special statute,
its knowledge will be imperative. In addition, a sound knowledge of the
law and practice of taxation is also required.
3. KNOWLEDGE OF FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT: He must pursue an

intensive programme of theoretical education in subjects. Both
practical training and theoretical education are equally necessary for the
development of professional competence of an auditor for undertaking
any kind of audit assignment.
4. KNOWLEDGE OF CLIENT BUSINESS: The auditor should be equipped with

an understanding of the special features peculiar to a particular business
whose accounts are under audit.
B. PERSONAL QUALITIES:
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1. The auditor, who holds a position of trust, must have the basic human
qualities apart from the technical requirement of professional training
and education.
2. The qualities required, according to Dicksee, are tact, caution, firmness,

good temper, integrity, discretion, industry, judgement, patience, clear
headedness, and reliability.
3. He must have the highest degree of integrity backed by adequate

independence.
ETHICAL REQUIREMENTS RELATING TO AN AUDIT OF FINANCIAL STATEMETNS
The auditor shall comply with the relevant ethical requirements as

prescribed below:
A. INTEGRITY: He should be honest, sincere and straight-forwarded in his

approach to the professional work. It implies fair dealing and truthfulness.
It effectively means that he shall not be associated with reports, returns,
communications or other information which he believes:
a. Contains a materially false or misleading statement,

b. Contains statements or information provided recklessly or
c. Omits required information where such omission could be
misleading.
B. OBJECTIVITY: He should be fair without any bias or prejudice. He should
maintain an impartial attitude.
C. CONFIDENTIALITY: The auditor should not disclose the information collected

by him, during the course of his professional work, to any third party
without specific authority from the client.
D. PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE & DUE CARE:
a. It requires that auditor attains and maintains professional knowledge

and skill at the level required to render competent professional
service based on current technical and professional standards and
legislation and
b. Act diligently and in accordance with technical and professional

standards. Diligence includes responsibility to act carefully,
thoroughly and on a timely basis in accordance with requirements of
an assignment.
E. PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR:
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It requires an auditor to comply with relevant laws and regulations and
avoid any conduct that he knows or should know might discredit the
profession.
SHORT NOTE ON PROFESSIONAL SKEPTICISM
MEANING: Professional skepticism refers to an attitude of questioning mind,

being alert to unusual situations and a critical assessment of audit evidence.
1. Professional skepticism includes being alert. For example:

a. Audit evidence that contradicts other audit evidence obtained.
b. Conditions that indicate possible fraud.
2. Maintaining professional skepticism throughout the audit is necessary to
reduce the risks of:
a. Overlooking unusual circumstances.
b. Over generalizing while taking decisions from audit observations.
3. The auditor may accept records and documents as genuine unless the
auditor has reason to believe the contrary. Nevertheless, the auditor is
required to consider the reliability of information to be used as audit
evidence. In cases of doubt about the reliability of information or
indications of possible fraud, the SAs require that the auditor investigate
further and determine what modifications or additions to audit procedures
are necessary to resolve the matter.
4. The auditor cannot be expected to disregard past experience of the honesty
and integrity of the entity’s management and those charged with
governance.
PROFESSIONAL JUDGEMENT AS PER SA 200 / PROFESSIONAL JUDEGEMENT IS

ESSENTIAL TO THE PROPER CONDUCT OF AN AUDIT
It refers to taking decisions by the auditor during the course of his audit by
using his knowledge, training and experience. Judgment includes assumptions
and estimations made by auditor.
Professional judgment is used throughout planning and performing of an

audit.
CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE EXERCISING OF PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT IS

REQUIRED:
1. Materiality and audit risk.
2. Nature, timing and extent of audit procedures.

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3. Evaluating whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been
obtained.
4. Drawing of conclusions based on the audit evidence obtained.
MENTION ANY FOUR POINTS WHICH ASSISTS THE AUDITOR IN ACCEPTING

AND CONTINUING OF RELATIONSHIP WITH THE CLIENT AS PER SA 220.
SA 220 “Quality Control for an Audit of Financial Statements” requires the firm
to consider the following information before accepting an engagement:
1. The integrity of the principal owners, key management and those charged
with governance of the entity.
2. Whether the engagement team is competent to perform the audit

engagement and has the necessary capabilities, including time and
resources.
3. Whether the engagement team can comply with relevant ethical

requirements and
4. Significant matters that have arisen during the current or previous audit
engagement and their implications for continuing relationship.
If the engagement partner obtains information that would have caused the
firm to decline the audit engagement had that information been available
earlier, the engagement partner shall communicate that information promptly
to the firm, so that the firm and the engagement partner can take the
necessary action.
PART – II (ENGAGEMENT ACCEPTANCE AND OTHER PRELIMINARY

AUDIT FORMALITIES)
LIMITATION ON SCOPE OF AUDIT PRIOR TO ENGAGEMENT ACCEPTANCE
AS PER SA 210- AGREEING ON TERMS OF AUDIT:

Prior to the acceptance of the audit engagement, if there is a limitation
imposed by management on the rights and duties of the auditor (Scope) in
proposed audit engagement, then the auditor shall not accept such audit
engagement.
Because with impose of limitations, the auditor cannot obtain sufficient
appropriate evidence and hence cannot obtain reasonable assurance results
in expression of disclaimer of opinion.
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PRE-CONDITONS FOR AN AUDIT AS PER SA 210
The auditor shall obtain a confirmation from the management that they
accept and acknowledge their responsibilities relating to financial
statements. This acknowledgement will be obtained through engagement
letter in accordance with SA 210.
It is also known as PREMISE to audit.
PRE-CONDITIONS TO BE CONFIRMED BEFORE STARTING THE AUDIT:

Obtain an agreement (written consent) from the management that they are
accepting their responsibility for the following activities:
1. Preparation of the financial statements in accordance with the applicable
financial reporting framework.
2. Designing and implementing necessary internal control to enable the
preparation of financial statements that are free from material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error; and
3. To provide the auditor with:
1. Access to all information such as records, documentation and other
matters;
2. Additional information that the auditor may request from management
for the purpose of the audit; and
3. Unrestricted access to persons within the entity from whom the auditor
determines it necessary to obtain audit evidence.
LETTEROF ENGAGEMENT AND ITS CONTENTS
A. PURPOSE OF ENGAGEMENT LETTER:

1. Engagement letter is a document issued by the auditor to the client, to
reduce the chances of misunderstanding regarding scope, objective,
rights and duties of the auditor and of management.
2. In case of Non statutory audit, the issue of engagement letter is highly
recommendatory as there is no governing law regarding rights and
duties of an auditor.
3. It is, therefore, important, both for the auditor and client, that each
party should be clear about the nature of the engagement. It must be
reduced to writing and should exactly specify the scope of the work.
4. In the case of partnerships, a few more precautions are needed. The
appointment of the auditor is normally governed by the partnership
deed. The accountant, when he is approached for undertaking a
professional assignment by a firm or a partner of a firm, should first get 17
a clear idea of the nature of the service required and then ensure, with
reference to the terms of partnership agreement that his appointment is
valid.
B. CONTENTS OF AN AUDIT ENGAGEMENT LETTER:
According to SA 210 “Agreeing the Terms of Audit Engagements”, the

auditor shall agree the terms of the audit engagement with management or
those charged with governance, as appropriate. The agreed terms of the
audit engagement shall be recorded in an audit engagement letter or other
suitable form of written agreement and shall the following details.
1. Title
2. Addressee
3. The objective and scope of the audit of Financial Statements.
4. The responsibilities of the auditor
5. The responsibilities of management. (I.e., Preconditions to audit)
6. Identification of the Applicable financial reporting framework for
preparation of F/s.
7. Reference to Expected Form and Content of Audit Report and
statement that the auditors may differ from the expected form and
content depending on circumstances.
8. Signature of auditor.
9. Signature of the client confirming the acceptance of terms.
10. Date and place.
STATE THE CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE SENDING NEW ENGAGEMENT LETTER,

WOULD BE APPROPRIATE IN RECURRING AUDITS
A. INITIAL AUDIT ENGAGEMENT:

The auditor must issue an engagement letter in case of newly accepted
appointment for an audit.
B. RECURRING AUDIT:
1. If auditor of previous year(s) has also been appointed as auditor for
current year, then the current year engagement is known as “Recurring
audit”.
2. In recurring audits, the auditor shall decide whether there is need to
re-issue the engagement letter based on circumstances and depending
on professional judgment of auditor.
3. Circumstances where engagement letter is issued even in case of
recurring audits:
a. Any indication that the entity misunderstands the objective and scope
of the audit.
18
b. A Revised or special terms of Engagement.
c. A change in legal or regulatory requirements.
d. A change in the Applicable financial reporting framework.
e. A change in audit reporting requirement.
f. A recent change of Top management.
g. A significant change in nature or size of the entity’s business.
CHANGE IN TERMS OF ENGAGEMENT AS PER SA 210
An auditor who, before the completion of the engagement, is requested from

the client to change the terms of engagement that leads to a lower level of
assurance, he shall evaluate the same appropriately. The reason to change
terms may result from:
1. Change in circumstances.
2. Misunderstanding of nature of an audit or services originally requested
or agreed.
3. A restriction on the scope of engagement imposed by management or
caused by circumstances.
A. “ACCEPTANCE OF CHANGE” IN TERMS OF ENGAGEMENT BY AUDITOR:

1. If there is a reasonable justification and if the audit work performed
complied with the SAs applicable to the changed engagement, the report
issued would be appropriate for the revised terms of engagement.
2. Further, the report would not include reference to:
a. The original engagement
b. Any procedures that may have been performed in the original
engagement.
3. Further the auditor and management shall agree and record the new
terms of the engagement in a new engagement letter.
B. “NON-ACCEPTANCE” OF CHANGE IN TERMS OF ENGAGEMENT BY AUDITOR:

The auditor shall not agree for changes in the terms of the audit
engagement where there is no reasonable justification for doing so.
C. WITHDRAWAL FROM ENGAGEMENT:

If the auditor is unable to agree to a change of the terms of engagement
and is not permitted by management to continue the original audit
engagement:
1. The auditor shall withdraw from the audit engagement.
19
2. Determine whether there is any obligation, either contractual or
otherwise, to report the circumstances to other parties, such as
those charged with governance, owners or regulators.
PART – III (CONCEPT OF INDEPENDENCE AND RELATIONSHIP WITH

OTHER SUBJECTS)
CONCEPT OF INDEPENDENCE OF AUDITOR
A. CONCEPT OF INDEPENDENCE:
1. The auditor’s independence safeguards the auditor’s ability to form an

audit opinion without being affected by any influences. Independence
enhances the auditor’s ability to act with integrity, to be objective and
to maintain an attitude of professional scepticism.
2. There are 2 interlinked perspectives of independence of auditors:
a. Independence of mind: The state of mind that takes an opinion
without being affected by influences of others, allowing such person
to act with integrity, objectivity and professional scepticism.
b. Independence in appearance: A person who is a third party to the
client (Not related to management and not holding any financial
or operating interest) would reasonably be accepted as an auditor.
As only a third party will safeguard integrity, objectivity or
professional scepticism.
3. SA 220 include evaluating whether members of the engagement team
have complied with relevant ethical requirements. SA 220 recognises
that the engagement team is entitled to rely on a firm’s systems in
meeting its responsibilities with respect to quality control procedures.
B. SAFEGUARDS TO INDEPENDENCE:
The Chartered Accountant has a responsibility to remain independent by

taking into account the context in which they practice, the threats to
independence and the safeguards available to eliminate the threats. The
following are the guiding principles in this regard:
1. For the public to have confidence in the quality of audit, it is essential

that auditors should always be and appears to be independent of the
entities that they are auditing.
2. In the case of audit, the key fundamental principles are integrity,
objectivity and professional skepticism, which necessarily require the
auditor to be independent.
20
3. Before taking on any work, an auditor must consider whether it involves
threats to his independence.
4. When such threats exist, the auditor should either withdraw from the
task or take certain precautions to eliminate them.
5. If the auditor is unable to fully implement credible and adequate
safeguards, then he must not accept the work.
“THE CODE OF ETHICS FOR PROFESSIONAL ACCOUNTANTS PREPARED BY

THE INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF ACCOUNTANTS (IFAC) IDENTIFIES FIVE
TYPES OF THREATS.” EXPLAIN
[[
The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) had identified five types

of threats:
A. SELF-INTEREST THREATS:
Occurs when an auditing firm or any partner benefiting from a financial
interest in the audit client.
Examples:
1. Direct financial interest or materially significant indirect financial
interest in a client,
2. Loan or guarantee to or from the concerned client,
In case an audit firm unduly relies on fees from a client, it may result in
threat to self-interest of auditor, and he may not work objectively for the
fear of losing client.
B. SELF-REVIEW THREATS:
1. Which occur when during a review of any judgement or conclusion

reached in a previous audit or non-audit engagement* or when a
member of the audit team was previously a director or senior employee of
the client.
2. Instances where such threats come into play are:
a. When an auditor having recently been a director or senior officer of
the company, and
b. When auditors perform services that are themselves subject matters
of audit.
*Non audit engagement includes any professional services provided to an

entity by an auditor, other than audit or review of the financial
statements. These include management services, internal audit, etc.
21
C. ADVOCACY THREATS:
Occurs when the auditor promotes a client’s opinion to a point where
people may believe objectivity is compromised.
Examples:
1. When an auditor deals with shares or securities of the audited
company, or
2. becomes the client’s advocate in litigation and third-party disputes.
Remember that auditor has not only to be independent but also appear to be
acting so.
D. FAMILIARITY THREATS:
These are self-evident and occur when auditors form relationships with the
client where they end up being too sympathetic to the client’s interests.
Examples:
Close relative of the audit team working in a senior position in the client
company
E. INTIMIDATION THREATS:
1. Which occur when auditors are deterred from acting objectively with an
adequate degree of professional scepticism.
2. Basically, these could happen because of threat of replacement over
disagreements with the application of accounting principles, or pressure
to disproportionately reduce work in response to reduced audit fees or
being threatened with litigation.
SHORT NOTES ON RELATIONSHIP OF AUDITING WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES.
A. AUDITING AND ECONOMICS:

1. As, it is well known, accounting is concerned with the accumulation
and presentation of data relating to economic activity.
2. The auditors are more concerned with Micro economics rather than with
the Macro economics.
3. The knowledge of Macroeconomics should include the nature of
economic force that affect the firm, relationship of price and the role
of Government and Government regulations.
B. AUDITING AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE:
22
1. The discipline of behavioural science is closely linked with the subject
of auditing.
2. While it may be said that an auditor deals basically with the figures
contained in the financial statements but he shall be required to
interact with a lot of people in the organization.
3. As against the financial auditor, the internal auditor is expected to deal
with human beings rather than financial figures.
4. The knowledge of human behaviour is indeed very essential for an
auditor so as to effectively discharge his duties.
C. AUDITING AND STATISTICS & MATHEMATICS:

With the passage of time, test check procedures in auditing have become
part of generally accepted auditing procedures.
1. With the emergence of test check procedure, discipline of statistics has
come quite close to auditing as the auditor is also expected to have the
knowledge of statistical sampling so as to arrive at meaningful conclusions.
2. The knowledge of mathematics is also required on the part of auditor
particularly at the time of verification of inventories.
D. AUDITING AND DATA PROCESSING:

1. Today, organisations are witnessing revolution in the field of data
processing of accounts.
2. Many organisations are carrying out their financial accounting activities
with the help of computers which can document, record, collate, allocate
and value accounting data and information in very large quantity at very
high speed.
3. Dependence on the accuracy of the programmed instructions given today,
the computer is able to carry out each of these activities with complete
accuracy.
4. With such a phenomenal growth in the field of computer sciences, the
auditor should have good knowledge of the components, general
capability of the system and the related terms. In fact, EDP auditing in
itself is developing as a discipline in itself.
E. AUDITING AND FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT:

1. The auditor is expected to have knowledge about various financial
techniques such as working capital management, funds flow, ratio
analysis, capital budgeting etc.
2. The knowledge of various institutions and Government activities that
influence the operations of the financial market are also required to be
understood by an auditor.
23
F. AUDITING AND PRODUCTION:
1. While carrying out the audit activity, the auditor is required to
evaluate transactions from the accounting aspect in relation to the
process through which it has passed through as accounting for by-
products; joint products may also require to be done.
2. The auditor shall also require understanding the cost system in operation
in the factory and assessing whether the same is adequate for the
particular company.
3. The understanding of the terminology of the production shall enable an
auditor to communicate with production employees in connection with
his work.
G. AUDITING AND ACCOUNTING:

1. It has been pointed out earlier that both accounting and auditing are
closely related with each other as auditing reviews the financial
statements which are nothing but a result of the overall accounting
process.
2. It naturally calls on the part of the auditor to have a thorough and
sound knowledge of generally accepted principles of accounting before he
can review the financial statements.
H. AUDITING AND LAW:

1. The relationship between auditing and law is very close one. Auditing
involves examination of various transactions from the view point of law,
whether or not these have been properly entered into.
2. It necessitates that an auditor should have a good knowledge of
business laws affecting the entity.
3. The knowledge of taxation laws is also inevitable as entity is required to
prepare their financial statements taking into account various
provisions affected by various tax laws.
PART – IV (STANDARD ON QUALITY CONTROL (SQC))
ELEMENTS OF A SYSTEM OF QUALITY CONTROL IN LIGHT OF SQC.
The firm’s system of quality control should include policies and procedures
addressing each of the following elements:
1. Leadership responsibilities for quality within the firm.
2. Ethical requirements.
24
3. Acceptance and continuance of client relationships and specific
engagements.
4. Human resources.
5. Engagement performance.
6. Monitoring.
RESPONSIBILITY FOR THE OVERALL QUALITY ON EACH AUDIT ENGAGEMENT.

ALSO EXPLAIN THE POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED TO ENSURE QUALITY OF
AUDIT
As per SA 220 “Quality Control for an Audit of Financial Statements”, the

engagement partner shall take responsibility for the overall quality on each
audit engagement to which that partner is assigned.
Emphasis on the following in order to achieve quality of audit:
1. Performing work that complies with professional standards and
regulatory and legal requirements.
2. Complying with the firm’s quality control policies and procedures as
applicable.
3. Issuing auditor’s reports that are appropriate in the circumstances and
4. The engagement team’s ability to raise concerns without fear of
reprisals.
THE FIRM SHOULD ESTABLISH POLICIES AND PROCEDURES DESIGNED TO

PROVIDE IT WITH REASONABLE ASSURANCE THAT IT HAS SUFFICIENT
PERSONNEL WITH THE CAPABILITIES, COMPETENCE, AND COMMITMENT.
As per SQC – 1, The firm’s policies and procedures shall include the following
Personnel related issues:
1. Recruitment
2. Performance evaluation
3. Capabilities
4. Competence
5. Career development
6. Promotion
7. Compensation and
8. Estimation of personnel needs.
EXPLAIN, POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR QUALITY OF ENGAGEMENT

PERFORMANCE IN LIGHT OF SQC- 1.
25
The firm should establish policies and procedures designed to provide it with
reasonable assurance that engagements are performed in accordance with
professional standards and regulatory and legal requirements.
These policies shall address the following issues:
1. How engagement teams are briefed on the engagement to obtain an
understanding of the objectives of their work.
2. Processes for complying with applicable engagement standards.
3. Processes of engagement supervision, staff training and coaching.
4. Methods of reviewing the work performed, the significant judgments
made and the form of report being issued.
5. Appropriate documentation of the work performed and of the timing and
extent of the review.
6. Processes to keep all policies and procedures.
EXPLAIN THE PURPOSE OF MONITORING COMPLIANCE WITH QUALITY

CONTROL POLICIES AND PROCEDURES.
The purpose of monitoring compliance with quality control policies and

procedures is to provide an evaluation of:
1. Adherence to professional standards and regulatory and legal
requirements
2. Whether the quality control system has been appropriately designed and
effectively implemented.
3. Whether the firm’s quality control policies and procedures have been
appropriately applied, so that reports that are issued by the firm or
engagement partners are appropriate in the circumstances.
26
3. APPOINTMENT OF AUDITOR’s
THE QUALIFICATIONS TO BECOME COMPANY AUDITOR.
A. QUALIFICATIONS OF COMPANY AUDITOR [Sec 141(1)]:

1. An Individual is eligible for appointment as an auditor only if he is a
chartered accountant holding certificate of practice.
2. A Firm / LLP whereof majority of partners practising in India are
qualified for appointment as aforesaid may be appointed by its firm
name to be auditor of a company.
B. WHO SHALL SIGN [Sec. 141(2)]:

If a firm / LLP is appointed as an auditor, Only the partners who are
Chartered Accountants shall sign the audit report on behalf of the firm.
DISQUALIFICATIONS OF A COMPANY’S AUDITOR.
A. DISQUALIFICATIONS OF COMPANY AUDITOR [Sec 141(3)]:

The following persons are not eligible for appointment as an auditor of a
company even though they possess chartered accountancy qualification:
a. A Body corporate other than a limited liability partnership.
b. An Officer or Employee of the company.
c. A person who is a Partner, or who is in the Employment, of an officer or
employee of the company;
d. A person who, or his relative or partner -
i. Is holding any security or interest in the company or its subsidiary, or
of its holding or associate company or a subsidiary of such holding
company (Group companies). (Ref: Note No. – i, ii, iii)
ii. Is indebted to the company or the group companies in excess of Rs
5,00,000. (Ref Note No. – iv)
iii. Has given a guarantee or provided any security on behalf of any third
person to the Company or the group companies in excess of Rs
1,00,000.
NOTE:
I. The Limit of Rs. 1,00,000/- shall applies even for companies not having
share capital.
II. The relative of the auditor may hold security or interest in the
company for an amount Not exceeding a face value of Rs 1,00,000.
27
III. Also, it is to be observed that if the auditor is holding securities in HIS
name this exception does not apply.
IV. If an auditor purchases goods on credit from the company of a value
exceeding Rs. 5,00,000, he shall be indebted to the company. It is
immaterial that the credit period allowed to the auditor is same as
allowed to other customers in the ordinary course of business.
V. If an auditor recovers fees from the company on a progressive basis,
even though the audit has not been completed, it is not treated as
indebtness.
e. A person or a firm (including LLP) who or which has business
relationship with the Company, or its group companies, whether directly
or indirectly
Exceptions: The term “Business relationship” includes any transaction

entered for commercial purpose except the following commercial
transactions:
i. Professional services permitted to be rendered by an auditor or
audit firm under the Companies Act, 2013 and the Chartered
Accountants Act, 1949.
ii. Transactions which are in the ordinary course of business of the
company at arm’s length price.
f. A person whose relative is a Director or is in the employment of the
Company as a director or key Managerial Personnel. (KMP also known
as officer)
g. A person who is in full time employment elsewhere.
h. A person or partner of a firm holding appointment of more than 20
company audits as on the date of proposed appointment.
i. A person who has been convicted by a Court of an offence involving fraud
and a period of 10 years has not elapsed from the date of such
conviction.
Note: If such conviction is held by tribunal, then prohibition is only for
5 years. (Sec.140 (5))
j. Any person who directly or indirectly renders any services as specified in
section 144 to the company, its holding company or its subsidiary
company.
Note:
For the purposes of this sub-section, the term “directly or indirectly”
shall include rendering of services by the auditor:
IN CASE OF INDIVIDUAL AUDITOR:
1. Either himself or
2. Through his relative or
3. Any other person connected or associated with such individual or
28
4. Through any other entity, whatsoever,
In which such individual has significant influence or control, or whose
name or trademark or brand is used by such individual.
IN CASE OF FIRM [ INCLUDING LLP]:

1. Either itself or
2. Through any of its partners or
3. Through its parent, subsidiary or associate entity or
4. Through any other entity, whatsoever,
In which the firm or any partner of the firm has significant influence or
control, or whose name or trademark or brand is used by the firm or any
of its partners.
B.SUBSEQUENT DISQUALIFICATION AFTER APPOINTMENT: [SEC. 141(4)]
Where a person appointed as an auditor of a company incurs any of the

disqualifications mentioned above after his appointment, he shall vacate
immediately his office as auditor and such vacation shall be deemed to be
a casual vacancy in the office of the auditor.
Note: However, If the relative of auditor is holding securities exceeding

Face value Rs. 1,00,000 after being appointed as an auditor then corrective
action shall be taken within 60 days of such acquisition. In this case
immediate vacation does not apply as 60 days’ time limit is provided.
Further this Exception applies only in case of relative acquiring securities in
their name and NOT in name of auditor.
Note:
Definition of “RELATIVE”: [sec 2(77)]: ‘Relative’ with reference to any person,
means anyone who is related to another, if
1. They are members of a Hindu Undivided Family;
2. They are husband and wife;
3. One person is related to the other in the manner as given below:
a. Father (including step- father)
b. Mother (including step-mother),
c. Brother (including step- brother),
d. Sister (including step- sister),
e. Son (including step- son),
f. Son’s wife,
g. Daughter,
h. Daughter’s husband.
29
THE SERVICES WHICH AN AUDITOR OF A COMPANY IS PROHIBITED TO
RENDER TO THE CLIENT AUDITED AS PER SEC 144 OF THE COMPANIES ACT
2013.
[
As per Sec. 144, Prohibited services by auditors of the company to the

company, holding company or subsidiary company:
1. Accounting and book keeping services.

2. Internal audit.
3. Design and implementation of any financial information system.
4. Actuarial services.
5. Investment advisory services.
6. Investment banking services.
7. Outsourced financial services.
8. Management services.
9. Any other kind of services as may be prescribed
Any person engaged in providing any of the above services then he cannot
be appointed as auditor of the same company or group companies.
If at all the proposed auditor withdraws from rendering the above services
then he can be appointed as an auditor after such withdrawal.
CEILING ON NUMBER OF AUDITS THAT CAN BE ACCEPTED BY AN AUDITOR
1. A Chartered Accountant in practice cannot hold appointments as auditor

for more than 20 companies at any time. [at the date of such appointment
or reappointment]
2. In case of a partnership firm the limit of 20 shall be counted per partner in
practice.
3. If a person acting as partner in multiple firms, then the limit will be
counted only for one partnership and in the name of such partner only.
4. In other words, the limit of 20 shall be counted per person holding COP.
Whether he is a sole proprietor or partner, in one or multiple firms.
5. COMPANIES EXCLUDED FROM CEILING LIMIT: For the purpose of
computation of ceiling limits following companies are excluded:
a. One person companies,
b. Dormant companies,
c. Small companies, and
d. Private limited companies having a paid-up capital less than Rs.100
crores provided such private limited company does not violate the
provisions of Sec. 137 [Filing of Financial Statements] and Sec. 92
[Filing of Annual Return] 30
Note:
1. The Council of the ICAI hereby specifies that a member of the Institute in
practice shall be deemed to be guilty of professional misconduct, if he
holds at any time appointment of more than the “specified number of
audit assignments of the companies”.
2. In computing the specified number of audit assignments-
a. The number of such assignments, which he or any partner of his
firm has accepted whether singly or in combination with any other
chartered accountant in practice or firm of such chartered
accountants, shall be taken into account.
b. The number of partners of a firm on the date of acceptance of audit
assignment shall be taken into account.
c. A chartered accountant in full time employment elsewhere shall not
be taken into account.
3. A chartered accountant in practice as well as firm of chartered
accountants in practice shall maintain a record of the audit assignments
accepted by him or by the firm of chartered accountants, or by any of
the partner of the firm in his individual name or as a partner of any
other firm as far as possible, in the prescribed manner.
4. Ceiling on Tax Audit Assignments: The specified number of tax audit
assignments that an auditor, as an individual or as a partner of a firm,
can accept is 60 numbers.
PROVISIONS RELATING TO AUDIT COMMITTEE AND SELECTION PROCESS OF

THE COMPANY AUDITOR
A. APPLICABILITY OF AUDIT COMMITTEE:
The Following classes of companies shall constitute an Audit Committee -

1. Listed companies
2. All public companies
a. With a paid-up capital of Rs. 10 crore or more;
b. With turnover of Rs. 100 crore or more;
c. With aggregate outstanding loans or borrowings or debentures or
deposits, Rs. 50 crore or more.
NOTE: The above limits shall be taken as on preceding audited balance
sheet date.
B. MANNER AND PROCEDURE OF SELECTION AND APPOINTMENT OF AUDITORS:

139(11)
Following is the manner and procedure of selection & appointment of

auditors-
31
1. If the audit committee is constituted then they shall select the auditor
(Including a case of casual vacancy) on appropriate basis and recommend
to the BOD. If No audit committee is constituted then BOD shall select
the auditor on an appropriate basis.
2. The BOD may agree with the proposed auditor recommended by audit
committee and shall recommend the same to members at AGM.
3. If BOD disagrees with the recommendation made by audit committee,

then it shall refer back to audit committee for the further revision citing
reasons for reconsideration.
4. If the audit committee after considering the revision appeal made by

BOD, decided not to change their recommendation then they can inform
the same to the BOD.
5. The BOD can recommend to the members the proposed auditor selected by
them and fact that they disagree with the audit committee’s selection
and reasons thereof.
6. Finally, the members may take an appropriate action regarding the

appointment of auditor.
C. COMPOSITION OF AUDIT COMMITTEE:
1. The audit Committee shall consist of minimum of three directors,

Majority must be independent directors.
2. All the members of audit committee shall be able to read and

understand the financial statements.
PROVISIONS RELATED TO APPOINTMENT OF AUDITOR OF A COMPANY.
Section 139 of the Companies Act, 2013 contains provisions regarding

Appointment of Auditors. The section divides the appointment into two
parts:
A. Appointment of First Auditors.

B. Appointment of Subsequent Auditors.
Further the appointment procedure is separately dealt for Government

Company and Non-Government Company.
A. APPOINTMENT OF FIRST AUDITOR:
1. IN CASE OF NON-GOVERNMENT COMPANY: [SEC. 139(6)]
32
a. The first auditor of Non-government Company shall be appointed by
the Board of Directors within 30 days from the date of registration of
the company.
b. If the Board fails to appoint, it shall inform the members of the

company and the members shall appoint the auditor within 90 days at
an extraordinary general meeting.
c. Appointed auditor shall hold office till the conclusion of the first
annual general meeting.
2. IN CASE OF A GOVERNMENT COMPANY: [SEC. 139(7)]
a. The first auditor shall be appointed by the Comptroller and Auditor-

General of India (CAG) within 60 days from the date of registration of
the company.
b. If CAG fails to appoint the auditor then the Board of directors shall
appoint within next 30 days.
c. If BOD also fails then they shall inform the members who shall appoint
such auditor within 60 days at an extraordinary general meeting.
d. The Auditors appointed as above shall hold office till the conclusion of
the first annual general meeting.
B. APPOINTMENT OF SUBSEQUENT AUDITORS:
1. IN CASE OF NON-GOVERNMENT COMPANIES: [SEC. 139(1)]
a. Every company shall at the Annual General Meeting appoint an

individual or a firm as an auditor and the appointed auditor shall hold
office from the conclusion of that AGM till the conclusion of its sixth
AGM and thereafter till the conclusion of every sixth meeting.
b. The following certificates shall be obtained from the proposed

auditor:
I. Before such appointment is made, the written consent of the

auditor to such appointment shall be obtained.
II. A Certificate indicating that he is eligible and not disqualified shall

be obtained.
III. A Certificate that his total number of company audits after

accepting the proposed appointment will be within the ceiling
limit specified under law.
33
IV. List of Pending Proceedings against the auditor or his partner or
firm shall be indicated in an appropriate manner.
c. The company shall inform the auditor concerned of his appointment

and shall file a notice of such appointment with the Registrar within
15 days of the meeting in which the auditor is appointed. (Form ADT
– 1)
2. IN CASE OF GOVERNMENT COMPANIES: [SEC. 139(5)]
a. The Comptroller and Auditor-General of India (CAG) shall appoint a

chartered accountant in practice within a period of 180 days from the
commencement of the financial year.
b. The auditor appointed as above shall hold office till the conclusion of
the next annual general meeting.
Note: Where at any AGM, NO auditor is appointed or re-appointed, the

existing auditor shall continue to be the auditor of the company. [Sec.
139(10)]. Practically this case is not possible as appointment and
reappointment are ordinary businesses in an AGM which cannot be
ignored.
C. DEFINITION OF GOVERNMENT COMPANY:
A “Government company” is a company:
a. In which not less than 51% of the paid-up share capital is held by the
Central or any State Government or Governments or partly by the
Central and partly by one or more State Governments and
b. Includes a company which is a subsidiary company of such a
government company.
PROVISIONS TO FILL THE CASUAL VACANCY ARISES IN THE OFFICE OF AN

AUDITOR.
As per Section 139(8), any casual vacancy in the office of an auditor shall-
A. NON-GOVERNMENT COMPANY:
1. Other than Resignation: Shall be filled by the Board of Directors, on

recommendation of audit committee, within 30 days.
2. Resignation: The appointment shall also be approved by the company at

a general meeting convened within three months of the recommendation
of the Board.
34
B. GOVERNMENT COMPANY:
1. It shall be filled by the CAG within 30 days.
2. In case if the CAG does not fill the vacancy within 30 days then the
Board of Directors shall fill the vacancy within next 30 days.
C. PERIOD OF APPOINTMENT:
The Auditor appointed under casual vacancy shall hold the office until
conclusion of Next AGM only.
MEANING OF CASUAL VACANCY: If vacancy arises in the auditor’s office on

account of any reason other than expiry of term. In other words, concept
of casual vacancy arises only before expiry of term of appointment of
auditor.
DUTIES OF AN AUDITOR IN CASE OF RESIGNATION
1. As per section 140(2), the auditor who has resigned from the company
shall file a form with the company and the Registrar in ADT-3 within a
period of 30 days from the date of resignation.
2. Further in case of Government Company, He shall also inform the same to

CAG.
3. The statement shall indicate the reasons and other facts as may be
relevant with regard to his resignation.
4. As per Sec. 140(3), in case of failure to comply with the above provisions,
the auditor shall be liable with a fine not less than Rs.50,000 or
Remuneration, whichever is lower and in case of continuing failure, Rs.500
per day for after the first failure. Also, the fine levied is subject to
maximum of Rs. 2,00,000/-.
5.
PROVISIONS RELATING TO ROTATION OF AN AUDITOR.
A. APPLICABILITY OF ROTATION OF AUDITORS: [Sec. 139(2)]
1. All Listed Companies.

2. All Unlisted Public Limited Companies:
a. With paid up share capital of rupees 10 crore or more.
b. With borrowings from PFI’s or Banks or Public Deposits of 50 crore
or more.
3. All Private Limited Companies:
a. With paid up share capital of rupees 50 crore or more.
35
b. With borrowings from PFI’s or Banks or Public Deposits of 50 crore
or more.
Note: This provision shall not apply to One Person Company and Small
Companies. Rotation of auditors shall not apply for Government companies.
[
B. MANNER OF ROTATION:
1. Every company to which the concept of rotation is applicable, shall not

appoint or re-appoint-
a. An Individual as auditor for more than ONE term of five consecutive

years; and
b. A Firm of auditors for more than TWO terms of five consecutive years.
Note: CONSECUTIVE YEARS shall mean all the preceding financial years
for which the individual auditor has been the auditor until there has
been a break by five years or more.
2. An individual auditor or an audit firm who or which has completed their

respective term namely 5 years or 10 years (AKA retiring auditors) as the
case may be, shall not be eligible for re-appointment as auditor in the
same company for a period of five years from the completion of their
respective term (AKA Break in service or Cooling period).
3. For the sake of convenience Retiring auditor is referred as outgoing

auditor. New auditor is referred as Incoming auditor.
4. If there is a common partner(s) in incoming and outgoing auditor’s firm,

then such incoming auditor is not eligible for appointment under
rotation for a period of 5 years.
5. If the incoming auditor and outgoing auditor belong to “Same

Network”, then also such incoming auditor shall not be eligible for
appointment.
6. The term “same network” includes the firms operating or functioning

under the same brand name, trade name or common control.
7. If a partner who is in charge of an audit firm and also certifies the

financial statements of the company, retires from the said firm and joins
another firm of chartered accountants, such other firm shall also be
ineligible to be appointed for a period of five years.
Note: Subject to the provisions of this Act, members of the company may
resolve that-
36
a. In the audit firm appointed by it, the auditing partner and his team
shall be rotated at such intervals as may be resolved by members. (AKA
Internal Rotation) or
b. The audit shall be conducted by more than one auditor (Joint Audit).
Note: For computing number of years for the purpose of rotation, the
period of appointment before commencement of this act shall also be
considered i.e., auditor’s period under company’s act, 1956 shall also be
computed for calculating 1 term of 5 years or 2 terms of 5 years.
PROVISIONS RELATING TO REMOVAL OF AUDITOR OF A COMPANY BEFORE

EXPIRY OF HIS TERM.
[
PROCEDURE FOR REMOVAL OF AUDITOR BEFORE EXPIRY OF TERM:
1. A BOD resolution shall be passed to remove the auditor before expiry of

term.
2. An application to the Central Government for removal of auditor shall be

made in Form ADT-2 within 30 days of board resolution.
3. The company shall hold the general meeting within 60 days upon receipt of
approval from the Central Government for passing the special resolution.
4. Convene the General Meeting and pass the special resolution removing the
auditor.
Note: An opportunity of being heard shall be given to the auditor before

removing him.
As you would notice, the provisions of removal of auditor before expiry of

his term are also meant to safeguard auditor’s independence by imposing
strict conditions like prior approval of Central government.
PROCEDURE FOR REMOVAL OF AUDITOR BY TRIBUNAL U/S 140(5)
A. APPLICATION BY WHOM:
1. The Tribunal on its own

2. The Central Government
3. Any person concerned
B. APPLICATION TO WHOM: The tribunal. 37

C. PROCEDURE FOR REMOVAL:
1. If the tribunal is satisfied that the auditor of a company has acted in a

fraudulent manner or colluded in any fraud with directors or officers of
the company then it may direct the company to change its auditors.
2. If the application is made by the Central Government and the Tribunal

is satisfied that any change of the auditor is required, it shall make an
order that he shall not function as an auditor within 15 days of receipt
of such application and the Central Government may appoint another
auditor in his place.
D. PROHIBITION ON FURTHER APPOINTMENTS: An auditor, whether individual

or firm, against whom final order has been passed by the Tribunal under
this section shall not be eligible for appointment as an auditor of ANY
company for a period of 5 years from the date of passing of the order.
Note: If the conviction is by court, then the prohibition shall be 10 years.
POWERS OF AN AUDITOR AS PER SEC. 143(1).
The auditor has the following powers/rights while conducting an audit:
A. RIGHT OF ACCESS TO BOOKS:
1. The auditor of a company shall have a right of access to the books of

account and vouchers of the company at all times, whether kept at the
registered office of the company or at any other place including
branches.
2. Further this right can be exercised during working days and business
hours.
3. Right to access to books of accounts of subsidiary company and

associate companies in so far as they related to consolidated financial
statements.
4. Right to access to other records namely minutes of board meeting, MIS

reports and any other books as may require by the auditor.
Note: The phrase ‘books, accounts and vouchers’ include all books which
have any bearing, or are likely to have any bearing on the accounts,
whether these be the usual financial books or the statutory or statistical
books; memoranda books, e.g., inventory books, costing records and the
like may also be inspected by the auditor.
38
Similarly, the term ‘voucher’ includes all or any of the correspondence which
may in any way serve to vouch for the accuracy of the accounts.
B. RIGHT TO OBTAIN INFORMATION AND EXPLANATION:
A. The auditor has right to obtain from the officers of the company such
information and explanations as he may think necessary for the
performance of his duties as auditor.
B. The information and explanation can be obtained from either officers or

employees of the company.
Note: In the absence of such power, the auditor would not be able to obtain
details of amount collected by the directors, etc. from any other
company, firm or person as well as of any benefits in kind derived by the
directors from the company, which may not be known from an examination
of the books.
It is for the auditor to decide the matters in respect of which information

and explanations are required by him.
When the auditor is not provided the information required by him or is

denied access to books, etc., his only remedy would be to report to the
members that he could not obtain all the information and explanations he
had required or considered necessary for the performance of his duties as
auditors.
C. RIGHT TO RECEIVE NOTICES AND DUTY TO ATTEND GENERAL MEETING (Sec.

146):
1. The auditors of a company are entitled to attend any general meeting of

the company (the right is not restricted to those at which the accounts
audited by them are to be discussed); to receive all the notices to the
general meetings, which members are entitled to receive.
2. Further it is the duty of the auditor to attend the general meeting as

per sec. 146.
Note: He can with the prior approval of BOD can skip general meetings.
D. RIGHT TO LIEN: (General Principles of Law)
1. As per General principles, any person having lawful possession of others

property, on which he worked on, can retain such property, on account of
non-payment of dues.
39
2. The auditor can exercise lien on books and documents belonging to client
for Non-Payment of fees.
3. Lien can be exercised only on records and documents in respect of which

audit is conducted.
4. Lien can be exercised only on an authority from client. I.e., Lawful

possession. They must not have been received through irregular or illegal
means. In case of a company client, they must be received on the
authority of the Board of Directors.
5. There must be a direct connection between the ‘Documents & Records on

which work performed’ and ‘Fees not being received’.
6. Further Due to the condition u/s 128, i.e., the books of accounts of the
company shall only be kept at registered office, it is impracticable for
the auditor to exercise lien as it amounts to violation of Sec. 128.
Note: The question of exercising lien by auditor on audit working papers

does not arise. As working papers are property of the auditor. He may at
his discretion, make portions of, or extracts from, audit documentation
available to clients, provided such disclosure does not undermine the validity
of the work performed, or, in the case of assurance engagements, the
independence of the auditor or of his personnel.
DUTIES OF THE AUDITOR
A. DUTY TO REPORT: 143(2)
1. The author shall make a report to the members on

a. The Accounts examined by him; and
b. Financial Statements which are required to be laid before the
company in general meeting.
2. The auditor shall state in his report as to whether the accounts
examined by him and financial statements give a true and fair view of -
a. The statement of the company’s affairs as at the end of its
financial year;
b. The Profit/Loss for the year; and
c. Cash Flow Statement for the year.
3. The auditor shall prepare his report after taking into account the
provisions of this Act and the Accounting and Auditing Standards.
4. As per Sec. 143(4), If auditor has given any qualifications or remarks in
the audit report, he shall state reasons thereof in the said report.
40
B. DUTY TO SIGN THE AUDIT REPORT:
As per section 145 of the Companies Act, 2013, the person appointed as an
auditor of the company shall sign the auditor’s report or sign or certify any
other document of the company, in accordance with the provisions of
section 141(2).
The qualifications, observations or comments on financial transactions or

matters, which have any adverse effect on the functioning of the
company mentioned in the auditor's report shall be read before the
company in general meeting.
C. DUTY TO COMPLY WITH AUDITING STANDARDS:
As per section 143(9) of the Companies Act, 2013, every auditor shall
comply with the auditing standards prescribed under Sec 143(10).
D. DUTY TO ATTEND GENERAL MEETINGS: Sec.146
1. All notices of general meeting must be sent to the Auditor of the

company whether the financial statements are discussed or not in that
General Meeting.
2. The auditor shall attend the GM either by himself or through his

authorized representative, who shall also be qualified to be an auditor
(unless otherwise exempted by the company).
3. The right is only in respect of General Meetings only and not in respect
of any Board Meetings.
REPORTING ON FRAUD IDENTIFIED BY THE AUDITOR IN ACCORDANCE WITH

SEC 143(12) .
According to section 143(12) and Rule 13 of the Companies (Audit and

Auditors) Rules, 2014, the following are the duties of auditor in relation to
any fraud identified during the course of his audit:
A. IF THE AMOUNT OF FRAUD IS RS. 1 CRORE OR MORE:
a. Reporting to the Central Government: If the auditor has reason to

believe that an offence of fraud involving an amount of Rs. 1 crore or
above, is being or has been committed in the company by its officers or
employees, the auditor shall report the matter to the CG in the
following manner.
b. The manner of reporting the matter to the Central Government is as

follows: [Rule 13]
41
i. First, the auditor shall report the matter to the Board or the Audit
Committee, as the case may be, within 2 days of his knowledge of
the fraud, seeking their reply or observations within 45 days.
ii. On receipt of such reply or observations, the auditor shall forward

his report and the reply or observations of the Board or the Audit
Committee along with his comments on such reply or
observations to the CG within 15 days from the date of receipt of
such reply or observations.
iii. In case the auditor fails to get any reply or observations within the
stipulated period of 45 days, he shall forward his report to the CG
along with a note containing the details of his report that was
earlier forwarded to the Board or the Audit Committee for which
he has not received any reply or observations;
iv. The report shall be on the letter-head of the auditor containing

postal address, e-mail address and contact telephone number or
mobile number and be signed by the auditor with his seal and
shall indicate his Membership Number; and
v. The report shall be in the form of a statement as specified in

Form ADT-4.
B. IF THE AMOUNT OF FRAUD IS LESS THAN RS. 1 CRORE:
a. Reporting to the Audit Committee or Board: If the auditor has reason to

believe that an offence of fraud involving an amount of less than Rs.1
Crore, is being or has been committed in the company by its officers or
employees, the auditor shall report the matter to the audit committee
constituted under section 177 or to the Board in other cases, within 2
days of knowledge of fraud, specifying the following:
I. Nature of Fraud with description;

II. Approximate amount involved; and
III. Parties involved.
b. Disclosure in the Board's Report: The following details of each of the
fraud reported to the Audit committee or the Board but not reported to
CG, shall be disclosed in board’s report:
1. Nature of Fraud with description;

2. Approximate Amount involved;
3. Parties involved, and
4. Remedial actions taken.
42
C. APPLICBILITY TO COST AUDITOR AND SECRETARIAL AUDITORS:
The provisions regarding fraud reporting shall also apply, mutatis mutandis,
to a cost auditor and a secretarial auditor during the performance of his
duties under section 148 and section 204 respectively.
D. PUNISHMENT FOR NONCOMPLIANCES:
If any auditor, Cost Accountant, or company secretary in practice does not

comply with the provisions of sub-section (12), he shall:
1. In case of a listed company, be liable to a penalty of 5 lakh rupees; and

2. In case of any other company, be liable to a penalty of 1 lakh rupees.
Besides, auditor has also to report matters pertaining to fraud at point (xi)
of paragraph 3 of CARO,2020 which is discussed subsequently.
AUDIT OF BRANCH OFFICE ACCOUNTS

[
A. WHO CAN BE APPOINTED AS A BRANCH AUDITOR: Where a company has a

branch office, the accounts of that office shall be audited either by:
a. The auditor appointed for the company (i.e., Principal auditor) or

b. Any chartered accountant holding certificate of practice, or
c. Where the branch office is situated in a country outside India, the
accounts of the branch office shall be audited either by the company's
auditor or by an accountant or by any other person duly qualified to act
as an auditor of the accounts of the branch office in accordance with
the laws of that country.
B. WHO CAN APPOINT BRANCH AUDITORS:
a. Usually, the branch auditors are also appointed by the members.

b. However, the shareholders can delegate such power to BOD to appoint
branch auditor.
[[
C. REPORTING REQUIREMENTS OF BRANCH AUDITORS:
a. The branch auditor shall prepare a report on the accounts of the

branch examined by him.
b. The branch auditor shall submit his report to the company’s auditor.
c. The reporting requirements u/s 143(1), (3), (11) and (12) are equally
applicable to branch auditors.
D. USING THE WORK OF ANOTHER AUDITOR (SA – 600): Where another
auditor is appointed for a component then the principal auditor is entitled to
reply on the work of such other auditor. Further the principal auditor has to
43
perform certain audit procedures to obtain evidence that the work of
component auditor is adequate for the principal auditor work. The principal
auditor would ordinarily perform the following procedures:
a. The principal auditor would inform the other auditor of matters

requiring special consideration, procedures for the identification of
inter -component transactions that may require disclosure and the
time-table for completion of audit.
b. Make sufficient arrangements for co-ordination of their efforts at the
planning stage of the audit.
c. Advise the other auditor of the significant accounting, auditing and
reporting requirements and obtain representation as to compliance
with them.
d. The principal auditor might discuss with the other auditor the audit
procedures applied or review a written summary of the other auditor’s
procedures and findings which may be in the form of a completed
questionnaire or check-list.
e. The principal auditor may also wish to visit the other auditor.
APPLICABILITY PROVISIONS RELATING TO APPOINTMENT OF INTERNAL

AUDITOR OF A COMPANY.
A. MEANING: Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and

consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s
operations.
B. APPLICABILITY OF INTERNAL AUDIT: As per section 138 of the Companies

Act, 2013 the following class of companies (prescribed in Rule 13 of
Companies (Accounts) Rules, 2014). Shall be required to appoint an
internal auditor or a firm of internal auditors, namely:
a. Every listed company.
b. Every unlisted Public Company having
i. Paid up share capital of Rs. 50 crores or more as on preceding
balance sheet date or
ii. Turnover of Rs. 200 crores or more or
iii. Outstanding loans or borrowings from banks or public financial
institutions Rs. 100 crores or more at any point of time during
preceding financial year or
iv. Outstanding deposits of Rs. 25 crores or more at any point of
time during preceding financial year.
c. Every Private Company having-
I. Turnover of Rs. 200 crores or more as per preceding F/S or
44
II. Outstanding loans or borrowings from banks or public financial
institutions exceeding Rs. 100 crores or more at any point of
time during preceding financial year
C. ELIGIBILITY TO ACT AS INTERNAL AUDITOR:

a. As per section 138, the following persons can be appointed as internal
auditor which may be either an individual or a partnership firm or a
body corporate:
i. A Chartered Accountant whether engaged in practice or not.
ii. A Cost Accountant whether engaged in practice or not.
iii. Such other professional as may be decided by the Board
b. Internal auditor may or may not be an employee of the company.
D. SA 610 - USING THE WORK OF INTERNAL AUDITOR: Refer Chapter-2 (Audit

Reporting)
E. CONCEPT OF INTERNAL AUDIT AND STANDARDS ON INTERNAL AUDIT: WILL

BE DISCUSSED IN RISK ASSESSMENT AND INTERNAL CONTROL CHAPTER.
PROVISIONS RELATING TO AUDITOR’S REMUNERATION U/S 142 OF

COMPANIES ACT, 2013.
1. As per section 142 of the Act, the remuneration of the auditor of a

company shall be fixed in its general meeting or in such manner as may be
determined therein.
2. Board may fix remuneration of the first auditor appointed by it.
3. The remuneration, in addition to the fee payable to an auditor, include the

expenses, if any, incurred by the auditor in connection with the audit of the
company and any facility extended to him.
4. The remuneration does not include any remuneration paid to him for any
other service rendered by him at the request of the company.
5. Therefore, it has been clarified that the remuneration to Auditor shall also
include any facility provided to him.
6.
PROVISIONS RELATING TO MAINTENANCE OF COST RECORDS AND COST

AUDIT U/S 148 OF COMPANIES ACT 2013.
A. MAINTENANCE OF COST RECORDS:

45
1. APPLICABILITY: Rule 3 of the Companies (Cost Records and Audit)
Rules, 2014 provides that the following conditions for companies
(including foreign companies) which are required to maintain cost
records,
a. Company must be engaged in the production of goods or
providing services, and
b. It must be having an overall turnover from all its products and
services of Rs.35 crore or more during the immediately preceding
financial year.
Exceptions: Companies classified as a Micro enterprise or a small
enterprise under Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development
Act, 2006 are not required are to maintain cost records even it
satisfies the above limits.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPANIES FOR THE PURPOSE OF APPLICABILITY OF

THE RULES: The said rule has divided the list of companies into
regulated sectors and non-regulated sectors.
Some of the companies/ industry/ sector/ product/ service prescribed
under the said rule are given below:
3. PRESCRIBED FORM FOR MAINTENANCE OF COST RECORDS: As per Rule

5 of the companies (Cost Records and Audit) Rules, cost records shall
be maintained in Form CRA - 1.
4. REQUIREMENT AS PER CARO, 2020: As per clause (vi) to Paragraph of

the CARO, 2020, where maintenance of cost records has been
specified by the Government under section 148(1) of the Companies
Act, 2013, the auditor has to report whether such accounts and records
have been made and maintained.
B. COST AUDIT u/s 148:
1. APPLICABILITY OF COST AUDIT: Rule 4 of the companies (Cost Records

and Audit) Rules, 2014 states the provisions related to the
applicability of the cost audit.
The applicability of Cost Audit to a company depends upon certain
Turnover criteria as follows
a. For Companies specified under “Regulated Sectors”:
i. The overall annual turnover of the company from all its
products and services during the immediately preceding
financial year is Rs.50 crore or more and
ii. The aggregate turnover of the individual product(s) or service(s)
covered in the sector is Rs.25 crore or more.
46
b. For Companies specified under “Non-Regulated Sectors”:
i. The overall annual turnover of the company from all its
products and services during the immediately preceding
financial year is Rs.100 crore or more and
ii. The aggregate turnover of the individual product(s) or service(s)
covered in the sector is Rs.35 crore or more.
2. NON - APPLICABILITY OF COST AUDIT: Sub - rule (3) of Rule 4 provides
that the requirement for cost audit under these rules shall not be
applicable to a company which is covered under Rule 3.
a. Whose revenue from exports, in foreign exchange, exceeds 75% of
its total revenue (or)
b. Which is operating from a special economic zone. (or)
c. A company which is engaged in generation of electricity for captive
consumption.
3. APPOINTMENT OF COST AUDITOR: SEC 148

a. Qualification, disqualification, rights, duties and obligations of Cost
Auditor: Similar to the company auditor appointed under section
139.
b. Who can be appointed as a cost auditor: The Cost audit shall be
conducted by a Cost Accountant in practice Provided that person
appointed under section 139 as an auditor of the company shall
not be appointed as its cost auditor.
c. Who can appoint Cost Auditor: Board of Directors. If there is Audit
committee in the company, then the appointment can be made after
considering the recommendation of audit committee.
d. Time limit for appointment: within 180 days of the commencement
of every financial year.
e. Communication with CG: Every referred company shall file a notice
of such appointment with the central Government within a period
of 30 days of the Board meeting in which such appointment is
made or within a period of 180 days of the commencement of the
financial year, Whichever is earlier, through electronic mode, in
Form CRA-2.
f. Tenure of Cost Auditor: The cost auditor appointed as such shall
continue in such capacity till the expiry of 180 days from the
closure of the financial year, or till he submits the cost audit report,
for the financial year for which he has been appointed.
4. CASUAL VACANCY IN THE OFFICE OF COST AUDITOR: Any casual

vacancy in the office of a cost Auditor, whether due to resignation,
death or removal, shall be filled by the Board of Directors within 30
47
days of occurrence of such vacancy and the company shall inform the
CG in Form CRA-2 within 30days of such appointment of cost
auditor.
5. REMOVAL OF COST AUDITOR: The cost Auditor may be removed from
his office before the expiry of his term, through a board resolution
after giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard to the cost
auditor and recording the reasons for such removal in writing.
C. PROCEDURE FOR SUBMISSION OF COST AUDIT REPORT:
1. COST AUDITOR TO BOD: The cost auditor shall submit the cost audit
report along with his his reservations or qualifications, if any, in Form
CRA-3 to the BOD within a period of 180 days from the closure of the
financial year.
2. BOD to CG:
a. The company shall within 30 days from the dated of receipt of a
copy of the cost audit report prepared furnish the Central
Government with such report along with full information and
explanation on every reservation or qualification contained
therein in Form CRA-4.
b. If after considering the cost audit report and the information and
explanation furnished by the company as above, the central
Government may call for any further information or explanation as
is necessary.
3. DUTY TO REPORT ON FRAUD: The provisions of section 143(12) of the

Companies Act, 2013 and the relevant rules on duty to report on
fraud shall apply mutatis mutandis to a cost auditor during
performance of his functions under section 148 of the Act and these
rules.
CIRCUMSTANCES THE RETIRING AUFITOR CANNOT BE REAPPOINTED
1. IN THE FOLLOWING CIRCUMSTANCES, THE RETIRING AUDITOR CANNOT BE

REAPPOINTED [Sec. 139(9)]:
a. The auditor proposed to be reappointed does not possess the

qualification prescribed under section 141 of the Companies Act, 2013.
48
b. The proposed auditor suffers from the disqualifications under section
141(3), 141(4) and 144 of the Companies Act, 2013.
c. He has given to the company notice in writing of his unwillingness to

be reappointed.
d. A written certificate has not been sent to the effect that the
appointment or reappointment
e. A resolution has been passed in AGM appointing somebody else or

providing expressly that the retiring auditor shall not be reappointed.
2. WHERE AT ANY AGM, NO AUDITOR IS APPOINTED OR RE-APPOINTED: [Sec.

139(10)] the existing auditor shall continue to be the auditor of the
company.
THE PROCEDURE FOR APPOINTMENT OF AUITOR OTHER THAN RETIRING

AUDITOR.
Section 140(4) lays down procedure to appoint an auditor other than retiring
auditor -
1. Special notice shall be required for a resolution at an annual general

meeting appointing a person as auditor other than a retiring auditor or
providing expressly that a retiring auditor shall not be re-appointed.
2. On receipt of such notice, the company shall immediately send a copy

thereof to the retiring auditor for getting the representation of retiring
auditor.
3. The retiring auditor can make a representation (not exceeding a reasonable

length) in writing to the company with respect to special notice and
requests it to circulate the members.
4. The company shall send a copy of the representation to every member to

whom notice of the meeting is sent (Circulation).
5. If a copy of the representation is not sent as aforesaid because it was

received too late or because of the company’s default, the auditor may
require that the representation shall be read out at the meeting.
6. Further if a copy of representation is not sent as aforesaid, a copy thereof

shall be filed with the Registrar.
PROHIBITION ON RIGHT TO REPRESENTATION:
49
If the Tribunal is satisfied that the right of representation being abused by
the auditor then it may direct not to send or read out the representation at
AGM. The application can be made either by the company or any other
aggrieved person
Note: This provision need not be applied where the retiring auditor has
completed a consecutive tenure of five years or ten years and are liable for
rotation u/s 139(2).
PENALTY FOR NON-COMPLIANCE U/S 147 OF COMPANIES ACT, 2013.
A. IN THE HANDS OF THE COMPANY AND OFFICERS:
If any of the provisions of sections 139 to 146 (both inclusive) is contravened,

the company shall be punishable with fine which shall not be less than
Rs.25,000/- but which may extend to Rs.5,00,000/- and
EVERY OFFICER of the company who is in default shall be punishable with

imprisonment for a term which may extend to 1 YEAR or with fine which shall
not be less than Rs.10,000/- but which may extend to Rs.1,00,000/- or with
both.
B. IN THE HANDS OF AUDITOR: If an auditor of a company contravenes any of

the provisions of section 139 section 143, section 144 or section 145, the
auditor shall be punishable with fine:
1. Un-intentional Contravention: Penalty of Not be less than:

a. Rs.25,000/- but which may extend to Rs.5,00,000/- or
b. 4 TIMES the remuneration of the auditor, WHICHEVER IS LESS.
2. Intentional Contravention: If an auditor has contravened such provisions

knowingly or willfully with the intention to deceive the company or its
shareholders or creditors or tax authorities, he shall be punishable
with:
a. Imprisonment for a term which may extend to 1 YEAR and
b. With fine which:
i. Shall not be less than Rs.50,000/- but which may extend to
Rs.25,00,000/- or
ii. 8 TIMES the remuneration of the auditor, WHICHEVER IS LESS.
3. REFUND REMUNERATION AND PAY DAMAGES: Where an auditor has been

convicted under sub-section (2), he shall be liable to-
a. Refund the remuneration received by him to the company; 50
b. Pay for damages to the company statutory bodies or authorities
or to members or creditors of the company for loss arising out of
incorrect or misleading statements of particulars made in his audit
report.
4. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LIABILITY: Where, in case of audit of a company

being conducted by an audit firm, it is proved that the partner or
partners of the audit firm has or have acted in a fraudulent manner or
abetted or colluded in an fraud by, or in relation to or by, the company
or its directors or officers, the liability, whether civil or criminal as
provided in this Act or in any other law for the time being in force, for
such act shall be of the partner or partners concerned of the audit firm
and of the firm jointly and severally.
5. CRIMINAL LIABILITY – CONCERNED PARTNER ONLY: It may be noted that

in case of criminal liability of an audit firm, in respect of liability other
than fine, the concerned partner(s), who acted in a fraudulent manner
or abetted or, as the case may be, colluded in any fraud shall only be
liable.
51
4. AUDIT REPORTING
[(COVERING SA 700, 701, 705, 706, 710, 299, 610, 570 AND REPORTING
REQUIREMENTS U/S 143 OF COMPANIES ACT 2013 INCLUDING CARO, 2020)]
PART – I (REPORTING STANDARDS)

Management is responsible for the preparation of the financial statements.
Management also accepts responsibility for necessary internal controls to
enable the preparation of financial statements that are free from material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.
The purpose of an audit is to enhance the degree of confidence of intended

users of the financial statements.
An audit report is an opinion drawn on the entity’s financial statements to

make sure that the records are true and fair representation of the
transactions they claim to represent.
SA – 700 FORMING OF AN OPINION AND REPORTING ON FINANCIAL

STATEMENTS
A. OBJECTIVES OF THE AUDITOR UNDER SA- 700:
The objectives of the auditor are:
1. To form an opinion on the financial statements based on the evaluation

of conclusions drawn from audit evidence obtained and conclude
whether the auditor has obtained reasonable assurance about whether
financial statements are free from MMS. These conclusions shall take
into account:
a. Whether sufficient appropriate audit evidence has been obtained
b. Whether uncorrected misstatements are material, individually or in
aggregate.
c. The evaluations.
2. To express an opinion on the financial statements through a written
report, known as Auditor’s report.
B. DEFINITIONS:
Unmodified opinion:
The opinion expressed by the auditor when the auditor concludes that the
financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance
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with the applicable financial reporting framework which is also known as
Unqualified Opinion or Clean Opinion.
Unmodified opinion indicates:
1. The auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate evidence.
2. The financial statements disclosed all relevant information as
required by law or regulatory.
3. The accounting policies and changes therein are adequately disclosed
in the financial statements.
4. The financial statements are prepared as per applicable financial
reporting framework.
C. EVALUATIONS TO BE MADE BY AUDITOR:

The auditor shall evaluate whether the financial statements are prepared
in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework. This
evaluation shall include consideration of the qualitative aspects of the
entity’s accounting practices, including indicators of possible bias in
management’s judgements.
1. QUALITATIVE ASPECTS OF ENTITIES ACCOUNTING PRACTICES:

a. Management makes a number of judgments about the amounts and
disclosures in the financial statements.
b. SA 260 (Revised) contains a discussion of the qualitative aspects of
accounting practices.
c. While evaluating accounting systems, the auditor may find existence
of management bias and lack of neutrality over accounting practices.
Indicators of a lack of neutrality include the following:
i. Selective correction of misstatements brought to the notice of
management by auditor.
ii. Possible management bias over selecting appropriate accounting
estimates.
NOTE: Indicators of possible management bias do not
constitute misstatements for purposes of drawing conclusions
on the reasonableness of individual accounting estimates. They
affect the auditor’s evaluation of whether the financial
statements as a whole are free from material misstatement.
d. SA 540 addresses possible management bias in making accounting
estimates.
2. SPECIFIC EVALUATIONS WHILE FORMING OPINION:

The auditor shall take into account the following specific factors while
forming an opinion:
53
a. Whether the financial statements adequately disclose the
significant accounting policies selected and applied.
b. Whether the accounting policies selected and are applied
consistently and also check they are in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework and are appropriate.
c. Whether the accounting estimates made by management are
reasonable.
d. Whether the information presented in the financial statements is
relevant, reliable, comparable, and understandable and not
misleading.
e. The financial statements provide adequate disclosures to enable the
intended users to understand the effect of material transactions and
events on the information conveyed in the financial statements.
D. ADDITIONAL EVALUATIONS IN CASE OF FAIR PRESENTATION FRAMEWORK:

When the financial statements are prepared in accordance with a fair
presentation framework, the evaluation mentioned above shall also
include an evaluation by the auditor as to whether the financial
statements achieve fair presentation which shall include consideration of:
1. The overall presentation, structure and content of the financial
statements; and
2. Whether the financial statements, including the related notes,
represent the underlying transactions and events in a manner that
achieves fair presentation.
3. The auditor shall evaluate whether the financial statements
adequately refer to or describe the applicable financial reporting
framework.
E. WHEN IS A MODIFIED OPINION ISSUED?

1. If the auditor concludes that based on the Sufficient and appropriate
audit evidence obtained, the financial statements as a whole are NOT
free from material misstatement; or
2. Is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to conclude that
the financial statements as a whole are free from material
misstatement.
F. CONTENTS OF THE AUDITOR’S REPORT:

1. Title
2. Addressee
3. Opinion Para
4. Basis for Opinion
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5. Material Uncertainty related to Going Concern (SA 570)
6. Key Audit Matters (SA 701) Applicable as per the
relevant standard
7. Emphasis of Matter Paragraph (SA 706)
8. Other Matter Paragraph (SA 706)
9. Responsibilities of management for the Financial Statements.
10. Auditor’s Responsibilities for the Audit of the Financial Statements.
11. Other Information Para (SA 720)
12. Report on Other Legal and regulatory requirements / Other Reporting
Requirements
13. Signature of the Auditor.
14. Place of Signature. [Ordinarily the city where the audit report is
signed]
15. Date of the Auditor’s Report (On / After Date of Approval of Financial
statements)
16. UDIN (Unique Document Identification Number w.e.f.1st July, 2019)
Note: Refer ICAI SM, Page 11.23 – Format of Auditors Report
G. AUDITOR’S REPORT PRESCRIBED BY LAW OR REGULATION [Refer 11.20 in ICAI

SM]
H. DETAILED EXPLANATION TO FEW CONTENTS OF AUDIT REPORT:

1. Opinion Paragraph / Auditor’s Opinion:
a. Description about title of components of financial statements.
b. Reference to notes and significant accounting policies.
c. Reference to the period covered by the above financial statements.
d. The Opinion expressed by the auditor.
2. Basis for Opinion Paragraph:

a. State that the audit was conducted as per standards on auditing.
b. Statement indicating in brief of auditor’s responsibilities and
reference to such paragraph.
c. Statement that the auditor complied with the ethical requirements
of law and code of ethics.
d. Statement as to whether the auditor has obtained sufficient
appropriate audit evidence for the opinion expressed by him.
3. Responsibilities for financial statements:

Refer to “Preconditions to audit” under SA 210 - Given in First chapter.
Oversight of the financial reporting process: This section of the auditor’s

report shall also identify those responsible for the oversight of the 55
financial reporting process, when those responsible for such oversight
are different from Management. In this case, the heading of this
section shall also refer to “Those Charged with Governance” or such
term that is appropriate in the context of the legal framework
applicable to the entity.
4. Going Concern:
a. Under the going concern basis of accounting, the financial
statements are prepared on the assumption that the entity is a going
concern and will continue its operations for the foreseeable future.
unless management either intends to liquidate the entity or to cease
operations, or has no realistic alternative but to do so.
b. When the use of the going concern basis of accounting is
appropriate, assets and liabilities are recorded on the basis that the
entity will be able to realize its assets and discharge its liabilities in
the normal course of business.
c. The auditor shall evaluate whether sufficient appropriate audit
evidence has been obtained.
d. Based on the audit evidence obtained, the auditor shall conclude
whether, in the auditor’s judgement, a material uncertainty exists
related to events or conditions that, individually or collectively, may
cast significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going
concern.
e. A material uncertainty exists when the magnitude of its potential
impact and likelihood of occurrence is such that, in the auditor’s
judgement, appropriate disclosure of the nature and implications of
the uncertainty is necessary for:
a. In the case of a fair presentation financial reporting
framework, the fair presentation of the financial statements, or
b. In the case of a compliance framework, the financial
statements not to be misleading.
5. Auditor’s Responsibilities Relating to Audit of Financial Statements:

a. Auditors’ responsibility section to state:
i. Objectives of the auditor.
ii. That reasonable level of assurance is high level of assurance
and not guarantee.
iii. That misstatements can arise from fraud and error.
b. Auditor's responsibility section to further:
i. State that auditor exercises professional judgement and
maintains professional skepticism.
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ii. Describe auditor's responsibility in group audit. [E.g., Division
of Responsibility]
iii. Describe an audit by stating that auditors’ responsibilities
are:
1. To identify and assess the risks of material
misstatement.
2. To obtain an understanding of the internal control system.
3. To evaluate the appropriateness of accounting policies.
4. To conclude the appropriateness of management's use of
going concern.
5. To evaluate the overall presentation, structure and
content of financial statements.
6. Other Reporting Responsibilities:

a. If the auditor addresses other reporting responsibilities in the
auditor’s report on the financial statements that are in addition
to the auditor’s responsibilities under the SAs, these other
reporting responsibilities shall be addressed in a separate section in
the auditor’s report with a heading titled
b. “Report on Other Legal and Regulatory Requirements” or otherwise
as appropriate to the content of the section, unless these other
reporting responsibilities address the same topics as those presented
under the reporting responsibilities required by the SAs in which
case the other reporting responsibilities may be presented in the
same section as the related report elements required by the SAs.
c. If other reporting responsibilities are presented in the same section
as the related report elements required by the SAs, the auditor’s
report shall clearly differentiate the other reporting
responsibilities from the reporting that is required by the SAs.
d. If the auditor’s report contains a separate section that addresses
other reporting responsibilities, the requirements stated above
shall be included under a section with a heading “Report on the
Audit of the Financial Statements.”
7. Signature of the Auditor:

a. Where the firm is appointed as the auditor, the report is signed in
the personal name of the auditor and in the name of the audit
firm.
b. The partner/proprietor signing the audit report also needs to
mention the membership number assigned by the Institute of
Chartered Accountants of India
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8. Date of auditor’s report:
a. The auditor’s report shall be dated no earlier than the date on
which the auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate audit
evidence and those with the recognized authority have asserted
that they have taken responsibility for those financial statements
b. The date of the auditor’s report informs the user of the auditor’s
report that the auditor has considered the effect of events and
transactions of which the auditor became aware and that
occurred up to that date.
SA – 701 COMMUNICATING KEY AUDIT MATTERS IN THE

INDEPENDENT AUDITOR’S REPORT
A. APPLICABILITY:
1. LISTED ENTITIES: For audits of complete sets of general-purpose
financial statements of listed entities, the auditor shall communicate
key audit matters in the auditor’s report in accordance with SA 701.
2. LAW OR REGULATION: When the auditor is required by law or regulation
or decides to communicate key audit matters in the auditor’s report, the
auditor shall do so in accordance with SA 701.
3. PUBLIC INTEREST: The auditor may also decide to communicate key audit
matters for other entities, including those that may be of significant
public interest, for example because they have a large number and
wide range of stakeholders and considering the nature and size of the
business.
B. DEFINITION OF KEY AUDIT MATTER:

The matters which in auditor’s Judgment are of most significant in the
audit of the financial statements of the current period and these are
selected from the matters communicated with those charged with
governance.
Further the KAM shall not pertain to previous years audit matters.
C. PURPOSE OF KEY AUDIT MATTER (OBJECTIVE):

1. The purpose of communicating key audit matters is to enhance the
communicative value of auditor’s report by providing greater
transparency about the audit that was performed.
2. KAM provides additional information to the intended users of the F/S to
assist them in understanding the entity and areas of significant
management judgments used.
3. Communicating key audit matters in the auditor’s report is:
58
a. NOT a substitute for disclosures in the financial statements that
the applicable financial reporting framework requires
management to make;
b. NOT a substitute for the auditor expressing a modified opinion
when required by the circumstances of a specific audit
engagement in accordance with SA 705;
c. NOT a separate opinion on individual matters.
d. NOT a substitute for reporting in accordance with SA – 570 –
where a material uncertainty there related to going concern of
the entity.
D. PROHIBITION ON KEY AUDIT MATTERS (KAM):

SA 705 prohibits the auditor from communicating key audit matters when
the auditor disclaims an opinion on the financial statements.
E. FACTORS FOR DETERMINING KEY AUDIT MATTERS:

The auditor shall take into account the following factors while
determining the Key Audit Matters:
1. Areas of higher assessed risk of material misstatement or significant
risks identified in accordance with SA 315
2. Significant auditor judgements relating to significant management
judgement, including accounting estimates that have been identified as
having high estimation uncertainty.
3. The effect on the audit of significant events or transactions that
occurred during the period.
F. CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE A KEY AUDIT MATTER SHALL NOT BE

COMMUNICATED:
In the following circumstances the auditor shall not communicate KAM:
(Even in cases where Disclaimer Opinion is expressed)
a. Law or regulation prohibits such disclosure about the matter or
b. The auditor determines that the matter should not be
communicated in the auditor’s report because of the possible adverse
consequences.
c. If the auditor concluded that the matter is highly confidential or
sensitive at the interest of the company.
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SA – 705 MODIFICATIONS TO THE OPINION IN THE INDEPENDENT
AUDITORS REPORT
A. CIRCUMSTANCES WHEN A MODIFICATION TO THE AUDITOR’S OPINION IS

REQUIRED:
The auditor shall modify the opinion in the auditor’s report when:
a. The auditor concludes that, based on the audit evidence obtained, the
financial statements as a whole are not free from material misstatement
or
b. The auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence to
conclude that the financial statements as a whole are free from
material misstatement.
Note: When the auditor expects to modify the opinion in the auditor’s
report, the auditor shall communicate with those charged with governance
the circumstances that led to the expected modification.
B. DIFFERENT TYPES OF MODIFIED OPINIONS:

The decision regarding which type of opinion is appropriate depends upon:
a. The Nature of the matter giving rise to the modification:
i. Whether the misstatements are material
ii. Inability to obtain audit evidence for material items of financial
statements.
b. Auditor’s judgment about pervasiveness of effects or possible effects
of matters related to financial statements.
C. DEFINITIONS OF MODIFIED OPINIONS:

1. QUALIFIED OPINION:
The auditor shall express a qualified opinion when -
a. The auditor, having obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence,
concludes that misstatements, individually or in the aggregate, are
material, but not pervasive, to the financial statements or
b. The auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
on which to base the opinion, but the auditor concludes that the
possible effects on the financial statements of undetected
misstatements, could be material but not pervasive.
2. ADVERSE OPINION:
The auditor, having obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence,
concludes that misstatements, individually or in the aggregate, are
material and pervasive, to the financial statements
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3. DISCLAIMER OF OPINION:
The auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence on
which to base the opinion, but the auditor concludes that the possible
effects on the financial statements of undetected misstatements, if any,
could be material and pervasive.
D. MEANING OF PERVASIVE EFFECTS:

Pervasive effects on the financial statements are those that, in the
auditor’s judgment:
a. Are not confined (limited) to specific elements, accounts or items of the
financial statements.
b. If so confined, represent or could represent a substantial proportion of
the financial statements or
c. In relation to disclosures, are fundamental to user’s understanding of
the financial statements.
BELOW TABLE SHOWS DIFFERENT TYPES OF OPINIONS BASED IN DIFFERENT

SITUATIONS:
MMS
SITUATION CASE PERVASIVE? OPINION
EXIST?
Sufficient and appropriate No NA Unqualified
A
audit evidence Obtained Opinion
Yes No Qualified
B
Opinion
Yes Yes Adverse
C
Opinion
IS THE
IS IT POSSIBLE
SITUATION CASE OPINION
MATERIAL? EFFECT
PERVASIVE?
Sufficient and appropriate Yes No Qualified
B
evidence NOT Obtained Opinion
Yes Yes Disclaimer
C
Opinion
Observations:
1. Adverse Opinion arises only in a situation where Sufficient and
appropriate evidence is Available.
2. Disclaimer of Opinion arises only in a situation where sufficient and
appropriate evidence is NOT Available.
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E. DESCRIPTION OF BASIS FOR OPINION PARA IN CASE OF MODIFIED OPINION:
1. MMS IN F/S - QUALTIFY: If there is a material misstatement of the
financial statements (including quantitative disclosures in the notes to
the financial statements), the auditor shall include in the Basis for
Opinion section a description and quantification of the financial effects
of the misstatement, unless impracticable.
2. UNABLE TO QUANTIFY: If it is not practicable to quantify the financial

effects, the auditor shall so state in this section. If there is a material
misstatement of the financial statements that relates to narrative
disclosures, the auditor shall include in the Basis for Opinion section an
explanation of how the disclosures is misstated.
3. MMS BY WAY OF NON-DISCLOSURE: If there is a material misstatement

of the financial statements that relates to the non-disclosure of
information required to be disclosed, the auditor shall:
a. Discuss the non-disclosure with those charged with governance.
b. Describe the nature of the omitted information; and
c. Unless prohibited by law or regulation, include the omitted
disclosures, provided it is practicable to do so, and the auditor has
obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence about the omitted
information.
4. INABILITY TO OBTAIN EVIDENCE: If the modification results from an

inability to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence, the auditor shall
include in the Basis for Opinion section the reasons for that inability.
5. When the auditor disclaims an opinion on the financial statements, the
auditor’s report shall not include the following elements required by SA
700 (Revised).
a. A reference to the section of the auditor’s report where the
auditor’s responsibilities are described; and
b. A statement about whether the audit evidence obtained is
sufficient and appropriate to provide a basis for the auditor’s
opinion.
6. Even if the auditor has expressed an adverse opinion or disclaimed an

opinion on the financial statements, the auditor shall describe in the
Basis for Opinion section the reasons for any other matters of which the
auditor is aware that would have required a modification to the
opinion, and the effects thereof.
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F. CONSEQUENCE OF AN INABILITY TO OBTAIN SUFFICIENT APPROPRIATE AUDIT
EVIDENCE DUE TO A MANAGEMENT-IMPOSED LIMITATION AFTER THE
AUDITOR HAS ACCEPTED THE ENGAGEMENT:
1. If, after accepting the engagement, the auditor becomes aware that
management has imposed a limitation on the scope of the audit that the
auditor considers is likely to result in the need to express a qualified
opinion or to disclaim an opinion on the financial statements, the
auditor shall request that management remove the limitation.
2. If management refuses to remove the limitation referred above, the
auditor shall communicate the matter to those charged with governance
and determine whether it is possible to perform alternative procedures
to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
3. If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence,
the auditor shall determine the implications as follows:
a. If the auditor concludes that the possible effects on the financial
statements of undetected misstatements, if any, could be material
but not pervasive, the auditor shall qualify the opinion or
b. If the auditor concludes that the possible effects on the financial
statements of undetected misstatements, could be both material
and pervasive so that a qualification of the opinion would be
inadequate to communicate the gravity of the situation, the
auditor shall:
i. Withdraw from the audit, where practicable and possible
under applicable law or regulation; or
ii. If withdrawal from the audit before issuing the auditor’s
report is not practicable or possible, disclaim an opinion on
4. If the auditor decided to withdraw, before such withdrawal shall
communicate to those charged with governance any matters regarding
misstatements identified during the audit that would have given rise
to a modification of the opinion.
SA – 706 EMPHASIS OF MATTER PARAGRAPH AND OTHER MATTER

PARAGRAPH IN THE INDEPENDENT AUDITORS REPORT
A. DEFINITIONS:
1. EMPHASIS OF MATTER PARAGRAPH: Emphasis of Matter paragraph is a
paragraph included in the auditor’s report that refers to a matter
appropriately presented or disclosed in the financial statements that, in
the auditor’s judgement, is of such importance that it is fundamental
to users’ understanding of the financial statements.
63
2. OTHER MATTER PARAGRAPH: A paragraph included in the auditor’s
report that refers to a matter other than those presented or disclosed in
the financial statements that, in the auditor’s judgement, is relevant to
users’ understanding of the audit, the auditor’s responsibilities or the
auditor’s report.
B. USAGE OF EMPHASIS OF MATTER PARAGRAPH:

Emphasis of Matter paragraph is used to draw user’s attention to a matter
which is important for user’s understanding of F/S’ s in view of the
auditor’s judgment and this shall be included in auditors report provided:
1. The auditor would not be required to modify the opinion in
accordance with SA 705 (Revised) as a result of the matter.
2. When SA 701 applies, the matter has not been determined to be a key
audit matter to be communicated in the auditor’s report.
Example:
An uncertainty relating to the future outcome of an exceptional
litigation or regulatory action.
C. MANNER OF PRESENTATION OF EMPHASIS OF MATTER:

1. Include the paragraph within a separate section of the auditor’s
report with an appropriate heading that includes the term “Emphasis
of Matter”;
2. Shall express the matter being emphasized (highlighted) and give the
reference to such matter in the financial statements. Accordingly, this
paragraph shall refer only to information presented or disclosed in the
financial statements; and
3. Also state that the auditor’s opinion is not modified in respect of the
matter emphasized.
4. An Emphasis of Matter Para is not a substitute for
a. A modified Opinion in accordance with SA 705
b. Disclosures in Financial statements as per AFRFW.
c. Reporting in accordance with SA 570 when a material uncertainty
exists relating to entities ability to continue as a going concern.
D. OTHER MATTER PARAGRAPHS IN THE AUDITOR’S REPORT:

The auditor shall include an Other Matter paragraph in the auditor’s
report, provided:
a. This is not prohibited by law or regulation and
b. When SA 701 applies, the matter has not been determined to be a key
audit matter to be communicated in the auditor’s report.
c. Separate section for Other Matter paragraph: 64
When the auditor includes an Other Matter paragraph in the auditor’s
report, the auditor shall include the paragraph within a separate
section with the heading “Other Matter,” or other appropriate heading.
E. COMMUNICATION WITH THOSE CHARGED WITH GOVERNANCE:

If the auditor expects to include an Emphasis of Matter or an Other
Matter paragraph in the auditor’s report, the auditor shall communicate
with those charged with governance regarding their expectation and the
wording of this Para.
SA – 710 COMPARATIVE INFORMATION – CORRESPONDING FIGURES

AND COMPARATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
A. INTRODUCTION:
SA 710 Comparative Information – Corresponding Figures and
Comparative Financial Statements deals with auditor’s responsibility
regarding comparative information in an audit of financial statement.
B. DEFINITIONS:
1. DEFINITION OF COMPARATIVE INFORMATION: The amounts and disclosures

included in the financial statements in respect of one or more prior
periods in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
framework.
2. DEFINITION OF COMPARATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: Comparative

information where amounts and other disclosures for the prior period are
included for comparision with financial statements of the current
period but, if audited, are referred in the auditors opinion. The level of
Information included in those comparative financial statements is
comparable with that of the financial statements of the current period.
3. DEFINITION OF CORRESPONDING FIGURES: Comparative information

where amounts and other disclosures for the prior period are included
as an integral part of the current period financial statements and are
intended to be read only in relation to the amounts and other
disclosures relating to the current period (referred to as “current period
figures”). The level of detail presented in the corresponding amounts
and disclosures is dictated primarily by its relevance to the current
period figures.
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C. OPINION OF AUDITORS:
The audit reporting differs between the approaches are:
1. For corresponding figures, the auditor’s opinion on the financial
statements refers to the current period only.
2. For comparative financial statements, the auditor’s opinion refers to
each period for which financial statements are presented.
D. AUDIT PROCEDURES FOR COMPARATIVE INFORMATION:

1. PERFORM SPECIFIC AUDIT PROCEDURE: The following specific audit
procedure shall be performed for determining that the financial
statement contains appropriately classified comparative information:
a. Ensure that comparative information agrees with the amount and
other disclosure presented in the prior period. (E.g., Compare CY
Balance Sheet with LY Balance Sheet)
b. The accounting policies applied are consistent with those applied in
current period.
c. If there have been any changes in the application of accounting
policies than they are properly disclosed and presented.
2. EVALUATING THE IMPACT ON FINANCIAL STATEMENT: If the auditor

identifies / aware of any possible misstatement in the comparative
information, then:
a. He should perform the necessary audit procedures to obtain sufficient
audit evidence.
b. If the auditor had audited the prior period’s financial statement than
he should follow the relevant requirements of SA 560.
3. WRITTEN REPRESENTATION: As required by SA 580, the auditor should

also request written representation. He should also obtain a specific
written representation regarding any prior period item that is disclosed
in current year’s financial statement.
E. AUDIT REPORTING:
1. W.R.T. CORRESPONDING FIGURES: When corresponding figures are
presented, the auditor’s opinion shall not refer to the corresponding
figures EXCEPT in the following circumstances:
a. M.O IN PREVIOUS YEAR: If the auditor’s report of the previous period

contains a Modified Opinion and the matter which gave rise to
modification is unresolved, the auditor shall modify opinion on current
year F/s. Further in basis for modified opinion para:
66
a. Refer to both the current period’s figures and the corresponding
figures in the description of the matter giving rise to the
modification when the effects or possible effects of the matter
on the current period’s figures are material.
b. In other cases, explain that the audit opinion has been
modified because of the effects or possible effects of the
unresolved matter on the comparability of the current period’s
figures and the corresponding figures.
b. U.M.O IN PREVIOUS YEAR BUT MMS EXIST: If the auditor is of the
opinion, and he has sufficient evidence in this regard, that a material
misstatement exists in the financial statement of prior period, on
which unmodified opinion issued earlier, the auditor shall verify
whether the misstatement has been dealt with as required if not, the
auditor shall express a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion in the
auditor’s report on the current period financial statements,
modified.
c. NO AUDIT IN PREVIOUS YEAR: If the prior period financial statement is
not audited, then the auditor shall state in an Other Matter paragraph
in the auditor’s report that the corresponding figures are unaudited.
Such a statement does not, relieve the auditor of the requirement to
obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the opening
balances do not contain misstatements that materially affect the
current period’s financial statements.
2. W.R.T. COMPARATIVE FINANCIAL STATEMENT: When comparative

financial statement are presented -
a. REFER EACH PERIOD: The auditor’s opinion shall refer to each period
for which the financial statements are presented.
b. CONFLICT OF OPINION – OTHER MATTER PARA: When reporting on
current period’s audit, if the auditor’s opinion on such prior period
financial statement differs from the opinion previously issued on such
financial statement, the auditor shall disclose the substantive reason
for the different opinion in other matter paragraph in his report.
c. PREDECESSOR AUDITOR – MMS: If the auditor concludes that a
material misstatement is present in the previously audited figures of
financial statement, he should report it to the appropriate level of the
management and request that the predecessor auditor be informed.
If then the prior year’s statements are amended with new report by the
predecessor auditor, then the auditor shall report only on the current
period.
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3. COMMON REPORTING TREATMENT FOR BOTH THE APPROACHES: (TO BE
MENTIONED IN “OMP”)
a. PP F/S AUDITED: If the financial statement of the prior period were

audited by a predecessor auditor, the auditor shall state in his audit
report:
i. That the financial statements prior period were audited by a
predecessor auditor of the;
ii. The type of the opinion expressed by the predecessor auditor;
iii. The date of that audit report.
b. PP F/S NOT AUDITED: If the prior period financial statement were not
audited than he shall report the same in other matter paragraph in his
audit report that the corresponding/comparative figures are
unaudited.
SA – 299 JOINT AUDIT OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
A. MEANING:
The process of appointing two or more individuals or firms or combination
of individuals and firms is known as joint audit. (SA 299 – Joint Audit of
Financial Statements). Joint audit basically implies pooling together the
resources and expertise of more than one firm of auditors to render an
expert job in a given time period which may be difficult to accomplish
acting individually.
B. VARIOUS ADVANTAGE OF JOINT AUDIT:

a. Sharing of expertise.
b. Mutual consultation.
c. Lower workload.
d. Better quality of performance.
e. A sense of healthy competition towards a better performance.
f. In respect of multi-national companies, the work can be spread
using the expertise of the local firms which are in a better position
to deal with detailed work and the local laws and regulations.
C. THE GENERAL DISADVANTAGES MAY BE THE FOLLOWING:

a. The fees being shared.
b. Psychological problem where firms of different standing are
associated in the joint audit.
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c. General superiority complexes of some auditors.
d. Problems of co-ordination of the work.
e. Areas of work of common concern being neglected.
f. Uncertainty about the liability for the work done.
D. RESPONSIBILITY OF JOINT AUDITOR:

1. Individual / Separate Responsibilities: Where work is divided among the
joint auditors on a suitable basis then each joint auditor is responsible
only for the work performed by them. Generally, the work will be divided
based on the following basis.
a. Items of Assets or liabilities
b. Income or Expenditure
c. Geographical areas
d. Identified units
e. Period of Financial statements
2. Joint / Combined Responsibility: In the following areas all the joint

auditors will have indivisible or combined responsibility.
a. In respect of audit work which is not divided among themselves and
carried by all of them.
b. In respect of decisions taken by all the joint auditors in respect of
common areas.
c. In respect of matters brought to the notice of all joint auditors by
one of them and there is an agreement among all of them.
d. Examining that the financial statements of the entity comply with
the requirements of the relevant statutes
e. For verifying presentation and disclosure requirements of financial
statements as per AFRFW.
f. For ensuring that the audit report complies with relevant standards
and Statue applicable.
E. AUDIT REPORTING IN CASE OF JOINT AUDIT:

1. Generally, all the joint auditors arrive common conclusions and express
common opinion through a single audit report.
2. NO joint auditor is not bound by majority’s opinion.
3. If there is a difference of opinion among joint auditors then such
disagreeing auditor can express his own opinion by a separate report.
4. In such a case each joint auditor shall refer about other joint auditor’s
report in their audit report.
Note: Each joint auditor is entitled to rely on the work performed by
another joint auditor and need not review the work performed by others.
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F. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS AS PER SA – 299:
1. The Engagement partner and Key engagement Team from each of the
Joint auditors shall be involved in planning the audit.
2. All joint auditors should establish jointly the overall audit strategy as
required under SA – 300.
3. Before Commencement of audit, All Joint auditors shall discuss and
develop a Joint audit plan. The following points shall be kept in mind:
a. Identify division of areas and common areas.
b. Ascertain reporting objectives of engagement team.
c. Communicate significant factors identified with each of the joint
auditors for directing engagement team efforts.
d. Consider the results of preliminary engagement activities.
e. Ascertain the nature, timing and extent of resources necessary to
accomplish the engagement
4. Each of the Joint auditors shall assess the risk of Material Misstatement
and communicate to other Joint auditors.
5. Joint auditors shall obtain common engagement letter and common
management representation letter regarding fulfilment of
responsibilities by management.
6. The Work allocation between joint auditors shall be documented and
signed by all the joint auditors which shall also be communicated to
those charged with governance.
SA – 610 USING THE WORK OF AN INTERNAL AUDITOR
A. OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of the external auditor are:
a. To determine whether the work of the internal audit function or direct
assistance from internal auditors can be used.
b. If using the work of the internal audit function, to determine whether
that work is adequate for purposes of the audit (Type 1); and
c. If using internal auditors to provide direct assistance, to appropriately
direct, supervise and review their work (Type 2).
B. DEFINITIONS:
1. Internal audit function: It is a function of an entity that performs
assurance and consulting activities designed to evaluate and improve the
effectiveness of the entity’s governance, risk management and internal
control processes.
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2. Direct assistance: Direct assistance means the use of internal auditors
to perform audit procedures under the direction, supervision and review
of the external auditor.
C. USING THE WORK PERFORMED BY INTERNAL AUDITOR (Type 1):
Prohibition on Type 1 Work:

The external auditor shall not use the work of the internal audit
function if the external auditor determines that:
a. The function’s organizational status and relevant policies and
procedures do not adequately support the objectivity of internal
auditors;
b. The function lacks sufficient competence; or
c. The function does not apply a systematic and disciplined approach,
including quality control.
D. USING INTERNAL AUDIT FUNCTION TO PROVIDE DIRECT ASSISTANCE (Type 2):
Prohibition on Type 2:
The external auditor shall not use an internal auditor to provide direct
assistance if:
a. There are significant threats to the objectivity of the internal
auditor; or
b. The internal auditor lacks sufficient competence to perform the
proposed work.
E. AREAS WHERE IAF CANNOT BE USED FOR DIRECT ASSISTANCE:

The external auditor shall not use internal auditors to provide direct
assistance to perform procedures that:
a. Areas involve making of significant judgments in the audit.
b. Areas relate to higher assessed risks of material misstatement.
c. Areas relate to work with which the internal auditors have been already
involved.
F. OBTAIN WRITTEN AGREEMENT FROM IAF WHILE USING AS DIRECT ASSISTANCE:

Prior to using internal auditors to provide direct assistance for purposes
of the audit, the external auditor shall:
a. Obtain written agreement from Management: That the internal auditors
will be allowed to follow the external auditor’s instructions, and that
the entity will not intervene in the work the internal auditor
performs for the external auditor; and
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b. Obtain written agreement from the internal auditors: That they will
keep confidential specific matters as instructed by the external auditor
and inform the external auditor of any threat to their objectivity.
c. The external auditor shall
I. Direct, supervise and review the work performed by internal auditors
on the engagement in accordance with SA 220.
II. Verify the audit evidence for the work performed by the internal
auditors and ensure the evident is sufficient and appropriate.
G. DOCUMENTATION:
If the external auditor uses internal auditors to provide direct assistance
on the audit, the external auditor shall include in the audit
documentation:
1. The basis for the decision regarding the nature and extent of the work
performed by the internal auditors;
2. Who reviewed the work performed and the date and extent of that
review in accordance with SA 230.
3. The written agreements obtained from an authorized representative of
the entity and the internal auditors of this SA; and
4. The working papers prepared by the internal auditors who provided
direct assistance on the audit engagement.
SA – 570 GOING CONCERN
A. OBJECTIVE:
a. To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the
appropriateness of management’s use of the going concern basis of
accounting in the preparation of the financial statements;
b. To conclude, based on the audit evidence obtained, whether a material
uncertainty exists; and
c. To report in accordance with this SA.
B. PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT REGARDING USE OF GOING CONCERN

ASSUMPTION BY MANAGEMENT:
The following factors to be considered for preliminary assessment of

entity’s ability to continue as a going concern:
1. The nature and condition of its business.
2. Effects of external events or conditions such as change in law or
regulatory.
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3. The information pertaining to operational forecast of foreseeable future.
4. Significant events or transactions that are occurred during the period
under review. E.g., fire accident
C. PERIOD COVERED FOR ASSESSMENT OF ENTITY’S ABILITY TO CONTINUE AS A

GOING CONCERN:
1. The assessment period under audit for going concern testing shall be
same period as adopted by management.
2. If the management assessment of going concern is less than 12 MONTHS
then the auditor shall request management to extend its assessment
period to at least twelve months.
3. Further in some cases estimation more than 12 months is also justified
and in such a case the assessment shall be made for such extended
period.
D. AUDIT PROCEDURE:
The following audit procedures should perform by the auditor if the
auditor identifies any circumstances that cast significant doubt on
entity’s going concern:
1. Whether there is a policy of assessment of risk related to going concern
by management.
2. Evaluating management’s plans for future actions in relation to its
going concern assessment.
3. Whether the entity has prepared a cash flow forecast based on a reliable
data.
4. Considering whether any additional information available since the date
on which management made its assessment.
5. Further the audit procedures will include:
a. Analysing cash flow, profit and other relevant factors.
b. Analysing the latest interim financial statements.
c. Inquiring the entity’s legal counsel regarding existence of any
pending litigations and reasonableness of their outcome.
d. Reading the minutes of the meetings of managing committee or
shareholders.
e. Performing audit procedures regarding subsequent events that
effect entity’s going concern.
f. Confirming the existence, terms and adequacy of borrowing
facilities if necessary.
E. GOING CONCERN ASSUMPTION IS APPROPRIATE BUT MATERIAL UNCERTAINTY

EXIST:
1. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS “ADEQUATELY” DISCLOSES THE FACT: 73
a. If the auditor concludes that the financial statements adequately
disclose the material uncertainty that may cast significant doubt on
the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern and management’s
plans to deal with these events; and
b. The audit report shall include a separate section under the heading
“Material uncertainty related to going concern” and draw the attention
of the readers to the specific note point presented or disclosed
adequately by management regarding the material uncertainty.
c. Also, the auditor will express an unqualified opinion in this regard as
the entity has adequately disclosed about the material uncertainty.
2. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS “DO NOT ADEQUATELY” DISCLOSES THE FACT:

If the auditor concludes that the financial statements are not
adequately reflecting the material uncertainty regarding going concern
then the auditor shall express a Qualified/Adverse opinion and explain
the reasons for modification in the section “Basis for Qualified/Adverse
Opinion Paragraph”.
F. GOING CONCERN ASSUMPTION IS INAPPROPRIATE:

If the financial statements have been prepared using the going concern
basis of accounting but, in the auditor’s judgment, management’s use of
the going concern basis of accounting for the preparation of F/S is
inappropriate the auditor shall express an adverse opinion.
G. INDICATORS THAT CAST DOUBT ON GOING CONCERN:

The following are examples of events or conditions that may cast
significant doubt on the entity’s ability to continue as a going concern.
The indicators are classified into three types:
1. FINANCIAL INDICATORS:
Negative operating cash flows indicated by historical or prospective
a. Adverse key financial ratios.
b. Arrears or discontinuance of dividends.
c. Inability to pay creditors on due dates.
d. Inability to comply with the terms of loan agreements.
e. Inability to obtain financing for essential new product development or
other essential investments.
2. OPERATING INDICATORS:
a. Management intentions to liquidate the entity or to cease operations.
b. Loss of key management without replacement.
c. Loss of a major market, key customer(s), franchise, license, or
principal supplier(s). 74
d. Labour difficulties.
e. Shortages of important supplies
3. OTHER INDICATORS:
a. Non-compliance with capital or other statutory or regulatory
requirements, such as solvency or liquidity requirements for
financial institutions.
b. Pending legal or regulatory proceedings against the entity that may,
if successful, result in claims that the entity is unlikely to be able to
satisfy.
c. Changes in law or regulation or government policy expected to
adversely affect the entity.
d. Uninsured or underinsured catastrophes when they occur.
PART – II (OTHER REPORTING REQUIREMENTS)
VARIOUS REPORTING REQUIREMENTS OF THE AUDITOR U/S 143
A. DUTY OF AUDITOR TO INQUIRE ON CERTAIN MATTERS u/s 143(1):

It is the duty of auditor to inquire into the following matters:
1. Whether loans and advances made by the company on the basis of
security:
a. Have been properly secured and
b. Whether the terms on which they have been made are prejudicial to
the interests of the company or its members.
2. Whether transactions of the company which are represented merely by
book entries are prejudicial to the interests of the company.
3. Whether any Shares or Securities held by the company are sold at a price
less than purchase price. However, this point shall not apply to banking
and investment companies.
4. Whether loans and advances made by the company have been shown as
deposits.
5. Whether personal expenses have been charged to revenue account.
6. Where it is stated in the books and documents of the company that
any shares have been allotted for cash:
a. Whether cash has actually been received in respect of such
allotment and
b. If no cash has actually been received, the position as stated in the
account books and the balance sheet is correct, regular and not
misleading.
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Reporting Requirements: If the auditor got a positive response he can
ignore above matters. If there are any negative or adverse comments
observed then he shall state them in his report along with reasons.
In the audit report these matters should be included under the section
“reporting on legal and other regulatory requirements”.
B. DUTY TO REPORT ON CERTAIN MATTERS u/s 143(3):

The auditor’s report shall also state
a. Whether he has sought and obtained all the information and
explanations which to the best of his knowledge and belief were
necessary for the purpose of his audit.
b. Whether, in his opinion, proper books of account as required by law have
been kept by the company so far as appears from his examination of
those books and proper returns adequate for the purposes of his audit
have been received from branches not visited by him;
c. Whether the report on the accounts of any branch office of the company
audited by a person other than the company’s auditors (Branch auditor)
has been sent to him and How he has dealt with it in preparing his
report.
d. Whether the company’s balance sheet and profit and loss account
(Financial Statements) dealt with in the report are in agreement with
the books of account and returns.
e. Whether, in his opinion, the financial statements comply with the
accounting standards.
f. The observations or comments of the auditors on financial transactions
or matters which have any adverse effect on the functioning of the
company.
g. Whether any director is disqualified from being appointed as a director
under sub- section (2) of the section 164.
h. Any qualification, reservation or adverse remark relating to the
maintenance of accounts and other matters connected therewith.
i. Whether the company has adequate internal financial controls w.r.t
financial statements in place and the operating effectiveness of such
controls
j. The auditor’s report shall also include their views and comments on
the following matters, namely:
1. Whether the company has disclosed the impact of pending litigations
on its financial position in its financial statement.
2. Whether the company has made provision, as required under any law
or accounting standards, for material foreseeable losses, if any, on
long term contracts including derivative contracts.
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3. Whether there has been any delay in transferring amounts, required
to be transferred, to the Investor Education and Protection Fund by
the company.
4.
i. Whether the management has represented that, to the best of it’s
knowledge and belief, other than as disclosed in the notes to the
accounts, no funds have been advanced or loaned or invested
(either from borrowed funds or share premium or any other sources
or kind of funds) by the company to or in any other person(s) or
entity(ies), including foreign entities (“Intermediaries”), with the
understanding, whether recorded in writing or otherwise, that the
Intermediary shall, whether, directly or indirectly lend or invest in
other persons or entities identified in any manner whatsoever by
or on behalf of the company (“Ultimate Beneficiaries”) or provide
any guarantee, security or the like on behalf of the Ultimate
Beneficiaries.
ii. Whether the management has represented, that, to the best of its
knowledge and belief, other than as disclosed in the notes to the
accounts, no funds have been received by the company from any
person(s) or entity(ies), including foreign entities (“Funding
Parties”), with the understanding, whether recorded in writing or
otherwise, that the company shall, whether, directly or indirectly,
lend or invest in other persons or entities identified in any manner
whatsoever by or on behalf of the Funding Party (“Ultimate
Beneficiaries”) or provide any guarantee, security or the like on
behalf of the Ultimate Beneficiaries.
iii. Based on such audit procedures that the auditor has considered
reasonable and appropriate in the circumstances, nothing has come
to their notice that has caused them to believe that the
representations under sub-clause (i) and (ii) contain any material
misstatement.
5. Whether the dividend declared or paid during the year by the
company is in compliance with section 123 of the Companies Act,
2013.
6. [Whether the company, in respect of financial years commencing on
or after the 1st April, 2022] has used such accounting software for
maintaining its books of account which has a feature of recording
audit trail (edit log) facility and the same has been operated
throughout the year for all transactions recorded in the software
and the audit trail feature has not been tampered with and the audit
trail has been preserved by the company as per the statutory
requirements for record retention. 77
AUDIT TRAIL MEANS, a step-by-step sequential record which provides
evidence of the documented history of financial transactions to its
source. An auditor can trace every step of the financial data of a
particular transaction right from the general ledger to its source
document with the help of the audit trail.
NOTE 1: The provisions of internal financial controls shall not apply for the
following private limited companies:
1. One Person company.
2. Small company.
3. A Private company satisfying the following conditions-
a. Turnover as per latest financial statements shall not exceed Rs.
50 Crore and
b. Loans and Borrowings from banks and financial institutions
shall not exceed Rs. 25 Crore.
NOTE 2: “The auditor of the company shall, in his report under section
143, make a statement as to whether the remuneration paid by the
company to its directors is in accordance with the provisions of this
section, whether remuneration paid to any director is in excess of the
limit laid down under this section and give such other details as may be
prescribed”. [This provision is applicable only for PUBLIC COMPANIES]
Audit Reporting requirements:

a. The auditor shall report on the above matters irrespective of positive or
negative remarks observed by him.
b. Further he shall state these matters under the section “reporting on
legal and other regulatory requirements”.
C. DUTY TO REPORT AS PER CARO 2020: SECTION 143(11)
PROVISIONS RELATING TO REPORTING UNDER CARO 2020
A. APPLICABILITY OF THE ORDER:

The Companies Auditor Report Order, 2016 (CARO) is an additional
reporting requirement Order. The order applies to every company including
a foreign company. However, it shall not apply to following classes of
companies:
1. A banking companies
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2. An insurance company
3. A company licensed to operate under section 8 of the Companies Act;
4. A One Person Company.
5. A Small company and
6. A Private Limited Company:
a. Not being a subsidiary or holding company of a public company and
b. The Total Paid up capital and reserves & surplus shall not exceed Rs. 1
Crore as on the balance sheet date and
c. The Total Borrowings from banks and financial institutions shall not
exceed Rs. 1 Crore at any point of time during the financial year and
d. Total Turnover calculated as per Schedule III (including revenue from
discontinuing operations) shall not Exceed Rs. 10 crores during the
financial year as per the financial statements.
B. POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE CALCULATING ABOVE PARAMETERS:

1. Paid up share capital:
a. Inclusions: It includes both equity share capital as well as the
preference share capital.
b. Exclusions: It excludes share application money received pending
allotment, calls in arrears and calls in advance.
2. Reserves and surplus:
a. It includes all the reserves (whether capital or revenue reserves) as
disclosed in the Schedule III of the companies act, 2013.
b. Revaluation reserve, if any, should be taken into consideration while
determining the applicability of CARO.
c. The debit balance of the profit and loss account, if any, should be
reduced from the figures of Reserves & Surplus same as per Schedule
III.
d. If there any excess debit balance of profit and loss account after
adjustment to Reserves & Surplus, then such excess can be netted off
against Paid up Capital also.
e. Provisions are excluded whether they are made for depreciation or
for Diminution in the value of assets or for any known liability.
3. Borrowing:
a. Loans taken from banks and financial institutions are only to be
considered.
b. It includes all the loans irrespective of nature of loans:
I. Whether term loans, demand loans, working capital loans, cash
credits, and overdraft, bills purchased and discounted.
II. Whether loans whether secured or unsecured.
c. The limit shall be computed with reference to the aggregate
borrowings from all banks and financial institutions cumulatively. 79
d. The limit shall be considered at any point of time during the financial
year i.e., on any day during the year but need not on the date of
balance sheet.
e. Where the company has taken any overdraft facility against Fixed
Deposits, the gross amount outstanding in overdraft facility
(without adjusting Fixed Deposit) shall be considered for the
purpose of CARO.
f. Amounts outstanding in respect of credit Cards also would also be
considered.
g. Non-fund-based credit facilities, to the extent such facilities have
devolved and have been converted into fund-based credit facilities,
should also be considered as outstanding borrowings.
h. The figures of outstanding borrowing would also include the
amount of bank guarantees issued by the company where such
guarantee(s) has (have) been invoked and encashed or where, say, a
letter of credit has been devolved on the company.
i. In case of Term Loans – Interest accrued BUT NOT DUE shall not be
considered under borrowings.
4. Turnover:
a. Revenue means the aggregate amounts of sales affected by the
company including the revenue from discontinuing operations.
b. GST shall be deducted from the Turnover.
c. It excludes sales returns and trade discounts, if any.
5. Additional points:
a. In the case of holding and subsidiary companies:
I. The limits for applicability of CARO should be computed on the
basis of standalone financial statements of holding and subsidiary
companies separately but not on the basis of consolidated
II. CARO, 2020 reporting shall not apply to the Auditor’s Report on
Consolidated Financial Statements “EXCEPT Clause 21”.
b. In the case of companies having branches:
I. The limits for the purpose of Applicability of CARO shall be
computed from the entire company’s view including the amounts
form all the branches but not w.r.t each branch wise.
II. Once it is applicable to the company as a whole, then each and
every branch of the company will be covered under CARO.
Therefore, all the branch auditors of the company are also required
to report on these 16 matters in their branch audit report of the
concerned branches.
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21 CLAUSES TO BE REPORTED
[These clauses shall be reported as part of Auditors Report as referred under SA

700 under the para / section “REPORTING ON OTHER LEGAL AND REGULATORY
REQUIREMENTS]
1. FIXED ASSETS:
a. FIXED ASSET REGISTER: Whether the company is maintaining proper
records showing full particulars including
1. Quantitative details of PPE and Intangible Assets (Fixed Assets) and
2. Situation of PPE.
b. PHYSICAL VERIFICATION:
1. Whether these fixed assets have been physically verified by the
management at reasonable intervals.
2. Whether any material discrepancies were noticed on such
verification and whether the same have been properly dealt with in
the books of accounts.
c. IMMOVABLE PROPERTY: Whether the title of immovable properties is held

in the name of the company. If not, provide the details of the same:
1. Description of the Property
2. Gross Carrying Value
3. Held in Name of (I.e., Promoter or director or employees)
4. Reason for Not being held in name of Company.
d. REVALUATION (NEWLY ADDED IN 2020):

Whether the company has revalued its Property, Plant and Equipment
(including Right of Use assets) or intangible assets or both during the
year and, if so:
1. Whether the revaluation is based on the valuation by a Registered
Valuer.
2. Specify the amount of change, if change is 10% or more in the
aggregate of the net carrying value of each class of Property, Plant
and Equipment or intangible assets.
e. DISCLOSURE OF BENAMI TRANSACTIONS (NEWLY ADDED IN 2020):

Whether any proceedings have been initiated or are pending against the
company for holding any benami property under the Benami
Transactions (Prohibition) Act, 1988 (45 of 1988) and rules made there
81
under, if so, whether the company has appropriately disclosed the details
in its financial statements.
2. INVENTORIES:
a. PHYSICAL VERIFICATION:
1. Whether physical verification of inventory has been conducted at
reasonable intervals by the management.
2. Whether any discrepancies of 10% or more in the aggregate for each
class of inventory were noticed and if so, whether they have been
properly dealt with in the books of account.
b. WORKING CAPITAL LOANS (NEWLY ADDED IN 2020):
Whether during any point of time of the year, the company has been
sanctioned working capital limits in excess of 5 crore rupees, in
aggregate, from banks or financial institutions on the basis of security
of current assets, Whether the quarterly returns or statements filed by
the company with such banks or financial institutions are in agreement
with the books of account of the Company, if not, give details.
3. INVESTMENTS, GUARANTEE, SECURITY, LOANS OR ADVANCES:

a. APPLICABILITY: Whether during the year the company has provided
loans or provided advances in the nature of loans, or stood guarantee, or
provided security to any other entity [not applicable to companies
whose principal business is to give loans], if so, indicate:
1. TO RELATED PARTIES: The aggregate amount during the year, and
balance outstanding at the balance sheet date with respect to such
loans or advances and guarantees or security to subsidiaries, joint
ventures and associates.
2. TO UNRELATED PARTIES: The aggregate amount during the year, and
balance outstanding at the balance sheet date with respect to such
loans or advances and guarantees or security to parties OTHER THAN
subsidiaries, joint ventures and associates.
b. TERMS AND CONDITIONS:

Whether the investments made, guarantees provided, security given
and the terms and conditions of the grant of all loans and advances in
the nature of loans and guarantees provided are not prejudicial to the
company’s interest.
c. REPAYMENT REGULARITY:
In respect of loans and advances in the nature of loans, whether the
schedule of repayment of principal and payment of interest has been
stipulated and whether the repayments or receipts are regular. 82
d. OVERDUE > 90 DAYS:
If the amount is overdue, state the total amount overdue for more than
90 days, and whether reasonable steps have been taken by the
company for recovery of the principal and interest.
e. RESCHEDULING OR EXTENTION OF OVERDUE LOANS (NEWLY ADDED IN

2020):
Whether any loan or advance in the nature of loan granted which has
fallen due during the year, has been renewed or extended or fresh loans
granted to settle the over dues of existing loans given to the same
parties, if so,
1. Specify the aggregate amount of such dues renewed or extended or
settled by fresh loans and
2. The percentage of the aggregate to the total loans or advances in the
nature of loans granted during the year [not applicable to companies
whose principal business is to give loans].
f. DEMAND LOANS WITHOUT REPAYMENT PERIOD:
Whether the company has granted any loans or advances in the nature
of loans either repayable on demand or without specifying any terms or
period of repayment, if so,
1. Specify the aggregate amount, percentage thereof to the total loans
granted,
2. Aggregate amount of loans granted to Promoters, related parties as
defined in clause (76) of section 2 of the Companies Act, 2013
4. OTHER LOANS, INVESTMENTS, GUARANTEES MADE BY COMPANY:

In respect of loans, Investments, Guarantees, and securities provided by
company, whether provisions of section 185 & 186 have been complied with?
If not, provide the details thereof.
5. DEPOSITS:
In case the company has accepted deposits from the public,
a. Verify the compliance with the following:
1. The provisions of Sections 73 to 76 of the Co.’s Act, 2013 or
2. Whether the directives issued by the RBI and
3. An order passed by CLB or any court or any other Tribunal, if any.
b. If there is any Non-compliance, the nature of contraventions should be
stated.
6. COST RECORDS:
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a. Whether maintenance of cost records has been prescribed by the Central
Government under sub section (1) of section 148 of the Co.’s Act, 2013
is applicable.
b. If applicable, whether such accounts and records have made and
maintained.
7. STATUTORY DUES:
a. UNDISPUTED DUES:
1. Is the company regular in depositing undisputed statutory dues e.g.
provident fund, ESI, Income Tax, service tax and any other statutory
dues with the appropriate authorities, and
2. if not, the extent of the arrears of outstanding statutory dues as at
the last day of the financial year concerned for a period of more than
6 months from the date, they became payable, shall be indicated by
the auditor. (Only Information and not opinion)
b. DISPUTED DUES:
In case dues have not been deposited on account of any dispute, the
auditor shall indicate
1. The amounts involved in dispute and
2. The forum where dispute is pending.
Note: A mere representation to the concerned department shall not
constitute a dispute.
8. DISCOVERY OF UNDISCLOSED INCOME:

Whether any transactions not recorded in the books of account have been
surrendered or disclosed as income during the year in the tax assessments
under the Income Tax Act, 1961 (43 of 1961), if so, whether the previously
unrecorded income has been properly recorded in the books of account
during the year as prior period item.
9. DEFAULT IN REPAYMENT OF DUES:

a. LENDER WISE DEFAULT:
1. Whether the company has defaulted in repayment of borrowings of
loans to a financial institution, Bank, Debenture holders or
Governments.
2. If so, the period and amount of default to be reported each lender
wise in the following Format:
• Nature of Borrowing
• Name of the lender
• Amount Not Paid on Due Date
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• Whether Principal or Interest or both
• Delay in Days
• Remarks, if any.
b. WILFUL DEFAULTER:
Whether the company is a declared willful defaulter by any bank or
financial institution or other lender.
c. PURPOSE OF TERM LOANS:

Whether term loans were applied for the purpose for which the loans
were obtained; if not, the amount of loan so diverted and the purpose
for which it is used may be reported.
d. ST LOAN FOR LT PURPOSE:

Whether funds raised on short term basis have been utilised for long
term purposes, if yes, the nature and amount to be indicated.
e. LOANS TAKEN TO MEET SUBSIDIARY COMPANY NEEDS:

Whether the company has taken any funds from any entity or person on
account of or to meet the obligations of its subsidiaries, associates or
joint ventures, if so, details thereof with nature of such transactions
and the amount in each case.
f. LOAN AGAINST PLEDGE OF SECURITES OF SUBSIDIARIES:

1. Whether the company has raised any loans during the year “ON
PLEDGE OF SECURITIES HELD IN SUBSIDIARY/ASSOCIATE/JOINT
VENTURE and if So, Give details thereof
2. Also report whether the company has defaulted in repayment of
such loans.
10. END USE OF FUNDS RAISED:

a. IPO / FPO:
1. Whether the money raised by way of initial or further public offer
(including debt instruments) were utilized for the purposes for which
those are raised.
2. If not, the details along with the defaults, delays & subsequent
rectifications, to be reported.
b. PREFERENTIAL ALLOTMENT:
1. Whether the company has made any preferential allotment or private
placement of shares or fully or partly convertible debentures during
the year under review &
85
2. If so, verify the following:
• Compliance with section 42 of the act. and
• The amount raised have b for which they are raised.
3. If not provide the details in respect of the amount involved & nature
of non-compliance
11. REPORTING OF FRAUDS:

a. NOTICED OR REPORTED:
1. Whether any fraud by the company or any fraud on the company has
been noticed or reported during the year.
2. If yes, the nature and the amount involved is to be indicated.
b. SEC. 143(12):
Whether any report under sub-section (12) of section 143 of the
Companies Act has been filed by the auditors in Form ADT-4 as
prescribed under rule 13 of Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules, 2014
with the Central Government.
c. WHISTLE BLOWER COMPLAINTS:

Whether the auditor has considered whistle-blower complaints, if any,
received during the year by the company.
12. NIDHI COMPANY:

a. Whether Nidhi Company has complied with the net owned funds (i.e.,
net worth) to deposits in the ratio of 1:20 to meet out the liability.
i.e., for every one rupee of net owned funds, Nidhi company cannot
accept more than 20 rupees of deposits.
b. Whether Nidhi Company is maintaining 10% Unencumbered term
deposits as specified in Nidhi Rules, 2014 to meet out the liability.
c. Whether there has been any default in payment of interest on deposits or
repayment thereof for any period and if so, the details thereof.
13. RELATED PARTY TRANSACTION:

Whether all transaction with related parties is
a. In compliance with section 177 & 188 where applicable, &
b. Details have been disclosed in the financial statements etc., as required
by applicable accounting standards.
14. INTERNAL AUDIT SYSTEM:

a. Whether the company has an internal audit system commensurate with
the size and nature of its business.
b. Whether the reports of the Internal Auditors for the period under audit
were considered by the statutory auditor. 86
15. NON-CASH TRANSACTION:
Whether Company has entered into any Non-Cash Transactions with
directors & if so provisions of section 192 have been complied with.
16. NON-BANKING FINANCIAL INSTITUTION:

a. 45IA OF RBI ACT: Whether the company is required to be registered under
section 45-IA of Reserve Bank of India Act 1934, and If so, whether the
registration has been obtained.
b. NBFC ACTIVITIES (NEW): Whether the company has conducted any Non-
Banking Financial or Housing Finance activities without a valid
Certificate of Registration (CoR) from the Reserve Bank of India as per
the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
c. CORE INVESTMENT COMPANY (NEW):
1. Whether the company is a Core Investment Company (CIC) as
defined in the regulations made by the Reserve Bank of India, if so,
2. Whether it continues to fulfil the criteria of a CIC, and in case the
company is an exempted or unregistered CIC, whether it continues to
fulfil such criteria.
3. Whether the Group has more than one CIC as part of the Group, if yes,
indicate the number of CICs which are part of the Group.
17. CASH LOSSES:

Whether the company has incurred cash losses in the financial year and in
the immediately preceding financial year, if so, state the amount of cash
losses.
18. RESIGNATION OF AUDITORS:

a. Whether there has been any resignation of the statutory auditors during
the year, if so,
b. Whether the auditor has taken into consideration the issues, objections
or concerns raised by the outgoing auditors.
19. MATERIAL UNCERTAINITY:

On the basis of the financial ratios, ageing and expected dates of realisation
of financial assets and payment of financial liabilities, other information
accompanying the financial statements, the auditor’s knowledge of the
Board of Directors and management plans, Whether the auditor is of the
opinion that no material uncertainty exists as on the date of the audit
report that company is capable of meeting its liabilities existing at the
date of balance sheet as and when they fall due within a period of 1 year
from the balance sheet date. 87
20. CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY FUND:
a. Whether, in respect of other than ongoing projects, the company has
transferred unspent amount to a Fund specified in Schedule VII to the
Companies Act within a period of 6 months of the expiry of the financial
year in compliance with the said Act.
c. Whether any amount remaining unspent under sub-section (5) of
section 135 of the Companies Act, pursuant to any ongoing project, has
been transferred to special account in compliance with the provisions of
section 135.
21. MODIFIED OPINION (CARO) IN OTHER GROUP COMPANIES:

a. Whether there have been any qualifications or adverse remarks by the
respective auditors in the Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order (CARO)
reports of the companies included in the consolidated financial
statements,
b. if yes, indicate the details of the companies and the paragraph numbers
of the CARO report containing the qualifications or adverse remarks.
AUDIT REPORTING:
a. The reporting under the above matters is mandatory. Means whether it
is positive or negative the auditor must comment.
b. Where the response obtained for the above matters is negative, the
auditor shall give reasons thereof.
c. Also, where the auditor is unable to express any opinion on any specified
matter, his report shall indicate such fact together with the reasons why
it is not possible for him to give his opinion on the same.
DISCLOSURE IN THE AUDITOR’S REPORT

The following paragraphs deal with the manner of qualification and the
manner of disclosure, if any, to be made in the auditor’s report.
1. AS-1 – Disclosure of Accounting Policies, In the case of a company,

members should qualify their audit reports in case
a. Accounting policies required to be disclosed under Schedule III or any
other provisions of the Companies Act, 2013 have not been disclosed, or
b. Accounts have not been prepared on accrual basis, or
c. The fundamental accounting assumption of going concern has not been
followed and this fact has not been disclosed in the financial statements,
or
88
d. Proper disclosures regarding changes in the accounting policies have not
been made.
2. Where a company has been given a specific exemption regarding any of

the matters stated above but the fact of such exemption has not been
adequately disclosed in the accounts, the member should mention the fact
of exemption in his audit report without necessarily making it a subject
matter of audit qualification.
3. In view of the above, the auditor will have to consider different

circumstances whether the audit report has to be qualified or only
disclosures have to be given.
4. In the case of enterprises not governed by the Companies Act, the member
should examine the relevant statute and make suitable qualification in his
audit report in case adequate disclosures regarding accounting policies
have not been made as per the statutory requirements.
5. Similarly, the member should examine if the fundamental accounting

assumptions have been followed in preparing the financial statements or
not. In appropriate cases, he should consider whether, keeping in view the
requirements of the applicable laws, a qualification in his report is
necessary.
6. In the event of non-compliance by enterprises not governed by the
Companies Act, in situations where the relevant statute does not require
such disclosures to be made, the member should make adequate disclosure
in his audit report without necessarily making it a subject matter of audit
qualification.
7. In making a qualification / disclosure in the audit report, the auditor should

consider the materiality of the relevant item.
8. A disclosure, which is not a subject matter of audit qualification, should be

made in the auditor’s report in a manner that it is clear to the reader that
the disclosure does not constitute an audit qualification. The paragraph
containing the auditor’s opinion on true and fair view should not include
a reference to the paragraph containing the aforesaid disclosure.
89
5. AUDIT OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETIES
OVERVIEW AND BACKGROUND ABOUT CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES AUDIT AND
ROLE OF CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS
A. BACKGROUND:
1. Cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an
autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their
common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a
jointly-owned enterprise".
2. The Co-operative Societies Act, 1912, a Central Act, contains the
fundamental law regarding the formation and working of the co-
operative societies in India and is applicable in many states with or
without amendments.
3. An auditor of a co-operative society should be familiar with the provisions
of the particular Act governing the society under audit.
4. Co-operative society is a business organisation with a special mode of
doing business, by pulling together all the means of production co-
operatively, elimination of middlemen and exploitation from outside
forces.
B. ROLE OF AUDITOR W.R.T. SOCIETIES:

A chartered accountant has to play a significant role in the development of
cooperative organisations on scientific lines. Apart from audit, some other
professional services could be rendered by chartered accountants such as:
a. Guidance in Accounts Writing,
b. Installation of Accounting System,
c. Internal Audit,
d. Management Accounting services,
e. Taxation etc.
AUDIT OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES AS PER SEC 17 OF CO-OPERATIVE

SOCITIES ACT, 1912.
1. The Registrar shall audit or cause to be audited by some person authorised

by him by general or special order in writing in this behalf the accounts of
every registered society once at least in every year.
2. The audit shall include an examination of overdue debts, if any, and a
valuation of the assets and liabilities of the society.
90
3. The Registrar, the Collector or any person authorised by general or special
order in writing shall:
a. At all times have access to all the books, accounts, papers and
securities of a society, and
b. Every officer of the society shall furnish such information in regard
to the transactions and working of the society as the person making
such inspection may require.
“Registrar” means a person appointed to perform the duties of a

Registrar of Co- operative Societies under this Act.
FORM OF AUDIT REPORT OF A CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY UNDER CO-

OPERATIVE SOCIETIES ACT, 1912
A. FORM OF AUDIT REPORT:

1. On completion of audit, the auditor has to submit his audit report to the
society, and copies thereof to the respective authorities such as District
Special Auditor, District Deputy Registrar etc.
2. The audit report has to be submitted in the prescribed form specified by
the Registrar or as given in the related Rules.
B. MATTERS TO BE STATED IN AUDITORS REPORT IN GENERAL: According to the

present prescribed form in some of the States, the auditor has to state:
1. Whether he has obtained all the necessary information and explanations
which to the best of his knowledge and belief were necessary for the
purpose of audit.
2. Whether in his opinion and to the best of his information and
according to the explanations given to him, the said accounts give all
the information required by the Act.
3. Whether the Profit and Loss Account of the society gives a true and fair
view of the Profit and Loss made by the society.
4. Whether the Balance Sheet drawn up as at the end of the year gives a
true and fair view of the state of affairs of the society as on the given
date.
5. Whether in his opinion, proper books of account as required by the Act,
the Rules and the bye-laws of the society have been properly
maintained.
6. Whether the Balance Sheet and the Profit and Loss Account examined
by him are in agreement with the books of account and returns of the
society.
Note: The auditor will have to give qualifying observations, if any of the
answers to the above-mentioned matters are negative.
91
C. SCHEDULES TO AUDIT REPORT: In addition to the above, the auditor will
have to attach schedules to the report regarding the following
information:
1. All transactions which appear to be contrary to the provisions of the Act,
the rules and bye-laws of the society.
2. All sums, which ought to have been, but have not been brought into
account by the society.
3. Any material, or property belonging to society which appears to the
auditor to be bad or doubtful of recovery.
4. Any material irregularity or impropriety in expenditure or in the
realisation or monies due to society.
5. Any other matters specified by the Registrar in this behalf.
Note: In the case of Nil report in any of the above matters, the auditor
will have to give a Nil report.
D. FILL AUDIT MEMOS: Further in addition to the audit certificate in the

prescribed form and various schedules stated above, the auditor of co-
operative society in the applicable State has to answer 2 sets of
questionnaires called as audit memos:
1. The first set of audit memo or questionnaire is of general nature and is
applicable to all types of societies such as urban banks, consumers’
stores, credit societies etc.
2. The second set of questionnaires is specific for a particular type of
society. These questionnaires are drafted in detail and serve the
practical purpose of audit programme.
E. AUDIT REPORT IN NARRATIVE FORM: The audit report in a narrative form is

also required to be submitted by the auditor addressed to the Chairman of
the society. Generally, the narrative audit report as per convention is
divided into 2 parts styled as Part I and Part II:
1. PART I OF THE REPORT: Which throws a light on
a. Comparative financial position,
b. Capital structure,
c. Solvency position and
d. The profitability or otherwise of the society.
e. It may contain comments on the working of the society and the
suggestions for future improvements. It must be suitably divided
into paragraphs.
Mistakes having an impact on the profitability of society should be
pointed out in Part I as it has got a consequential effect on the
financial position of society.
92
2. PART II OF THE REPORT: Points out the observations of routine nature,
which are the finished products of the routine vouch and post audit such
as missing vouchers, loan bonds, inadequacies of documents, mistakes
of principles in accounting etc.
MULTISTATE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES UNDER MSCS ACT 2002AND

ACCOUNTS TO BE MAINTAINED BY THEM
A. OVERVIEW OF MSCS:
1. The Multi-State Co-operative Societies Act, 2002, which came into
force in August, 2002 applies to co-operative societies whose objects are
not confined to one State.
2. The Act contains detailed provisions regarding registration, membership
and management of such societies.
3. The funds of a multi-State co-operative society cannot be utilised for
any political purpose.
4. The Act contains detailed provisions regarding the investment of funds
and restrictions on loans, borrowings, etc.
B. BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS: As per Multi-State Co-operative Society Rules 2002,

every Multi- State Co-operative society shall keep books of account with
respect to:
1. All sum of money received and expended and matters in respect of which
the receipt and expenditure take place.
2. All sale and purchase of goods.
3. The assets and liabilities.
4. In the case of a multi-state co-operative society engaged in
production, processing and manufacturing, particulars relating to
utilization of materials or labour or other items of cost as may be
specified in the bye-laws of such a society.
QUALIFICATIONS AND DISQUALIFICATIONS OF AUDITORS OF MULTI STATE

CO-OPERTIVE SOCIETY
A. QUALIFICATION OF AUDITORS: Section 72 of the Multi-State Co-operative

Societies Act, 2002 states that a person who is a Chartered Accountant
within the meaning of the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 can only be
appointed as auditor of multi-State co-operative society.
B. DISQUALIFICATION OF AUDITORS: The following persons are not eligible for

appointment as auditors of a multi-State co-operative society-
1. A body corporate. 93
2. An officer or employee of the multi-State co-operative society.
3. A person who is a member or who is in the employment, of an officer or
employee of the multi-State co-operative society.
4. A person who
a. is indebted to the multi-State co-operative society or
b. has given any guarantee or
c. has provided any security in connection with the indebtedness of
any third person to the multi-State co-operative society for an
amount exceeding Rs.1000.
C. VACATION OF OFFICE: If an auditor becomes subject, after his appointment,

to any, of the disqualifications specified above, he shall be deemed to have
vacated his office as such.
D. APPOINTMENT OF FIRST AUDITORS (SEC. 70):

1. Authority to appoint:
a. By the board within 1 month of the date of registration of such
society.
b. If the board fails to exercise its powers, the multi-State co-
operative society in the general meeting may appoint the first
auditor.
2. Tenure of first auditor: Till the conclusion of the first annual general
meeting.
E. APPOINTMENT OF SUBSEQUENT AUDITORS (SEC. 70):

1. Authority to appoint: by the members of the multi-State co-operative
society, at each annual general meeting.
2. Tenure of subsequent auditor: from the conclusion of that meeting until
the conclusion of the next annual general meeting.
POWERS OF AUDITOR OF MULTI-STATE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY
1. He shall have a right of access at all times to the book’s accounts and
vouchers of the multi-State co-operative society, whether kept at the
head office of the multi-State co-operative society or elsewhere, and
2. He can inquire the officers or other employees of the multi-State co-
operative society and require such information and explanation as the
auditor may think necessary.
DUTIES OF MULTI STATE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY
94
A. DUTY OF AUDITORS TO MAKE INQUIRY (SEC. 73(2)): The auditor shall make
following inquiries:
1. Whether loans and advances made by the multi-State co-operative
society on the basis of security.
a. Have been properly secured and
b. Whether the terms on which they have been made are not prejudicial
to the interests of the multi-State cooperative society or its members,
2. Whether transactions which are represented merely by book entries are
not prejudicial to the interests of the multi-State co-operative society,
3. Whether personal expenses have been charged to revenue account, and
4. Where it is Stated in the books and papers of the multi-State co-
operative society that any shares have been allotted for cash,
a. Whether cash has actually been received in respect of such allotment,
and if no cash has actually been so received,
b. Whether the position as stated in the account books and the balance
sheet is correct regular and not misleading.
B. DUTY TO REPORT U/S SEC. 73(3):

1. The auditor shall make a report to the members of the multi-State co-
operative society on
a. The accounts examined by him and
b. On every balance-sheet and profit and loss account including notes to
account.
2. The report shall state whether, in his opinion and to the best of his
information and according to the explanation given to him, the said
accounts give the information required by this act in the manner so
required, and give a true and fair view of:
a. The state of affairs of the multi-State co-operative society’s affairs as
at the end of its financial year (Balance sheet); and
b. The profit or loss for its financial year (profit and loss a/c).
C. DUTY TO STATE SOME MATTERS REQUIRED U/S SEC. 73(4): The auditor’s
report shall also state:
1. Whether he has obtained all the information and explanation which to
the best of his knowledge and belief were necessary for the purpose of
his audit.
2. Whether, in his opinion, proper books of account have been kept by the
multi-State co-operative society and proper returns adequate for the
purpose of his audit have been received from branches or offices of the
multi-State co-operative society not visited by him.
3. Whether the report on the accounts of any branch office audited by a
person other than the multi-State co-operative society’s auditor has been 95
forwarded to him and how he has dealt with the same in preparing the
auditor’s report.
4. Whether the Multi-State co-operative society’s balance sheet and
profit and loss account dealt with by the report are in agreement with
the books of account and return.
Where any of the matters referred above is answered in the negative or
with a qualification, the auditor’s report shall state the reason for the
answer.
POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO DIRECT SPECIAL AUDIT IN CASE OF

AUDIT OF MULTI- STATE CO-OPERTIVE SOCIETY
POWER OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TO DIRECT SPECIAL AUDIT (SECTION 77):
A. PASSING AN ORDER BY CG:

1. CIRCUMSTANCES NECESSITATING THE NEED FOR SPECIAL AUDIT:
a. That the affairs of any multi-State co-operative society are not
being managed in accordance with co-operative principles or prudent
commercial practices or
b. That any Multi-State co-operative society is being managed in a
manner likely to cause serious injury or damage to the interests of the
trade, industry or business to which it pertains; or
c. That the financial position of any multi-State co-operative society
is such as to endanger its solvency.
2. CONDITION FOR PASSING AN ORDER: Central Government shall order for
special audit only if that Government or the State Government either
by itself or both hold 51 % or more of the paid-up share capital in such
multi-State co-operative society.
B. PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING SPECIAL AUDIT:

1. APPOINTING SPECIAL AUDITOR: The Central Government may direct that
a special audit of the multi-State co-operative society’s accounts shall
be conducted and appoint either a chartered accountant or the multi-
State co-operative society’s auditor himself to conduct the special audit.
2. POWERS OF SPECIAL AUDITOR: The special auditor shall have the same
powers and duties in relation to the special audit as an auditor of a
multi-State co-operative society has under section 73.
3. REPORTING BY SPECIAL AUDITOR: The special auditor shall make the
report to the Central Government. The report of the special auditor shall,
include all the matters required to be included in the auditor’s report
96
under section 73 and any other matter as directed by the Central
Government.
4. Action taken by CG: On receipt of the report of the special auditor the
Central Government may take such action on the report as it considers
necessary in accordance with the provision of the Act or any law for
the time being in force.
5. Situation where no action is taken by CG: if the Central Government
does not take any action on the report within 4 months from the date of
its receipt,
a. That Government shall send to the Multi-State Co- operative society,
the report with its comments thereon and
b. Require the Multi-State Co-operative society either to circulate that
copy or those extracts to the members or to have such copy or
extracts read before the next general meeting.
6. EXPENSES PERTAINING TO THE SPECIAL AUDIT: The expenses of, and
incidental to, any special audit under this section (including the
remuneration of the special auditor) shall be determined by the Central
Government which determination shall be final and paid by the Multi-
State Co-operative society and in default of such payment, shall be
recoverable from the Multi-State Co-operative society as an arrear of
land revenue.
POWERS OF CENTRAL REGISTRAR TO MAKE AN INQUIRY U/S 78 AND

INSPECTION U/S 79 MULTI- STATE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES ACT, 2002
INQUIRY (U/S.78) AND INSEPCTION (U/S 79) BY CENTRAL REGISTRAR:
A. ELIGIBILITY TO MAKE AN APPLICATION FOR INQUIRY / INSPECTION:

1. A Creditor or
2. Not less than 1/3rd of the members of the board or
3. Not less than 1/4th of the total number of members of a multi-state co-
operative society
B. AUTHORITY TO WHOM THE APPLICATION IS TO BE MADE:

The Central Registrar.
C. INQUIRY BY WHOM:
1. Either by the registrar himself or
2. Some other person authorized by him
D. NOTICE TO THE SOCIETY: However, before holding such inquiry 15 days

notice must be given to the multi-State co-operative society.
97
E. POWERS OF THE PERSON MAKING THE INQUIRY / INSPECTION:
1. To Access to the books: Right of access to the books, accounts,
documents, and other properties belonging to and may require any
person in possession or responsible for the custody of any such books,
accounts, documents securities, cash or other properties to produce
the same at any place specified by him.
2. To call general meeting:
a. He may require the officers of the society to call a general meeting of
the society by giving notice of not less than 7 days at such time and
place at the headquarters of the society to consider such matters as
may be directed to him, and
b. Where the officers of the society refuse or fail to call such a
meeting, he shall have power to call it himself.
3. To issue summons: He may summon any person who is reasonably
believed by him to have any knowledge of the affairs of the multi-State
co-operative society to appear before him at any place at the
headquarters of the society or any branch thereof and may examine
such person on oath.
F. SENDING THE INQUIRY / INSPECTION REPORT BY CENTRAL REGISTRAR: The

Central Registrar shall, within a period of 3 months of the date of receipt of
the report, communicate the report of inquiry
1. To the Multi-State co-operative society, and
2. To the person or authority at whose instance the inquiry is needed.
SPECIAL FEATRES OF AUDIT OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY
A. EXAMINATION OF OVERDUE DEBTS:

1. Classification: Overdue debts for a period from 6 months to 5 years and
more than 5 years must be classified and shall have to be reported by an
auditor.
2. Comparison with previous year: The auditor should compare the amount
of current year’s overdue debts and its ratio to total working capital
with the previous year.
3. Assessing the recovery: A further analysis of these overdue debts from
the viewpoint of chances of recovery must be made, and they must be
classified as good or bad.
4. Ensuring making of provisions: The auditor must ascertain whether
proper provisions for doubtful debts are made and whether the same is
satisfactory.
B. OVERDUE INTEREST: 98
1. Meaning: Overdue interest is interest accrued or accruing in accounts,
the amount of which the principal is overdue.
2. Accounting Treatment:
a. Overdue interest should be excluded from Recognition of Interest
Income while calculating profit.
b. Such interest will be credited to overdue interest reserve and
transferred to profit and loss a/c when realised.
C. CERTIFICATION OF BAD DEBTS:

D. Check the authority for writing off the bad debts.
1. Authorisation by auditor: Some state acts may require that the Bad
debts can be written off only when they are certified as bad by the
auditor.
2. Authorisation by the managing committee: Where no such requirement
exists, the managing committee of the society must authorise the write-
off.
E. VALUATION OF ASSETS AND LIABILITIES:

1. Assets:
a. Ascertain existence, ownership and valuation of assets.
b. Fixed assets should be valued at cost less adequate provision for
depreciation.
c. The incidental expenses incurred in the acquisition and the
installation expenses of assets should be properly capitalised.
d. The current assets should be valued at cost or market price, whichever
is lower.
2. Liabilities:
The auditor should see that all the known liabilities are brought into the
account, and the contingent liabilities are stated by way of a note.
F. ADHERENCE TO CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLES:

1. Ensure the Functioning of society towards achieving objectives: The
auditor must ascertain how far the objectives, for which the co-
operative organisation is set up, have been achieved in the course of its
working.
2. Criteria for assessment: The assessment is not necessarily in terms of
profits, but in terms of extending of benefits to members who have
formed the society.
3. Principle of Propriety: While auditing the expenses, the auditor should
see that they are economically incurred and there is no wastage of funds.
The principles of propriety audit should be followed for the purpose.
99
G. ENSURING COMPLIANCE WITH THE PROVISIONS OF THE ACT AND RULES:
H. An auditor of a co-operative society is required to identify the non-
compliance with the provisions of Co-operative Societies Act and Rules and
bye-laws.
I. VERIFICATION OF MEMBER’S REGISTER AND EXAMINATION OF THEIR PASS

BOOKS:
J. Examination of entries in members pass books regarding the loan given and
its repayments, and confirmation of loan balances in person.
K. SPECIAL REPORT TO THE REGISTRAR:

L. During the course of audit, if the auditor notices the following serious
irregularities in the working of the society, then he may report these
special matters to the Registrar, drawing his specific attention to the
points.
1. Personal profiteering by members of managing committee in
transactions of the society, which are ultimately detrimental to the
interest of the society.
2. Detection of fraud relating to expenses, purchases, property and stores
of the society.
3. Practise of mis-management of the society.
M. AUDIT CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIETY:

N. After a judgement of an overall performance of the society, the auditor
has to award a class to the society. This judgement is to be based on the
criteria specified by the Registrar. It may be noted here that if the
management of the society is not satisfied about the award of audit class,
it can make an appeal to the Registrar, and the Registrar may direct to
review the audit classification. The auditor should be very careful, while
making a decision about the class of society
O. DISCUSSION OF DRAFT AUDIT REPORT WITH MANAGING COMMITTEE:

On conclusion of the audit, the audit report should never be finalised
without discussion with the managing committee.
POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE AUDIT OF A CO-OPERATIVE AS PER CO-

OPERATIVE SOCIETIES ACT, 1912.
A. QUALIFICATIONS OF AUDITORS: Apart from a chartered accountant within

the meaning of the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949, some of the State
Co-operative Acts have permitted:
100
1. Persons holding a government diploma in co-operative accounts or in
co-operation and accountancy and also
2. A person who has served as an auditor in the co-operative department of
a government to act as an auditor.
B. APPOINTMENT OF THE AUDITOR:

1. An auditor of a co-operative society is appointed by the Registrar of Co-
operative Societies and the auditor so appointed conducts the audit on
behalf of the Registrar and submits his report to him as also to the
society.
2. The audit fees are paid by the society on the basis of statutory scale of
fees prescribed by the Registrar, according to the category of the society
audited.
C. BOOKS, ACCOUNTS AND OTHER RECORDS OF CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES:

1. Under section 43(h) of the Central Act, a state government can frame
rules prescribing the books and accounts to be kept by a co-operative
society.
2. In order to maintain proper financial accounting records so as to
disclose full financial results of working of the society, the statutory or
mandatory provisions provide a directive, but they are not conclusive.
The society is at liberty to maintain such additional records according to
its convenience and which it thinks more useful for clarity and detailed
explanation. Ultimately the financial transactions and the results thereof
must be presented very clearly and in the best possible manner.
3. In case of large-scale co-operative organisation, different subsidiary
books and registers shall be maintained and the daily summary totals
will be transferred to main Cash Book.
D. RESTRICTIONS ON SHAREHOLDINGS (Sec. 5):

1. In the case of a society where the liability of a member of the society is
limited, no member of a society other than a registered society can hold
such portion of the share capital of the society as would exceed
a. a maximum of 20% of the total number of shares or
b. of the value of shareholding to ₹ 1,000/-.
2. The auditor of a co-operative society will be concerned with this provision
so as to watch any breach relating to holding of shares.
3. The State Acts may provide limits as to the shareholding, other than
that provided in the Central Act.
E. RESTRICTIONS ON LOANS (Sec. 29):

1. Society shall not make a loan to any person other than a member. 101
2. However, with the special sanction of the Registrar, a registered society
may make a loan to another registered society.
F. RESTRICTIONS ON BORROWINGS (Sec. 30): A society shall not accept loans

and deposits from persons who are not members unless otherwise provided
by the bye-laws of the society.
G. INVESTMENT OF FUNDS (Sec. 32): A society may invest its funds in any one
or more of the following:
1. In the Central or State Co-operative Bank.
2. In any bank, other than a Central or State co-operative bank, as
approved by the Registrar on specified terms and conditions.
3. In any of the securities specified in section 20 of the Indian Trusts Act,
1882.
4. In the shares, securities, bonds or debentures of any other society with
limited liability.
5. In any other moneys permitted by the Central or State Government.
H. APPROPRIATION OF PROFITS TO RESERVE FUND (Sec. 33): Every society shall

transfer prescribed percentage of the profits to Reserve Fund, before
distribution as dividends or bonus to members.
I. CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHARITABLE PURPOSES (Sec. 34): A society may, with

the sanction of the Registrar, contribute an amount not exceeding 10% of
the net profits remaining after the compulsory transfer to the reserve
fund for any charitable purpose.
J. INVESTMENT OF RESERVE FUND OUTSIDE THE BUSINESS OR UTILISATION AS

WORKING CAPITAL: Some of the State Acts provide that a society may use
the Reserve Fund:
1. In the business of a society, as working capital (subject to the rules
made in this behalf).
2. May invest as per provisions of the Act.
3. May be used for some public purposes likely to promote the object of the
society.
K. CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION FUND: Some of the State Acts provide that

every society shall contribute annually towards the Education Fund of the
State Federal Society, at the prescribed rates. Contribution to Education
Fund is a charge on profits and not an appropriation.
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L. ANY OTHER APPROPRIATIONS: Apart from statutory provisions relating to
Reserve Fund, the auditor may have regard to the provisions in bye-laws
and Rules and Regulations of the society regarding the appropriation of
profits:
1. Transfers to other reserves, dividends to members etc. are the other
appropriations.
2. Appropriations of profits must be approved by the General Body of the
society, which is the supreme authority in the co-operative
management.
3. Further, it may be noted that necessary accounting entries for the
appropriation of profits must be passed after the date of approval by the
General Body.
Note: Here there is a departure from corporate accounting practice,
where entries are passed for proposed appropriations, subject to approval
of Annual General Meeting.
4. According to certain State Acts, transfers to Dividend Equalization
Reserve and Share Capital Redemption Fund are stated as charges against
profits. According to the generally accepted principles of accountancy
these items are not charges, but appropriation of profits.
5. The auditor should point out such spots where statutory provisions of
any law are in contradiction with the generally accepted accounting
principles.
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6. AUDIT DOCUMENTATION AND EVIDENCE
PART 1 – DOCUMENTATION
CONCEPT AND OBJECTIVE OF DOCUMENTATION AS PER SA 230
A. MEANING: Audit Documentation refers to the record of audit procedures

performed, relevant audit evidence obtained, and conclusions the auditor
reached. (Terms such as “working papers” or “work papers” are also
sometimes used.)
B. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDITOR: The objective of the auditor is to prepare

documentation that provides:
1. A sufficient and appropriate record of the basis for the auditor’s report
and
2. Evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with
SAs and applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
NATURE AND PURPOSE OF DOCUMENTATION AS PER SA 230
A. NATURE OF AUDIT DOCUMENTATION: Audit documentation provides:

1. Evidence of the auditor’s basis for a conclusion about the achievement of
the overall objectives of the auditor; and
2. Evidence that the audit was planned and performed in accordance with
SAs and applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
B. PURPOSE OF AUDIT DOCUMENTATION: The following are the purpose of

Audit documentation:
1. Assisting the engagement team to plan and perform the audit.
2. Assisting members of the engagement team to direct and supervise the
audit work, and to discharge their review responsibilities.
3. Enabling the engagement team to be accountable for its work.
4. Retaining a record of matters of continuing significance to future audits.
5. Enabling the conduct of quality control reviews and inspections in
accordance with SQC 1.
6. Enabling the conduct of external inspections in accordance with
applicable legal, regulatory or other requirements.
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FORM, CONTENT AND EXTENT OF DOCUMENTATION AND
FACTORS AFFECTING THEREOF
A. MANNER OF DOCUMENTATION: The auditor shall prepare audit

documentation that is sufficient to enable an auditor, having no previous
connection with the audit, to understand:
a. The nature, timing and extent of the audit procedures performed.
b. The results of the audit procedures performed and the audit
evidence obtained and
c. Significant matters arising during the audit and the conclusions
reached thereon and significant professional judgements made in
reaching those conclusions.
B. DOCUMENTATION OF NTE OF AUDIT PROCEDURES: Further in documenting

the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures performed, the auditor
shall record:
1. TESTS PERFORMED: The identifying characteristics of the specific items
or matters tested.
2. PERFORMED BY WHOM: Who performed the audit work and the date such
work was completed and
3. REVIEW BY WHOM: Who reviewed the audit work performed and the date
and extent of such review.
4. SIGNIFICANT MATTERS: The auditor shall document discussions of
significant matters with management, those charged with governance,
and others, including:
a. the nature of the significant matters discussed and
b. when and with whom the discussions took place.
5. INCONSISTENCIES: If the auditor identified information that is
inconsistent with the auditor’s final conclusion regarding a significant
matter, the auditor shall document how the auditor addressed the
inconsistency.
C. FACTORS AFFECTING FORM, CONTENT AND EXTENT OF DOCUMENTATION: The

form, content and extent of audit documentation depend on factors such
as:
1. The size and complexity of the entity.
2. The nature of the audit procedures to be performed.
3. The identified risks of material misstatement.
4. The significance of the audit evidence obtained.
5. The nature and extent of exceptions identified.
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6. The need to document a conclusion or the basis for a conclusion not
readily determinable from the documentation of the work performed or
audit evidence obtained.
7. The audit methodology and tools used.
TIMELY PREPARATION AND ASSEMBLY OF AUDIT

DOCUMENTATION AND ALSO ABOUT AUDIT FILES
A. AUDIT FILE: Audit file may be defined as one or more folders or other
storage media, in physical or electronic form, containing the records that
comprise the audit documentation for a specific engagement.
B. TIMELY PREPARATION OF AUDIT DOCUMENTATION:

1. The auditor shall prepare audit documentation on a timely basis.
2. Preparing sufficient and appropriate audit documentation on a timely
basis helps to enhance the quality of the audit and facilitates the
effective review and evaluation of the audit evidence obtained and
conclusions reached before the auditor’s report is finalised.
3. Documentation prepared after the audit work has been performed is
likely to be less accurate than documentation prepared at the time
such work is performed.
C. ASSEMBLY OF THE FINAL AUDIT FILE:

1. TIMELY BASSIS: The auditor shall assemble the audit documentation in
an audit file and complete the administrative process of assembling the
final audit file on a timely basis after the date of the auditor’s report.
2. SQC REQUIREMENT FOR P & P: SQC 1 “Quality Control for Firms that
perform Audits and Review of Historical Financial Information, and
other Assurance and related services”, requires firms to establish
policies and procedures for the timely completion of the assembly of
audit files.
3. 60 DAYS TIME LIMIT: An appropriate time limit within which to complete
the assembly of the final audit file is ordinarily not more than 60 days
after the date of the auditor’s report.
4. ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS: The completion of the assembly of the final
audit file after the date of the auditor’s report is an administrative
process that does not involve the performance of new audit procedures or
the drawing of new conclusions. Changes may be made to the audit
documentation during the final assembly process, if they are
administrative in nature. Examples of such changes include:
a. Deleting or discarding superseded documentation.
106
b. Sorting, collating and cross-referencing working papers.
D. RETENTION OF AUDIT DOCUMENTATION:

1. After the assembly of the final audit file has been completed, the
auditor shall not delete or discard audit documentation of any nature
before the end of its retention period.
2. SQC 1 requires firms to establish policies and procedures for the
retention of engagement documentation.
3. The retention period for audit engagements ordinarily is no shorter than 7
years from the date of the auditor’s report, or the date of the group
auditor’s report.
E. OWNERSHIP OF AUDIT DOCUMENTATION:

1. Standard on Quality Control (SQC) 1 provides that, unless otherwise
specified by law or regulation, audit documentation is the property of
the auditor.
2. He may at his discretion, make portions of, or extracts from, audit
documentation available to clients, provided such disclosure does not
undermine the validity of the work performed, or, in the case of
assurance engagements, the independence of the auditor or of his
personnel.
DOCUMENTATION OF SIGNIFICANT MATTERS AND RELATED

SIGNIFICANT PROFESSIONAL JUDGEMENTS
A. DOCUMENTATION OF SIGNIFICANT MATTERS:

1. significant matters include:
a. Matters that give rise to significant risks.
b. Results of audit procedures indicating
i. That the financial statements could be materially misstated,
or
ii. A need to revise the auditor’s previous assessment of the risks
of material misstatement and the auditor’s responses to
those risks.
2. Circumstances that cause significant difficulty in applying necessary
audit procedures.
3. Findings that could result in a modification to the audit opinion or the
inclusion of an Emphasis of Matter Paragraph in the auditor’s report.
B. DOCUMENTATION RELATED TO PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT:
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1. An important factor in determining the form, content and extent of
audit documentation of significant matters is the extent of professional
judgment exercised in performing the work and evaluating the results.
2. In the following cases the auditor shall document his use of Professional
judgment if such judgment is relating to matters or decisions which are
related to significant matters:
a. The rationale for the auditor’s conclusion when a requirement
provides that the auditor ‘shall consider certain information or
factors, and that consideration is significant in the context of the
particular engagement.
b. The basis for the auditor’s conclusion on the reasonableness of
areas of subjective judgments
c. The basis for the auditor’s conclusions about the authenticity of a
document when further investigation is undertaken in response to
conditions identified during the audit that caused the auditor to
believe that the document may not be authentic.
AUDIT SUMMARY MEMORANDUM
1. The auditor may consider it helpful to prepare and retain as part of the
audit documentation a summary (sometimes known as a completion
memorandum) that describes:
a. the significant matters identified during the audit and
b. how they were addressed.
2. Such a summary may facilitate effective and efficient review and inspection
of the audit documentation, particularly for large and complex audits.
3. It may also help the auditor to consider whether there is any individual
relevant SA objective that the auditor cannot achieve that would prevent
the auditor from achieving the overall objectives of the auditor.
PART 2 – EVIDENCE
SA 500 – “AUDIT EVIDENCE”, EXPLAINS WHAT CONSTITUTES

AUDIT EVIDENCE IN AN AUDIT OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
1. An auditor is called upon to review the statements of account and give an

expert opinion about the true and fairness of Financial Statements. This
can be achieved only if the financial statements and accounts are
evaluated objectively.
2. Objective examination implies critical examination and scrutiny of the
accounting statements of the undertaking with a view to assessing how
far the statements present the actual state of affairs in the correct 108
context and whether they give a true and fair view about the financial
results and state of affairs.
Note: An opinion founded on a negligent examination and evaluation may

expose the auditor to legal action with consequential loss of professional
standing and prestige. He needs evidence to obtain information for arriving at
his judgement.
DEFINITION OF AUDIT EVIDENCE AND WHAT INCLUDES AUDIT

EVIDENCE
A. DEFINITION:
1. Audit evidence may be defined as the information used by the auditor in
arriving at the conclusions on which the auditor’s opinion is based.
2. Audit evidence includes both:
a. Information contained in the accounting records underlying the
financial statements and
b. Other information.
B. DETAILED EXPLANATION ON INCLUSIONS:

1. INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE ACCOUNTING RECORDS: Accounting
records include:
a. The records of initial accounting entries and supporting records,
such as checks and records of electronic fund transfers.
b. Invoices
c. Contracts
d. The general and subsidiary ledgers, journal entries and other
adjustments to the financial statements that are not reflected in
journal entries and
e. Records such as work sheets and spreadsheets supporting cost
allocations, computations, reconciliations and disclosures.
2. OTHER INFORMATION: This authenticates the accounting records and

also supports the auditor’s rationale behind the true and fair
presentation of the financial statements and this includes, for
example:
a. Minutes of the meetings
b. Written confirmations from trade receivables and trade payables
c. Manuals containing details of internal control etc
INFORMATION THAT CAN BE USED AS AUDIT EVIDENCE

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A. INFORMATION PRODUCED BY THE ENTITY:
When using information produced by the entity, the auditor shall evaluate
whether the information is sufficiently reliable for the auditor’s purposes,
including as necessary in the circumstances:
1. Obtaining audit evidence about the accuracy and completeness of the
information and
2. Evaluating whether the information is sufficiently precise and detailed
for the auditor’s purposes.
B. INFORMATION PREPARED BY MANAGEMENT EXPERT:

When information to be used as audit evidence has been prepared using
the work of a management’s expert, the auditor shall have regard to the
significance of that expert’s work for the auditor’s purposes:
1. Evaluate the competence, capabilities and objectivity of that expert.
2. Obtain an understanding of the work of that expert and
3. Evaluate the appropriateness of that expert’s work as audit evidence
for the relevant assertion.
AUDIT PROCEDURE TO BE FOLLOWED IF AUDITOR IDENTIFIES

INCONSISTENCY IN OR DOUBTS OVER RELIABILITY OF AUDIT
EVIDENCE
1. If audit evidence obtained from one source is inconsistent with that

obtained from another or
2. The auditor has doubts over the reliability of information to be used as
audit evidence,
The auditor shall determine what modifications or additions to audit
procedures are necessary to resolve the matter, and shall consider the effect
of the matter, if any, on other aspects of the audit.
NEED OF SUFFICIENT AND APPROPRIATE AUDIT EVIDENCE
1. Audit evidence is necessary to support the auditor’s opinion and report. It

is cumulative in nature and is primarily obtained from audit procedures
performed during the course of the audit.
2. It may, also include information obtained from other sources such as
previous audits.
3. In addition to other sources inside and outside the entity, the entity’s
accounting records are an important source of audit evidence.
4. Audit evidence comprises both information that supports and corroborates
management’s assertions, and any information that contradicts such
assertions. 110
5. In addition, in some cases the absence of information (for example,
management’s refusal to provide a requested representation) is used by
the auditor, and therefore, also constitutes audit evidence.
6. The evidence can be obtained by performing Audit procedures and these
includes:
a. Inquiry
b. Inspection,
c. Observation,
d. Confirmation,
e. Recalculation,
f. Re-performance and
g. Analytical procedures.
SUFFICIENCY AND APPROPRIATNESS OF AUDIT EVIDENCE
1. As explained in SA 200, “Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and

the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Standards on Auditing”,
reasonable assurance is obtained when the auditor has obtained sufficient
appropriate audit evidence to reduce audit risk (i.e., the risk that the
auditor expresses an inappropriate opinion when the financial statements
are materially misstated) to an acceptably low level.
2. The sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence are interrelated.
A. SUFFICIENCY OF AUDIT EVIDENCE:

Sufficiency is the measure of the quantity of audit evidence. The quantity
of audit evidence needed is affected by:
1. The auditor’s assessment of the risks of misstatement (the higher the
assessed risks, the more audit evidence is likely to be required) and
2. The quality of such audit evidence (the higher the quality, the less may
be required).
3. Further the following factors may influence the auditor’s judgement
about sufficiency of audit evidence:
a. MATERIALITY: It may be defined as the significance of classes of
transactions, account balances and presentation and disclosures to
the users of the financial statements.
b. RISK OF MATERIAL MISSTATEMENT: It may be defined as the risk
that the financial statements are materially misstated prior to
audit. This consists of 2 components described as follows at the
assertion level:
i. Inherent risk: The susceptibility of an assertion to a
misstatement that could be material before consideration of
any related controls. 111
ii. Control risk: The risk that a misstatement that could occur in
an assertion that could be material will not be prevented or
detected and corrected on a timely basis by the entity’s
internal control.
c. SIZE OF A POPULATION: It refers to the number of items included
in the population.
B. APPROPRIATENESS OF AUDIT EVIDENCE:

1. Appropriateness is the measure of the quality of audit evidence. It talks
about its relevance and its reliability in providing support for the
conclusions on which the auditor’s opinion is based.
2. The reliability of evidence is influenced by its source and by its nature,
and is dependent on the individual circumstances under which it is
obtained.
SOURCES OF OBTAINING AUDIT EVIDENCES
1. Through the performance of audit procedures, the auditor may determine

that the accounting records are internally consistent and agree to the
2. More assurance is obtained from consistent audit evidence obtained from
different sources or of a different nature than from items of audit
evidence considered individually.
3. Information from sources independent of the entity that can be used as
audit evidence may include confirmations from third parties, analysts’
reports, and comparable data about competitors.
AUDIT PROCEDURES TO OBTAIN AUDIT EVIDENCE

A. INSPECTION:
1. Inspection involves examining records or documents, whether internal or
external, in paper form, electronic form, or other media, or a physical
examination of an asset.
2. Inspection of records and documents provides audit evidence of varying
degrees of reliability, depending on their nature and source and, in the
case of internal records and documents, on the effectiveness of the
controls over their production.
B. OBSERVATION:
1. Observation consists of looking at a process or procedure being performed
by others.
112
2. Observation provides audit evidence about the performance of a process
or procedure, but is limited to the point in time at which the
observation takes place, and by the fact that the act of being observed
may affect how the process or procedure is performed.
C. EXTERNAL CONFIRMATION:
1. An external confirmation represents audit evidence obtained by the
auditor as a direct written response to the auditor from a third party
(the confirming party), in paper form, or by electronic or other medium.
2. External confirmation procedures are relevant when addressing assertions
associated with certain account balances and their elements.
3. External confirmation procedures also are used to obtain audit evidence
about the absence of certain conditions.
D. RECALCULATION:
Recalculation consists of checking the mathematical accuracy of
documents or records. Recalculation may be performed manually or
electronically.
E. RE-PERFORMANCE:
Re-performance involves the auditor’s independent execution of procedures
or controls that were originally performed as part of the entity’s internal
control.
F. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES:
1. Analytical procedures consist of evaluations of financial information
made by a study of plausible relationships among both financial and non-
financial data.
2. Analytical procedures also encompass the investigation of identified
fluctuations and relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant
information or deviate significantly from predicted amounts.
G. INQUIRY:
1. MEANING: Inquiry consists of seeking information of knowledgeable
persons, both financial and non-financial, within the entity or outside
the entity. Inquiry is used extensively throughout the audit in addition
to other audit procedures.
2. FORMAT: Inquiries may range from formal written inquiries to informal
oral inquiries. Evaluating responses to inquiries is an integral part of
the inquiry process.
3. WHAT DO WE GET: Responses to inquiries may provide the auditor with:
a. Information not previously possessed or with corroborative audit
evidence.
113
b. Alternatively, responses might provide information that differs
significantly from other information that the auditor has obtained.
c. In some cases, responses to inquiries provide a basis for the
auditor to modify or perform additional audit procedures.
4. INQUIRIES ABOUT MANAGEMENT INTENTIONS: Although corroboration of
evidence obtained through inquiry is of particular importance, in the
case of inquiries about management intent, the information available to
support management’s intent may be limited. In these cases, the
auditor shall understand:
a. Management’s past history of carrying out its stated intentions,
b. Management’s stated reasons for choosing a particular course of
action, and
c. Management’s ability to pursue a specific course of action may
provide relevant information to corroborate the evidence
obtained through inquiry.
5. WRITTEN REPRESENTATION: In respect of some matters, the auditor
may consider it necessary to obtain written representations from
management and, where appropriate, those charged with governance
to confirm responses to oral inquiries.
OBSERVATIONS TO BE KEPT IN MIND ABOUT AUDIT EVIDENCE

MAY BE OF HELP IN DECIDING UPON THE TECHNIQUES TO BE
ADOPTED FOR OBTAINING AUDIT EVIDENCE
1. Evidence varies in reliability. When the auditor recalculates certain

figures, like depreciation or inventory valuation, he may be completely
convinced about the reliability of the company’s figure. However,
information supplied by an employee may not be that reliable because he
may have an interest in concealing rather than revealing the truth. This
suggests that we must always be alert to the relative reliability of
different kinds of evidence.
2. Some evidence may be more difficult to obtain than other. It is relatively

easy to put questions to employees who are present inside the company.
It is easy to examine inventory on hand and it is more difficult to verify
inventory stored elsewhere.
3. PERSUASIVE AND NOT CONCLUSIVE:

a. It must be recognised that the available evidence be persuasive and
that the evidence may not be conclusive.
b. In giving the opinion, the auditor necessarily takes a calculated risk.
114
c. In auditing it is very difficult and at times impracticable to obtain
conclusive evidence both on account of time and cost constraints.
Auditor can state that he has carefully examined the various
assertions in the financial statements, obtained evidence what he,
in his professional judgement, thought adequate or the best
available and that he has considered that evidence judiciously in
forming an opinion as to the reliability of the financial statements.
4. The auditor may gain increased assurance when audit evidence obtained
from different sources of a different nature is consistent. When audit
evidence obtained from one source is inconsistent with that obtained
from another, further procedure may have to be performed to resolve the
inconsistency.
5. There should be a rational relationship between the cost of obtaining

evidence and the usefulness of the information obtained. The matter of
difficulty and expenses involved in testing a particular item is not in
itself a valid basis for omitting a procedure.
6. When the auditor is in reasonable doubt as to any assertion, he should

attempt to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence to remove such doubt. If
he is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence, he should not
express an unqualified opinion.
VARIOUS TYPES OF AUDIT EVIDENCE
A. DEPENDING UPON NATURE:

1. Visual: For example, observing physical verification of inventory
conducted by the client’s staff.
2. Oral: For example, discussion with the management and various
officers of the client.
3. Documentary: For example, fixed deposit certificate, loan agreement,
sales bill etc.
B. DEPENDING UPON SOURCE:

1. Internal Evidence: Evidence which originates within the organisation
being audited is internal evidence.
2. External evidence: The evidence that originates outside the client’s
organization is external evidence.
3. COMPLEMENTARY:
a. In an audit situation, the bulk of evidence that an auditor gets is
internal in nature. Substantial external evidence is also available to
the auditor.
115
b. Since in the origination of internal evidence, the client and his staff
have the control, the auditor should be careful in putting reliance on
such evidence.
c. It is not suggested that they are to be suspected; but an auditor has
to be alive to the possibilities of manipulation and creation of false
and misleading evidence to suit the client or his staff.
d. The external evidence is generally considered to be more reliable as
they come from third parties who are not normally interested in
manipulation of the accounting information of others.
e. If the auditor has any reason to doubt the independence of any third
party who has provided any material evidence e.g., an invoice of an
associated concern, he should exercise greater vigilance in that
matter.
f. As an ordinary rule the auditor should try to match internal and
external evidence as far as practicable.
RELEVANCE AND RELIABILITY OF AUDIT EVIDENCE

While audit evidence is primarily obtained from audit procedures performed
during the course of the audit, it may also include information obtained
from other sources. E.g., Previous audits. The quality of all audit evidence is
affected by the relevance and reliability of the information upon which it is
based.
A. RELEVANCE:
1. Relevance deals with the logical connection with, or bearing upon, the
purpose of the audit procedure and, the assertion under consideration.
2. A given set of audit procedures may provide audit evidence that is
relevant to certain assertions, but not others.
3. Test of controls are designed to evaluate the operating effectiveness of
controls in preventing, or detecting and correcting, material
misstatements at the assertion level. Designing test of controls to
obtain relevant audit evidence includes identifying conditions that
indicate performance of a control, and deviation in conditions which
indicate departures from adequate performance.
4. Substantive procedures are designed to detect material misstatements at
the assertion level. They comprise tests of details and substantive
analytical procedures. Designing substantive procedures includes
identifying conditions relevant to the purpose of the test that constitute
a misstatement in the relevant assertion.
B. RELIABILITY:
116
1. The reliability of information to be used as audit evidence is influenced
by its source and its nature, and the circumstances under which it is
obtained, including the controls over its preparation and maintenance
where relevant. Even when information to be used as audit evidence is
obtained from sources external to the entity, circumstances may exist
that could affect its reliability.
2. While recognising that exceptions may exist, the following

generalisations about the reliability of audit evidence may be useful:
a. INDEPENDENT SOURCES: The reliability of audit evidence is
increased when it is obtained from independent sources outside the
entity.
b. RELATED CONTROLS ARE EFFECTIVE: The reliability of audit
evidence that is generated internally is increased when the related
controls, including those over its preparation and maintenance,
imposed by the entity are effective.
c. OBTAINED DIRECTLY: Audit evidence obtained directly by the
auditor is more reliable than audit evidence obtained indirectly or
by inference (for example, inquiry about the application of a
control).
d. DOCUMENTART FORM: Audit evidence in documentary form,
whether paper, electronic, or other medium, is more reliable than
evidence obtained orally.
e. ORIGINAL EVIDENCE: Audit evidence provided by original documents
is more reliable than audit evidence provided by photocopies or
facsimiles, or documents that have been filmed, digitised or
otherwise transformed into electronic form.
NATURE AND TIMING OF THE AUDIT PROCEDURES WHEN

ACCOUNTING RECORDS ARE AVAILABLE IN ELECTRONIC FORM
1. The nature and timing of the audit procedures to be used may be affected
by the fact that some of the accounting data and other information may
be available only in electronic form or only at certain points or periods in
time.
2. Certain electronic information may not be retrievable after a specified
period of time.
3. Accordingly, the auditor may find it necessary as a result of an entity’s data
retention policies to request retention of some information for the
auditor’s review or to perform audit procedures at a time when the
information is available.
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PART 3 – AUDIT PROCEDURES
RISK ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES AND FURTHER AUDIT

PROCEDURES IN BREIF
The auditor can obtain required audit evidence by performing audit

procedures as below:
A. RISK ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES:

Risk assessment procedures refer to the audit procedures performed to
obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment, including the
entity’s internal control, to identify and assess the risks of material
misstatement, whether due to fraud or error, at the financial statement
and assertion levels.
B. FURTHER AUDIT PROCEDURES:
Further Audit Procedures comprise of:
1. Tests of controls:
a. When required by the SAs or
b. When the auditor has chosen to do so and
2. Substantive procedures which include:
a. Tests of details and
b. Substantive analytical procedures.
TEST OF CONTROLS AND VARIOUS ASPECTS RELATED TO THEM
A. MEANING AND OBJECTIVE:

Test of controls may be defined as an audit procedure designed to evaluate
the operating effectiveness of controls in preventing, or detecting and
correcting, material misstatements at the assertion level.
B. WHY TOCs REQUIRED:

The auditor shall design and perform tests of controls to obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence as to the operating effectiveness of relevant
controls when:
1. The auditor’s assessment of risks of material misstatement at the
assertion level includes an expectation that the controls are operating
effectively or
2. Substantive procedures alone cannot provide sufficient appropriate audit
evidence at the assertion level.
3. A higher level of assurance may be sought about the operating
effectiveness of controls when the approach adopted consists primarily
of tests of controls, in particular where it is not possible or practicable to
118
obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence only from substantive
procedures.
C. NATURE AND EXTENT OF TEST OF CONTROLS:

In designing and performing test of controls, the auditor shall:
1. DIRECT CONTROLS: Perform other audit procedures in combination with
inquiry to obtain audit evidence about the operating effectiveness of
the controls, including:
a. How the controls were applied at relevant times during the period
under audit.
b. The consistency with which they were applied.
c. By whom or by what means they were applied.
2. INDIRECT CONTROLS: Determine whether the controls to be tested depend

upon other controls (indirect controls), whether it is necessary to
obtain audit evidence supporting the effective operation of those
indirect controls.
3. INQUIRY AND COMBINATION:

a. Inquiry alone is not sufficient to test the operating effectiveness
of controls. Accordingly, other audit procedures are performed in
combination with inquiry.
b. In this regard, inquiry combined with inspection or reperformance
may provide more assurance than inquiry and observation, since an
observation is pertinent only at the point in time at which it is
made.
4. EXTENT OF TEST OF CONTROLS: When more persuasive audit evidence is

needed regarding the effectiveness of a control, it may be appropriate
to increase the extent of testing of the control as well as the degree of
reliance on controls. Matters the auditor may consider in determining
the extent of test of controls include the following:
a. The frequency of the performance of the control by the entity
during the period.
b. The length of time during the audit period that the auditor is
relying on the operating effectiveness of the control.
c. The expected rate of deviation from a control.
d. The relevance and reliability of the audit evidence to be obtained
regarding the operating effectiveness of the control at the
assertion level.
e. The extent to which audit evidence is obtained from tests of other
controls related to the assertion.
119
D. TIMING OF TEST OF CONTROLS:
The auditor shall test controls for the particular time, or throughout the
period, for which the auditor intends to rely on those controls in order to
provide an appropriate basis for the auditor’s intended reliance:
1. A POINT IN TIME: Audit evidence pertaining only to a point in time may
be sufficient for the auditor’s purpose.
2. OVER A PERIOD: On the other hand, the auditor intends to rely on a
control over a period, tests that are capable of providing audit
evidence that the control operated effectively at relevant times during
that period are appropriate.
WHETHER IT IS APPROPRIATE TO USE AUDIT EVIDENCE ABOUT

THE OPERATING EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTROLS OBTAINED IN
PREVIOUS AUDITS. COMMENT
In determining whether it is appropriate to use audit evidence about the

operating effectiveness of controls obtained in previous audits, the auditor
shall consider the length of the time period that may elapse before retesting a
control. Further the auditor shall consider the following additional aspects:
1. The effectiveness of other elements of internal control.
2. The risks arising from the characteristics of the control, including whether
it is manual or automated.
3. The effectiveness of general IT-controls.
4. The effectiveness of the control and its application by the entity, including
the nature and extent of deviations in the application of the control noted
in previous audits,
5. Whether there have been personnel changes that significantly affect the
application of the control.
6. Whether the lack of a change in a particular control poses a risk due to
changing circumstances and
7. The risks of material misstatement and the extent of reliance on the
control.
If the auditor plans to use audit evidence from a previous audit about the
operating effectiveness of specific controls, the auditor shall establish the
continuing relevance of that evidence by obtaining audit evidence about
whether significant changes in those controls have occurred subsequent to the
previous audit.
EVALUATE THE OPERATING EFFECTIVENESS OF CONTROLS AND

CONCLUSIONS THEREOF
120
When evaluating the operating effectiveness of relevant controls:
1. The auditor shall evaluate whether misstatements that have been detected
by substantive procedures indicate that controls are not operating
effectively.
2. The absence of misstatements detected by substantive procedures, does not
provide audit evidence that controls related to the assertion being tested
are effective.
3. A material misstatement detected by the auditor’s procedures is a strong
indicator of the existence of a significant deficiency in internal control.
SPECIFIC INQUIRIES TO BE PERFORMED BY AUDITOR WHEN

THE AUDITOR DETECTED DEVIATIONS FROM CONTROLS
When deviations from controls upon which the auditor intends to rely are
detected, the auditor shall make specific inquiries to understand these matters
and their potential consequences, and shall determine whether:
1. The test of controls that have been performed provide an appropriate basis
for reliance on the controls.
2. Additional test of controls is necessary or
3. The potential risks of misstatement need to be addressed using substantive
procedures.
SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURE MAY BE DEFINED AS AN AUDIT

PROCEDURE DESIGNED TO DETECT MATERIAL MISSTATEMENTS
AT THE ASSERTION LEVEL.COMMENT
1. Substantive procedure may be defined as an audit procedure designed to

detect material misstatements at the assertion level.
2. Substantive procedures comprise:
a. Tests of details (of classes of transactions, account balances, and
disclosures)
i. Test of Transactions [Vouching]
ii. Test of Balances [Verification]
b. Substantive analytical procedures.
3. Irrespective of the assessed risks of material misstatement, the auditor
shall design and perform substantive procedures for each material class of
transactions, account balance, and disclosure. This requirement reflects
the facts that:
a. The auditor’s assessment of risk is judgemental and so may not
identify all risks of material misstatement and
121
b. There are inherent limitations to internal control.
TEST OF DETAILS:
1. The nature of the risk and assertion is relevant to the design of tests of
details.
2. Because the assessment of the risk of material misstatement takes
account of internal control, the extent of substantive procedures may need
to be increased when the results from test of controls are unsatisfactory.
3. In designing tests of details, the extent of testing is ordinarily thought of in
terms of the sample size.
SUBSTANTIVE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES:
1. Substantive analytical procedures are generally more applicable to large

volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time. SA 520,
“Analytical Procedures” establishes requirements and provides guidance
on the application of analytical procedures during an audit.
2. Depending on the circumstances, the auditor may determine that:
a. Performing only substantive analytical procedures will be sufficient to
reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level. For example, where the
auditor’s assessment of risk is supported by audit evidence from
test of controls.
b. Only tests of details are appropriate.
c. A combination of substantive analytical procedures and tests of details
are most responsive to the assessed risks.
SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES RELATED TO FINANCIAL

STATEMENTS CLOSING PROCESS
The auditor’s substantive procedures shall include the following audit

procedures related to the financial statement closing process:
1. Agreeing or reconciling the financial statements with the underlying
accounting records and
2. Examining material journal entries and other adjustments made during the
course of preparing the financial statements.
The nature, and also the extent, of the auditor’s examination of journal
entries and other adjustments depends on the nature and complexity of the
entity’s financial reporting process and the related risks of material
misstatement.
SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES ARE RESPONSIVE TO SIGNIFICANT

RISK 122
1. When the auditor has determined that an assessed risk of material
misstatement at the assertion level is a significant risk, the auditor shall
perform substantive procedures that are specifically responsive to that
risk. When the approach to a significant risk consists only of substantive
procedures, those procedures shall include tests of details.
2. Audit evidence in the form of external confirmations received directly by
the auditor from appropriate confirming parties may assist the auditor in
obtaining audit evidence with the high level of reliability that the auditor
requires to respond to significant risks of material misstatement, whether
due to fraud or error.
DEFINITION OF TERM ASSERTIONS AND VARIOUS CLASS OF

ASSERTIONS
1. MEANING: Assertions refer to representations by management, explicit or

otherwise, that are embodied in the financial statements, as used by the
auditor to consider the different types of potential misstatements that
may occur.
2. USAGE BY MANAGEMENT AND AUDITOR: The Use of Assertions:

a. BY MANAGEMENT: In representing that the financial statements are
in accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework,
management implicitly or explicitly makes assertions regarding the
recognition, measurement, presentation and disclosure of the various
elements of financial statements and related disclosures.
b. BY AUDITOR: Assertions used by the auditor to consider the different
types of potential misstatements that may occur fall into the
following 3 categories:
i. ASSERTIONS RELATED TO CLASS OF TRANSACTIONS AND EVENTS

FOR THE PERIOD UNDER AUDIT:
a. Occurrence: Transactions and events that have been
recorded have occurred and pertain to the entity.
b. Completeness: All transactions and events that should have
been recorded have been recorded.
c. Accuracy: Amounts and other data relating to recorded
transactions and events have been recorded appropriately.
d. Cut-off: Transactions and events have been recorded in
the correct accounting period.
e. Classification: Transactions and events have been recorded
in the proper accounts. 123
ii. ASSERTIONS RELATED TO ACCOUNT BALANCES:
a. Existence: Assets, liabilities, and equity interests exist.
b. Rights and obligations: the entity holds or controls the
rights to assets, and liabilities are the obligations of the
entity.
c. Completeness: All assets, liabilities and equity interests
that should have been recorded have been recorded.
d. Valuation and allocation: Assets, liabilities, and equity
interests are included in the financial statements at
appropriate amounts and any resulting valuation or
allocation adjustments are appropriately recorded.
iii. ASSERTIONS RELATED TO PRESENTATION AND DISCLOSURES:

a. Occurrence and rights and obligations: Disclosed events,
transactions, and other matters have occurred and
pertain to the entity.
b. Completeness: All disclosures that should have been
included in the financial statements have been included.
c. Classification and understandability: Financial information
is appropriately presented and described, and disclosures
are clearly expressed.
d. Accuracy and valuation: Financial and other information
are disclosed fairly and at appropriate amounts.
3. COMBINATION OF ASSERTIONS: The auditor may use the assertions as

described above or may express them differently provided all aspects
described above have been covered. For example, the auditor may choose to
combine the assertions about transactions and events with the
assertions about account balances.
4. CONSIDERATION OF LAW AND REGULATION: When making assertions about

the financial statements of certain entities, especially, for example,
where the Government is a major stakeholder, management may often
assert that transactions and events have been carried out in accordance
with legislation or proper authority. Such assertions may fall within the
scope of the financial statement audit.
5. ASSERTIONS MAY BE EXPLICIT / IMPLIED:

a. The assertions are generally implied and not specifically shown, though
some explicit assertions are also found in the financial statements.
124
b. Explicit assertions are made when the reader will be left with an
incomplete picture. Sometimes without them it may even be
misleading.
Ex : The rate at which interest in payable.
A specific mention is required about these things for a proper
appreciation of the item and the financial position.
6. NEGATIVE ASSERTIONS: Negative assertions are also encountered in the

financial statements and the same may be expressed or implied.
Explicit Negative Assertion: If it is stated that there is no contingent
liability then it would be an expressed negative assertion.
Implied Negative Assertion: If in the balance sheet there is no item as
“building”, it would be an implied negative assertion that the entity did
not own any building on the balance sheet date.
7. OVERALL REPRESENTATION:
a. Every financial statement contains an overall representation in
addition to the specific assertions so far discussed.
b. The auditor’s opinion is typically directed to these overall

representations. But to formulate and offer an opinion on the overall
truth of these statements he has first to inquire into the truth of
many specific assertions, expressed and implied, both positive, and
negative, that makes up each of these statements. Out of his
individual judgements of these specific assertions he arrives at a
judgement on the financial statement as a whole.
125
7. FRAUD AND RESPONSIBILITES OF
AUDITOR
DEFINITION OF THE TERM FRAUD AND DISCUSS THE
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF FRAUD
A. DEFINITION OF FRAUD:
1. SA - 240* defines the term ‘fraud’ as “An intentional act by one or more
individuals among management, those charged with governance,
employees, or third parties, involving the use of deception to obtain an
unjust or illegal advantage”.
2. Although fraud is a broad legal concept and the auditor is concerned
only with the type of fraud that causes a material misstatement in the
B. TYPES OF FRAUDS:
1. Fraudulent financial reporting - Intentional Misstatements like
Omissions, Misrepresentation.
2. Misappropriation of assets - Theft or Unauthorised usage of entity’s
assets.
Although the auditor may suspect or identify the occurrence of fraud, the
auditor does not make legal determinations of whether fraud has actually
occurred.
C. FRAUD IS INTENTIONAL:
Misstatements in the financial statements can arise from either fraud or
error. The distinguishing factor between fraud and error is whether the
underlying action that results in the misstatement of the financial
statements is intentional or unintentional.
Note: *SA 240 - The Auditors responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of
FACTORS WHICH CAUSE THE FRADULENT FINANCIAL

REPORTING OR MISAPPROPRIATION OF ASSETS
Following are the factors by which lead to cause the fraudulent financial
reporting or misappropriation of assets:
1. PRESSURES: Fraudulent financial reporting can occur, when the
management is under pressure, from sources outside or inside the entity,
say, to achieve an expected earnings target.
126
2. PERCEIVED OPPORTUNITY: When an individual believes internal control can
be overridden. For example, the individual has knowledge of specific
deficiencies in internal control.
3. RATIONALIZATION OF THE INDIVIDUALS:

a. Individuals may be able to rationalize committing a fraudulent
act.
b. Some individuals possess an attitude, character or set of ethical
values that allow them knowingly and intentionally to commit a
dishonest act. However, honest individuals can commit fraud in an
environment that imposes sufficient pressure on them.
HOW FRADULENT FINANCIAL REPORTING IS COMMITTED
1. Auditors require great intelligence for detection of manipulation of accounts

because generally Top management is associated with this type of fraud.
2. This type of fraud is generally committed for various reasons including:

a. To avoid incidence of income-tax or other taxes;
b. For declaring a dividend when there are insufficient profits;
c. To withhold declaration of dividend even when there is adequate
profit and
d. For receiving higher remuneration where managerial remuneration
is payable by reference to profits.
3. There are numerous ways of committing this type of fraud. Some of the
methods are given below:
a. Inflating or suppressing -
i. purchases and expenses;
ii. sales and other items of income,
iii. the value of closing inventory;
b. Omitting to adjust outstanding liabilities or prepaid expenses; and
c. Charging items of capital expenditure to revenue or vice versa.
(Misapplication of Principles).
d. Misrepresentation in or intentional omission from, the financial
statements of events, transactions or other significant
information.
e. Intentional misapplication of accounting principles relating to
amounts, classification, manner of presentation, or disclosure.
4. Fraudulent financial reporting often involves management override of
controls & can be committed by using such techniques as:
127
a. Recording fictitious journal entries, particularly close to the end of
an accounting period, to manipulate operating results or achieve
other objectives.
b. Inappropriately adjusting assumptions and changing judgments
used to estimate account balances.
c. Omitting, advancing or delaying recognition in the financial
statements of events and transactions that have occurred during
the reporting period.
d. Concealing, or not disclosing, facts that could affect the amounts
recorded in the financial statements.
e. Engaging in complex transactions that are structured to
misrepresent the financial position or financial performance of the
entity.
f. Altering records and terms related to significant and unusual
transactions.
WHY & WHAT INDUCES MANAGEMENT / EMPLOYEES TO

COMMIT FRAUD
1. Financial obligations/ Pressure.

2. Management’s unrealistic goals.
3. Dissatisfied Employees or Lack of motivation among employees.
4. Name game (e.g., management using power of authority by asking
employees to do something illegal).
5. Opportunity to commit fraud.
MISAPPROPRIATION OF ASSETS
1. It involves the theft of an entity’s assets by employees in relatively small

and immaterial amounts (Pilferage). It can also involve management who
are usually more able to conceal misappropriations in ways that are
difficult to detect.
2. Misappropriation of assets can be accomplished in a variety of ways
including:
a. Embezzling receipts. E.g., misappropriating collections on accounts
receivable.
b. Stealing physical assets or intellectual property. E.g., Stealing
inventory for personal use or, colluding with a competitor by
disclosing technological data.
c. Causing an entity to pay for Goods and Services not received. E.g.,
payments to fictitious vendors, payments to fictitious employees
128
d. Using an entity’s assets for personal use (Unauthorised usage). E.g.,
using the entity’s assets as collateral for a personal loan.
3. Misappropriation of assets is often accompanied by false or misleading
records or documents in order to conceal the fact that the assets are
missing or have been pledged without proper authorization.
SHORT NOTE ON MISAPPROPRIATION OF GOODS

1. Fraud in the form of misappropriation of goods is still more difficult to
detect and management has to rely on various measures.
2. Apart from the various requirements of record keeping about the physical
quantities and their periodic checks, there must be rules and procedures for
allowing persons inside the warehouse.
3. In addition, there should be external security arrangements to see that
goods are taken out only with proper authority.
4. Goods can be anything and it may be machinery or even the daily
necessities of the office like stationery.
5. The goods may be removed by subordinate employees or even by persons in
the management.
DETECTION BY AUDITORS:
1. Auditors can detect this by undertaking a thorough and careful checking of
records followed by physical verification process.
2. By resorting to intelligent ratio analysis, auditors may be able to form an
idea whether such fraud exists.
3. Example, the input output ratio of production in terms of physical quantity
may reveal whether output is normal with reference to the quantity
consumed for production.
CONCLUSIONS:
1. It is clear from the above that the ‘fraud’ deals with intentional
misrepresentation but, ‘error’, on the other hand, refers to unintentional
mistakes in financial information.
2. Intentional errors are most difficult to detect and auditors generally devote
greater attention to this type. Auditors have developed a point of view
that, if they direct their procedures of discovering the more difficult
intentional errors, they are reasonably certain to locate the more simple
and far more common unintentional errors on the way.
DEFALCATION OF CASH
Following are the ways of defalcation of cash -
1. BY INFLATING CASH PAYMENTS:
a. Making payments against fictitious vouchers. 129
b. Making payments against vouchers, the amounts whereof have been
inflated.
c. Manipulating totals of wage rolls either by including therein names of
dummy workers.
2. BY SUPPRESSING CASH RECEIPTS:

a. TEEMING AND LADING:
i. Amount received from the first customer being
misappropriated
ii. In the above case to prevent its detection the money
received from second customer subsequently being credited to
the account of the first customer.
iii. Similarly, moneys received from the third customer who has
paid thereafter being credited to the account of the second
customer so that no one account is outstanding for send out a
statement of account to him or communicate with him.
b. Adjusting unauthorised or fictitious rebates, discounts, etc. to
customer’s accounts
c. Writing off as bad debts in respect of cash has already been received.
d. Not accounting for cash sales fully.
e. Not accounting for miscellaneous receipts, e.g., sale of scrap, quarters
allotted to the employees, etc.
f. Writing down asset values in entirety, selling them subsequently and
misappropriating the proceeds.
RESPONSIBILITY OF AN AUDITOR IN DETECTION OF FRAUD
A. MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITY TO PREVENT AND DETECT FRAUD:

As per SA 240 the primary responsibility for the prevention and detection
of fraud rests with both those charged with governance of the entity and
management.
B. AUDITOR’S RESPONSIBILITIES FOR DETECTION OF FRAUD AND ERROR:

1. As per the SA’s the auditor is responsible for obtaining reasonable
assurance whether the financial statements taken as a whole are free
from material misstatement.
2. When obtaining reasonable assurance, the auditor is responsible for
maintaining an attitude of professional scepticism throughout the audit.
3. The risk of not detecting a material misstatement resulting from fraud is
higher than the risk of not detecting one resulting from error. This is
because, fraud may involve sophisticated and carefully organized schemes
130
designed to conceal it, such as forgery, deliberate failure to record
transactions, or intentional misrepresentations being made to the
auditor. Such attempts at concealment may be even more difficult to
detect when accompanied by collusion. Collusion may cause the auditor
to believe that audit evidence is persuasive when it is, false.
4. The risk of the auditor not detecting a material misstatement resulting
from management fraud is greater than for employee fraud, because
management is frequently in a position to directly or indirectly
manipulate accounting records, present fraudulent financial information
or override control procedures designed to prevent similar frauds by
other employees.
5. The auditor’s ability to detect a fraud depends on factors such as:
a. The skilfulness of the perpetrator.
b. The degree of collusion involved.
c. The relative size of individual amounts manipulated.
d. Experience of Person committed fraud.
e. Frequency of fraud committed.
f. While the auditor may be able to identify potential opportunities
for fraud to be perpetrated, it is difficult for the auditor to
determine whether misstatements in judgment areas such as
accounting estimates are caused by fraud or error.
6. The liability of the auditor for failure to detect fraud exists only when
such failure is clearly due to not exercising reasonable care and skill. (If
auditor acted negligently).
7. After the completion of the statutory audit, if a fraud has been detected,
the same by itself can not mean that the auditor did not perform his duty
properly. If the auditor can prove with the help of his working papers
(documentation) that he has conducted the audit in a proper manner,
he cannot be held responsible for the same.
FRAUD RISK FACTORS
A. DEFINITION: Fraud Risk Factors refers to events or conditions that indicate

an incentive or pressure to commit fraud or provide an opportunity to
commit fraud.
B. FRAUD RISK FACTORS: The examples of Risk factors relating to two types
of frauds are discussed separately in subsequent questions. The two types
of frauds which we discussed in the earlier questions are:
a. Fraudulent financial reporting and
b. Misappropriation of assets
131
[

For each of these types of fraud, the risk factors are further classified based
on the 3 criteria’s:
a. Incentives/pressures,
b. Opportunities, and
c. Attitudes/rationalizations.
RISK FACTORS RELATING TO MISSTATEMENTS ARISING FROM

FRAUDULENT FINANCIAL REPORTING
The following are the risk factors relating to misstatements arising from
fraudulent financial reporting -
A. INCENTIVES/PRESSURES: Financial stability or profitability is threatened by

economic, industry, or entity operating conditions, such as:
1. High degree of competition accompanied by declining margins.
2. High vulnerability to rapid changes, such as changes in technology, or
interest rates.
3. Significant declines in customer demand and increasing business failures
4. Operating losses making the threat of bankruptcy.
5. Recurring negative cash flows from operations
6. New accounting, statutory, or regulatory requirements.
B. OPPORTUNITIES: The nature of the industry or the entity’s operations

provides opportunities to engage in fraudulent financial reporting that
can arise from the following:
1. Significant related-party transactions not in the ordinary course of

business
2. A strong financial presence or ability to dominate a certain industry
sector may result in inappropriate or non-arm’s-length transactions.
3. Assets, liabilities, revenues, or expenses based on significant estimates
that involve subjective judgments or uncertainties that are difficult to
corroborate.
4. Highly complex transactions, especially those close to period end that
pose difficult “substance over form” questions.
5. Significant bank accounts or subsidiary or branch operations in tax-
haven jurisdictions for which there appears to be no clear business
justification.
C. ATTITUDES/RATIONALIZATIONS: Communication, implementation, support or

enforcement of the entity’s values or ethical standards by management
are not effective, or the communication of inappropriate values or ethical
standards:
132
1. Known history of violations of securities laws or other laws and
regulations.
2. Excessive interest by management in maintaining the entity’s inventory
price or earnings trend.
3. Management failing to remedy for known significant deficiencies in
internal control on a timely basis.
4. An interest by management in employing inappropriate means to
minimize reported earnings for tax-motivated reasons.
5. The owner-manager makes no distinction between personal and business
transactions.
6. The relationship between management and the current or predecessor
auditor is strained, as exhibited by the following:
a. Frequent disputes with the current or predecessor auditor on
accounting, auditing, or reporting matters.
b. Unreasonable demands on the auditor, such as unrealistic time
constraints regarding the completion of the audit or the issuance
of the auditor’s report.
c. Restrictions on the auditor that inappropriately limit access to
people or information or the ability to communicate effectively
with those charged with governance.
d. Domineering management behaviour in dealing with the auditor,
especially involving attempts to influence the scope of the auditor’s
work or the selection or continuance of personnel assigned to or
consulted on the audit engagement.
RISK FACTORS ARISING FROM MISSTATEMENTS ARISING FROM

MISAPPROPRIATION OF ASSETS
A. INCENTIVES/PRESSURES:
1. Personal financial obligations may create pressure on management or
employees with access to cash or other assets susceptible to theft or
misappropriation of assets.
2. Adverse relationships between the entity and employees:
a. Known or anticipated future employee layoffs.
b. Recent or anticipated changes to employee compensation or
benefit plans.
c. Promotions, compensation, or other rewards inconsistent with
expectations.
B. OPPORTUNITIES: Certain characteristics or circumstances may increase the

susceptibility of assets to misappropriation. Opportunities to
misappropriate assets increase when there are the following: 133
1. Large amounts of cash on hand.
2. Inventory items that are small in size, of high value, or in high demand.
3. Easily convertible assets, such as bearer bonds, diamonds, or computer
chips or stamps.
4. Fixed assets which are small in size, marketable, or lacking observable
identification of ownership.
C. ATTITUDES/RATIONALIZATIONS:
1. Lack of commitment for monitoring or reducing risks related to
misappropriations of assets.
2. Disregard for internal control over misappropriation of assets by
overriding existing controls
3. Behaviour indicating dissatisfaction with the entity or its treatment of
the employee.
4. Sudden Changes in behaviour or lifestyle that may indicate assets have
been misappropriated.
5. Tolerance of petty theft.
CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH INADEQUATE INTERNAL CONTROL

OVER ASSETS MAY INCREASE THE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF
MISAPPROPRIATION
1. Inadequate segregation of duties or independent checks.

2. Inadequate oversight of senior management expenditures
3. Inadequate record keeping with respect to assets.
4. Inadequate system of authorization and approval of transactions
5. Inadequate physical safeguards over assets.
6. Lack of complete and timely reconciliations of assets.
7. Lack of timely and appropriate documentation of transactions,
8. Lack of mandatory vacations for employees performing key control
functions.
9. Inadequate management understanding of information technology, which
enables information technology employees to perpetrate a
misappropriation.
10. Inadequate access controls over automated records, including controls over
and review of computer systems event logs.
CIRCUMSTANCES THAT INDICATE POSSIBILITY OF FRAUD
The following are the circumstances that may indicate the possibility of
material misstatement resulting from fraud-
134
A. DISCREPANCIES IN THE ACCOUNTING RECORDS, INCLUDING:
1. Transactions that are not recorded in complete or are improperly
recorded as to amount, or entity policy.
2. Unauthorized balances or transactions.
3. Last-minute adjustments that significantly affect financial results.
4. Tips or complaints to the auditor about alleged fraud.
B. CONFLICTING OR MISSING EVIDENCE:

1. Missing documents.
2. Documents that appear to have been altered.
3. Significant unexplained items on reconciliations.
4. Unusual discrepancies between the entity’s records and confirmation
replies.
5. Large numbers of credit entries and other adjustments made to
accounts receivable records.
6. Missing inventory or physical assets of significant magnitude.
C. PROBLEMATIC OR UNUSUAL RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE AUDITOR AND

MANAGEMENT:
1. Denial of access to records, vendors, or others from whom, audit
evidence might be sought.
2. Undue time pressures imposed by management to resolve complex
issues.
3. Unusual delays by the entity in providing requested information.
4. Unwillingness to facilitate auditor access to key electronic files for
testing through the use of computer-assisted audit techniques (CAAT).
5. Denial of access to key IT operations staff and facilities
6. Unwillingness to add or revise disclosures in the financial statements to
make them more complete
7. Unwillingness to address identified deficiencies in internal control on a
timely basis.
D. OTHER REASONS:
1. Unwillingness by management to permit the auditor to meet privately
with those charged with governance.
2. Accounting policies that appear to be at variance with industry norms.
3. Frequent changes in accounting estimates that do not appear to result
from changed circumstances.
4. Tolerance of violations of the entity’s Code of Conduct.
NOTE: There is a marginal difference between fraud risk factors and

circumstances indicating fraud. The first one deal with factors that exist 135
before commencement of audit procedures and while the later arises during the
conduct of audit through audit procedures.
DUTY OF AUDITOR FOR REPORTING OF FRADS UNDER

COMPANIES ACT IN CARO,2020
The auditor should apply professional scepticism to evaluate/verify that the

fraud was indeed identified/detected in all aspects by the management or
through the company’s vigil/whistle blower mechanism.
So that distinction can be clearly made with respect to
i. Frauds identified/detected by the auditor and
ii. Those identified/detected by the company through its internal
control mechanism.
A. REQUIREMENT RELATED TO DUTY UNDER COMPANIES ACT, 2013

[SEC.143(12)]:
1. The Detailed Provisions related to Sec. 143(12) are already discussed as
part of Company audit chapter. Please refer that.
2. It is very important to note that reporting of frauds under section
143(12) shall apply, mutatis mutandis, to a cost auditor and a secretarial
auditor during the performance of his duties under section 148 and
section 204 respectively.
3. if a suspected offence of fraud has already been reported under section
143(12) by such cost or secretarial auditor, and the statutory auditor
becomes aware of such suspected offence involving fraud, he need not
report the same since he has not identified the suspected offence of
fraud.
4. Further if the amount involved in fraud is more than Rs.1 crore, the
auditor shall review the steps taken by management. If the auditor
concluded that the management has not taken adequate steps, the he
may consider reporting to Central Government in accordance with
section 143(12).
B. REPORTING UNDER CARO 2020:
The auditor is required to report under clause (xi) of paragraph 3 of

Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order,2020,
a. Whether any fraud by the company or any fraud on the Company
has been noticed or reported during the year. If yes, the nature and
the amount involved is to be indicated.
b. The auditor is also requiring to report whether any report under
sub-section (12) of section 143 of the Companies Act has been filed
by the auditors in Form ADT-4 as prescribed under rule 13 of 136
Companies (Audit and Auditors) Rules, 2014 with the Central
Government; and
c. Whether the auditor has considered whistle-blower complaints, if
any, received during the year by the company.
It may be noted that this clause of the Order, by requiring the auditor
to report whether any fraud by the company or on the company has
been noticed or reported, does not relieve the auditor from his
responsibility to consider fraud and error in an audit of financial
statements as required under SA 240.
AUDIT PROCEDURE WHILE REPORTING UNDER CARO
A. DISCUSSION WITH ENGAGEMENT TEAM:

While planning the audit, the auditor should discuss with other members of
the audit team, the susceptibility of material misstatements in the financial
statements resulting from fraud.
B. INQUIRING MANAGEMENT:
While planning, the auditor should also make inquiries of management to
determine whether management is aware of any known fraud or suspected
fraud that the company is investigating. The auditor should also discuss
the matter with other employees including officers of the company.
C. REVIEW - INTERNAL AUDITOR’S REPORT:
The auditor should examine the reports of the internal auditor with a view
to ascertain whether any fraud has been reported or noticed by the
management.
D. REVIEW - MINUTES OF AUDIT COMMITTEE:
The auditor should examine the minutes of the audit committee, to
ascertain whether any instance of fraud pertaining to the company has
been reported and actions taken thereon. The auditor should also examine
the minute book of the board meeting of the company in this regard.
E. OBTAIN WRITTEN REPRESENTATION: The auditor should obtain written

representations from management that:
1. It acknowledges its responsibility for the implementation and operation
of accounting and internal control systems that are designed to
prevent and detect fraud and error
2. It believes the effects of those uncorrected misstatements in financial
statements, aggregated by the auditor during the audit are immaterial
to the financial statements taken as a whole.
3. It has Disclosed to the auditor:
137
a. All significant facts relating to any frauds or suspected frauds
known to management.
b. The results of its assessment of the risk that the financial
statements may be materially misstated as a result of fraud.
4. Management is responsible for adjusting the financial statements to
correct material misstatements, it is important that the auditor obtains
written representation from management that any uncorrected
misstatements resulting from fraud are, in management’s opinion,
immaterial, both individually and in the aggregate. Such representations
are not a substitute for obtaining sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
5. In some circumstances, management may not believe that certain of
the uncorrected financial statement misstatements aggregated by the
auditor during the audit are misstatements. For that reason,
management may want to add to their written representation words
such as, “We do not agree that items constitute misstatements
because [description of reasons].”
Note: Section 143(12) of the Act requires, the auditor has reasons to
believe that a fraud is being committed or has been committed by an
employee or officer. In such a case the auditor needs to report to the
Central Government or the Audit Committee. However, this Clause will
include only the reported frauds and not suspected fraud.
F. MANNER OF REPORTING UNDER CARO, 2020:

1. Where the auditor notices that any fraud by the company or on the
company has been noticed by or reported during the year, the auditor
should, apart from reporting the existence of fraud, also required to
report, the nature of fraud and amount involved. For reporting under this
clause, the auditor may consider the following:
a. This clause requires all frauds noticed or reported during the year
shall be reported indicating the nature and amount involved.
b. Of the frauds covered under section 143(12) of the Act, only
noticed frauds shall be included here and not the suspected frauds.
2. While reporting under this clause with regard to the nature and the
amount involved of the frauds noticed or reported, the auditor may also
consider the principles of materiality outlined in Standards on Auditing.
[
SITUATIONS WHERE AUDITOR UNABLE TO CONTINUE THE

ENGAGEMENT
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If, as a result of a misstatement resulting from fraud or suspected fraud, the
auditor encounters exceptional circumstances that bring into question the
auditor’s ability to continue performing the audit, the auditor shall:
1. Determine the professional and legal responsibilities applicable in the
circumstances, including whether there is a requirement for the auditor
to report to the person who made the audit appointment or, in some
cases, to regulatory authorities;
2. Consider whether it is appropriate to withdraw from the engagement,
where withdrawal is possible under applicable law or regulation; and
3. If the auditor withdraws:
a. Discuss with the appropriate level of management and those charged
with governance of the auditor’s withdrawal and the reasons for the
withdrawal; and
b. Determine whether there is a professional or legal requirement to
report to regulatory authorities about the auditor’s withdrawal and
the reasons for the withdrawal.
4. In case of Company, if the auditor resigns from the company then he shall
inform to the following persons: Sec. 140(2).
a. To the officers of the company.
b. To ROC in Form ADT - 3
c. To C&AG in case of Government company.
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8. RISK ASSESSMENT AND INTERNAL
CONTROL
DEFINITON OF AUDIT RISK & ITS COMPONENTS
A. MEANING OF AUDIT RISK:

1. Includes:
a. The risk of expressing an inappropriate opinion when the financial
statements are materially misstated is termed as audit risk.
b. In other words, expression of unmodified opinion in a situation
where modified opinion would be suitable.
c. Further the assessment of risk is a matter of professional judgment.
2. Excludes: It does not include
a. Risk of expressing a modified opinion when financial statements
are not materially misstated.
b. Further, audit risk is a technical term related to the process of
auditing and it does not refer Business risk faced by auditor.
B. COMPONENTS OF AUDIT RISK: Audit risk is a function of the risks of

material misstatement and detection risk.
Audit Risk = Risk of Material Misstatement x Detection Risk
1. RISK OF MMS: The risk that the financial statements are materially
misstated prior to audit. This consists of 2 components namely inherent
risk and control risk. Further the Risk of MMS is an entity’s risk and will
exist irrespective of audit of financial statements.
a. INHERENT RISK:
i. Inherent risk and control risk are the entity’s risks and they
exist independently (Irrespective) of the audit of the
financial statements. (They cannot be controlled by auditor.)
ii. The risk of that a transaction or balance could be materially
misstated before considering the related internal control
system.
iii. Absence of related control is also termed as inherent risk.
iv. Inherent risk is generally unavoidable and inherent in the
system.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INHERENT RISK:
i. Inherent risk is higher for some assertions and related classes

of transactions, account balances, and disclosures than for 140
others. For example, it may be higher for complex
calculations.
ii. External circumstances giving rise to business risks may also
influence inherent risk. For example, technological
developments might make a particular product obsolete.
iii. Factors in the entity and its environment may also influence
the inherent risk related to a specific assertion.
iv. Inherent risk factors are considered while designing tests of
controls and substantive procedures. Category of auditor’s
assessment, lower or higher, each category covers a range of
degrees of inherent risk.
v. Auditor may assess the inherent risk of two different
assertions as lower while recognizing that one assertion has
less inherent risk than the other, although both have been
assessed as lower.
vi. It is important to consider the reason for each identified
inherent risk even if the risk is lower, when the auditor
designs tests of controls and substantive procedures.
b. CONTROL RISK:
i. The risk that the internal control system, fails to prevent,
detect or correct a misstatement on a timely basis.
ii. This risk is also termed as control weakness or control
deficiency.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL RISK: Control risk is a function of

the effectiveness of the design, implementation and maintenance
of internal control by management. However, internal control can
only reduce but not eliminate risks of material misstatement in the
financial statements. This is because of the inherent limitations
of internal control.
c. COMBINED ASSESSMENT:
The SAs do not ordinarily refer to inherent risk and control risk
separately, but rather to a combined assessment of the “risks of
material misstatement”. The auditor may make separate or
combined assessments of inherent and control risk depending on
preferred audit techniques or methodologies and practical
considerations. The assessment of the risks of material
misstatement may be expressed in quantitative terms, such as in
percentages, or in non-quantitative terms.
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2. DETECTION RISK: The risk that the audit procedures performed will not
detect a material misstatement that exist.
C. INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMPONENTS:

There exists an INVERSE RELATIONSHIP between Risk of MMS and Detection
risk.
For Example: If the Risk of MMS is high, the auditor will conduct an in-
depth audit, resultantly he can detect MMS.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED TO EVALUATE CONTROL RISK
When making control risk assessment, the auditor shall consider:

1. THE CONTROL ENVIRONMENT’S INFLUENCE OVER INTERNAL CONTROL:
a. A control environment that supports the prevention, and detection
and correction, of material misstatements allows greater confidence in
the reliability of internal control and audit evidence generated within
the entity.
b. It does not guarantee the effectiveness of specific controls.
c. We therefore, test the operating effectiveness of controls over
significant class of transactions (SCOTs) when we plan to take a
controls reliance strategy.
d. The control environment may undermine the effectiveness of specific
controls and is a key factor in our control risk assessments.
2. Evaluations of the related IT processes that support application and IT-
dependent manual controls.
3. Our testing approach over SCOTs and disclosure processes (i.e., controls
reliance or substantive only strategy).
4. The expectation of the operating effectiveness of controls based on the
understanding of entity’s processes.
CONTROL RISK ASSESSMENT WHEN CONTROL DEFICIENCIES

ARE IDENTIFIED
1. When auditor identifies deficiencies in internal controls, he evaluates the

financial statement items that are affected by ineffective controls in order
to evaluate the strategy for the audit of the financial statements.
2. When control deficiencies are identified the auditor may tests more than
one control for each relevant assertion.
3. If the controls tested and other compensating controls are effective, the
auditor may conclude ‘rely on controls’ is appropriate under control risk
assessment. Otherwise, we change our control risk assessment to ‘not rely
on controls.’ 142
4. When a deficiency relates to an ineffective control and is the only control
identified for a particular assertion, he revises risk assessment to ‘not rely
on controls’ for associated assertions.
5. If the deficiency relates to one WCGW (what can go wrong) out of several
WCGW’s, he can ‘rely on controls’ but performs additional substantive
procedures to adequately address the risks related to the deficiency. (I.e., if
one control is weak out of several controls, still the auditor can rely on
controls but has to perform additional work.)
IDENTIFYING AND ASSESSING RISK OF MATERIAL

MISSTATEMENT UNDER SA 315
SA 315 - IDENTIFYING AND ASSESSING THE RISKS OF MATERIAL MISSTATEMENT

THROUGH UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
1. The objective of auditor is:

a. To identify the risk of MMS at 2 levels:
i. Financial statement level.
ii. Assertion level.
b. To assess (analyse) the risk of MMS for determining its significance.
c. To minimise the audit risk to an acceptably low level by properly
planning and performing audit (audit procedures) based on risk
assessment process.
2. The risk is identified and analysed by understanding the entity and its
environment including entity’s internal controls by considering the classes
of transactions, account balances, and disclosures in the financial
statements.
3. Evaluate whether the risks identified are impacting financial statements at
a pervasive level and affect many assertions potentially.
4. Consider the likelihood of misstatement, including the possibility of multiple
misstatements, and whether the potential misstatement is of a
magnitude that could result in a material misstatement.
5. The assessment of risk is a matter of professional judgment rather than a
matter capable of precise measurements. Further risk assessment is based
on information obtained through risk audit procedures.
RISK ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES

[
1. DEFINITION: The audit procedures performed to obtain an understanding of

the entity and its environment, including the entity’s internal control, to
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identify and assess the risks of material misstatement, whether due to
fraud or error, at the financial statement and assertion levels.
2. The auditor shall perform risk assessment procedures to provide a basis for
the identification and assessment of risks of material misstatement at the
financial statement and assertion levels.
3. Risk assessment procedures by themselves, do not provide sufficient
appropriate audit evidence on which to base the audit opinion.
4. Information obtained by performing risk assessment procedures - Used as
audit evidence:
a. Information obtained by performing risk assessment procedures and
related activities may be used by the auditor as audit evidence to
support assessments of the risks of material misstatement.
b. In addition, the auditor may obtain audit evidence about classes of
transactions, account balances, or disclosures and related assertions
and about the operating effectiveness of controls, even though such
procedures were not specifically planned as substantive procedures
or as tests of controls.
c. The auditor also may choose to perform substantive procedures or
tests of controls concurrently with risk assessment procedures
because it is efficient to do so.
5. The risks to be assessed include both those due to error and those due to
fraud.
RISK ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES INCLUDES:
1. INQUIRIES OF MANAGEMENT AND OF OTHERS WITHIN THE ENTITY: Much of

the information obtained by the auditor’s inquiries is obtained from
management and those responsible for financial reporting. The auditor may
also obtain information, or a different perspective in identifying risks of
material misstatement, through inquiries of others within the entity and
other employees with different levels of authority.
Examples
Inquiries with those charged with governance may enable the auditor
to understand the environment in which financial statements are
prepared.
2. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES:
a. Analytical procedures performed as risk assessment procedures may
include both financial and non-financial information, for example, the
relationship between profit and number of employees i.e., profit
generated per employee.
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b. Analytical procedures may help identify the existence of unusual
transactions or events, and amounts, ratios, and trends that might
indicate matters that have audit implications.
c. When such analytical procedures use data aggregated at a high level
the results of those analytical procedures only provide a broad initial
indication about whether a material misstatement may exist.
d. Analytical procedures include:
i. Ratio Analysis
ii. Trend Analysis
iii. Reasonableness test
iv. Structural modeling (A Statistical tool. Eg; Regression theorem)
3. OBSERVATION AND INSPECTION:

a. Observing Entity’s operations. Eg: Production, Accounting etc.,
b. Inspecting Documents, records, internal control manuals may provide
supporting information in addition to inquiries. Eg: Reading Standard
Operating Manuals (SOP).
c. Inspecting Reports prepared by management and those charged with
governance. Eg: Minutes, MIS reports.
d. Observing client’s premises like factory, offices etc.,
UNDERSTANDING AN ENTITY IS A CONTINUOUS AND DYNAMIC

PROCESS. COMMENT
Obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment including the

entity’s internal control, is a continuous and dynamic process of gathering,
updating and analysing information throughout the audit. The
understanding establishes a frame of reference within which the auditor plans
the audit and exercises professional judgment throughout the audit, for
example, when:
1. Assessing risks of material misstatement of the financial statements;
2. Determining materiality in accordance with SA 320;
3. Considering the appropriateness of the selection and application of
accounting policies;
4. Identifying areas where special audit consideration may be necessary, for
example, related party transactions, the appropriateness of
management’s use of the going concern assumption;
5. Evaluating the sufficiency and appropriateness of audit evidence obtained.
6. Developing expectations for use when performing analytical procedures.
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MEANING AND OBJECTIVES OF INTERNAL CONTROL
A. MEANING OF INTERNAL CONTROL: As per SA-315, The internal control may

be defined as the process designed, implemented and maintained by those
charged with governance, management and other personnel to provide
reasonable assurance about the achievement of an entity’s objectives with
regard to
1. Reliability of financial reporting,
2. Effectiveness and efficiency of operations,
3. Safeguarding of assets, and
4. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
B. OBJECTIVES OF INTERNAL CONTROL:

1. Transactions are executed in accordance with managements general or
specific authorization.
2. All transactions are promptly recorded in the correct amount in the
appropriate accounts and in the accounting period in which executed so
as to permit preparation of financial information within a framework of
recognized accounting policies and practices and relevant statutory
requirements, and to maintain accountability for assets.
3. Assets are safeguarded from unauthorized access, use or disposition and
4. The recorded assets are compared with the existing assets at reasonable
intervals and appropriate action is taken with regard to any
differences.
UNDERSTANDINGOF ENTITY’S INTERNAL CONTROLS
1. CONTROLS RELEVANT TO AUDIT: The auditor shall obtain an understanding

of internal control relevant to the audit. Although most controls relevant
to the audit are likely to relate to financial reporting, not all controls
that relate to financial reporting are relevant to the audit.
2. PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT: It is a matter of the auditor’s professional

judgment whether a control, individually or in combination with others, is
relevant to the audit.
3. FACTORS: Factors relevant to the auditor’s judgment about whether a

control, individually or in combination with others, is relevant to the audit
may include such matters as the following:
a. Materiality.
b. The significance of the related risk.
c. The size of the entity.
146
d. The nature of the entity’s business, including its organisation and
ownership characteristics.
e. The diversity and complexity of the entity’s operations.
f. Applicable legal and regulatory requirements.
g. The circumstances and the applicable component of internal
control.
h. The nature and complexity of the systems that are part of the
entity’s internal control, including the use of service
organisations.
i. Whether, and how, a specific control, individually or in combination
with others, prevents, or detects and corrects, material
misstatement.
4. CONTROLS NOT RELEVANT TO AUDIT: An entity generally has controls

relating to objectives that are not relevant to an audit and therefore need
not be considered.
5. Further, although internal control applies to the entire entity or to any of

its operating units or business processes, an understanding of internal
control relating to each of the entity’s operating units and business
processes may not be relevant to the audit.
6. Benefits of Understanding of Internal Control: An understanding of internal

control assists the auditor in:
a. Identifying types of potential misstatements.
b. Identifying factors that affect the risks of material misstatement,
and
c. Designing the nature, timing, and extent of further audit
procedures.
Study of Internal
Controls
Nature and Controls Relevant to Nature and Extent of Components of

Characteristics audit understanind Controls
INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF INTERNAL CONTROLS
Internal control, no matter how effective, can provide an entity with only
reasonable assurance about achieving the entity’s financial reporting
147
objectives. Due to various inherent limitations the objectives may not be
achieved fully. The limitations are as below:
A. HUMAN JUDGMENT IN DECISION-MAKING:

a. Judgment in decision-making can be faulty and that leads to failure
in the internal control because of human error.
b. There may be an error in the design of a control.
B. LACK OF UNDERSTANDING THE PURPOSE:

a. The person responsible to review the control may not understand the
basic purpose of such control.
b. This leads to ineffective utilisation of exception reports and taking a
wrong course of action.
C. COLLUSION AMONG PEOPLE:

a. Controls can be overridden by the collusion of two or more people or
inappropriate management override of internal control.
b. For example, management may enter into side agreements with
customers that alter the terms and conditions of the entity’s standard
sales contracts, which may result in improper revenue recognition.
D. COST EXCEEDING BENEFITS:

a. In Few situations the cost of designing and maintaining the controls
may exceed the benefits there from. Resultantly the management
may not implement such controls leading to excess cost.
E. LIMITATIONS IN CASE OF SMALL ENTITIES:

a. Smaller entities often have fewer employees due to which segregation
of duties is not practicable.
b. The owner-manager may be able to exercise more effective oversight
than in a larger entity.
c. This oversight may limit opportunities for segregation of duties.
d. Further the owner-manager may override controls because the
system of internal control is less structured.
CONTROLS OVER THE COMPLETENESS AND ACCCURACY OF

INFORMATION
1. Controls over the completeness and accuracy of information produced by

the entity may be relevant to the audit if the auditor intends to make use
of the information in designing and performing further procedures.
148
2. For example, in auditing revenue by applying standard prices to records of
sales volume, the auditor considers the accuracy of the price information
and the completeness and accuracy of the sales volume data.
3. Controls relating to operations and compliance objectives may also be
relevant to an audit if they relate to data the auditor evaluates or uses in
applying audit procedures.
NTERNAL CONTROLS OVER SAFEGAURDING OF ASSETS
1. Internal control over safeguarding of assets against unauthorised

acquisition, use, or disposition may include controls relating to both
financial reporting and operations objectives.
2. FINANCIAL REPORTING OBJECTIVE: The auditor’s consideration of such
controls is generally limited to those relevant to the reliability of financial
reporting. For example, use of access controls, such as passwords, that
limit access to the data and programs that process cash disbursements
may be relevant to a financial statement audit.
3. OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVE: Conversely, safeguarding controls relating to
operations objectives, such as controls to prevent the excessive use of
materials in production, generally are not relevant to a financial statement
audit. (E.g., Targets related to input output ratio may not be related to
auditor.)
NATURE AND EXTENT OF THE UNDERSTANDING OF RELEVANT

CONTROLS
1. Evaluating the design of a control involves considering whether the

control, individually or in combination with other controls, is capable of
effectively preventing, or detecting and correcting, material misstatements.
2. Implementation of a control means that the control exists and that the
entity is using it. The design of a control is considered first. An improperly
designed control may represent a significant deficiency in internal control.
3. Risk assessment procedures to obtain audit evidence about the design and
implementation of relevant controls may include:
a. Inquiring of entity personnel.
b. Observing the application of specific controls.
c. Inspecting documents and reports.
d. Tracing transactions through the information system relevant to
financial reporting.
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4. Obtaining an understanding of an entity’s controls is not sufficient to test
their operating effectiveness, unless there is some automation that provides
for the consistent operation of the controls.
COMPONENTS OF INTERNAL CONTROLS
The division of internal control into the following 5 components provides a

useful framework for auditors to understand how different aspects of an
entity’s internal control may affect the audit. The following are components
of control environment:
1. The control Environment (Governance, management structure and Culture
of honesty).
2. Entity’s risk assessment process (Identification of risk to design a control
to mitigate it).
3. Information system, including related business process, relevant to
financial reporting.
4. Control activities (Implement and Review of policies to be implemented).
5. Monitoring of controls (Testing of controls to update them).
CONTROL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS ELEMENTS
A. CONTROL ENVIRONMENT INCLUDES:

The control environment includes:
1. The governance and management functions.
2. The attitudes, awareness, and actions of those charged with
governance and management.
3. The control environment sets the tone of an organization,
influencing the control consciousness of its people.
B. ELEMENTS OF CONTROL ENVIRONMENT: Elements of control environment

may be relevant to obtain an understanding of control environment
which includes the following:
1. Communication and enforcement of integrity and ethical values: These

are essential elements that influence the effectiveness of the design,
administration and monitoring of controls.
2. Commitment to competence: Matters such as management’s
consideration of the competence levels for particular jobs and how those
levels translate into requisite skills and knowledge.
3. Participation by those charged with governance: Attributes of those
charged with governance such as:
150
a. Their independence from management.
b. Their experience and stature.
c. The extent of their involvement and the information they receive,
and the scrutiny of activities.
d. The appropriateness of their actions, including the degree to which
difficult questions are raised and pursued with management, and
their interaction with internal and external auditors.
4. Management’s philosophy and operating style: Characteristics such as
management’s:
a. Approach to taking and managing business risks.
b. Attitudes and actions toward financial reporting.
c. Attitudes toward information processing and accounting functions
and personnel.
5. Organisational structure: The framework within which an entity’s
activities for achieving its objectives are planned, executed, controlled,
and reviewed.
6. Assignment of authority and responsibility: Matters such as how
authority and responsibility for operating activities are assigned and how
reporting relationships and authorisation hierarchies are established.
7. Human resource policies and practices: Policies and practices that relate
to, for example, recruitment, orientation, training, evaluation,
counselling, promotion, compensation, and remedial actions.
ENTITY’S RISK ASSESSMENT PROCESS WHICH IS A COMPONENT

OF CONTROL ENVIROMENT
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of whether the entity has a process
for:
1. Identifying business risks relevant to financial reporting objectives. (E.g.,

Doctor Prescription vs Bill)
2. Estimating the significance of the risks.
3. Assessing the likelihood of their occurrence and
4. Deciding about actions to address those risks.
The entity’s risk assessment process helps to identify the basis for the risks
to be managed. If that process is appropriate, it would assist the auditor in
identifying risks of material misstatement. Whether the entity’s risk
assessment process is appropriate to the circumstances is a matter of
judgment.
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CONTROL ACTIVITIES AS A COMPONENT OD INTERNAL
CONTROL SYSTEM
1. MEANING OF CONTROL ACTIVITIES: The policies and procedures that help

ensure that management directives are carried out. E.g., Authorisations,
SOD, Physical controls and performance reviews.
2. Control activities, whether within IT or manual systems, have various
objectives and are applied at various organisational and functional levels.
3. An audit requires an understanding of only those control activities related
to significant class of transactions, account balance, and disclosure in the
financial statements which the auditor finds relevant in the risk
assessment process.
4. Control activities related to audit are determined as below:
a. Control activities that relate to items of financial statements where
auditor finds significant risks and where substantive procedures
alone do not provide sufficient and appropriate audit evidence or
b. These are relevant in the professional judgment of the auditor.
SIGNIFICANT RISK
Significant risks are inherent risks with both a higher likelihood of occurrence
and a higher magnitude of potential misstatement. The auditor assesses
assertions affected by a significant risk as higher inherent risk. The
following are always significant risks:
1. Risks of material misstatement due to fraud.
2. Significant transactions with related parties that are outside the normal
course of business for the entity.
In exercising judgment as to whether the risks identified in risk assessment

process are significant risk, the auditor shall consider the following factors:
1. Whether the risk is a risk of fraud.
2. Whether the risk is related to recent significant economic, accounting,
or other developments like changes in regulatory environment, etc., and,
therefore, requires specific attention.
3. The complexity of transactions
4. Whether the risk involves significant transactions with related parties.
5. The degree of subjectivity in the measurement of financial information.
6. Whether the risk involves significant transactions that are outside the
normal course of business for the entity, or that otherwise appear to be
unusual.
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MONITORING OF CONTROLS AS A FINAL COMPONENT OF
INTERNAL CONTROL
The auditor shall obtain an understanding of the major activities that the
entity uses to monitor internal control over financial reporting: (IFCOFR)
1. Monitoring of controls is a process to assess the effectiveness of internal

control performance over time. (E.g., Internal Audit) (E.g., Walk through
test).
2. It involves assessing the effectiveness of controls on a timely basis and
taking necessary remedial actions.
3. Management accomplishes monitoring of controls through ongoing

activities, separate evaluations, or a combination of the two. Ongoing
monitoring activities are often built into the normal recurring activities
of an entity and include regular management and supervisory activities.
4. Management’s monitoring activities may include using information
from communications from external parties.
5. In case of small businesses, Management’s monitoring of control is
often accomplished by managements or the owner-manager’s close
involvement in operations. This involvement often will identify
significant variances from expectations and inaccuracies in financial
data leading to remedial action to the control.
MONITORING OF CONTROLS WHERE THE WNTITY HAS

INTERNAL AUDIT FUNCTION
If the entity has an internal audit function, the auditor shall obtain an
understanding of the following:
1. The internal audit function’s responsibilities and how the internal audit
function fits in the entity’s organisational structure and
2. The activities performed, or to be performed, by the internal audit function.
3. The following points merit consideration in this regard:
a. Internal Audit Function relevant to the Audit: The entity’s internal audit
function is likely to be relevant to the audit (SA 610 APPLIES) if its
activities are related to the entity’s financial reporting. Also, if the
auditor expects to use the work of the internal auditors to modify the
audit procedures to be performed.
b. Size and Structure of the Entity: The objectives of an internal audit
function vary widely depending on the size and structure of the entity
and the requirements of management.
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c. Internal audit function may include: The responsibilities of an internal
audit function may include, monitoring of internal control, risk
management, and review of compliance with laws and regulations.
On the other hand, the responsibilities of the internal audit function
may be limited to the review of the economy, efficiency and
effectiveness of operations, for example, and accordingly, may not
relate to the entity’s financial reporting.
d. External auditor’s activities on the basis of Internal Audit activities: If
the internal audit function’s responsibilities are related to the
entity’s financial reporting, the external auditor’s consideration of the
activities performed may include review of the internal audit function’s
audit plan for the period.
SATISFACTORY CONTROL ENVIRONMENT NOT AN ABSOLUTE

DETERRENT TO FRAUD. EXPLAIN.
1. The existence of a satisfactory control environment can be a positive

factor when the auditor assesses the risks of material misstatement.
Although it may help reduce the risk of fraud, a satisfactory control
environment is not an absolute deterrent to fraud.
2. Conversely, deficiencies in the control environment may undermine the
effectiveness of controls, in particular in relation to fraud.
3. For example, management’s failure to commit sufficient resources to
address IT security risks may adversely affect internal control by allowing
improper changes to be made to computer programs or to data, or
unauthorized transactions to be processed.
4. As explained in SA 330, the control environment also influences the nature,
timing, and extent of the auditor’s further procedures.
5. The control environment in itself does not prevent, or detect and correct, a
material misstatement. It may influence the auditor’s evaluation of the
effectiveness of other controls and thereby, the auditor’s assessment of the
risks of material misstatement.
BENEFITS OF INTERNAL CONTROL EVALUATION
The examination and evaluation of the internal control system is an

indispensable part of the overall audit programme. The auditor needs
reasonable assurance that the accounting system is adequate and that all the
accounting information which should be recorded has in fact been recorded.
Internal control normally contributes to such assurance. The auditor should
gain an understanding of the accounting system and related internal controls
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and should study and evaluate the operations of these internal controls
upon which he wishes to rely in determining the nature, timing and extent of
other audit procedures.
BENEFITS OF EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROL TO THE AUDITOR:

The review of internal controls will enable the auditor to know:
1. Whether an adequate internal control system is in use and operating as
planned by the management;
2. Whether an effective internal auditing department is operating;
3. Whether the controls adequately safeguard the assets;
4. How management is discharging its function for correct recording of
transactions;
5. How reliable the reports, records and the certificates to the management
can be;
6. The extent and the depth of the examination that he needs to carry out in
the different areas of accounting;
7. What would be appropriate audit technique and the audit procedure in the
given circumstances;
8. What are the areas where control is weak; and
9. Whether any suggestions can be given to improve the control system to
management by auditor.
METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROLS BY THE

AUDITOR
1. The first step involves determination of the control and procedures laid
down by the management. By reading company manuals, studying
organisation charts and flow charts and by making suitable enquiries from
the officers and employees, the auditor may ascertain the character, scope
and efficacy of the control system.
2. To acquaint himself about how all the accounting information is collected
and processed and to learn the nature of controls that makes the
information reliable and protect the company’s assets, calls for
considerable skill and knowledge.
3. In many cases, very little of this information is available in writing; the
auditor must ask the right people the right questions if he is to get the
information he wants.
4. It would be better if he makes written notes of the relevant information
and procedures contained in the manual or ascertained on enquiry.
5. To facilitate the accumulation of the information necessary for the proper
review and evaluation of internal controls, the auditor can use one of the
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following to help him to know and assimilate the system and evaluate the
same:
a. NARRATIVE RECORD:
This is a complete and exhaustive description of the system as found
in operation by the auditor. Actual testing and observation are
necessary before such a record can be developed. It may be
recommended in cases where no formal control system is in operation
It would be more suited to small business.
The basic disadvantages of narrative records are:
i. To comprehend the system in operation is quite difficult.
ii. To identify weaknesses or gaps in the system.
iii. To incorporate changes arising on account of reshuffling of
manpower, etc.
b. CHECK LIST:
This is a series of instructions or questions which a member of the
auditing staff must follow or answer.
i. The Instructions and Questions are framed according to the
desirable elements of control.
ii. When he completes instruction, he shall mark the space against
the instruction.
iii. Answers to the check list instructions are usually Yes, No or
Not Applicable.
c. INTERNAL CONTROL QUESTIONNAIRE (ICQ):

i. This is a comprehensive series of questions concerning internal
control. This is the most widely used form for collecting
information about the existence, operation and efficiency of
internal control in an organisation.
ii. An important advantage of the questionnaire approach is that
oversight or omission of significant internal control review
procedures is less likely to occur with this method.
iii. With a proper questionnaire, all internal control evaluation can
be completed at one time or in sections. The review can more
easily be made on an interim basis.
iv. The questionnaire form also provides an orderly means of
disclosing control defects. It is the general practice to review
the internal control system annually and record the review in
detail.
v. In the questionnaire, generally questions are so framed that a
‘Yes’ answer denotes satisfactory position and a ‘No’ answer
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suggests weakness. Provision is made for an explanation or
further details of ‘No’ answers. In respect of questions not
relevant to the business, ‘Not Applicable’ reply is given.
vi. The questionnaire is usually issued to the client and the client is
requested to get it filled by the concerned executives and
employees.
vii. If on a review of the answers, inconsistencies or apparent
weaknesses are noticed, the matter is further discussed by
auditor’s staff with the client’s employees for a clear picture.
The concerned auditor then prepares a report of deficiencies and
recommendations for improvement.
d. FLOWCHARTS:
i. It is a graphic presentation of each part of the company’s system
of internal control such as the nature of its activities and
various channels of goods and materials as well as cash, both
inward and outward.
ii. A flowchart is considered to be the most concise i.e. briefest
way of recording the auditor understanding and evaluation of the
internal control system in the correct perspective.
iii. It minimizes the amount of narrative explanation.
iv. It gives bird’s eye view of the entire process of manufacturing,
trading and administration.
v. The flow of transactions through various stages can be easily
spotted and improvements can be suggested.
TESTS OF CONTROLS AND ITS PURPOSE
1. PUROPSE: Tests of control are performed to obtain audit evidence about

the effectiveness of:
a. Design of the accounting and internal control systems, that is,
whether they are suitably designed to prevent or detect and correct
material misstatements or not; and
b. Operation of the internal controls throughout the period.
c. The testing is being carried out on selective basis and will cover all
important areas that are relevant to financial statements.
2. TESTS OF CONTROL MAY INCLUDE:

a. Inspection of documents supporting transactions and other events to
gain audit evidence that internal controls have operated properly. For
example, verifying that a transaction has been authorized.
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b. Inquiries about internal controls and observation of internal controls.
For example, determining who actually performs each function and
not merely who is supposed to perform it.
c. Re-performance of internal controls. For example, reconciliation of
bank accounts, to ensure that they were correctly performed by the
entity.
d. Testing of internal control operating on specific computerised
applications or over the overall information technology function. For
example, access or program change controls.
3. It has been suggested that actual operation of the internal control should be
tested by the application of procedural tests and examination in depth.
Procedural tests simply mean testing of the compliance with the procedures
laid down by the management in respect of initiation, authorisation,
recording and documentation of transaction at each stage through which
it flows.
INTERNAL CONTROL AND IT ENVIRONMENT
An entity’s system of internal control contains manual elements and often

contains automated elements. The characteristics of manual or automated
elements are explained hereunder:
The use of manual or automated elements in internal control affects the
manner in which transactions are initiated, recorded, processed, and reported:
a. Controls in a manual system may include such procedures as approvals
and reviews of transactions, and reconciliations and follow-up of
reconciling items.
b. An entity may use automated procedures to initiate, record, process, and
report transactions, in which case records in electronic format replace
paper documents.
c. Further, manual controls may be independent of IT, may use information
produced by IT, or may be limited to monitoring the effective
functioning of IT and of automated controls.
d. Generally manual elements in internal control are less reliable than
automated elements because they can be more easily bypassed, ignored,
or overridden and they are also more prone to simple errors and
mistakes. Consistency of application of a manual control element cannot
therefore be assumed.
MATERIALITY AND AUDIT RISK

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1. MATERIALITY: The concept of materiality is applied by the auditor both in
planning and performing the audit, and in evaluating the effect of
identified misstatements on the audit and of uncorrected misstatements,
on the financial statements and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s
report.
2. AUDIT RISK: Audit risk is the risk that the auditor expresses an
inappropriate audit opinion when the financial statements are materially
misstated. Audit risk is a function of the risks of material misstatement
and detection risk.
3. CONSIDERATION OF BOTH: Materiality and audit risk are considered
throughout the audit, in particular, when:
a. Identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement.
b. Determining the nature, timing and extent of further audit
procedures and
c. Evaluating the effect of uncorrected misstatements, if any, on the
financial statements and in forming the opinion in the auditor’s
report.
DOCUMENTING THE RISK IDENTIFIED AND ASSESSED BY THE

AUDITOR
The auditor shall document:
1. The discussion among the engagement team and the significant decisions
reached;
2. Key elements of the understanding obtained regarding each of the aspects
of the entity and its environment.
3. The identified and assessed risks of material misstatement at the financial
statement level and at the assertion level and
4. The risks identified, and related controls about which the auditor has
obtained an understanding.
CONCEPT OF INTERNAL AUDIT
MEANING: An independent management function, which involves a continuous

and critical appraisal of the functioning of an entity with a view:
1. To suggest improvements thereto and
2. Add value to and strengthen the overall:
a. Governance mechanism of the entity,
b. Strategic risk management and
c. Internal control system.
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE: The objectives and scope of internal audit functions
typically include assurance and consulting activities designed to evaluate and 159
improve the effectiveness of the entity’s governance processes, risk
management and internal control such as the following:
1. ACTIVITIES RELATING TO GOVERNANCE: The internal audit function may

assess the governance process in its accomplishment of objectives on
ethics and values, performance management and accountability.
2. ACTIVITIES RELATING TO RISK MANAGEMENT: The internal audit function

may assist the entity by identifying and evaluating significant exposures
to risk and contributing to the improvement of risk management and
internal control.
3. ACTIVITIES RELATING TO INTERNAL CONTROL:

a. Evaluation of internal control: The internal audit function may be
assigned specific responsibility for reviewing controls, evaluating
their operation and recommending improvements thereto.
b. Examination of financial and operating information: The internal
audit function may be assigned to review the means used to
identify, recognize, measure, classify and report financial and
operating information.
c. Review of operating activities: The internal audit function may be
assigned to review the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of
operating activities, including nonfinancial activities of an entity.
d. Review of compliance with laws and regulations: The internal audit
function may be assigned to review compliance with laws,
regulations and other external requirements, and with
management policies and directives and other internal
requirements.
INTERNAL FINANCIAL CONTROLS WITH REFERENE TO

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND THEIR REPORTING
REQUIREMENTS
OBJECTIVE AND PURPOSE OF INTERNAL FINANCIAL CONTROLS:
Internal financial controls are the policies and procedures adopted by the
company for ensuring the orderly and efficient conduct of its business,
including adherence to company’s policies,
1. The safeguarding of its assets.
2. The prevention and detection of frauds and errors.
3. The accuracy and completeness of the accounting records.
4. The timely preparation of reliable financial information.
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5. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
AUDITORS’ RESPONSIBILITY: SEC. 143(3)(I):
1. The auditor shall express an opinion on effectiveness of internal financial

controls with reference to financial statements.
2. It may be noted that auditor’s reporting on internal financial controls is a
requirement specified in the Act and, therefore, will apply only in case of
reporting on financial statements prepared under the Act and reported
under Section 143.
3. Further this reporting responsibility is applicable only in respect of Audit of
Annual financial statements and not applicable for Interim or Quarterly
IFC VS IFC WITH REFERENCE TO FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
INTERNAL FINANCIAL CONTROL: As per Sec. 134(5)(e) of companies act, 2013,

internal financial controls means, the policies and procedures adopted by the
company for ensuring the orderly and efficient conduct of its business,
including adherence to company’s policies, the safeguarding of its assets, the
prevention and detection of frauds and errors, the accuracy and completeness
of the accounting records, and the timely preparation of reliable financial
information.
INTERNAL FINANCIAL CONTROLS WITH REFERENCE TO FINANCIAL STATEMENTS:

In this case the auditor has to express opinion on operating effectiveness of
internal financial control with reference to financial statements. This opinion
is in addition to the opinion expressed on financial statements of the entity.
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9. AUDIT SAMPLING
SAMPLE DESIGN
SAMPLE SIZE
SAMPLE SELECTION METHOD
AUDIT PROCEDURES
NATURE AND CAUSE OF DEVIATION AND

MISSTATEMENT
PROJECTING MISTATEMENTS
EVALUATING RESULTS OF AUDIT SAMPLING
INTRODUCTION TO AUDIT SAMPLING
1. The internal controls as designed by the management are for the very
purpose of Prevention, Detection and Correction of Frauds and Errors. Thus,
the auditors often find extensive routine checking as nothing more than a
ritual because it rarely reveals anything material. By routine checking we
traditionally think of extensive checking and vouching of all the entries,
disregarding the concept of materiality.
2. Now the approach to audit and the extent of checking are undergoing a
progressive change in favour of more attention towards the questions of
principles and controls with a curtailment of irrelevant routine checking.
AUDIT SAMPLING AND OBJECTIVES OF AUDITOR
A. DEFINITION AS PER SA530:

According to SA 530 – Audit Sampling, Audit sampling refers to the
application of audit procedures to less than 100% of items within a
population based on which the auditor draws conclusions about the
population.
B. OBJECTIVE OF AUDITOR UNDER SA- 530:
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The objective of the auditor when using audit sampling is to provide a
reasonable basis to draw conclusions about the population from which the
sample is selected.
C. APPLICABILITY:
1. SA 530 becomes applicable when the auditor has decided to use audit
sampling in performing audit procedures. This standard deals with the
auditor’s use of:
a. Statistical and
b. Non-statistical sampling
2. When designing and selecting the
a. Audit sample and
b. Performing tests of controls and tests of details, and evaluating the
results from the sample.
POPULATION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
Population refers to the entire set of data from which a sample is selected and
the auditor wishes to draw conclusions on such population. The auditor should
select sample items which can be expected to be representative of the
population.
1. APPROPRIATENESS:
a. The auditor will need to determine that the population from which the
sample is drawn is appropriate.
b. Appropriate means population from which the samples are drawn shall be
relevant for the specific objective under audit as projections on
population is made based on sample.
c. Remember audit procedures are applied on sample based on which
conclusions are arrived on population.
d. Example: If the auditor’s objective were to test for overstatement of
accounts receivable, the population could be defined as the accounts
receivable listing.
2. COMPLETENESS: The population also needs to be complete, which means

that if the auditor intends to use the sample to draw conclusions about
whether a control activity is operated effectively during the financial
reporting period, the population needs to include all relevant items to be
considered arrive conclusions .
3. RELIABLE: When performing the audit sampling, the auditor should obtain
evidence about the reliability of population. If population is not reliable
with respect to accuracy and source, the sample drawn will definitely not
be relevant for the specific audit objective. 163
SAMPLING UNIT, APPROACH TO SAMPLING & REPRESENTATIVE
SAMPLE
A. SAMPLING UNIT:
1. The individual items that make up the population are known as sampling
units. The population can be divided into sampling units in a variety of
ways. It is a selection from the population that is used as an
extrapolation of the population.
2. Audit procedures are applied on these units and the conclusions drawn
from them are projected on the population.
3. In simple words, conclusions drawn on the sample becomes the
conclusion of the population from where it is drawn.
4. Example: If the auditor’s objective were to test the validity of accounts
receivables, the sampling unit could be defined as customer balances or
individual customer invoices. The auditor defines the sampling unit in
order to obtain an efficient and effective sample to achieve the
particular audit objectives.
B. APPROACH TO SAMPLING:
1. Audit sampling enables the auditor to obtain and evaluate audit evidence
about some characteristic of the items selected in order to form or
assist in forming a conclusion about the population, from which the
sample is drawn. Audit sampling can be applied using either
a. Non-statistical or
b. Statistical sampling approaches.
2. The decision whether to use a statistical or non-statistical sampling

approach is a matter for the auditor’s judgement. However, sample size
is not a valid criterion to distinguish between statistical and non-
statistical approaches.
STATISTICAL SAMPLING:
1. Statistical sampling is an approach to sampling that has
a. The random selection of the sample units and
b. The use of probability theory to evaluate sample results including
c. Measurement of sampling risk characteristics.
2. Sample is chosen by applying certain mathematical and statistical
methods.
NON - STATISTICAL SAMPLING: A sampling approach that does not have the
above features considered as non-statistical sampling.
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C. REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE:
1. Whatever may be the approach non-statistical or statistical sampling,
the sample must be representative. This means that it must be closely
similar to the whole population although not necessarily exactly the
same. The sample must be large enough to provide statistically
meaningful results.
2. Sampling Process is performed on:
a. Test of controls to identify deviations from expected internal
controls
b. Test of details to identify misstatements of account balances and
class of transactions
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATISTICAL SAMPLING AND NON-

STATISTICAL SAMPLING
A. STATISTICAL SAMPLING- MORE SCIENTIFIC:

1. USE OF PROBABILITY: Audit testing done through this approach is more
scientific than testing based entirely on the auditor’s own judgment
because it involves use of mathematical laws of probability in
determining the appropriate sample size in varying circumstances.
2. LARGE NUMBER: Statistical sampling has reasonably wide application
where a population to be tested consists of a large number of similar
items and more in the case of transactions involving compliance
testing, trade receivables’ confirmation, payroll checking, vouching of
invoices and petty cash vouchers.
3. NO PERSONAL BIAS: There Is no personal bias of the auditor in case of
statistical sampling.
4. SCIENTIFIC EVALUATION: Since it is scientific, the results of sample can
be evaluated and projected on the whole population in a more reliable
manner.
5. In larger organisations, with huge transactions, statistical sampling is
always recommended as it is unbiased and the samples selected are not
prejudged.
B. NON-STATISTICAL SAMPLING:
1. PERSONAL BIAS: Under this approach, the sample size and its
composition are determined on the basis of the personal experience and
knowledge of the auditor. The expected degree of objectivity cannot be
assured in non-statistical sampling because the risk of personal bias in
selection of sample items cannot be eliminated.
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2. CHECKING AT YEAREND: It is a common practice to check large number
of items towards the close of the year so that the adequacy of cut-off
procedures can also be determined. Also, because yearend transaction is
prone to high risk of misappropriation.
3. NOT SCIENTIFIC: The non-statistical sampling is criticized on the grounds
that it is neither objective nor scientific.
4. CANNOT BE MEASURED: The closeness of the qualities projected by the
sample results with that of the whole population cannot be measured
because the sample has not been selected in accordance with the
mathematically based statistical techniques.
5. NOT REPRESENTATIVE: This method is simple to operate but sometimes
the sample may not be a true representative of the total population
because of personal bias and no scientific method of selection.
SAMPLING VS TRADITIONAL METHODS OF CHECKING
1. In most of the circumstances, the evidence available is not conclusive and

the auditor always takes a calculated risk in giving his opinion. Even by
undertaking 100% checking of the transactions, the auditor does not
derive absolute satisfaction.
2. Auditors can derive good satisfaction by undertaking a much lesser checking

by adoption of sampling technique in the auditing process.
3. It is a mathematical truth that the sample, if picked purely on a random

basis would reveal the features and characteristics of the population. By
adopting the sampling technique, the auditor only checks a part of the
whole mass of transactions.
4. The satisfaction he used to derive earlier, by checking all the transactions,

can be derived by a sample checking provided he can put reliance on the
internal controls and checks within the client’s organisation because they
provide the reliability of the records.
5. TEST OF CONTROLS: Sampling is used as a part of Test of controls. Auditor

will check few internal controls and their operating effectiveness. Based on
the conclusion derived, he can then design the sample size for test of details
a. If the internal control is satisfactory in its design and
implementation, a much smaller sample can give the auditor the
necessary reliability of the result he obtains.
b. On the other hand, if in certain areas controls are slack or not
properly implemented, the auditor may have to take a much larger
sample for getting satisfactory result.
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6. PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT: Another truth about the sampling technique
should be noted. It can never bring complete reliability; it cannot give
precisely accurate results. It is a process of estimation. It may have some
error. What error is tolerable for a particular matter under examination is
a matter of the individual’s judgment in that particular case.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED TO DECIDE ON EXTENT OF

CHECKING ON SAMPLING PLAN
The factors that should be considered for deciding upon the extent of
checking on a sampling plan are following:
1. Size of the organisation under audit.
2. State of the internal control.
3. Adequacy and reliability of books and records.
4. Tolerable error range.
5. Degree of the desired confidence.
ADVANTANGES OF STATISTICAL SAMPLING
1. In statistical sampling, the sample results are measurable as to the

adequacy and reliability of the audit objectives whereas in non-statistical
sampling the auditor’s opinion determines the sample size but it cannot
be measured how far the sample size would fulfil the audit objective.
2. ADVANTAGES: The advantages of statistical sampling may be summarized

as follows:
a. The amount of testing (sample size) does not increase in proportion to
the increase in the size of the area (universe) tested.
b. The sample selection is more objective and thereby more defensible.
c. The method provides a means of estimating the minimum sample size
associated with a specified risk and precision.
d. It provides a means for deriving a “calculated risk” and corresponding
precision (sampling error) i.e., the probable difference in result due to
the use of a sample in lieu of examining all the records in the group
(universe), using the same audit procedures.
e. It may provide a better description of a large mass of data than a
complete examination of all the data, since non-sampling errors
such as processing and clerical mistakes are not as large.
f. It is widely accepted way of sampling as it is more scientific, without
personal bias and the result of sample can be evaluated and
projected in more reliable way.
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3. CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE STATISTICAL SAMPLING IS NOT SUITABLE: Under
some audit circumstances, statistical sampling methods may not be
appropriate. The auditor should not attempt to use statistical sampling
when another approach is either necessary or will provide satisfactory
information in less time or with less effort.
a. For instance, when exact accuracy is required or in case of legal
requirements etc.
b. Sometimes the audit staff has no knowledge about sampling
technique used, in such circumstances using statistical sampling
becomes complex and inappropriate.
REQUIREMENTS AS TO SAMPLE DESIGN, SAMPLE SIZE AND

SAMPLE SELECTION
The Requirement relating to sample design, sample size and sample selection
are as below:
1. SAMPLE DESIGN: The auditor shall consider the purpose of audit procedure
and characteristics of population from which the sample will be drawn.
2. SAMPLE SIZE: The auditor shall determine the sample size that is sufficient
to reduce sampling risk to an acceptable low level.
3. SAMPLE SELECTION: The selection of sample shall be in such a way that
each item of population will have a chance of selection.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR SAMPLE DESIGN
When designing an audit sample,

1. The auditor’s consideration includes the specific purpose to be achieved and
the combination of audit procedures that is likely to best achieve that
purpose.
2. Consideration of the nature of the audit evidence sought and possible
deviation or misstatement conditions or other characteristics relating to
that audit evidence will assist the auditor in defining what constitutes a
deviation or misstatement and what population to use for sampling.
3. The auditor’s consideration of the purpose of the audit procedure includes
a clear understanding of what constitutes a deviation or misstatement so
that all, and only, those conditions that are relevant to the purpose of
the audit procedure are included in the evaluation of deviations or
projection of misstatements.
4. In considering the characteristics of a population, for tests of controls,
the auditor makes an assessment of the expected rate of deviation based on
the auditor’s understanding of the relevant controls or on the examination 168
of a small number of items from the population. This assessment is made
in order to design an audit sample and to determine sample size.
Example: If the expected rate of deviation is unacceptably high, the
auditor will normally decide not to perform tests of controls.
5. Similarly, for tests of details, the auditor makes an assessment of the
expected misstatement in the population. If the expected misstatement is
high, 100% examination or use of a large sample size may be appropriate
when performing tests of details.
STRATIFICATION AND VALUE WEIGHTED SELECTION
In considering the characteristics of the population from which the sample

will be drawn, the auditor may determine that stratification or value-
weighted selection is appropriate
A. STRATIFICATION: Dividing a population into discrete sub population which

have identifying characteristics is called as Stratification. Each Sub
population is called as Stratum and units under those sub population are
referred to as Strata.
1. Audit efficiency may be improved if the auditor stratifies a population by

dividing it into sub-populations which have an identifying
characteristic.
2. The objective of stratification is to select sample from all parts of
population having different characteristics.
3. When performing tests of details, the population is often stratified
based on monetary value.
4. The results of audit procedures applied to a sample of items within a
stratum can only be projected to the items that make up that stratum.
5. The results of samples from the units drawn under each sub population
are projected to that respective stratum. In order to draw an opinion on
the overall population, the auditor needs to combine the results of all
the stratum to check for possible deviation or risk of material
misstatement.
6. Projected misstatements of each stratum will be combined together to
consider the possible effect of misstatement in the account balances
and class of transactions.
B. VALUE-WEIGHTED SELECTION: In value weighted selection, the sample size,

its selection and evaluation will result in a conclusion in monetary amounts.
169
1. When performing tests of details, it may be useful to identify the
sampling unit as the individual monetary units.
2. The auditor will be more focused towards larger value items (higher
chances of selection) and can results in smaller sample size.
3. This approach may be used in combination with the systematic method
of sample and is most efficient when selecting items using random
selection.
SAMPLE SIZE AND WHAT ARE THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT

SAMPLE SIZE
1. The auditor shall determine a sample size sufficient to reduce sampling risk
to an acceptably low level.
2. The level of sampling risk that the auditor is willing to accept affects the
sample size required.
3. The lower the risk the auditor is willing to accept, the greater the sample
size will need to be.
4. The sample size can be determined by the application of a statistically-based
formula or through the exercise of professional judgment.
5. There are various factors typically have on the determination of sample size.
When circumstances are similar, the effect on sample size of factors will
be similar regardless of whether a statistical or non- statistical approach
is chosen.
A. EXAMPLES OF FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLE SIZE FOR TESTS OF CONTROLS:

The following are factors that the auditor may consider when
determining the sample size for tests of controls. These factors, which
need to be considered together:
1. When there is an increase in the extent to which the auditor’s risk
assessment takes into account relevant controls.
2. The more assurance the auditor intends to obtain from the operating
effectiveness of controls and the larger the sample size will need to be.
3. When the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatement at
the assertion level includes an expectation of the operating effectiveness
of controls, the auditor is required to perform tests of controls.
4. The greater the reliance the auditor places on the operating effectiveness
of controls in the risk assessment, the greater is the extent of the
auditor’s tests of controls. Thus, sample size will increase.
5. If there is an increase in the tolerable rate of deviation. Then sample size
will decrease, as lower the tolerable rate of deviation, larger the
sample size needs to be. Tolerable error is the maximum error in the
170
population that auditor is ready to accept in a given sample size. Smaller
the tolerable error, larger will be the sample size.
6. When there is an increase in the expected rate of deviation of the
population to be tested then sample size will increase, as higher the
expected rate of deviation, larger the sample size needs to be so that
the auditor is in a position to make a reasonable estimate of the
actual rate of deviation.
7. Factors relevant to the auditor’s consideration of the expected rate of
deviation include:
a. The auditor’s understanding of the business (in particular, risk
assessment procedures undertaken to obtain an understanding of
internal control).
b. Changes in personnel or in internal control.
c. The results of audit procedures applied in prior periods and the
results of other audit procedures.
8. An increase in the auditor’s desired level of assurance that the
tolerable rate of deviation is not exceeded by the actual rate of deviation
in the population will increase the sample size. Thus, the greater the
level of assurance that the auditor desires that the results of the
sample are in fact indicative of the actual incidence of deviation in the
population, the larger the sample size needs to be.
9. In case of large populations, the actual size of the population has little,
effect on sample size. For small populations however, audit sampling may
not be as efficient as alternative means of obtaining sufficient
appropriate audit evidence. Therefore, there will be negligible effect on
sample size due to increase in the number of sampling units in the
population.
B. EXAMPLES OF FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLE SIZE FOR TESTS OF DETAILS:

The following are factors that the auditor may consider when
determining the sample size for tests of details. These factors, which need
to be considered together.
1. The higher the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material
misstatement, the larger the sample size needs to be.
2. The more the auditor is relying on other substantive procedures (tests of
details or substantive analytical procedures) to reduce to an
acceptable level the detection risk regarding a particular population,
the less assurance the auditor will require from sampling and, therefore,
the smaller the sample size can be. Hence, if there is an increase in the
use of other substantive procedures directed at the same assertion, the
size of sample will decrease.
171
3. An increase in the auditor’s desired level of assurance that tolerable
misstatement is not exceeded by actual misstatement in the
population will increase the sample size.
4. An increase in tolerable misstatement will decrease the sample size as
lower the tolerable misstatement, the larger the sample size needs to
be.
5. The greater the amount of misstatement the auditor expects to find in
the population, the larger the sample size needs to be in order to make a
reasonable estimate of the actual amount of misstatement in the
population.
Factors relevant to the auditor’s consideration of the expected
misstatement amount include:
a. The extent, to which item values are determined subjectively,
b. The results of risk assessment procedures,
c. The results of tests of control,
d. The results of audit procedures applied in prior periods, and the
results of other substantive procedures.
So, sample size will increase in case of an increase in the amount of
misstatement the auditor expects to find in the population.
6. When stratification of the population is appropriate then sample size will
decrease as when there is a wide range (variability) in the monetary
size of items in the population, it may be useful to stratify the
population.
7. There will be negligible effect on sample size due to number of sampling
units in the population. For large populations, the actual size of the
population has little, effect on sample size. Thus, for small populations,
audit sampling is often not as efficient as alternative means of obtaining
sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
TOLERABLE MISSTATEMENT: A monetary amount set by the auditor in respect

of which the auditor seeks to obtain an appropriate level of assurance that the
monetary amount set by the auditor is not exceeded by the actual
misstatement in the population.
TOLERABLE RATE OF DEVIATION: A rate of deviation from prescribed internal

control procedures set by the auditor in respect of which the auditor seeks to
obtain an appropriate level of assurance that the rate of deviation set by the
auditor is not exceeded by the actual rate of deviation in the population.
SAMPLE SELECTION AND METHODS OF TESTING UNDER

SAMPLING
172
The auditor shall select items for the sample in such a way that each
sampling unit in the population has a chance of selection. This can be achieved
with statistical sampling. Because the purpose of sampling is to provide a
reasonable basis for the auditor to draw conclusions about the population
from which the sample is selected, it is important that the auditor selects a
representative sample, so that bias is avoided, by choosing sample items
which have characteristics typical of the population.
Selection Methods
Random Systematic Monetary unit

Haphazard Sampling Block Sampling
Sampling Sampling Sampling
A. SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING:

1. Under this method each unit of the whole population, e.g. purchase or
sales invoice, has an equal chance of being selected
2. Random number tables are simple and easy to use and also provide
assurance that the bias does not affect the selection.
3. This method is considered appropriate where the population has a
reasonably similar units and in a reasonable range.
B. STRATIFIED SAMPLING: Stratification means dividing heterogeneous

(Diversified) population into Homogeneous (having similar characteristics)
sub population, where samples are drawn from each sub population.
1. This method involves dividing the whole population to be tested in a few
separate groups called strata.
2. Each stratum is treated as if it was a separate population and items are
selected from each of these stratums.
3. The number of groups into which the whole population has to be divided
is determined on the basis of auditor judgment.
Example: Trade receivables balances may be divided into four groups as

follows:
a. Balances in excess of Rs.10,00,000;
b. Balances in the range of Rs. 5, 50,001 to Rs. 10,00,000;
c. Balances in the range of Rs. 2,25,001 to Rs. 5,50,000; and
d. Balances Rs. 2,25,000 and below. 173
From these above groups the auditor may pick up different
percentage of items from each of the group.
e. From the top group i.e., balances in excess of Rs 10,00,000, the
auditor may examine all the items.
f. From the second group - 25 per cent of the items; from the third
group - 10 per cent of the items and
g. From the lowest group - 2 per cent of the items may be selected.
C. INTERVAL SAMPLING OR SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING:

1. Systematic selection is a selection method in which the number of
sampling units in the population is divided by the sample size to give a
sampling interval.
2. Although the starting point may be determined haphazardly, the
sample is more likely to be truly random if it is determined by use of a
computerized random number generator or random number tables.
3. When using systematic selection, the auditor would need to determine
that sampling units within the population are not structured in such a
way that the sampling interval corresponds with a particular pattern in
the population.
Therefore, systematic sampling when chosen as a method should be carefully
applied to bring together every type of transaction within its purview.
More than one starting point can be considered to minimize such risk.
D. MONETARY UNIT SAMPLING: It is a type of value-weighted selection in

which sample size, selection and evaluation of results are in monetary
amounts.
E. HAPHAZARD SAMPLING: Haphazard sampling has no structured approach,

does not involve judgement and does not even use the random number
tables.
1. In this method the auditor selects the sample without following a
structured technique.
2. Even though no structured technique is used, the auditor would on the
other hand avoid any conscious bias or predictability.
3. This method is not superior when compared with other statistical
sampling methods.
4. In this method also all the sampling units in the population have a
chance of selection.
F. BLOCK SAMPLING:
1. This method involves selection of a block(s) of contiguous Adjacent items
from within the population. Block selection cannot ordinarily be used in 174
audit sampling because most populations are structured such that items
in a sequence can be expected to have similar characteristics to each
other, but different characteristics from items elsewhere in the
population.
2. Although in some circumstances it may be an appropriate audit
procedure to examine a block of items, it would rarely be an appropriate
sample selection technique when the auditor intends to draw valid
inferences about the entire population based on the sample.
3. Usually, a range of continuous transaction shall have similar
characteristics, therefore, selection of a group at one time will not give a
reasonable basis for opinion on the overall population as different types
of transactions and unusual transactions may not be covered in the
group taken all at once.
4. Further, if the client has the idea of the block selection pattern of the
auditor, then material misstatements and deviations can be easily
overlooked by management’s practice of recording them.
5. There is a close similarity between this method and non-statistical
sampling. Consequently, it has similar characteristics, namely,
simplicity and economy. On the other hand, there is a risk of bias and of
establishing a pattern of selection which may be noted by the auditees.
SAMPLING RISK
A. MEANING:
1. The risk that the auditor’s conclusion based on a sample may be different
from the conclusion if the entire population were subjected to the same
audit procedure.
2. In other words, the risk of selecting an inappropriate sample is also
known as sampling risk.
3. The following are the consequences or erroneous conclusions due to
sampling risk:
B. TEST OF CONTROLS:
1. RISK OF OVER RELIANCE: Treating that the controls are more effective
than they actually are. The auditor is primarily concerned with this type
of erroneous conclusion because it affects audit effectiveness and is
more likely to lead to an inappropriate audit opinion.
2. RISK OF UNDER RELIANCE: Treating that the controls are less effective
than they actually are. This type of erroneous conclusion affects audit
efficiency as it would usually lead to additional work to establish that
initial conclusions were incorrect. 175
C. TEST OF DETAILS:
1. RISK OF INCORRECT ACCEPTANCE: Treating that a material misstatement
does not exist when in fact it exist in the population. This type of risk
leads to audit risk.
2. RISK OF INCORRECT REJECTION: Treating that a material misstatement
exists when in fact it does not exist in the population. This may not
affect the audit risk.
NON-SAMPLING RISK
1. Non-Sampling Risk is the risk that the auditor reaches an erroneous

conclusion for any reason other than sampling risk. Non sampling risk can
never be mathematically measured.
2. Following are the examples of non-sampling risk:
a. Use of inappropriate audit procedures.
b. Misinterpretation of audit evidence.
3. Following are the sources of non-Sampling risk:
a. Human Mistakes.
b. Misinterpreting the sample results.
c. Relying on erroneous information e.g., erroneous confirmation.
AUDIT PROCEDURES ON SELECTED SAMPLES
1. The auditor shall perform audit procedures, appropriate to the purpose, on

each item selected.
2. If the audit procedure is not applicable to the selected item, the auditor
shall perform the procedure on a replacement item.
3. If replacement is not possible or reasonable, alternative audit procedure can
be applied.
4. If the auditor is unable to apply the designed audit procedures, or suitable
alternative procedures, to a selected item, the auditor shall treat that
item as a deviation from:
a. The prescribed control, in the case of tests of controls, or
b. A misstatement, in the case of tests of details.
NATURE AND CAUSE OF DEVIATIONS AND MISSTATEMENTS
1. In analysing the deviations and misstatements identified, the auditor may

observe that many have a common feature, for example, type of
transaction, location, product line or period of time.
176
2. In such circumstances, the auditor may decide to identify all items in the
population that possess the common feature, and extend audit procedures
to those items. In addition, such deviations or misstatements may be
intentional, and may indicate the possibility of fraud.
3. Therefore, the auditor shall investigate the nature and causes of any
deviations or misstatements identified, and evaluate their possible effect on
the purpose of the audit procedure and on other areas of the audit.
4. In the extremely rare circumstances when the auditor considers a
misstatement or deviation discovered in a sample to be an anomaly, the
auditor shall obtain a high degree of certainty that such misstatement or
deviation is not representative of the population.
5. The auditor shall obtain this degree of certainty by performing additional
audit procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the
misstatement or deviation does not affect the remainder of the
population.
PROJECTION OF MISSTATEMENTS
1. The auditor is required to project misstatements for the population to

obtain a broad view of the scale of misstatement but this projection may
not be sufficient to determine an amount to be recorded.
2. TREATMENT OF ANOMALY: When a misstatement has been established as an
anomaly, it may be excluded when projecting misstatements to the
population. However, the effect of any such misstatement, if uncorrected,
still needs to be considered in addition to the projection of the non-
anomalous misstatements.
3. TOD – EXTRAPOLATION: For tests of details, the auditor shall project
misstatements found in the sample to the population.
4. FOR TOC – NO PROJECTION: For tests of controls, no explicit projection of
deviations is necessary since the sample deviation rate is also the projected
deviation rate for the population as a whole.
EVALUATION OF SAMPLE RESULTS
The auditor shall evaluate the results of the sample and assess whether the
use of audit sampling has provided a reasonable basis for conclusions about
the population that has been tested.
1. In case of Test of Controls an unexpectedly high sample deviation rate may
lead to an increase in the assessed risk of material misstatement.
177
2. An unexpectedly high misstatement amount in a sample may cause the
auditor to believe that a class of transactions or account balance is
materially misstated.
3. The best way to evaluate the result of sample by auditor is to consider
projected misstatement and anomalous misstatement.
4. When the projected misstatement plus anomalous misstatement exceeds
tolerable misstatement, the sample does not provide a reasonable basis for
conclusions about the population that has been tested.
5. The closer the projected misstatement plus anomalous misstatement is to
tolerable misstatement, the more likely that actual misstatement in the
population may exceed tolerable misstatement.
6. If the projected misstatement is greater than the auditor’s expectations of
misstatement used to determine the sample size, the auditor may
conclude that there is an unacceptable sampling risk that the actual
misstatement in the population exceeds the tolerable misstatement.
CONCLUSION:
If the auditor concludes that audit sampling has not provided a reasonable
basis for conclusions about the population that has been tested:
1. The auditor may request Management to investigate misstatements that
have been identified or
2. Conduct additional audit procedures.
3. For example, the auditor might extend the sample size, test an alternative
control or modify related substantive procedures.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE APPLYING TEST CHECKING
Precautions to be taken while applying test check techniques are

1. Thorough study of accounting system should be done before adopting
sampling.
2. Proper study of internal control systems.
3. Areas which are not suitable for sampling should be carefully considered.
E.g., compliance with statutory provisions, transactions of unusual
nature etc.
4. Proper planning for Sampling methods to be used and explaining the staff,
5. Transactions and balances have to be properly classified (stratified)
6. Sample size should be appropriately determined.
7. Sample should be chosen in unbiased way,
8. Errors located in the sample should be analysed properly.
178
10. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
MEANING AND OBJECTIVE OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
A. MEANING OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES:
1. As per the Standard on Auditing (SA) 520 “Analytical Procedures”, the

term “analytical procedures” means evaluations of financial information
through analysis of plausible relationships among both financial and
non-financial data.
2. Analytical procedures also encompass such investigation as is necessary
of identified fluctuations or relationships that are inconsistent with other
relevant information or that differ from expected values by a
significant amount.
B. OBJECTIVES:
1. To obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence when using substantive
analytical procedures; and
2. To design and perform analytical procedures near the end of the audit
that assist the auditor when forming an overall conclusion as to
whether the financial statements are consistent with the auditor’s
understanding of the entity.
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES HAVING CONSIDERATION OF

COMPARISONS OF THE ENTITY’S FINANCIAL INFORMATION
Examples of Analytical Procedures having consideration of comparisons of the
entity’s financial information are:
1. Comparable information for prior periods.
Example:
CA Brijesh, while verifying the travelling expenses of PRT Ltd., may compare the
travelling expenses of current year amounting to Rs. 2.50 lakhs with previous
year travelling expense of PRT Ltd. amounting to Rs. 2 lakhs and infer that there
has been an increase of 25% in the travelling expense incurred by the company.
CA Brijesh may compare such percentage increase with the trend of the earlier
several years.
Thus, CA Brijesh, can use comparable information for prior periods of PRT Ltd.
while applying analytical procedure with respect to the expenses incurred by the
company.
2. Anticipated results of the entity, such as budgets or forecasts, or

expectations of the auditor, such as an estimation of depreciation.
179
3. Similar industry information, such as a comparison of the entity’s ratio of
sales to accounts receivable with industry averages or with other entities
of comparable size in the same industry.
Examples of Analytical Procedures having consideration of relationships are:
1. Among elements of financial information that would be expected to

conform to a predictable pattern based on the entity’s experience, such as
gross margin percentages.
2. Between financial information and relevant non-financial information,
such as payroll costs to number of employees.
3. These methods range from performing simple comparisons to performing
complex analyses using advanced statistical techniques.
4. Analytical procedures may be applied to consolidated financial
statements, components and individual elements of information.
Thus, we can say that Analytical Procedures may be segregated into the
following major types:
1. As comparison of client and industry data,

2. Comparison of client data with similar prior period data,
3. Comparison of client data with client-determined expected results,
4. Comparison of client data with auditor-determined expected results and
5. Comparison of client data with expected results, using non-financial data.
PURPOSE OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

1. Analytical procedures use comparisons and relationships to assess whether
account balances or other data appear reasonable. These are helpful in the
detection of unusual state of affairs and mistakes in accounts.
2. It is important to note that Analytical procedures may help identify the
existence of unusual transactions or events, and amounts, ratios, and
trends that might indicate matters that have audit implications. Unusual
or unexpected relationships that are identified may assist the auditor in
identifying risks of material misstatement, especially risks of material
misstatement due to fraud.
3. For instance:
a. Establishing the relationship that exists between certain balances
included in the Balance Sheet and the Statement of Profit and Loss and
comparing them with those that existed between the same set of
balances in the previous year,
b. Reconciling the physical balances of assets with the relevant financial
record.
180
c. Obtaining of account from the bankers, account receivables and
account payables and reconciling with relevant balances in books of
account.
d. Confirming amounts of outstanding income and expenses by preparing
reconciliation statements, etc.
EXAMPLES:
1. On verifying the balances of sundry account receivables by obtaining the
confirmation of their statements of account, it will be possible for the
auditor to find out whether the discrepancy in the balance of an account
receivable is due to the failure to debit his account with the cost of goods
supplied to him or is the result of non-adjustment of a remittance received
from him.
2. By reconciling the amounts of interest and dividends collected with the
amounts which had accrued due and that which are outstanding for
payment, the mistake, in the adjustment of such an income would be
detected.
TIMING OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
Analytical Procedures are used in 3 stages:

1. Planning Phase
2. Testing Phase
3. Completion Phase
DURING PLANNING PHASE:

1. In the planning stage, analytical procedures help the auditor in
understanding the client’s business and in identifying areas of potential
risk by indicating aspects of and developments in the entity’s business of
which he is previously unaware.
2. This information will assist the auditor in determining the nature, timing
and extent of his other audit procedures.
3. Analytical procedures in planning the audit use both financial data and
non-financial information.
SUBSTANTIVE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES AND FACTORS TO BE

CONSIDERED TO CARRYOUT THE SAME
1. Substantive procedure includes Test of Details and Analytical Procedures.

Therefore, analytical procedures are one of the substantive audit
procedures. 181
2. When to use substantive analytical procedures: It is based on the auditor’s
judgment so as to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level.
3. The auditor may inquire of management as to the availability and reliability
of information needed to apply substantive analytical procedures, and also
inquire the results of any such analytical procedures performed by the
entity.
4. It may be effective to use analytical data prepared by management,
provided the auditor is satisfied that such data is properly prepared.
5. The auditor should consider the following factors for Substantive Audit
Procedures:
a. AVAILABILITY OF DATA: The availability of reliable and relevant data
will facilitate effective analytical procedures.
b. DISAGGREGATION: The degree of disaggregation in available data can
directly affect the degree of its usefulness in detecting
misstatements.
c. ACCOUNT TYPE: Substantive analytical procedures are more useful for
certain types of accounts than for others. Income statement accounts
tend to be more predictable because they reflect accumulated
transactions over a period, whereas balance sheet accounts represent
the net effect of transactions at a point in time or are subject to
greater management judgment.
Example: We can analyse data to understand the relationship to
another account and disaggregate the transactions flowing to and
from the balance sheet account (e.g., sales and cash receipts flowing
through trade receivables), or to compare ratios over time as this
enhances our ability to obtain audit evidence for balance sheet
accounts.
d. SOURCE: Some classes of transactions tend to be more predictable

because they consist of numerous, similar transactions, (e.g., through
routine processes). Whereas the transactions recorded by non-routine
and estimation SCOTs (Significant Classes of Transactions) are often
subject to management judgment and therefore more difficult to
predict.
Example: Expenditure on Research & Advertisement is not of routine
nature and are subject to management judgement and therefore
more difficult to predict.
e. PREDICTABILITY: Substantive analytical procedures are more

appropriate when an account balance or relationships between items
of data are predictable (e.g., between sales and cost of sales or
between trade receivables and cash receipts). A predictable 182
relationship is one that may reasonably be expected to exist and
continue over time.
f. NATURE OF ASSERTION: Substantive analytical procedures may be

more effective in providing evidence for some assertions (e.g.,
completeness or valuation) than for others (e.g., rights and
obligations).
g. INHERENT RISK OR “WHAT CAN GO WRONG”: When we are designing
audit procedures to address an inherent risk or “what can go wrong”,
we consider the nature of the risk of material misstatement in order to
determine if a substantive analytical procedure can be used to
obtain audit evidence. When inherent risk is higher, we may design
tests of details to address the higher inherent risk. When significant
risks have been identified, audit evidence obtained solely from
substantive analytical procedures is unlikely to be sufficient.
TECHINIQUES FOR SUBSTANTIVE ANALYTICALPROCEDURES
The design of a substantive analytical procedure is limited by the availability

of reliable data and the experience and creativity of the audit team.
Substantive analytical procedures generally take one of the following forms:
1. TREND ANALYSIS:
a. Trend analysis is a commonly used technique. It is the comparison of
current data with the prior period balance or with a trend in two or
more prior period balances.
b. The auditor evaluates whether the current balance of an account
moves in line with the trend established with previous balances for
that account, or based on an understanding of factors that may
cause the account to change.
c. In other words, trend analysis implies analysing account fluctuations
by comparing current year to prior year information and, also, to
information derived over several years.
2. RATIO ANALYSIS:
a. Ratio analysis is useful for analysing asset and liability accounts as
well as revenue and expense accounts. An individual balance sheet
account is difficult to predict on its own, but its relationship to
another account is often more predictable (e.g., the trade
receivables balance related to sales). Ratios can also be compared
over time or to the ratios of separate entities within the group, or
with the ratios of other companies in the same industry.
b. Example:
183
The statutory auditor can review the Gross profit ratio of the
company for the year under audit. The auditor can further compare
such GP ratio with the GP ratio of the company in the earlier years or
the GP ratio of the other companies in the same industry for the year
under audit.
3. REASONABLENESS TESTS:
Unlike trend analysis, this analytical procedure does not rely on events of
prior periods, but upon non-financial data for the audit period under
consideration (e.g., occupancy rates to estimate rental income or interest
rates to estimate interest income or expense). These tests are generally
more applicable to income statement accounts and certain accrual or
prepayment accounts. In other words, these tests are made by reviewing
the relationship of certain account balances to other balances for
reasonableness of amounts.
Example
a. Interest expense against interest bearing obligations
b. Raw Material Consumption to Production (quantity)
4. STRUCTURAL MODELLING:
A modelling tool constructs a statistical model from financial and/or non-
financial data of prior accounting periods to predict current account
balances (e.g., linear regression).
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES BE USED AS A SOLE SUBSTANTIVE

AUDIT PROCEDURES
When designing and performing substantive analytical procedures, either

alone or in combination with tests of details, as substantive procedures in
accordance with SA 330, the auditor shall:
1. Determine the suitability of particular substantive analytical procedures for
given assertions, taking account of the assessed risks of material
misstatement and tests of details, for these assertions.
2. Evaluate the reliability of data from which the auditor’s expectation of
recorded amounts or ratios is developed, taking account of source,
comparability, and nature and relevance of information available, and
controls over preparation.
3. Develop an expectation of recorded amounts or ratios and evaluate whether
the expectation is sufficiently precise to identify a misstatement that,
individually or when aggregated with other misstatements, may cause
the financial statements to be materially misstated and
184
4. Determine the amount of any difference of recorded amounts from expected
values that is acceptable without further investigation.
SUITABILITY OF PARTICULAR ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE FOR A

GIVEN ASSERTION
1. Substantive analytical procedures are generally more applicable to large

volumes of transactions that tend to be predictable over time.
2. The suitability of a particular analytical procedure will depend upon the
auditor’s assessment of how effective it will be in detecting a misstatement
that, individually or when aggregated with other misstatements, may
cause the financial statements to be materially misstated.
3. In some cases, even an unsophisticated predictive model may be effective as
an analytical procedure.
Example: If an entity has a known number of employees at fixed rates of
pay throughout the period, it may be possible for the auditor to use this
data to estimate the total payroll costs for the period with a high degree
of accuracy, thereby providing audit evidence for a significant item in the
financial statements and reducing the need to perform tests of details on
the payroll.
4. Different types of analytical procedures provide different levels of
assurance.
Example: Analytical procedures involving, the prediction of total rental
income on a building divided into apartments, taking the rental rates, the
number of apartments and vacancy rates into consideration, can provide
persuasive evidence and may eliminate the need for further verification by
means of tests of details, provided the elements are appropriately verified.
In contrast, calculation and comparison of gross margin percentages as a
means of confirming a revenue figure may provide less persuasive evidence,
but may provide useful corroboration if used in combination with other
audit procedures.
5. The determination of the suitability of particular substantive analytical
procedure is influenced by the nature of the assertion and the auditor’s
assessment of the risk of material misstatement.
Example: if controls over sales order processing are weak, the auditor may
place more reliance on tests of details rather than on substantive
analytical procedures for assertions related to receivables.
6. Particular substantive analytical procedures may also be considered

suitable when tests of details are performed on the same assertion.
185
Example: when obtaining audit evidence regarding the valuation assertion
for accounts receivable balances, the auditor may apply analytical
procedures to an aging of customers’ accounts in addition to performing
tests of details on subsequent cash receipts to determine the
collectability of the receivables.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED ON THE RELIABILITY OF DATA

FOR DESIGNING SUBSTANTIVE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
The reliability of data is influenced by its source and nature and is dependent
on the circumstances under which it is obtained. Accordingly, the following
are relevant when determining whether data is reliable for purposes of
designing substantive analytical procedures:
1. Source of the information available. For example, information may be more
reliable when it is obtained from independent sources outside the entity.
2. Comparability of the information available. For example, broad industry
data may need to be supplemented to be comparable to that of an entity
that produces and sells specialised products.
3. Nature and relevance of the information available. For example, whether
budgets have been established as results to be expected rather than as
goals to be achieved and
4. Controls over the preparation of the information that are designed to
ensure its completeness, accuracy and validity. For example, controls over
the preparation, review and maintenance of budgets.
a. The auditor may consider testing the operating effectiveness of
controls, over the entity’s preparation of information used by the
auditor in performing substantive analytical procedures in response to
assessed risks. When such controls are effective, the auditor
generally has greater confidence in the reliability of the information
and, therefore, in the results of analytical procedures.
b. The operating effectiveness of controls over non-financial
information may often be tested in conjunction with other tests of
controls.
MATTERS RELEVANT TO THE AUDITOR’S EVALUTION OF RISK OF

MATERIAL MISSTATEMENTS WHILE USING EXPECTATIONS
UNDER ANALYTIAL PROCEDURES
Matters relevant to auditor for evaluating whether the expectations
developed using analytical procedures may detect material misstatements
depends on the following factors:
186
1. The accuracy with which the expected results of substantive analytical
procedures can be predicted.
Example: The auditor may expect greater consistency in comparing gross
profit margins from one period to another than in comparing discretionary
expenses, such as research or advertising.
2. The degree to which information can be disaggregated.

Example: Substantive analytical procedures may be more effective when
applied to financial information on individual sections of an operation or to
financial statements of components of a diversified entity rather when
applied to the financial statements of the entity as a whole.
3. The availability of the information, both financial and non-financial which

depends upon reliability of underlying data.
INVESTIGATING RESULTS OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
If the auditor identifies fluctuations or relationships that are inconsistent

with expected values by significant amounts, then he shall investigate such
differences by:
1. INQUIRING OF MANAGEMENT: Requesting the management to provide
additional information regarding why there are such huge differences.
Further evaluate the response provided by management with audit evidence
obtained.
2. PERFORMING ADDITIONAL AUDIT PROCEDURES: If management is unable to
provide an appropriate explanation, then the auditor may perform additional
procedures to identify any material misstatements.
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES ASSISTS IN DRAWING OVERALL

CONCLUSIONS
1. The conclusions drawn from the results of analytical procedures designed

and performed in accordance with, are intended to corroborate conclusions
formed during the audit of individual components or elements of the
2. This assists the auditor to draw reasonable conclusions on which to base
the auditor’s opinion.
3. The results of such analytical procedures may identify a previously
unrecognised risk of material misstatement. In such circumstances, SA 315
requires the auditor to revise the auditor’s assessment of the risks of
187
material misstatement and modify the further planned audit procedures
accordingly.
CONSIDERATIONS SPECIFIC TO PUBLIC SECTOR ENTITIES

WHILE APPLYING ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES
1. The relationships between individual financial statements items

traditionally considered in the audit of business entities may not always be
relevant in the audit of governments or other non-business public sector
entities.
2. For example, in many public sector entities there may be little direct
relationship between revenue and expenditure.
3. In addition, because expenditure on the acquisition of assets may not be
capitalized, there may be no relationship between expenditures on, for
example, inventories and fixed assets and the amount of those assets
reported in the financial statements.
4. Industry data or statistics for comparative purposes may not be available in
the public sector. However, other relationships may be relevant, for
example, variations in the cost per kilometre of road construction or the
number of vehicles acquired compared with vehicles retired.
188
11. AUDIT STRATEGY, PLANNING AND
PROGRAMME
FACTORS THE AUDITORS WILL CONSIDER WHILE ESTABLISHING
THE OVERALL STRATEGY
1. Identify the characteristics of the engagement that define its scope. Ex:
Nature of business, number of locations to be audited and use of previous
audit workings.
2. Ascertain the reporting objectives of the engagement to plan the timing of
the audit and the nature of the communications required. Ex: Planning of
audit meetings and meetings with management on a timely basis.
3. Consider the results of preliminary engagement activities.
4. Whether knowledge gained on other engagements performed by the
engagement partner for the entity is relevant; and
5. Ascertain the nature, timing and extent of resources necessary to perform
the engagement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AUDIT ENGAGEMENT
The characteristics of audit engagements will include:

1. The expected audit coverage, including the number and locations of
components to be included.
2. The nature of the business segments to be audited, including the need for
specialized knowledge.
3. The expected use of audit evidence obtained in previous audits, for example,
audit evidence related to risk assessment procedures and tests of
controls.
4.
REPORTING OBJECTIVES OF THE ENGAGEMENT TEAM
The reporting objectives of engagement team in light of SA – 300, Includes:

1. The entity’s timetable for reporting, such as at interim and final stages.
2. The organization of meetings with management and those charged with
governance to discuss the nature, timing and extent of the audit work.
3. The discussion with management and those charged with governance
regarding the expected type and timing of reports to be issued and other
communications, both written and oral, including the auditor’s report,
management letters and communications to those charged with
governance.
189
4. The discussion with management regarding the expected communications
on the status of audit work throughout the engagement.
5.
BENEFITS OF OVERALL AUDIT STRATEGY
The auditor shall establish an overall audit strategy that sets the scope,
timing and direction of the audit that helps in development of the audit plan.
The process of establishing the overall audit strategy starts after completion
of risk assessment procedure.
ASSISTANCE TO AUDITOR BY OVERALL AUDIT STRATEGY:
1. How Allocation of man power to specified audit areas based on evaluation

of complexities involved in such areas.
2. The number of persons and time allotted for such specific audit areas.
3. Expected date of starting of such specified audit area and accordingly the
team members shall be allocated. and
4. Coordination, direction and supervision of resources namely team members
and time.
5. Audit team meetings expected to be held and periodicity of such meetings
to discuss and review the status of work performed by engagement team.
6. Location of these audit meetings to take place. For example, On-site:
Client premises and Off-site: Auditors premises.
ASPECTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE DEVELOPING AN AUDIT

PLAN
The auditor should plan his work to conduct the audit in an efficient and
effective manner and the following aspects shall be kept in mind while
developing the audit plan:
1. Knowledge of the client’s business is necessary before developing such plan.
2. Plans should be developed to cover the following aspects:
a. Knowledge of the client’s accounting systems, policies and internal
control procedures;
b. Determining extent of reliance of clients internal controls system;
c. Determining the nature, timing, and extent of the audit procedures
to be performed; and
d. Coordinating the work to be performed.
3. Plan should be continuously assessed and revised where necessary during
the course of the audit to ensure it is up to date.
190
AUDIT PLANNING IS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS
1. Planning is not a discrete (specific) phase of an audit, but rather a

continual and iterative (repetitive) process.
2. Planning begins after the completion of the previous audit and continues
until the completion of the current audit engagement.
3. Further the audit plan shall be reviewed periodically to ensure that it covers
new audit areas identified if any during the course of audit, making it up
to date.
PLANNING INCLUDES CONSIDERATION OF FOLLOWING MATTERS:
a. Understanding of the legal and regulatory framework applicable to the

entity and how the entity is complying with that framework.
b. The analytical procedures to be applied.
c. The determination of materiality as per SA 320.
d. The need of expert’s assistance.
e. The performance of other risk assessment procedures.
BENEFITS OF AUDIT PLANNING
Adequate planning benefits the audit of financial statements in several

ways, including the following:
1. Helping the auditor to Focus and attentive on important audit areas.
2. Helping the auditor identify and resolve potential problems on a timely
basis.
3. Helping the auditor properly organize and manage the audit engagement so
that it is performed in an effective and efficient manner.
4. Assisting in the selection of engagement team members with appropriate
levels of capabilities and competence.
5. Facilitating the direction and supervision of engagement team members
and the review of their work.
6. Assisting in coordination of work done by auditors of components and
experts.
AUDITOR’S RESPONSIBILITY IN PREPARATION OF AUDIT

STRATEGY AND AUDIT PLAN
Auditor is ultimately responsible for audit strategy and planning. While

developing the audit plan the auditor involves various persons:
A. INVOLVING OF ENTITIES PERSONNEL:

191
The auditor may discuss the audit plan with the entity’s management to
facilitate proper conduct of audit.
a. The auditor may take the help of client’s staff in certain audit areas.
So while developing the plan it is advisable to discuss the plan with
the client’s staff.
b. Recognize the fact that the discussion of detailed audit plan and
procedures with the client may make the audit ineffective as what
auditor is going to conduct becomes highly predictable.
c. The matters related to surprise checks shall not be included in the
discussion with client.
B. INVOLVING OF ENGAGEMENT TEAM MEMBERS:

a. The auditor shall involve the key engagement team members while
developing the overall audit strategy and plan.
b. This ensures allocation of audit areas based on capabilities and
experience of engagement team members thereby increasing the
audit effectiveness.
CONCLUSION: Although the auditors involve various persons as stated
above, it is the ultimate responsibility of auditor w.r.t. overall audit
strategy and audit plan.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OVERALL AUDIT STRATEGY AND

AUDIT PLAN
1. Once the overall audit strategy has been established, an audit plan can be
developed to address the various matters identified in the overall audit
strategy.
2. The audit plans take into account the audit objectives through the efficient
use of the auditor’s resources.
3. The establishment of the overall audit strategy and the detailed audit
plan are not necessarily separate processes but are closely inter-related.
4. If there is a change in audit strategy there will be a corresponding change
in audit plan.
DIRECTION, SUPERVISION AND REVIEW OF THE AUDIT BY THE

AUDITOR OR REVIEWER
A. INCLUSION IN PLANNING:
1. While developing overall audit strategy and audit plan, the auditor
shall also include periodical review of audit procedures performed by the
engagement team.
192
2. This ensures whether the engagement team members are complying with
relevant auditing standards and whether the audit is going on in a
planned manner.
3. This review may be carried out by the engagement partner or
independent reviewer who also belongs to the auditor’s firm.
B. FACTORS INFLUENCING EXTENT OF DIRECTION, SUPERVISION AND REVIEW:

1. The size and complexity of the entity.
2. The areas of the audit.
3. The assessed risks of material misstatement.
4. The capabilities and competence of the individual team members
performing the audit work.
Meaning of reviewer: Reviewer is another person from the same audit firm but
doesn’t belong to engagement team.
DOCUMENTATION OF OVERALL AUDIT STRATEGY AND AUDIT

PLAN
NEED FOR DOCUMENTATION:

1. It is a record of the key decisions regarding planning of the audit and to
communicate to the engagement team.
2. It also serves as evidence that the audit is properly planned and performed
in accordance with the standards on auditing.
3. The auditor may summarize the overall audit strategy in the form of a
memorandum (Also Known As Audit Programme Memorandum) which
may be in standard form or customized as per the client business nature.
THE AUDITOR SHALL DOCUMENT:

1. The overall audit strategy.
2. The audit plans.
3. Any significant changes to the overall audit strategy or the audit plan
along with the reasons for such changes.
4. A summary of discussions with the entity’s key persons.
5. Other communications or agreements with management or those charged
with governance w.r.t any other services.
AUDIT PROGRAMME AND ITS SUITABILITY FOR ALL CLIENTS
A. DEFINITION:
An audit programme consists of a series of verification procedures to be
applied to the financial statements and accounts of a given company for 193
the purpose of obtaining sufficient evidence to enable the auditor to express
an informed opinion on such statements. In other words, an audit
programme is a detailed plan of applying the audit procedures in the
given circumstances with instructions for the appropriate techniques to be
adopted for accomplishing the audit objectives.
B. EVOLVING ONE AUDIT PROGRAMME – NOT PRACTICABLE FOR ALL

BUSINESSES:
1. Businesses vary in nature, size and composition.
2. Work which is suitable to one business may not be suitable to others.
3. Efficiency and operation of internal controls and the exact nature of the
service to be rendered by the auditor are the other factors that vary
from assignment to assignment.
On account of such variations, evolving one audit programme applicable to

all business under all circumstances is not practicable.
PERIODIC REVIEW OF THE AUDIT PROGRAMME
1. There should be periodic review of the audit programme to assess

whether the same continues to be adequate for obtaining requisite
knowledge and evidence about the transactions.
2. The utility of the audit programme can be retained and enhanced only by
keeping the programme as also the client’s operations and internal control
under periodic review so that inadequacies or redundancies of the
programme may be removed.
3. Audit programme not only lists the tasks to be carried out but also contains
a few relevant instructions, like the extent of checking, the sampling plan,
etc.
4. So long as the programme is not officially changed by the principal, every
assistant deputed on the job should unfailingly carry out the detailed work
according to the instructions governing the work.
5. Many persons believe that this brings an element of rigidity in the audit
programme. This is not true provided the periodic review is undertaken to
keep the programme as up-to-date as possible.
POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE CONSTRUCTING AN AUDIT

PROGRAMME
For the purpose of programme construction, the following points should

be kept in mind:
a. Stay within the scope and limitation of the assignment. 194
b. Prepare a written audit programme setting forth the procedures
that are needed to implement the audit plan.
c. Determine the evidence reasonably available and identify the best
evidence for deriving the necessary satisfaction.
d. Apply only those steps and procedures which are useful in
accomplishing the verification purpose in the specific situation.
e. Include the audit objectives for each area and sufficient details
which serve as a set of instructions for the assistants involved in
audit and help in controlling the proper execution of the work.
f. Consider all possibilities of error.
g. Co-ordinate the procedures to be applied to related items.
AUDIT PROGRAMME DESIGNED TO PROVIDE AUDIT EVIDENCE
What is best evidence for testing the accuracy of any assertion is a matter
of expert knowledge and experience. This is the primary task before the
auditor when he draws up the audit programme. Procedures to be prescribed
depend on prior knowledge of what evidence is reasonably available in
respect of each transaction.
An auditor picks up evidence from a variety of fields and it is generally of the

following broad types:
1. Documentary examination,
2. Physical examination,
3. Statements and explanation of management, officials and employees,
4. Statements and explanations of third parties,
5. Arithmetical calculations by the auditor,
6. State of internal controls and internal checks,
7. Inter-relationship of the various accounting data,
8. Subsidiary and memorandum records,
9. Minutes,
10. Subsequent action by the client and by others.
Example:
1. For cash in hand, the best evidence is ‘count’
2. For investment pledged with a bank, the banker’s certificate.
The auditor, has to place appropriate weight on each piece of evidence and
accordingly should prescribe the priority of verification. It is true that in all
cases one procedure may not bring the highest satisfaction and it may be
dangerous for the auditor to ignore any evidence that is available.
195
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF AUDIT PROGRAMME
A. ADVANTAGES:
1. It provides the assistant carrying out the audit with total and clear set
of instructions of the work to be done.
2. It is essential, particularly for major audits, to provide a total
perspective of the work to be performed.
3. Selection of assistants for the jobs on the basis of capability becomes
easier when the work is rationally planned, defined and segregated.
4. Under a properly framed programme, ignoring or overlooking certain
books and records is significantly less and the audit can proceed
systematically.
5. The assistants, by putting their signature on programme, accept the
responsibility for the work carried out by them individually and, if
necessary, the work done may be traced back to the assistant.
6. The principal can control the progress of the various audits in hand by
examination of audit programmes initiated by the assistants deputed
to the jobs for completed work.
7. It serves as a guide for audits to be carried out in the succeeding year.
B. DISADVANTAGES:
1. The work may become mechanical and particular parts of the
programme may be carried out without any understanding of the object
of such parts in the whole audit scheme.
2. The programme often tends to become rigid and inflexible following set
grooves.
3. The business may change in its operation of conduct, but the old
programme may still be carried on.
4. Changes in staff or internal control may render precaution necessary at
points different from those originally decided upon.
5. Inefficient assistants may take shelter behind the programme i.e.,
defend deficiencies in their work on the ground that no instruction in
the matter is contained therein.
C. PRECAUTIONS:
1. The auditor must have a receptive attitude as regards the assistants.
2. The assistants should be encouraged to observe matters objectively and
bring significant matters to the notice of supervisor/principal.
CONCEPT OF MATERIALITY
196
1. Financial statements should disclose all ‘material items, i.e., the items the
knowledge of which might influence the decisions of the user of the
financial statement.
2. Materiality is not always a matter of relative size.
For example, a small amount lost by fraudulent practices of certain
employees can indicate a serious flaw in the enterprise’s internal control
system requiring immediate attention to avoid greater losses in future.
3. In certain cases, quantitative limits of materiality is specified. A few of

such cases are given below:
a. A company should disclose by way of notes additional information
regarding any item of income or expenditure which exceeds 1% of the
revenue from operations or Rs.1,00,000 whichever is higher (Schedule
III to the Companies Act, 2013).
b. A company should disclose in Notes to Accounts, shares in the
company held by each shareholder holding more than 5 % shares
specifying the number of shares held.
4. Standard on Auditing (SA) -320 on “Materiality in Planning and Performing

an Audit” deals with the auditor’s responsibility to apply the concept of
materiality in planning and performing an audit of financial statements.
SA 450 explains how materiality is applied in evaluating the effect of
identified misstatements on the audit and of uncorrected misstatements
on the financial statements.
5. MATERIALITY IF FRFW DO NOT CONTAIN ANY REFERENCE THERETO: Financial

reporting frameworks may discuss materiality in different terms, they
generally explain that:
a. Misstatements are material if expected to influence the economic
decisions of users taken on the basis of the financial statements.
b. Judgments about materiality are affected by the size or nature of a
misstatement or combination of both.
c. Judgments about matters that are material are based on a
consideration of the common financial information needs of users as a
group. The possible effect of misstatements on specific individual
users, whose needs may vary widely, is not considered.
MATERIALITY AS A MATTER OF PROFESSIONAL JUDGEMENT
The auditor’s determination of materiality is a matter of professional

judgment, and is affected by the auditor’s perception of the financial
information needs of users of the financial statements. In this context, it is
reasonable for the auditor to assume that users: 197
1. Have a reasonable knowledge of business and economic activities and
accounting and a willingness to study the information in the financial
statements with reasonable diligence.
2. Understand that financial statements are prepared, presented and audited
to levels of materiality.
3. Recognize the uncertainties inherent in the measurement of amounts based
on the use of estimates, judgment and the consideration of future events
and
4. Make reasonable economic decisions on the basis of the information in the
CONCEPT OF MATERIALITY APPLIED DURING PLANNING AND

PERFORMING THE AUDIT
1. SA 320 on “Materiality in Planning and Performing an Audit” requires that

an auditor should consider materiality and its relationship with audit risk
while conducting an audit.
2. When planning the audit, the auditor considers what would make the
financial information materially misstated.
3. The auditor’s preliminary assessment of materiality related to specific
account balances and classes of transactions helps the auditor decide such
questions as what items to examine and whether to use sampling and
analytical procedures.
4. This enables the auditor to select audit procedures that, in combination,
can be expected to support the audit opinion at an acceptably low degree
of audit risk.
5. It may be noted that the auditor’s assessment of materiality and audit
risk may be different at the time of initially planning of the audit as
against at the time of evaluating the results of audit procedures.
6. At the planning stage, the auditor needs to consider the materiality for
the financial statements as a whole. The auditor has to carry out a
preliminary identification of significant components and material classes of
transactions, account balances and disclosure which he plans to examine.
7. What could be considered material for all situations cannot be defined
precisely and an amount or transaction material in one situation may not
be material in other situation.
8. For example, Rs. 5,000 may be material for a small entity, but even Rs.
100,000 may not be material for a large entity.
9. The auditor has to apply his professional judgement in determining
materiality, choosing appropriate benchmark and determining level of
benchmark.
198
10. Materiality forms the basis for determination of audit scope and the levels
of testing the transactions.
11. If there is any statutory requirement of disclosure, it is to be considered
material irrespective of the value of amount.
PERFORMANCE MATERIALITY
1. When establishing the overall audit strategy, the auditor shall determine
materiality for the financial statements as a whole.
2. If, there is one or more particular classes of transactions, account
balances or disclosures for which misstatements of lesser amounts than the
materiality for the financial statements as a whole could reasonably be
expected to influence the economic decisions of users taken on the basis of
the financial statements, the auditor shall also determine the materiality
level or levels to be applied to those particular classes of transactions,
account balances or disclosures.
3. PERFORMANCE MATERIALITY: Performance materiality means the amount
or amounts set by the auditor at less than materiality for the financial
statements as a whole to reduce to an appropriately low level the
probability that the aggregate of uncorrected and undetected misstatements
exceeds materiality for the financial statements as a whole.
USE OF BENCHMARKS IN DETERMINING MATERIALITY FOR

FIN.STATEMENTS AS A WHOLE
Determining materiality involves the exercise of professional judgment. A

percentage is often applied to a chosen benchmark as a starting point in
determining materiality for the financial statements as a whole.
Factors that may affect the identification of an appropriate benchmark
include the following:
1. The elements of the financial statements.

Example: Assets, liabilities, equity, revenue, expenses;
2. Whether there are items on which the attention of the users of the
particular entity’s financial statements tends to be focused
Example: For the purpose of evaluating financial performance users may
tend to focus on profit, revenue or net assets
3. The nature of the entity, where the entity is at in its life cycle, and the
industry and economic environment in which the entity operates
4. The entity’s ownership structure and the way it is financed
199
Example: If an entity is financed solely by debt rather than equity, users
may put more emphasis on assets, and claims on them, than on the
entity’s earnings;
5. The relative volatility of the benchmark.
Example: Profit before tax from continuing operations is often used for
profit-oriented entities. When profit before tax from continuing
operations is volatile, other benchmarks may be more appropriate, such
as gross profit or total revenues.
MATERIALITY LEVEL OR LEVELS FOR PARTICULAR CLASSES OF

TRANSACTIONS, ACCOUNT BALANCES OR DISCLOSURES
Factors that may indicate the existence of one or more particular classes of
transactions, account balances or disclosures for which misstatements of
lesser amounts than materiality for the financial statements as a whole
could reasonably be expected to influence the economic decisions of users
taken on the basis of the financial statements include the following:
1. Whether law, regulations or the applicable financial reporting framework

affect users’ expectations regarding the measurement or disclosure of
certain items.
2. The key disclosures in relation to the industry in which the entity
operates.
3. Whether attention is focused on a particular aspect of the entity’s business
that is separately disclosed in the financial statements.
REVISION AND DOCUMENTATION OF MATERIALITY
REVISION IN MATERIALITY LEVEL:
The overall materiality and performance materiality may need to be changed

as the audit progresses in the following cases:
1. A change in circumstances that occurred during the audit.
2. Availability of additional information.
3. A change in actual financial results than the anticipated results at the
beginning of the audit.
4. Increase in estimated risk than the original prediction resulting in revision
of materiality level.
5. A change in auditor’s knowledge of client’s business and understanding of
the same.
DOCUMENTATION OF MATERIALITY: 200

The auditor shall document the following:
1. Materiality for the financial statements as a whole (Overall materiality);
2. The materiality level or levels for particular classes of transactions, account
balances or disclosures;
3. General Performance materiality; and
4. Any revision of the above.
KNOWLEDGE OF CLIENTS BUSINESS AND ITS IMPORTANCE AND

THE SOURCES FROM WHICH SUCH KNOWLEDGE CAN BE
OBTAINED
A. MEANING OF KNOWLEDGE OF CLIENTS BUSINESS:

As per SA-315, “Identifying and Assessing the Risk of Material
Misstatement through Understanding the Entity and Its Environment”,
the auditor shall obtain an understanding of the following:
1. Relevant industry, regulatory and other external factors including the
applicable financial reporting framework.
2. The nature of the entity, including:

a. its operations;
b. its ownership and governance structures; and
c. its capital structure i.e., how the entity is financed;
3. The auditor shall evaluate whether the entity’s accounting policies are
appropriate for its business and consistent with the applicable financial
reporting framework.
4. The entity’s objectives and strategies, and those related business risks
that may result in risks of material misstatement.
5. The measurement and review of the entity’s financial performance.
Example: External information such as analysts’ reports and credit
rating agency reports may be useful information for us to obtain an
understanding of an entity’s performance measures.
6. Knowledge about the following:
a. List of offices, branches, factories and warehouses etc.,
b. List of Officers and Other key managerial persons.
c. List of related parties and significant transactions with them.
B. SOURCES FOR OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE OF CLIENTS BUSINESS:

1. Clients annual report to shareholders.
2. Minutes of shareholders/board of directors.
3. Internal financial management reports such as MIS, EIS reports. 201
4. Previous year audit working papers, if applicable.
5. Discussion with client such as inquiring the officers and employees of
the client.
6. Publications like trade journals, magazines, newspaper and
7. Visit to client’s premises.
202
12. AUDIT IN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT
AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT AND ITS FEATURES
A. MEANING:
An automated environment basically refers to a business environment
where the processes, operations, accounting and even decisions are carried
out by using computer systems. They are also known as Information
Systems (IS) or Information Technology (IT) systems.
B. KEY FEATURES OF AN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT:

1. Enables faster operations
2. Accuracy in data processing and computation
3. Ability to process large volumes of data
4. Integration between business operations
5. Better security and controls
6. Less prone to human errors
7. Provides latest information
RELEVANCE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGYY IN AN AUDIT
A. AUTOMATION OF FOLLOWING:
The need for relevance of IT in audit raised due to the automation of the
following:
1. Carrying of computation and calculations
2. Accounting entries are posted automatically
3. Business policies and procedures, including internal controls relating to
User access and security are made by assigning system roles to users.
4. Generation of reports used in business.
5. User access and Security is controlled by assigning system roles.
B. RELEVANCE IN AN AUDIT:
1. Auditors rely on information and reports generated by IT systems which
may impact the audit.
2. SA - 315 requires the auditor to understand, assess and respond to risks
identified in IT.
3. By relying on automated environment and using data analytics, it is
possible to increase efficiency and effectiveness of audit.
4. Other reasons namely:
a. Increased use of Systems and Application software in Business. For
example, use of ERPs
203
b. Complexity of transactions has increased (multiple systems, network
of systems)
c. Hi-tech nature of business (Telecom, e-Commerce).
d. Volumes of transactions are high (Insurance, Banking).
e. Regulatory requirement (E.g., Companies act 2013 - Sec. 143(3)(i), IT
act 2008)
[[[
UNDERSTANDING OF ENTITY’S AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT
Points that an auditor should consider to obtain an understanding of the

company’s automated environment are as follows:
1. Information systems being used (one or more application systems and
what they are)
2. Their purpose (financial and non-financial).
3. Location of IT systems - (local vs. global).
4. Architecture (desktop based, client-server, web application, cloud based).
5. Version (functions and risks could vary in different versions of same
application).
6. Interfaces within systems (in case multiple systems exist).
7. In-house vs. Packaged.
8. Outsourced activities (IT maintenance and support).
9. Key persons (CIO, CISO, Administrators).
DOCUMENTATION: The understanding of a company’s IT environment that is

obtained should be documented as per SA 230 - Audit Documentation. An
example of audit documentation of IT Understanding is as below:
Informat In-
Location Interfac Outsour
ion House In-
Versi - Architectu es ced
Systems Purpose vs. Key Persons Sco
on Local vs. re within Activitie
being Packag pe
global systems s
used ed
SAP ECC Accounti Texas, Client/Ser Paymas Packag CIO, Yes
6.0, ng, USA ver, Unix, ter ed Administra
EHPS Supply AIX 5.3, tors
chain, MS-SQL
Productio Server
n 2008
Budget 1 Managem Hyderab Web- None In- - - No
King ent MIS ad, India based, house
Budgeting Windows,
Apache,
Oracle 11
g
204
RISKS FROM USE OF IT SYSTEMS AND ITS IMPACT ON AUDIT
A. RISK ARISE FROM USE OF IT SYSTEMS:

After having obtained an understanding of the IT systems and the
automated environment of a company, the auditor should also understand
the following risks that arise from the use of IT systems:
1. Inaccurate processing of data, processing inaccurate data, or both.
2. Unauthorized access to data.
3. Excessive access / Privileged access (super users).
4. Unauthorized changes to systems or programs.
5. Failure to make necessary changes to systems or programs.
6. Loss of data.
B. IMPACT OF IT RELATED RISKS ON AUDIT:

1. IMPACT ON SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES: Auditor may not be able to rely
on the data obtained from systems where such risks exist. This means,
all forms of data, information or reports that he obtains from systems
must be thoroughly tested and corroborated for completeness and
accuracy.
2. IMPACT ON COMPLIANCE PROCEDURES: Auditor will not be able to rely
on automated controls, calculations, accounting procedures that are built
into the applications. Resultantly more substantive audit work is
needed.
3. IMPACT ON REPORTING: The auditor may communicate first to those
charged with governance and may issue a modified opinion, if necessary.
TESTING METHODS UDED IN AN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT
A. METHODS:
1. INQUIRY: It is the most efficient audit test but should always be used
in combination with any one of the other audit testing methods.
Inquiry alone is not sufficient. Generally, applying inquiry in
combination with inspection gives the most effective and efficient audit
evidence.
2. REPERFORMANCE: It gives the best audit evidence. However, testing by
reperformance could be very time consuming. Carry out a test check
(negative testing) and observe the error message displayed by the
application.
3. INSPECTION: It involves inspection of the configuration defined in an
application, system logs to determine any changes made since last
205
audit testing or Inspection of technical manual / user manual of
systems and applications.
4. OBSERVATION: It involves observing how a user processes transactions
under different scenarios.
B. PROFESSIONAL JUDGEMENT:
1. Which audit test to use, when and in what combination to use, is a
matter of Professional Judgement and will vary depending on several
factors including risk assessment, control environment, desired level of
evidence required, history of errors / misstatements, complexity of
business, etc.
2. Inquiry in combination with Inspection gives the most efficient and
effective audit evidence.
3. When testing in an automated environment, few common points to be
examined are:
a. Obtain an understanding of how an automated transaction is
processed by doing a walkthrough of one end-to-end transaction.
b. Inspect the configuration defined in an application.
c. Inspect the system logs to determine any changes made since last
audit testing
d. Inspect technical manual / user manual of systems and applications.
e. Carry out a test check (negative testing) and observe the error
message displayed by the application.
DATA ANALYTICS FOR AUDIT
A. MEANING:
1. The combination of Processes, Tools and Techniques that are used to tap
vast amounts of electronic data to obtain meaningful information is
called data analytics.
2. Such tools and techniques the auditors use in audit for analysing the
data in electronic form to obtain audit evidence is known as Computer
Assisted Auditing Techniques (CAATs).
3. Companies can benefit immensely from the use of data analytics in
terms of increased profitability, better customer service, gaining
competitive advantage, more efficient operations, etc.
B. SIGNIFICANCE OF DATA ANALYTICS FOR AUDITOR:

The auditors can make use of similar tools and techniques in the audit
process and obtain good results.
206
Data analytics can be used, in testing of electronic records and data
residing in IT systems, to perform the following:
1. Check completeness of data and population that is used in either test of
controls or substantive audit tests.
2. Selection of audit samples - random sampling, systematic sampling.
3. Re-computation of balances - reconstruction of trial balance from
transaction data.
4. Reperformance of mathematical calculations - depreciation, bank
interest calculation.
5. Analysis of journal entries as required by SA 240.
6. Fraud investigation.
ASSESSMENT AND REPORTING AUDIT FINDINGS BY AN

AUDITOR
1. At the conclusion of each audit, it is possible that there will be certain

findings or exceptions in IT environment and IT controls of the company.
2. If the auditor identifies any weaknesses or deficiencies then the same may
be reported to relevant stakeholders including management and those
charged with governance viz., Board of directors, Audit committee.
3. While reporting the weaknesses the auditor shall consider the following
points:
a. Are there any weaknesses in IT controls?
b. What is the impact of these weaknesses on overall audit?
c. Report deficiencies to management - Letter of Weakness or
Management Letter.
d. Communicate in writing any significant deficiencies to Those Charged
with Governance.
4. A deficiency in internal control exits if a control is designed, implemented
or operated in such a way that it is unable to prevent, or detect and
correct, misstatements in the financial statements on a timely basis; or the
control is missing.
TYPES OF CONTROLS IN AN AUTOMATED ENVIRONMENT
The Controls in IT Environment are broadly classified into the following

categories:
A. General IT Controls
B. Application Controls
C. IT Dependent Controls
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A. GENERAL IT CONTROLS:
1. Meaning: These are policies and procedures that relate to many
applications and support the effective functioning of application controls.
They apply to mainframe, mini-frame, and end-user environments.
2. General IT-controls that maintain the integrity of information and
security of data.
3. These controls will generally cover the following aspects:
a. Data center and network operations controls - Ensures that
production systems are processed to meet financial reporting
objectives.
b. Program change controls - Ensures that modified systems continue
to meet financial reporting objectives.
c. Access security controls - Ensures that access to programs and data
is authenticated and authorized to meet financial reporting
objectives.
d. Application system acquisition, development, and maintenance
controls - Ensure that systems are developed, configured and
implemented to meet financial reporting objectives.
4. General IT controls generally implemented to mitigate the IT specific
risks and applied commonly across multiple IT systems, applications
and business processes.
5. General IT controls are known as “pervasive” controls or “indirect”
controls.
B. APPLICATION CONTROLS:
Application controls include both automated or manual controls that
operate at a business process level. Automated Application controls are
embedded into IT applications viz., ERPs and help in ensuring the
completeness, accuracy and integrity of data in those systems.
C. IT – DEPENDENT CONTROLS:
1. IT dependent controls are basically manual controls that make use of
some form of data or information or report produced from IT systems and
applications.
2. In this case, even though the control is performed manually, the design
and effectiveness of such controls depends on the reliability of source
data.
3. Due to the inherent dependency on IT, the effectiveness and reliability
of Automated application controls and IT dependent controls require the
General IT Controls to be effective.
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NOTE: General IT Controls and Application Controls are Interrelated. The
relationship between the application controls and the General IT Controls is
such that General IT Controls are needed to support the functioning of
application controls, and both are needed to ensure complete and accurate
information processing through IT systems.
209
13. STANDARDS ON AUDITING
A. STANDARDS FOR CLASSROOM DISCUSSION:
SA Consideration of Laws and Regulations in an audit of

1.
250 financial statements
SA Audit Evidence - Specific Considerations for Selected

2.
501 Items
SA
3. External Confirmations
505
SA
4. Initial Audit Engagements - Opening Balances
510
SA
5. Related Parties
550
SA
6. Subsequent Events
560
SA
7. Going Concern
570
SA
8. Written Representations
580
B. STANDARDS ALREADY COVERED AS PART OF VARIOUS CHAPTERS:
Overall Objectives of an Independent auditor and conduct

SA
9. of an audit in accordance with standards on auditing.
200
[Chapter 1 – NOS Audit]
SA Agreeing the terms of audit engagement [Chapter 1 – NOS

10.
210 Audit]
SA Quality Control for an audit of financial statements

11.
220 [Chapter 1 – NOS Audit]
SA Audit Documentation [Chapter 6 – Documentation and

12.
230 Evidence]
Auditors’ responsibility relating to fraud in an audit of

SA financial statements
13.
240
[Chapter 7 – Fraud Responsibilities]
SA Joint Audit of Financial Statements. [Chapter 4 – Audit

14.
299 Report]
210
SA Planning an audit of financial statements. [Chapter 11 –
15.
300 Audit Strategy]
Identifying and assessing risk of material misstatement

SA
16. through understanding the entity and its environment.
315
[Chapter 8 – Risk Assessment]
SA Materiality in planning and performing an audit [Chapter

17.
320 11 – Audit Strategy]
SA
18. Audit Evidence [Chapter 6 – Documentation and Evidence]
500
SA
19. Analytical Procedures [Chapter 10 – Analytical Procedures]
520
SA
20. Audit Sampling [Chapter 9 – Audit Sampling]
530
SA Using the Work of Internal Auditors [Chapter 4 – Audit

21.
610 Report]
SA Forming an Opinion and Reporting on Financial

22.
700 Statements [Chapter 4 – Audit Report]
SA Communicating Key Audit Matters in the Independent

23.
701 Auditor’s Report [Chapter 4 – Audit Report]
SA Modifications to the Opinion in the Independent Auditor’s

24.
705 Report [Chapter 4 – Audit Report]
Emphasis of Matter Paragraphs and Other Matter

SA
25. Paragraphs in the Independent Auditor’s Report [Chapter 4
706
– Audit Report]
Comparative Information - Corresponding Figures and

SA
26. Comparative Financial Statements [Chapter 4 – Audit
710
Report]
C. STANDARDS “EXCLUDED” FROM NOV – 2019 (New) EXAM ONWARDS
SA
27. Communication with Those charged with governance
260
SA Communicating deficiencies in internal control with those

28.
265 charged with governance and management
SA
29. The Auditor’s Responses to Assessed Risks
330
211
SA Audit Considerations Relating to an Entity Using a Service
30.
402 Organisation
SA
31. Evaluation of Misstatements identified During the Audit
450
SA Auditing Accounting Estimates, Including Fair Value

32.
540 Accounting Estimates and Related Disclosures
SA
33. Using the Work of Another Auditor
600
SA
34. Using the Work of an Auditor’s Expert
620
The Auditor’s Responsibility in Relation to Other

SA
35. Information in Documents Containing Audited Financial
720
Statements
Note: Standard on Quality Control [SQC] – Covered as part of Chapter 1

itself.
212
IFAC AND IAASB & ITS ROLE
A. IFAC [INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF ACCOUNTANTS]:

1. In 1977, the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) was set up
with a view to bringing harmony in the profession of accountancy on an
international scale. In pursuing this mission, the IFAC Board has
established the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board
(IAASB) to develop and issue, in the public interest and under its own
authority, high quality auditing standards for use around the world.
B. IAASB AND ITS OBJECTIVE:

The IAASB functions as an independent standard-setting body under the
auspices of IFAC. The objective of the IAASB is to serve the public interest
by setting high quality auditing standards and by facilitating the
convergence of international and national standards, thereby enhancing the
quality and uniformity of practice throughout the world and strengthening
public confidence in the global auditing and assurance profession. The IAASB
achieves this objective by:
1. Establishing high quality auditing standards and guidance for financial
statement audits that are generally accepted and recognized by
investors, auditors, governments, banking regulators, securities
regulators and other key stakeholders across the world;
2. Establishing high quality standards and guidance for other types of
assurance services on both financial and non-financial matters;
3. Establishing high quality standards and guidance for other related
services;
4. Establishing high quality standards for quality control covering the
scope of services addressed by the IAASB and
5. Publishing other pronouncements on auditing and assurance matters,
thereby advancing public understanding of the roles and responsibility
of professional auditors and assurance service providers.
AUDITING AND ASSURANCE STANDARDS BOARD

A. AUDITING AND ASSURANCE STANDARDS BOARD:
ICAI is a member of the IFAC and is committed to work towards the

implementation of the guidelines issued by the IFAC. ICAI constituted the
AASB (erstwhile Auditing Practices Committee) to review the existing
auditing practices in India and to develop Engagement and Quality Control
Standards (erstwhile Statements on Standard Auditing Practices) so that
these may be issued by the Council of the Institute.
213
B. ROLE OF AASB:
1. The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India constituted the Auditing
Practices Committee (APC) in 1982. The main function of the APC is to
review the existing auditing practices in India and to develop Statements
on Standard Auditing Practices (SAPs) so that these may be issued by
the Council of the Institute.
2. While formulating the SAPs in India, the APC gives due consideration to
the international auditing guidelines issued by the IAPC and then tries to
integrate them to the extent possible in the light of the conditions and
practices prevailing in India.
3. While formulating the SAPs, the APC takes into consideration the
applicable laws, customs, usages and business environment in India.
4. In July, 2002, the Auditing Practices Committee has been converted into
an Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (AASB) by the Council of the
Institute, to be in line with the international trend.
5. A significant step has been taken aimed at bringing in the desired
transparency in the working of the Auditing and Assurance Standards
Board, through participation of representatives of various segments of
the society and interest groups, such as, regulators, industry and
academics. The nomenclature of SAPs had also been changed to Auditing
and Assurance Standards (AASs).
ENGAGEMENT AND QUALITY CONTROL STANDARDS ISSUED BY

AASB
Standards on
Audit [SA]
Historical
Financial Info.
Standards on
Review [SRE]
Assurance
Other than
Standards on
Engagement and Historical
Assurance [SAE]
Quality Control Financial Info
Standards on
Non - Assurance Related Servies
[SRS]
214
1. Audit vs Review of Historical Financial Information:
a. Standards on auditing(SAs) apply in “audit” of historical financial
information which is a reasonable assurance engagement whereas
Standards on Review Engagements(SREs) apply in “review” of historical
financial information which is a limited assurance engagement only.
“Historical financial information means” information expressed in
financial terms in relation to a particular entity, derived primarily
from that entity’s accounting system, about economic events
occurring in past time periods or about economic conditions or
circumstances at points in time in the past.
b. It can be broadly understood that “audit” and “review” are 2 different
terms.
c. Audit is a reasonable assurance engagement and its objective is
reduction in assurance engagement risk to an acceptably low level in the
circumstances of the engagement. However, “review” is a limited
assurance engagement and its objective is a reduction in assurance
engagement risk to a level that is acceptable in the circumstances of
the engagement.
d. Standards on Auditing have been issued on wide spectrum of issues in
the field of auditing.
e. Examples of Standards on Review engagements are:
i. SRE 2400 (Revised) Engagements to Review Historical Financial
Statements
ii. SRE 2410 Review of Interim Financial Information Performed by
the Independent Auditor of the Entity
2. Other than Historical Financial Information:

a. There is another set of standards which apply in assurance
engagements dealing with subject matters other than historical
financial information. Such assurance engagements do not include
“audit” or “review” of historical financial information. These
standards are known as Standards on Assurance Engagements.
b. For example, an assurance engagement relating to examination of
prospective financial information.
Prospective financial information means financial information based
on assumptions about events that may occur in the future and possible
actions by an entity. It can be in the form a forecast or projection or
combination of both.
c. It is to be noted that in such type of assurance engagements,
examination is not of historical financial information.
215
d. It is important to note the difference between “Historical financial
information” and “Prospective financial information.”
i. The former relates to information expressed in financial terms of
an entity about economic events, conditions or circumstances
occurring in past periods.
ii. The latter relates to financial information based on assumptions
about occurrence of future events and possible actions by an
entity.
e. Examples of Standards on Assurance Engagements are: -
i. SAE 3400 The Examination of Prospective Financial Information
ii. SAE 3420 Assurance Engagements to Report on the Compilation
of Pro Forma Financial Information Included in a Prospectus
3. RELATED SERVICES:
a. There are standards on related services. These standards apply in
engagements to perform agreed-upon procedures regarding financial
information.
For example, an engagement to perform agreed-upon procedures
may require the auditor to perform certain procedures concerning
individual items of financial data, say, accounts payable, accounts
receivable, purchases from related parties and sales and profits of a
segment of an entity, or a financial statement, say, a balance sheet
or even a complete set of financial statements.
b. Examples of Standards on related services are: -
i. SRS 4400 Engagements to perform agreed-upon procedures
regarding financial information.
ii. SRS 4410 (Revised) Compilation engagements
4. STANDARDS ON QUALITY CONTROL:

Further, it is also to be remembered that Standards on Quality Control
(SQCs) are to be applied for all services covered by Engagement Standards.
COMPLIANCE WITH DOCUMENTS ISSUED BY ICAI

1. The Institute has, from time to time, issued ‘Guidance Notes’ and
‘Statements’ on a number of matters. The ‘Statements’ have been issued
with a view to securing compliance by members on matters which, in the
opinion of the Council, are critical for the proper discharge of their
functions. ‘Statements’ therefore are mandatory.
2. Accordingly, while discharging their attest function, it will be the duty of
the members of the Institute:
216
a. ACCOUNTING STANDARDS:
i. To examine whether ‘Statements’ relating to accounting matters
are complied with in the presentation of financial statements
covered by their audit.
ii. In the event of any deviation from the ‘Statements’, it will be
their duty to make adequate disclosures in their audit reports so
that the users of financial statements may be aware of such
deviations and
b. AUDITING MATTERS:
i. To ensure that the ‘Statements’ relating to auditing matters are
followed in the audit of financial information covered by their
audit reports.
ii. If, for any reason, a member has not been able to perform an
audit in accordance with such ‘Statements’, his report should
draw attention to the material departures, therefrom.
c. GUIDANCE NOTES:
i. GN are primarily designed to provide guidance to members on
matters which may arise in the course of their professional
work and on which they may rely in the course of their
professional work and on which they may desire assistance in
resolving issues which may pose difficulty.
ii. RECOMMENDATORY: Guidance Notes are recommendatory in
nature. A member should ordinarily follow recommendations in
a guidance note relating to an auditing matter except where he
is satisfied that in the circumstances of the case, it may not be
necessary to do so.
iii. Similarly, while discharging his attest function, a member
should examine whether the recommendations in a guidance
note relating to an accounting matter have been followed or
not. If the same have not been followed, the member should
consider whether keeping in view the circumstances of the
case, a disclosure in his report is necessary.
iv. MANDATORY GN’s: There are however a few guidance notes in
case of which the Council has specifically stated that they
should be considered as mandatory on members while discharging
their attest function.
Example, GN on Tax audit.
217
MANNER OF MAKING QUALIFICATION OR DISCLOSRE IN
AUDITORS REPORT IN RESPECT OF NON COMPLIANE OF
STATEMENTS, STANDARDS AND GUIDANCE NOTES
1. While making a qualification / disclosure in the audit report in respect of

non-compliance with a Statement, SA, Accounting Standard or Guidance
Note, the auditor should consider the materiality of the relevant item.
Thus, the auditor need not make qualification/disclosure in respect of
items which, in his judgement, are not material.
2. While making a qualification, the auditor should follow the requirements of

the ‘Statement on Qualifications in Auditor’s Report’ issued by the
Institute. [Now, SA 705]
3. A disclosure, which is not a qualification, should be made in the auditor’s

report in a manner that it is clear to the reader that the disclosure does
not constitute an audit qualification. The auditor’s opinion on true and fair
view should not refer to the paragraph containing the aforesaid disclosure.
4. Examples of Qualifications:
a. "The statement of profit and loss and balance sheet comply with the
accounting standards referred to Section 133 of the Companies Act,
2013, except Accounting Standard (AS) 5, 'Net Profit or Loss for the
Period, Prior Period Items and Changes in Accounting Policies', as the
company has not disclosed in its accounts the fact of change, from
this year, in the method of providing depreciation on plant and
machinery from straight-line method to written-down value method,
as also the effect of this change. As a result of this change, the net
profit for the year, the net block as well as the reserves and surplus
are lower by ` …. Each as compared to the position which would have
prevailed had this change not been made.
Subject to the above, we report that ……." [now this format is also
changed as per revised SA 700]
b. "The statement of profit and loss and balance sheet comply with the
accounting standards referred to in Section 133 of the Companies
Act, 2013, except Accounting Standard (AS) 9, 'Revenue Recognitions',
as the company has followed the policy of accounting for interest
income on receipt basis rather than on time proportion basis. As a
result, the net profit for the year and the current assets are
understated by `…… each as compared to the position which would
218
have prevailed if the company had accounted for interest income on
time proportion basis.
Subject to the above, we report that …."
5. Example on Disclosures: [Non-Disclosure of A/c Policies at ONE Place] –

Disclosure by Auditor in the audit report rather qualification:
a. "The statement of profit and loss and balance sheet comply with the
accounting standards referred to in Section 133 of the Companies
Act, 2013, except Accounting Standard (AS) 1, 'Disclosure of
Accounting Policies', as the company has disclosed those accounting
policies the disclosure of which is required by the Companies Act,
2013. Other significant accounting policies, relating to treatment of
research and development costs have not been disclosed nor have all
the policies been disclosed at one place.
We report that ….".
219
SA 250 - THE AUDITOR’S RESPONSIBILITIES RELATING
TO LAWS AND REGULATIONS IN AN AUDIT OF
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
A. RESPONSIBILITY OF MANAGEMENT FOR COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS AND

REGULATIONS:
It is the responsibility of management, with the oversight of those charged

with governance, to ensure that the entity’s operations are conducted in
accordance with the provisions of laws and regulations.
B. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE AUDITOR:

1. The auditor is not responsible for preventing non-compliance and cannot
be expected to detect all non-compliance with all laws and regulations.
2. Further This standard divides the responsibility of auditor in relation to
Consideration of laws and regulations into two types:
3. Type 1 - Those laws and regulations which have a direct effect on the
determination of material amounts and disclosures in the financial
statements.
4. Type 2 - Other laws and regulations that do not have a direct effect on
the determination of the amounts and disclosures in the financial
statements, but compliance with which may be fundamental to
continue its business, or to avoid material penalties and therefore non-
compliance with such laws and regulations may have a material impact
on the financial statements.
C. OBJECTIVES OF THE AUDITOR:
1. To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding compliance

with Type 1 laws and regulations.
2. To perform Limited audit procedures to help identify instances of non-
compliance with Type 2 and
3. To report appropriately to identified non-compliance with laws and
regulations
D. DEFINITION OF NON-COMPLIANCE:
1. Acts of omission or commission by the entity, either intentional or
unintentional, which are contrary to the prevailing laws or regulations.
2. Such acts include transactions entered into by, or in the name of, the
entity, or on its behalf, by those charged with governance, management
or employees.
220
3. Non-compliance does not include personal misconduct (unrelated to the
business activities of the entity) by those charged with governance,
management or employees of the entity.
E. LIMITED AUDIT PROCEDURES FOR TYPE - 2 LAWS AND REGULATIONS:
The auditor shall perform the following Limited audit procedures to help
identify instances of non-compliance with other laws and regulations
that may have a material effect on the financial statements:
1. Inquiring of management and, where appropriate, those charged with

governance, as to whether the entity is in compliance with such laws
and regulations; and
2. Inquiring and Inspecting correspondence, with the relevant licensing or
regulatory authorities.
3. Inquiring Entity’s Legal counsel to know the details of pending litigations
and resultantly estimate the possible non compliances.
[
F. INDICATIONS OF NON-COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS AND REGULATIONS:

1. The following are few indicators of Non compliances with various laws
and regulation. This list is only illustrative and not exhaustive.
2. Further an indicator doesn’t mean that there is a severe Non-compliance.
It only provides the auditor the guidance to identify non compliances if
any exists. The following are various indicators of suspected non
compliances:
a. Investigations by regulatory organisations and government
departments.
b. Payment of fines or penalties.
c. Purchasing at prices significantly above or below market price.
d. Unusual payments in cash or payments in form of bearer cheques,
e. Unusual payments towards legal and retainership fees.
f. Unusual transactions with companies registered in tax havens.
g. Unauthorised transactions or improperly recorded transactions.
G. REPORTING NON-COMPLIANCE TO THOSE CHARGED WITH GOVERNANCE:
If the auditor suspects that management or those charged with

governance are involved in non-compliance, the auditor shall communicate
the matter to the next higher level of authority at the entity, such as an
audit committee or supervisory board.
221
H. REPORTING NON-COMPLIANCE IN THE AUDITOR’S REPORT ON THE FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS:
1. IDENTIFIED NON-COMPLIANCE: If the auditor concludes that the non-

compliance has a material effect on the financial statements, and has not
been adequately reflected in the financial statements, the auditor shall
express a qualified or adverse opinion on the financial statements.
2. UNABLE TO VERIFY: If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient

appropriate audit evidence to evaluate whether non-compliance that
may be material to the financial statements has, or is likely to have,
occurred, the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or disclaim an
opinion on the financial statements.
222
SA 501 - AUDIT EVIDENCE - SPECIFIC
CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTED ITEMS
A. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDITOR: The objective of the auditor is to obtain

sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the:
1. Existence and condition of Inventory.
2. Completeness of litigation and claims involving the entity. and
3. Presentation and disclosure of segment information in accordance with
the applicable financial reporting framework.
B. EXISTENCE AND CONDITION OF INVENTORY:
1. ATTEND MANAGEMENT INVENTORY COUNTING:

a. The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the existence and condition of inventory as at year end
b. Attendance at physical inventory counting performed by
management to:
i. Evaluate management’s instructions and procedures for
recording and controlling the results of the entity’s physical
inventory counting.
ii. Observe Management Count
iii. Inspect the inventory. and
iv. Perform test counts and
c. Reconcile the physical inventory with the inventory records to
identify any discrepancies.
d. If inventory counting is carried at other than balance sheet date
then the auditor shall identify the changes occurred between
balance sheet date and count date and shall ensure whether the
changes are properly recorded.
2. PHYSICAL INSPECTION BY AUDITOR DIRECTLY: If the auditor is unable to

attend physical inventory counting by management due to unforeseen
circumstances, the auditor shall make or observe some physical counts
on an alternative date and perform audit procedures on intervening
transactions.
3. PHYSICAL INSPECTION IMPRACTICABILITY:

a. If attendance at physical inventory counting is impracticable, the
auditor shall perform alternative audit procedures to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the existence and
condition of inventory.
223
b. It may be inspection of documentation of subsequent sale of
specific items of inventory purchased on or before balance sheet
date. This will ensure the auditor to confirm about existence and
condition of inventory as on reporting date.
c. If alternative procedures are not possible to do so, the auditor shall
modify the opinion in the auditor’s report in accordance with SA
705.
Note: Attendance at physical inventory counting may be impracticable.
This may be due to factors such as the nature and location of the
inventory.
4. INVENTORY IN THE CUSTODY OF THIRD PARTY:

a. When inventory under the custody and control of a third party the
auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the existence and condition of that inventory by
performing one or both of the following:
b. Request confirmation from the third party as to the quantities and
condition of inventory held on behalf of the entity. (SA 505)
c. If there exist doubts as to reliability of confirmation provided by
third parties then the auditor may perform the below procedures:
i. Attending or arranging another auditor for physical count
procedures of third parties, if practicable.
ii. Obtaining another auditor report on adequacy of third party
count procedures.
iii. Inspecting documentation regarding inventory held by third
party eg: warehouse receipts.
iv. Requesting confirmation from other parties where the
inventory is pledged as collateral.
C. LITIGATION AND CLAIMS:
1. The auditor shall design and perform audit procedures in order to
identify litigation and claims involving the entity which may give rise to
a risk of material misstatement, including:
a. Inquiry of management and, where applicable, others within the
entity, including in-house legal counsel.
b. Reviewing minutes of meetings of those charged with governance
and correspondence between the entity and its external legal
counsel and
c. Reviewing legal expense accounts.
d. CONFIRMATION FROM EXTERNAL LEGAL COUNCIL: the auditor shall,
in addition to the procedures required by other SAs, seek direct
communication with the entity’s external legal counsel in the
following cases: 224
i. If the auditor assesses a risk of material misstatement
regarding litigation or claims that have been identified, or
ii. When audit procedures performed indicate that other
material litigation or claims may exist,
iii. For obtaining more clear understanding of existing litigations
and claims.
The auditor shall do so through a letter of inquiry, prepared by
management and sent by the auditor, requesting the entity’s
external legal counsel to communicate directly with the auditor.
2. If management refuses to give the auditor permission to communicate or
meet with the entity’s external legal counsel, or the entity’s external
legal counsel refuses to respond appropriately to the letter of inquiry, or
is prohibited from responding; and
3. If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence by
performing alternative audit procedures, then the auditor shall modify
the opinion in the auditor’s report in accordance with SA 705.
4. WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS: The auditor shall request management and,
where appropriate, those charged with governance to provide written
representations that all known actual or possible litigation and claims
whose effects should be considered when preparing the financial
statements.
D. SEGMENT INFORMATION:
The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding
the presentation and disclosure of segment information in accordance
with the applicable financial reporting framework by:
1. Obtaining an understanding of the methods used by management in
determining segment information, and:
a. Evaluating whether such methods are likely to result in disclosure in
accordance with the applicable financial reporting framework:
i. Sales, transfers and charges between segments, and
elimination of intersegment amounts.
ii. Comparisons with budgets and other expected results
iii. The allocation of assets and costs among segments.
iv. Consistency with prior periods, and the adequacy of the
disclosures with
v. respect to inconsistencies
b. Where appropriate, testing the application of such methods and
2. Performing analytical procedures or other audit procedures appropriate

in the circumstances.
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SA 505 - EXTERNAL CONFIRMATION
A. DEFINITIONS:
1. EXTERNAL CONFIRMATION:
Audit evidence obtained as a direct written response to the auditor from
a third party (AKA the confirming party), in paper form, or by electronic
or other medium.
2. POSITIVE CONFIRMATION REQUEST:
A request that the confirming party respond directly to the auditor
indicating whether the confirming party agrees or disagrees with the
information in the request, or providing the requested information.
3. NEGATIVE CONFIRMATION REQUEST:
A request that the confirming party respond directly to the auditor only
if the confirming party disagrees with the information provided in the
request.
4. EXCEPTION:
A response indicates a difference between information requested to be
confirmed, or contained in the entity’s records, and information
provided by the confirming party.
B. EXTERNAL CONFIRMATION PROCEDURES:

When using external confirmation procedures, the auditor shall maintain
control over external confirmation requests, including:
STEP 1: DETERMINING THE INFORMATION TO BE CONFIRMED OR REQUESTED:
External confirmation procedures frequently are performed to confirm or

request information regarding account balances and their elements. They
may also be used:
1. To confirm terms of agreements, contracts,

2. Transactions between an entity and other parties, or
3. To confirm the absence of certain conditions, such as a “side agreement”.
4. Amounts due to lenders.
5. Property title deeds held by lawyers or financiers for safe custody or as
security.
STEP 2: SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE CONFIRMING PARTY:
Responses to confirmation requests provide more relevant and reliable

audit evidence when confirmation requests are sent to a confirming party
the auditor believes is knowledgeable about the information to be
confirmed. 226
STEP 3: DESIGNING THE CONFIRMATION REQUESTS:
1. The design of a confirmation request may directly affect the confirmation

response rate, and the reliability and the nature of the audit evidence
obtained from responses.
2. The following are the factors when designing the confirmation request:
a. Specific identified risks of material misstatement, including fraud
risks.
b. The layout and presentation of the confirmation request.
c. Prior experience on the audit or similar engagements.
d. The assertions being addressed.
e. The method of communication
f. Management’s authorisation or encouragement to the confirming
parties to respond to the auditor. Confirming parties may only be
willing to respond to a confirmation request containing
management’s authorisation.
g. The ability of the intended confirming party to confirm or provide
the requested information (for example, individual invoice
amount versus total balance).
STEP 4: Sending the requests, including follow-up requests when applicable,

to the confirming party.
C. MANAGEMENT’S REFUSAL TO ALLOW THE AUDITOR TO SEND A

CONFIRMATION REQUEST:
If management refuses to allow the auditor to send a confirmation
request, the auditor shall:
1. Inquire as to management’s reasons for the refusal, and seek audit
evidence as to their validity and reasonableness.
2. Evaluate the implications of management’s refusal on the auditor’s
assessment of the relevant risks of material misstatement, including
the risk of fraud, and on the nature, timing and extent of other audit
procedures and
3. Perform alternative audit procedures designed to obtain relevant and
reliable audit evidence.
4. If the auditor concludes that management’s refusal to allow the auditor
to send a confirmation request is unreasonable, or the auditor is unable
to obtain relevant and reliable audit evidence from alternative audit
procedures, the auditor shall communicate with those charged with
governance in accordance with SA 260.
5. The auditor also shall determine the implications for the audit and the
auditor’s opinion in accordance with SA 705.
227
D. DOUBTS ABOUT RELIABILITY OF RESPONSES TO CONFIRMATION REQUESTS
1. If the auditor identifies factors that give rise to doubts about the
reliability of the response to a confirmation request, the auditor shall
obtain further audit evidence to resolve those doubts.
2. If the auditor determines that a response to a confirmation request is
not reliable, the auditor shall evaluate the implications on the
assessment of the relevant risks of material misstatement.
E. NEGATIVE CONFIRMATIONS:
Negative confirmations provide less persuasive audit evidence than positive
confirmations. Accordingly, the auditor shall not use negative confirmation
requests as the sole substantive audit procedure to address an assessed risk
of material misstatement at the assertion level UNLESS ALL of the
following are present:
a. The auditor has assessed the risk of material misstatement as low
and has obtained sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the
operating effectiveness of controls relevant to the assertion
b. The population of items subject to negative confirmation procedures
comprises a large number of small, homogeneous, account balances,
transactions or conditions;
c. A very low exception rate is expected; and
d. Very low chances of non-response from third party. [Auditors are not
aware of circumstances or conditions that would cause recipients of
negative confirmation requests to disregard such requests].
228
SA 510 - INITIAL AUDIT ENGAGEMENTS - OPENING
BALANCES
A. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDITOR: In conducting an initial audit engagement, the

objective of the auditor with respect to opening balances is to obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether:
1. Opening balances contain misstatements that materially affect the
current period’s financial statements; and
2. Appropriate accounting policies reflected in the opening balances have
been consistently applied in the current period’s financial statements,
or changes thereto are properly accounted for and adequately presented
and disclosed in accordance with the applicable financial reporting
framework.
B. DEFINITIONS:
1. INITIAL AUDIT ENGAGEMENT: An engagement in which either:
a. The financial statements for the prior period were not audited; or
b. The financial statements for the prior period were audited by a
predecessor auditor.
2. OPENING BALANCES: Those account balances that exist at the beginning

of the period.
a. Opening balances are based upon the closing balances of the prior
period and reflect the effects of transactions and events of prior
periods and accounting policies applied in the prior period.
b. Opening balances also include matters requiring disclosure that
existed at the beginning of the period, such as contingencies and
commitments.
3. PREDECESSOR AUDITOR: Predecessor auditor means the auditor from a

different audit firm, who audited the financial statements of an entity in
the prior period and who has been replaced by the current auditor.
C. AUDIT PROCEDURES FOR AUDIT OF OPENING BALANCES:

1. The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about
whether the opening balances contain misstatements that materially
affect the current period’s financial statements by:
a. Determining whether the prior period’s closing balances have been
correctly brought forward to the current period or, when
appropriate, any adjustments have been disclosed as prior period
items in the current year’s Statement of Profit and Loss;
229
b. Determining whether the opening balances reflect the application
of appropriate accounting policies; and
c. Whether audit procedures performed in the current period provide
evidence relevant to the opening balances; or
d. Performing specific audit procedures to obtain evidence regarding
the opening balances. (Opening Balance verification)
2. If the auditor obtains audit evidence that the opening balances contain
misstatements that could materially affect the current period’s financial
statements, the auditor shall perform such additional audit procedures
as are appropriate in the circumstances to determine the effect on the
current period’s financial statements. If the auditor concludes that
such misstatements exist in the current period’s financial statements,
the auditor shall communicate the misstatements with the appropriate
level of management and those charged with governance in accordance
with SA 450.
D. CONSISTENCY OF ACCOUNTING POLICIES:
The auditor shall obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about

whether the accounting policies reflected in the opening balances have been
consistently applied in the current period’s financial statements, and
whether changes in the accounting policies have been properly accounted
for and adequately presented and disclosed in accordance with the
E. AUDIT CONCLUSIONS AND REPORTING - OPENING BALANCES:

1. If the auditor concludes that the opening balances contain a
misstatement that materially affects the current period’s financial
statements, and the effect of the misstatement is not properly accounted
for or not adequately presented or disclosed, the auditor shall express a
qualified opinion or an adverse opinion, as appropriate, in accordance
with SA 705.
2. If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence
regarding the opening balances, the auditor shall express a qualified
opinion or a disclaimer of opinion, as appropriate, in accordance with SA
705.
F. AUDIT CONCLUSIONS AND REPORTING - CONSISTENCY OF ACCOUNTING

POLICIES:
1. If the auditor concludes that:
a. The current period’s accounting policies are not consistently
applied in relation to opening balances in accordance with the
applicable financial reporting framework; or
230
b. Changes in accounting policies is not properly accounted for or not
adequately presented or disclosed in accordance with the
2. Then the auditor shall express a qualified opinion or an adverse opinion
as appropriate in accordance with SA 705.
G. MODIFICATIONS IN THE PREDECESSOR AUDITOR’S REPORT:
If there exist a modification in the predecessor audit report and the

modification is remain relevant and material for the current period under
audit then the current auditor shall also modify the opinion in accordance
with SA 705.
231
SA 550 - RELATED PARTIES
A. MEANING OF RELATED PARTY: A party that is either:

1. A related party as defined in the applicable financial reporting framework
or
2. Where the applicable financial reporting framework establishes
minimal or no related party requirements:
a. A person or other entity that has control or significant influence,
directly or indirectly through one or more intermediaries, over the
reporting entity;
b. Another entity over which the reporting entity has control or
significant influence, directly or indirectly through one or more
intermediaries; or
c. Another entity that is under common control with the reporting
entity through having:
i. Common controlling ownership;
ii. Owners who are close family members; or
iii. Common key management.
NOTE: Entities that are under common control by a state (i.e., a national,
regional or local government) are not considered related unless they engage
in significant transactions or share resources to a significant extent with
one another.
B. NATURE OF RELATED PARTY RELATIONSHIPS AND TRANSACTIONS:

1. Many related party transactions are in the normal course of business. In
such circumstances, they may carry no higher risk of material
misstatement of the financial statements than similar transactions
with unrelated parties.
2. However, in some circumstances there exist higher risks of material
misstatement:
a. Related parties may operate through an extensive and complex
range of relationships and structures, with a corresponding
increase in the complexity of related party transactions.
b. Information systems may be ineffective at identifying or
summarising transactions and outstanding balances between an
entity and its related parties.
c. Related party transactions may not be conducted under normal
market terms and conditions; for example, some related party
transactions may be conducted without consideration.
232
C. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE AUDITOR:
1. There are specific accounting and disclosure requirements for related
party relationships, transactions and balances to enable users of the
financial statements to understand their nature and effects on the
2. The auditor has a responsibility to perform audit procedures to identify,
assess and respond to the risks of material misstatement arising from
the entity’s failure to appropriately account for related party
relationships, transactions or balances.
3. The auditor needs to obtain an understanding of the entity’s related
party relationships and transactions sufficient to be able to conclude
whether the financial statements, insofar as they are affected by those
relationships and transactions:
a. Achieve a true and fair presentation; or
b. Are not misleading (for compliance frameworks).
D. RESPONSIBILITY - IDENTIFICATION OF FRAUD RISK FACTORS:

1. In addition, an understanding of the entity’s related party relationships
and transactions is relevant to the auditor’s evaluation of whether
fraud risk factors are present as required by SA 240. This is because
fraud may be more easily committed through related parties.
2. In the context of related parties, the potential effects of inherent
limitations on the auditor’s ability to detect material misstatements are
greater for such reasons as the following:
a. Management may be unaware of the existence of all related party
relationships.
b. Related party relationships may present a greater opportunity for
collusion, concealment or manipulation by management.
3. Planning and performing the audit with professional skepticism as
required by SA 200 is therefore particularly important in this context,
given the potential for undisclosed related party relationships and
transactions.
E. THE IDENTITY OF ENTITIES RELATED PARTIES:

1. AFRFW REQUIRES:
a. Where the applicable financial reporting framework establishes
related party requirements, information regarding the identity of
the entity’s related parties is likely to be readily available to
management because the entity’s information systems will need
to record, process and summarise related party relationships and
233
transactions to enable the entity to meet the accounting and
disclosure requirements of the framework.
b. Management is therefore likely to have a comprehensive list of
related parties and changes from the prior period. For recurring
engagements, making the inquiries provides a basis for comparing
the information supplied by management with the auditor’s record
of related parties noted in previous audits.
2. AFRFW – NO REQUIREMENT:
a. Where the framework does not establish related party
requirements, the entity may not have such information systems
in place.
b. Under such circumstances, it is possible that management may not
be aware of the existence of all related parties.
c. In such a case the auditor’s inquiry regarding the identity of the
entity’s related parties are likely to form part of the auditor’s risk
assessment procedures and related activities performed in
accordance with SA 315 to obtain information regarding:
i. The entity’s ownership and governance structures.
ii. The types of investments that the entity is making and plans
to make; and
iii. The way the entity is structured and how it is financed.
d. In the particular case of common control relationships, as
management is more likely to be aware of such relationships if
they have economic significance to the entity, the auditor’s
inquiries are likely to be more effective if they are focused on
whether parties with which the entity engages in
i. significant transactions, or
ii. shares resources to a significant degree,
are related parties.
234
SA 560 - SUBSEQUENT EVENTS
A. OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of the auditor are to:
1. Obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence about whether events

occurring between the date of the financial statements and the date of
the auditor’s report that require adjustment in the financial statements
are appropriately reflected in those financial statements; and
2. Respond appropriately to facts that become known to the auditor after
the date of the auditor’s report that may have caused the auditor to
amend the auditor’s report
B. DEFINITIONS:
1. SUBSEQUENT EVENTS: the events occurring between the date of the
financial statements and the date of the auditor’s report, and facts that
become known to the auditor after the date of the auditor’s report.
2. DATE OF THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: The date of the end of the latest
period covered by the financial statements.
3. DATE OF APPROVAL OF THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: The date on which

the financial statements, have been prepared and those with the
recognised authority have asserted that they have taken responsibility
for those financial statements.
4. DATE OF THE AUDITOR’S REPORT: The date the auditor dates the report on
the financial statements in accordance with SA 700.
5. DATE THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS ARE ISSUED: The date that the
auditor’s report and audited financial statements are made available to
third parties.
C. AUDIT PROCEDURE FOR IDENTIFICATION OF SUBSEQUENT EVENTS:

1. Obtaining an understanding of any management procedures established
to ensure that subsequent events are identified.
2. Inquiring of management and those charged with governance as to
whether any subsequent events have occurred. Specifically, the auditor
shall evaluate the following:
a. Whether new commitments, borrowings or guarantees have been
entered into.
b. Whether sales or acquisitions of assets have occurred or are
planned.
235
c. Whether any assets have been appropriated by government or
destroyed, for example, by fire or flood
d. Whether there have been any developments regarding
contingencies.
e. Whether any unusual accounting adjustments have been made or
are Contemplated
f. Whether any events have occurred or are likely to occur which
will bring into question the appropriateness of accounting policies
used in the financial statements as would be the case.
3. Reading minutes of the meetings, that have been held after the date of
4. Reading the entity’s latest subsequent interim financial statements.
CASE – I – FACTS WHICH BECOME KNOWN TO THE AUDITOR AFTER THE DATE OF
THE AUDITOR’S REPORT BUT BEFORE THE DATE THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
ARE ISSUED:
1. When, after the date of the auditor’s report but before the date the
financial statements are issued, a fact becomes known to the auditor that,
had it been known to the auditor at the date of the auditor’s report, may
have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s report, the auditor shall:
a. Discuss the matter with management and those charged with
governance.
b. Determine whether the financial statements need amendment and, if
so,
c. Inquire how management intends to address the matter in the
d. IF MANAGEMENT AMENDS THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: the auditor
shall:
i. Carry out the audit procedures necessary in the circumstances
on the amendment.
ii. Obtain sufficient and appropriate evidence regarding the
amendment such subsequent events.
e. IF MANAGEMENT DOES NOT AMEND THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS:
i. Where the auditor concludes that the financial statements are
not amended and If the auditor’s report has not yet been
provided to the entity, the auditor shall modify the opinion as
required by SA 705 and then provide the auditor’s report; or
ii. If the auditor’s report has already been provided to the entity,
the auditor shall notify management and those charged with
governance not to issue the financial statements to third parties
before the necessary amendments have been made.
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iii. If the financial statements are issued without the necessary
amendments, the auditor shall take appropriate action, to seek
to prevent reliance on the auditor’s report.
CASE – II – FACTS WHICH BECOME KNOWN TO THE AUDITOR AFTER THE

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS HAVE BEEN ISSUED:
1. When, after the financial statements have been issued, a fact becomes
known to the auditor that, had it been known to the auditor at the date
of the auditor’s report, may have caused the auditor to amend the auditor’s
report, the auditor shall:
a. Discuss the matter with management and, where appropriate, those
charged with governance.
b. Determine whether the financial statements need amendment and, if
so,
c. Inquire how management intends to address the matter in the
i. IF THE MANAGEMENT AMENDS THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS: The
auditor shall:
1. Carry out the audit procedures necessary in the
circumstances on the amendment.
2. Review the steps taken by management to ensure that
anyone in receipt of the previously issued financial
statements together with the auditor’s report thereon is
informed of the situation.
3. Provide a new auditor’s report on the amended financial
statements. The report shall include an emphasis of matter
or other matter paragraph describing the effect of
amendment of financial statements on the earlier issued
F/S and earlier issued audit report.
ii. IF MANAGEMENT DOES NOT TAKE NECESSARY STEPS:

The auditor shall take appropriate action to seek prevent
reliance on the audit report and financial statements that are
already issued to third parties.
237
SA 580 - WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS
A. DEFINITION OF WRITTEN REPRESENTATION: A written statement by provided
by management to the auditor to confirm certain matters or to support
other audit evidence. Written representations in this context do not
include financial statements, the assertions therein, or supporting books
and records.
B. WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS AS AUDIT EVIDENCE:

1. Written representations are necessary information that the auditor
requires in connection with the audit of the entity’s financial
statements. Accordingly, similar to responses to inquiries, written
representations are audit evidence.
2. Although written representations provide necessary audit evidence,
they do not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence on their own.
C. OBJECTIVES: The objectives of the auditor are:

1. To obtain written representations from management that they believe
that they have fulfilled their responsibility for the preparation of the
financial statements and for the completeness of the information
provided to the auditor.
2. To support other audit evidence relevant to the financial statements or
specific assertions in the financial statements by means of written
representations, if determined necessary by the auditor or required by
other SAs and
3. To respond appropriately to written representations provided by
management.
D. DATE OF AND PERIOD COVERED BY WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS:

1. The date shall be as near as practicable to, but not later than the date
of the auditor’s report on the financial statements.
2. The written representations shall be for all financial statements and
period referred to in the auditor’s report.
E. WRITTEN REPRESENTATION FROM WHOM:

1. The auditor shall request written representations from management
with appropriate responsibilities for the financial statements and
knowledge of the matters concerned.
2. Written representations are requested from those responsible for the
preparation and presentation of the financial statements. Those
individuals may vary depending on the governance structure of the
entity, and relevant law or regulation. However, management (rather
than those charged with governance) is often the responsible party. 238
3. Written representations may therefore be requested from the entity’s
chief executive officer and chief financial officer, or other equivalent
persons in entities that do not use such titles.
4. In some circumstances, other parties, such as those charged with
governance, are also responsible for the preparation and presentation of
the financial statements. [E.g., Accountants under the direction of
Audit Committee]
5. In some cases, management may decide to make inquiries of others
who participate in preparing and presenting the financial statements
and assertions therein, including individuals who have specialized
knowledge relating to the matters about which written representations
are requested. Such individuals may include: An actuary, Staff
engineers, Internal counsel for legal claims.
6. QUALIFYING LANGUAGE: In some cases, management may include in the
written representations qualifying language to the effect that
representations are made to the best of its knowledge and belief. It is
reasonable for the auditor to accept such wording if the auditor is
satisfied that the representations are being made by those with
appropriate responsibilities and knowledge of the matters included in
the representations.
F. DOUBT AS TO THE RELIABILITY OF WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS:

1. If the auditor has concerns about the competence, integrity of
management, the auditor shall determine the effect that may have on
the reliability of representations and audit evidence in general.
2. In particular, if written representations are inconsistent with other audit
evidence, the auditor shall perform audit procedures to attempt to
resolve the matter.
3. If the auditor concludes that the written representations are not
reliable, the auditor shall take appropriate actions, including
determining the possible effect on the opinion in the auditor’s report in
accordance with SA 705. (Usually expresses a disclaimer of opinion)
G. WRITTEN REPRESENTATIONS NOT PROVIDED: If management does not provide

one or more of the requested written representations, the auditor shall:
1. Discuss the matter with management;
2. Re-evaluate the integrity of management and evaluate the effect that
may have on the reliability of representations; and
3. Take appropriate actions in accordance with SA 705. (Expresses a
disclaimer of opinion)
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14. AUDIT OF BANKS
PECULIARITIES INVOLVED IN BANKS
Peculiarities involved:
1. Huge volumes and complexity of transactions.

2. Wide geographical spread of banks’ network.
3. Large range of products and services offered.
4. Extensive use of technology.
5. Strict vigilance by the banking regulator etc.
VARIOUS TYPES OF BANKING ENTITIES
A. COMMERCIAL BANKS: Commercial banks are the widest spread banking

institutions in India, that provide a number of products and services to
general public and other segments of economy. Two of its main functions
are Accepting deposits and Granting advances.
B. REGIONAL RURAL BANKS: Regional Rural Banks known as RRBs are the
banks that have been set up in rural areas in different states of the
country to cater to the basic banking and financial needs of the rural
communities.
C. CO-OPERATIVE BANKS: Co-operative Banks function like Commercial Banks
only but are set up on the basis of Cooperative Principles and registered
under the Cooperative Societies Act of the respective state or the
Multistate Cooperative Societies Act and usually cater to the needs of the
agricultural and rural sectors.
D. PAYMENTS BANKS: Payments Banks are a new type of banks which have
been recently introduced by RBI. They are allowed to accept restricted
deposits but they cannot issue loans and credit cards. However, customers
can open Current & Savings accounts and also avail the facility of ATM
cum Debit cards, Internet-banking & Mobile banking.
Examples: Airtel Payments Bank, India Post Payments Bank, etc.
E. DEVELOPMENT BANKS: Development Banks had been conceptualized to
provide funds for infrastructural facilities important for the economic
growth of the country.
Examples: Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI), Industrial
Development Bank of India (IDBI), etc
F. SMALL FINANCE BANKS: Small Finance Banks have been set up by RBI to
make available basic financial and banking facilities to the unserved and 240
unorganised sectors like small marginal farmers, small & micro business
units, etc.
Examples: Equitas Small Finance Bank, AU Small Finance Bank, etc.
RESERVE BANK OF INDIA, ITS FUNCTIONS AND

RESPONSIBILITIES
1. The functioning of banking industry in India is regulated by the Reserve

Bank of India (RBI) which acts as the Central Bank of our country.
2. RBI is responsible for:

a. Development and supervision of the constituents of the Indian
financial system (which comprises banks and non-banking financial
institutions)
b. Determining, in conjunction with the Central Government, the
monetary and credit policies keeping in with the need of the hour.
3. Important functions of RBI are:

a. Issuance of currency.
b. Regulation of currency issue.
c. Acting as banker to the central and state governments and
d. Acting as banker to commercial and other types of banks including
term lending institutions.
e. Responsibility of regulating the activities of commercial and other
banks.
4. No bank can commence the business of banking or open new branches
without obtaining license from RBI. The RBI also has the power to inspect
any bank.
5. Banking Operations:
a. Banking operations are conducted only at the branches, while other
offices act as controlling authorities or administrative offices that lay
down policies, systems and internal control procedures for conduct
of business, in compliance with the statutory/ regulatory impositions
and in compliance of accepted accounting principles and practices that
cover all transactions and economic events.
b. These controlling/ administrative offices also stipulate the delegation
of powers and fix responsibilities and accountability and these are
involved generally in effective supervision, monitoring and control
over the business activities and operations.
241
AUDIT REPORTS THAT CENTRAL STATUTORY AUDITORS
FURNISH IN CASE OF AUDIT OF BANKS
The Statutory Central Auditors (SCAs) have to furnish the following reports in
addition to their main audit report:
1. Report on adequacy and operating effectiveness of Internal Controls over

Financial Reporting in case of banks which are registered as companies
under the Companies Act in terms of Section 143(3)(i) of the Companies
Act, 2013 which is normally to be given as an Annexure to the main audit
report.
2. Long Form Audit Report. (LFAR)
3. Report on compliance with SLR requirements.
4. Report on whether the treasury operations of the bank have been
conducted in accordance with the instructions issued by the RBI.
5. Report on whether the income recognition, asset classification and
provisioning have been made as per the guidelines issued by the RBI.
6. Report on whether any serious irregularity was noticed in the working of
the bank which requires immediate attention.
7. Report on status of the compliance by the bank with regard to
recommendations of the Ghosh Committee relating to frauds and
malpractices and of the recommendations of Jilani Committee on internal
control and inspection/credit system.
8. Report on instances of adverse credit-deposit ratio in the rural areas.
OVERVIEW OF BANKS ACCOUNTING SYSTEM

1. The transactions in banks have become voluminous and it needs to be
ensured that in the system of recording, transmission and storage of
information/ data, integrity thereof is optimally maintained and control
systems ensure that the same is free of errors, omissions, irregularities and
frauds.
2. Banks may be divided into 3 board categorises based on the level of
computerisation:
a. Non-computerised banks: Transactions can be done only at bank
branches during working hours using paper and pen.
b. Partially computerised banks: Some transactions are computerised
while major is non-computerised.
c. Fully computerised banks:
i. Core banking allows inter-connectivity between branches of the
same bank and with CBS, customers can operate their accounts
242
as well as avail banking services from any branch of the bank
over the network
ii. In the computerized environment, it is imperative that the
auditor is familiar with and satisfied that all the
norms/parameters as per the latest applicable RBI guidelines are
incorporated and built into the system that generates
information/data having a bearing on the classification/
provisions and income recognition.
iii. The auditor should not go by the assumption that the system
generated information is correct. He should use Professional
Scepticism and Prudence wherever he feels that something
manually needs to be performed to check the authenticity and
consistency of the information obtained from the systems and
document the results of such activities performed.
3. Difference between Computerised and Non computerised Banks:
COMPUTERISED BANKS NON-COMPUTERISED BANKS
1. All Banking Activities are 1. Banking is done Manually.

done through computer.
2. Can Transact – Anywhere, 2. Can Transact only in working
Any time hours
3. Shortest processing time. 3. Takes Long time to process

transactions.
4. More Productivity and 4. Less Productivity and Less

efficiency Efficiency.
THE POINTS TO BE KEPT IN MIND WHILE DRAWING AN AUDIT

PLAN OF A BANK
An audit plan should be drawn up based on:
1. The Nature and Level of operations,

2. Nature of Adverse Features,
3. Level Of Compliance based on previous reports and
4. Audit Risks Based on Inadequacy in Or Breach of Internal Controls and the
familiarization exercise carried out.
CONTROL ENVIRONMENT IN A BANK

A bank should have appropriate controls to mitigate its risks, including:
243
1. Effective segregation of duties (between front and back offices),
2. Accurate measurement and reporting of positions,
3. Verification and approval of transactions,
4. Reconciliation of positions and results,
5. Setting up limits,
6. Reporting and approval of exceptions,
7. Physical security and contingency planning.
DISCUSS AND DOCUMENT ABOUT UNDERSTANDING OF AUDIT

OF BANK
A. ENGAGEMENT TEAM DISCUSSIONS: The engagement team should hold

discussions to gain better understanding of the bank and its environment,
including internal control.
1. They should assess the potential for material misstatements of the
2. These discussions are ordinarily done at the planning stage of an
audit & appropriately documented for future reference.
B. MATTERS TO BE DISCUSSED IN GENERAL: The engagement team discussion

ordinarily includes a discussion of the following matters:
1. Errors that may be more likely to occur;
2. Errors which have been identified in prior years;
3. Method by which fraud might be perpetrated by bank personnel or
others within particular account balances and/or disclosures.
4. Need to maintain professional skepticism throughout the audit
engagement.
5. Audit responses to Engagement Risk, Pervasive Risks, and Specific
Risks.
6. Need to alert for information or other conditions that indicates that a
material misstatement may have occurred.
C. ADVANTAGES OF DISCUSSIONS:
1. Specific emphasis should be provided to the susceptibility of the
bank’s financial statements to material misstatement due to fraud,
that enables the engagement team to consider an appropriate
response to fraud risks.
2. It further enables the audit engagement partner to delegate the work
to the experienced engagement team members, and to determine the
procedures to be followed when fraud is identified.
3. Audit engagement partner may review the need to involve specialists
to address the issues relating to fraud.
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CONDUCTING A BANK AUDIT
A. INITIAL CONSIDERATION BY THE STATUTORY AUDITOR:

1. Communication with Previous Auditor: As per Clause (8) of the Part I of
the First Schedule to the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949, a chartered
accountant in practice cannot accept position as auditor previously held
by another chartered accountant without first communicating with him
in writing.
2. Acceptance & Continuance: Performing procedures required by SA 220,
“Quality Control for Audit Work” regarding the acceptance of the client
relationship and the specific audit engagement (Assessing Engagement
risk); and
3. Declaration of Indebtedness: Banks should obtain a declaration of
indebtedness before appointing their auditors that he has not availed
credit facilities from any other bank (or) credit facilities, if any, availed
have not become NPA.
4. Terms of Audit Engagements: SA 210 requires that for each period to be
audited, the auditor should agree on the terms of the audit engagement
and they should be documented, in order to prevent any confusion.
5. Internal Assignments: The audit firms should not undertake statutory
audit assignment, if they are associated with internal assignments in the
bank during the same year.
6. Establish the Engagement Team: The assignment of qualified and
experienced professionals of engagement team should be done on the
basis of size, nature, and complexity of the bank’s operations.
B. UNDERSTANDING THE BANK AND ITS ENVIRONMENT INCLUDING

ACCOUNTING PROCESS:
SA 315 lay downs that the auditor should obtain an understanding of the
entity and its environment, including its internal control and accounting
process,
1. To identify and assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial

statements whether due to fraud or error, and
2. To design and perform further audit procedures.
C. ENGAGEMENT TEAM DISCUSSIONS: The engagement team should hold

discussions to gain better understanding of banks and its environment,
including internal control, and also to assess the potential for material
misstatements of the financial statements.
245
D. DEVELOP THE AUDIT PLAN: SA 300 deals with the auditor’s responsibility to
plan an audit of financial statements in an effective manner. It requires the
involvement of all the key members of the engagement team while
planning an audit.
E. DETERMINE AUDIT MATERIALITY: The auditor should consider the

relationship between the audit materiality and audit risk when conducting
an audit.
F. CONSIDER GOING CONCERN: In obtaining an understanding of the bank, the

auditor should consider whether there are events and conditions which may
cast significant doubt on the bank’s ability to continue as a going concern.
G. MAINTAINING PROFESSIONAL SCEPTICISM: As per SA 240, the attitude of

professional scepticism should be maintained by the auditor so as to
recognise the possibility of misstatements due to fraud.
H. STRESS TESTING: RBI has required that all commercial banks shall put in
place a Broad approved ‘Stress Testing framework’ to suit their individual
requirements which would integrate into their risk management systems.
I. BASEL III FRAMEWORK: In the document titled ‘Basel III’, A global regulatory
framework for more resilient in banks and banking systems’, released by the
BCBS in December 2010, it has proposed certain minimum set of criteria
for inclusion of instruments in the new definition of regulatory capital.
BCBS: Basel Committee on Banking Supervision.
J. RELIANCE ON / REVIEW OF OTHER REPORTS: The auditor should take into

account the adverse comments, on advances appearing in the following:
1. Previous audit reports.
2. Latest internal inspection reports of bank officials.
3. Reserve Bank’s latest inspection report.
4. Concurrent / Internal audit report.
5. Report on verification of security.
6. Manager’s charge-handing-over report when incumbent is changed.
UNDERSTANDING OF RISK MANAGEMENT PROCESS WHILE

CONDUCTING AUDIT OF A BANK
Management develops controls and uses performance indicators to aid in
managing key business and financial risks. An effective risk management
system in a bank generally requires the following:
1. INVOLVEMENT IN THE CONTROL PROCESS BY THOSE CHARGED WITH

GOVERNANCE: Those charged with governance (BOD/Chief Executive 246
Officer) should approve written risk management policies. The policies
should be consistent with the bank’s business objectives and strategies,
regulatory requirements etc.
2. IDENTIFICATION, MEASUREMENT AND MONITORING OF RISKS: Risks that
could significantly impact the achievement of bank’s goals should be
identified, measured and monitored against pre-approved limits and
criteria.
3. CONTROL ACTIVITIES: A bank should have appropriate controls to manage
its risks, including effective segregation of duties, verification and approval
of transactions, physical security and contingency planning etc.
4. MONITORING ACTIVITIES: Risk management models, methodologies used to
measure and manage risk should be regularly assessed and updated.
5. RELIABLE INFORMATION SYSTEMS: Banks require reliable information
systems that provide adequate financial, operational and compliance
information on a timely and consistent basis.
PROVISIONS RELATING TO APPOINTMENT OF AUDITOR FOR

BANKS
A. ELIGIBILITY, QUALIFICATIONS AND DISQUALIFICATIONS OF AUDITOR: Same as
auditor of company as prescribed under section 141 of the Companies Act,
2013.
B. AUTHORITY TO APPOINTMENT:
1. Auditor of a BANKING COMPANY: Appointed by shareholders of the bank
at the AGM. (Approval of the Reserve Bank of India is required before
the appointment is made.)
2. Auditor of a NATIONALISED BANK: By BOD subject to certain approvals
from RBI. (Approval of the Reserve Bank of India is required before the
appointment is made.)
3. Auditors of the SBI: Appointed by the CAG of India in consultation with
CG. The subsidiaries of SBI are to be appointed by SBI itself.
4. Auditors of REGIONAL RURAL BANKS: By BOD of the bank with approval
of Central Government.
C. REMUNERATION OF AUDITOR:
1. Auditor of a banking company: Fixed in accordance with the provisions
of section 142 of the Companies Act, 2013 (i.e., by the company in
general meeting).
2. Auditors of nationalised banks, SBI and RRBs: Fixed by the Reserve Bank
of India in consultation with the Central Government.
247
D. POWERS OF AUDITOR: Same powers as those of a company auditor prescribed
in companies act, 2013 like access to the books, accounts, documents and
vouchers etc
REPORTING BY AUDITOR OF A BANK

A. REPORTING TO CG:
In the case of a nationalised bank, the auditor is required to make a

report to the Central Government in which he must state the following:
1. Whether the balance sheet and profit and loss containing all the
necessary particulars and is properly drawn up so as to exhibit a true
and fair view of the affairs and Profit or loss of the bank.
2. Whether he has been given any explanation or information requested,
and whether it is satisfactory;
3. Whether the transactions of the bank, which have come to his
notice, have been within the powers of that bank.
4. whether the returns received from the offices and branches of the
bank have been found adequate for the purpose of his audit.
B. FORMAT OF REPORT:
1. Compliance with SA’S: The auditors, central as well as branch, should
also ensure that the audit report issued by them complies with the
requirements of relevant Standards on Auditing.
2. Additional disclosure by Central Auditor: The auditor should ensure
that not only information relating to number of unaudited branches
is given but quantification of advances, deposits, interest income
and interest expense for such unaudited branches has also been
disclosed in the audit report. (SA 600 requirement)
3. Matters to be stated as per Sec. 143: It may be noted that, in addition
to the aforesaid, the auditor of a banking company is also required
to state in his report in respect of matters covered by Section 143 of
the Companies Act, 2013.
4. CARO applicability: The reporting requirements relating to the
Companies (Auditor’s Report) Order, 2020 is not applicable to a
banking company.
C. LONG FORM AUDIT REPORT:

1. The terms of appointment of auditors of public sector banks, private
sector banks and foreign banks (as well as their branches), require the
auditors to also furnish a long form audit report (LFAR).
2. The matters in the long form audit report have been specified by the
Reserve Bank of India. 248
3. The LFAR is to be submitted before 30th June every year.
4. To ensure timely submission of LFAR, proper planning for completion of
the LFAR is required.
5. While the format of LFAR does not require an executive summary to be
given, members may consider providing the same to bring out the key
observations from the whole document.
D. REPORTING TO RBI (or) REPORTING OF FRAUD:

1. As per RBI Circular: The RBI issued a Circular relating to Legal Aspects of
Bank Frauds applicable to all scheduled commercial banks (excluding
Regional Rural Banks).
2. The said circular provided as under: “If an accounting professional,
whether in the course of internal or external audit, finds anything
susceptible to be fraud or fraudulent activity or act of excess power or
smell any foul play in any transaction, he should refer the matter to the
regulator. Any deliberate failure on the part of the auditor should render
himself liable for action”.
3. As per SA 240: Also, if the auditor while performing his normal duties
comes across any fraud, he should report the matter to the RBI in
addition to Chairman/Managing Director/Chief Executive of the
concerned bank.
4. It must be noted that auditor is not expected to look into each and
every transaction but to evaluate the system as a whole. Therefore, if
the auditor while performing his normal duties comes across any
instance, he should report the matter to the RBI in addition to
Chairman/Managing Director/Chief Executive of the concerned bank.
E. DUTY TO REPORT ON FRAUDS UNDER SECTION 143(12) OF THE COMPANIES

ACT, 2013:
Same as company auditors appointed under section 139 of the company’s

act, 2013. This is in addition to reporting to RBI.
AUDIT OF ADVANCES OF A BANKING COMPANY
1. Advances are amount of money or credit, given as a loan from a bank to

another party with an agreement that the money will be repaid. All Bank
Loans are made at interest which is a compensation for borrowing.
Advances, constitute the largest item on the assets side of the balance sheet
of a bank and are major source of its income. Audit of advances is one of
the most important areas covered by auditors in bank audit. Auditors
must be aware of the various functional areas of the bank/branches, its
249
processes, procedures, systems and prevailing internal controls with regard
to advances.
2. The auditor should examine all large advances while other advances may
be examined on a sampling basis:
a. An advance may be considered to be a large advance if the year-end
balance is in excess of Rs. 2 crore or 5% of the aggregate year end
advances of the branch, whichever is less.
b. Remaining advances are known as other advances.
3. TYPES OF ADVANCES:
a. FUNDED: Funded loans are those loans where there is an actual
transfer of funds from the bank to the borrower. Ex: Term loans, Bills
Discounted and Purchased, , Interest-bearing Staff Loans.
b. NON-FUNDED: Non-funded facilities are those which do not involve
such transfer. Ex: Letters of credit, Bank guarantees, etc.
c. Advances generally comprises of:
i. Term loans.
ii. Cash credits, Overdrafts, Demand Loans.
iii. Bills Discounted and Purchased.
iv. Participation on Risk Sharing basis.
v. Interest-bearing Staff Loans.
d. Disclosures in Balance sheet:
i. Bills purchased and discounted
ii. Cash credits, Overdrafts and loans repayable on demand
iii. Term Loans
e. The above advances shall further be disclosed with Secured by
tangible assets, Covered by Guarantees and Unsecured.
f. These advances shall be again sub divided into:
i. Advances In India:
1. Priority sectors
2. Public sector
3. Banks
4. Others
ii. Advances Outside India:
1. Due from banks
2. Due from Others:
a. Bills purchased and discounted
b. Syndicated loans
c. Others.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES OF A BANK SECTOR WISE AD
SECURITY WISE
A. BASED ON SECTOR WISE:
RBI issues common guidelines for lending to Priority Sector which banks are
required to follow. These guidelines cover rate of interest; service charges,
receipt, sanction, etc. RBI also issues targets for bank’s for lending to
Priority Sector. Examples of Priority Sectors are Agriculture, MSME,
Education, Housing, etc.
B. BASED ON SECURITY:
1. Primary security refers to the security offered by the borrower for bank
finance. This security is the principal security for an advance.
2. Collateral security is an additional security.
C. MODE OF CREATION OF SECURITY:

1. MORTGAGE: Mortgages are of several kinds but the most important are
the Registered Mortgage and the Equitable Mortgage.
a. A Registered Mortgage can be affected by a registered instrument
called the ‘Mortgage Deed’ signed by the mortgagor. It registers the
property to the mortgagee as a security.
b. Equitable Mortgage, on the other hand, is affected by a mere
delivery of title deeds or other documents of title with intent to
create security thereof.
2. PLEDGE:
a. A pledge involves bailment or delivery of goods by the borrower to
the lending bank with the intention of creating a security for the
advance.
b. The legal ownership of the goods remains with the pledger while the
lending banker gets certain defined interests in the goods.
3. HYPOTHECATION:
a. Neither ownership nor possession is transferred to the bank and
the borrower holds the physical possession of the goods as an
agent/trustee of the bank.
b. The borrower periodically submits statements regarding quantity
and value of hypothecated assets (stocks, debtors, etc.) to the
lending banker on the basis of which the drawing power of the
borrower is determined.
4. ASSIGNMENT: Assignment represents a transfer of an existing or future
debt, right or property belonging to a person in favour of another person.
Only actionable claims (i.e., claim to any debt other than a secured 251
debt) such as book debts and life insurance policies are accepted by
banks as security by way of assignment.
5. SET-OFF:
a. The set-off enables a bank to combine two accounts (a deposit
account and a loan account) of the same person provided both the
accounts are in the same name and in the same right (i.e., the
capacity of the account holder in both the accounts should be the
same).
b. For the purpose of set-off, all the branches of a bank are treated
as one single entity.
c. The right of set-off can be exercised in respect of time-barred debts
also.
6. LIEN: Lien is creation of a legal charge with consent of the owner, which
gives lender a legal right to seize and dispose / liquidate the asset under
lien.
PRUDENTIAL NORMS CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES AND

PROVISIONING PERTAINING TO ADVANCES
A. NON-PERFORMING ASSETS:
An asset becomes NPA when it ceases to generate income for the Bank. A
non-performing asset (NPA) is a loan or an advance where -:
1. Interest and/ or instalment of principal remain overdue for a period of

more than 90 days in respect of a term loan.
2. The account remains ‘out of order’ in respect of an overdraft/cash

credit (OD/ CC).
3. The bill remains overdue for a period of more than 90 days in the case
of bills purchased and discounted.
Note:
1. Classification as NPA should be based on the record of recovery.

Availability of security or net worth of borrower/guarantor is not to be
taken into account for purpose of treating an advance as NPA or
otherwise.
2. Asset classification would be borrower-wise and not facility-wise. All

facilities including investments in securities would be termed as NPA.
B. OUT OF ORDER:
An account should be treated as ‘out of order’ if: 252

1. The outstanding balance remains continuously in excess of the sanctioned
limit/drawing power or
2. In cases where the outstanding balance in the principal operating

account is less than the sanctioned limit/drawing power, but there are
no credits continuously for 90 days as on the date of balance sheet or
3. Credits are there but are not enough to cover the interest debited during
the same period, these accounts should be treated as ‘out of order’.
OVERDUE:
Any amount due to the bank under any credit facility is ‘overdue’ if it is not
paid on the due date fixed by the bank. The following provisioning shall be
followed:
CATEGORIES OF NON-PERFORMING PROVISION REQUIRED

ASSETS
A. Substandard Assets: Would be one,

which has remained NPA for a
15%
period less than or equal to 12
months.
B. Doubtful Assets: Would be one, which has remained in the substandard

category for a period of 12 months.
Sub Categories: Secured Portion Unsecured Portion
1. Doubtful up to 1 Year (D1) 25% 100%
2. Doubtful 1 to 3 Years (D2) 40% 100%
3. Doubtful more than 3 Years

100% 100%
(D3)
C. Loss Assets: Would be one, where

loss has been identified by the
bank or internal or external
100%
auditors or the RBI inspection but
the amount has not been written
off wholly.
SPEICAL NPA NORMS FOR VARIOUS KINDS OF ADVANCES
A. ACCOUNTS REGULARIZED NEAR ABOUT THE BALANCE SHEET DATE:

253
1. These are the accounts with few credits received just before the date of
balance sheet.
2. The asset classification of such accounts should be handled with care.
If the account indicates inherent weakness on the basis of the data
available, the account should be deemed as a NPA.
B. GOVERNMENT GUARANTEED ADVANCES:

1. Central Govt. guaranteed Advances, where the guarantee is not invoked/
repudiated would be classified as Standard Assets, but regarded as NPA for
Income Recognition purpose.
2. The situation would be different if the advance is guaranteed by State
Government, where advance is to be considered NPA if it remains
overdue for more than 90 days for both Provisioning and Income
recognition purposes.
In other words, provisioning norms do not apply and interest is recognised

only if it is realised i.e., cash basis. [This relaxation is not applicable for
State Government Guaranteed Advances]
C. ADVANCES UNDER CONSORTIUM:

1. Consortium advances mean advancing loans to a borrower by 2 or more
Banks jointly by forming a Consortium. Joint appraisal, control and
monitoring will facilitate for exchange of valuable information among
the Banks. Usually, a Bank with a higher share will lead the consortium.
2. Consortium advances should be based on the record of recovery of the
respective individual member banks.
3. Where the remittances by the borrower under consortium lending
arrangements are received by the lead bank and the lead bank is not
transferring the share of other member banks, the account should be
deemed to be NPA as per respective provisions.
4. The banks participating in the consortium, need to arrange to get their
share of recovery transferred from the lead bank or to get an express
consent from the lead bank for the transfer of their share of recovery,
to ensure proper asset classification in their respective books.
5. Drawing Power Allocation in case of Consortium Cash Credit Account: The
Lead Bank would be responsible for computing the drawing power (DP)
of the borrower and allocate the same to member banks. In certain
special circumstances, at the request of the Borrower, the Lead Bank
may allot a higher or lower share of drawing power to the member bank,
as against their share of advances.
D. ACCOUNTS WHERE THERE IS EROSION IN THE VALUE OF SECURITY / FRAUDS

COMMITTED BY BORROWERS:
254
1. Erosion means the gradual destruction or diminution of something not
prudent to follow stages of asset classification. It should be straight-
away classified as doubtful or loss asset as appropriate as follows:
a. As Doubtful asset: If the realisable value of the security is less than
50 per cent of the value assessed by the bank or accepted by RBI at
the time of last inspection, Such assets may be straight-away
classified under doubtful category and provisioning should be
made as applicable to doubtful assets.
b. As Loss asset: If the realisable value of the security, as assessed by
the bank/ approved valuers/ RBI is less than 10 per cent of the
outstanding in the borrower accounts, then the existence of
security should be ignored and the asset should be straight-away
classified as loss asset. It shall be fully written off.
E. ADVANCES AGAINST TERM DEPOSITS, NSCS, and KVPS:
Advances against Term Deposits, NSCs, and KVP/IVP need not be treated as
NPAs, provided adequate margin is available in the accounts.
F. AGRICULTURAL ADVANCES AFFECTED BY NATURAL CALAMITIES:

1. Master Circular issued by the RBI deals elaborately with the
classification and income recognition issues due to impairment caused
by natural calamities.
2. Banks may decide on their own relief measures.
E.g., They may convert a short-term production loan into a term loan
or re-schedulement of the repayment period and the sanctioning of
fresh short-term loan.
3. In such cases, the NPA classification would be governed by such
rescheduled terms.
G. ADVANCES TO STAFF:
1. Interest on staff advances should be included as part of advances
portfolio of the bank.
2. In the case advances granted to staff members where interest is
payable after recovery of principal, interest need not be considered as
overdue from the first quarter onwards.
3. Such loans/advances should be classified as NPA only when there is a
default in repayment of instalment on the respective due dates for
beyond 90 days.
H. AGRICULTURAL ADVANCES:
1. Agricultural Advances are of two types,
a. Agricultural Advances for “long duration” crops (LDC) and
b. Agricultural Advances for “short duration” crops (SDC) 255
2. The following NPA norms would apply to agricultural advances:
a. SDC: A loan will be treated as NPA, if the instalment remains
overdue for two crop seasons.
b. LDC: A loan will be treated as NPA, if the instalment remains
overdue for one crop season.
Note: The “long duration” crops would be crops with crop season longer
than one year and crops, which are not “long duration” crops would be
treated as “short duration” crops.
COMPUUTAION OF DRAWING POWER
1. DRAWING POWER: Drawing Power generally addressed as “DP” is an

important concept for Cash Credit (CC) facility availed from banks and
financial institutions. Drawing power is the limit up to which a firm or
company can withdraw from the working capital limit sanctioned.
2. SANCTIONED LIMIT: The Sanctioned limit is the total exposure that a bank
can take on a particular client for facilities like cash credit, overdraft,
export packing credit, non-funded exposures etc. On the other hand,
Drawing Power refers to the amount calculated based on primary security
less margin as on a particular date.
3. RULES FOR DP / SL:
a. All accounts should be kept within both the drawing power and the
sanctioned limit at all times.
b. Banks should ensure that drawings in the working capital account
are covered by the adequacy of the current assets.
c. Drawing power is required to be arrived at based on current stock
statement.
d. Considering the difficulties of large borrowers, stock statements
relied upon by the banks for determining drawing power should not be
older than 3 months.
e. The outstanding in the account based on drawing power calculated
from stock statements older than 3 months is deemed as irregular.
f. Computation of DP: It needs to be ensured that the drawing power is
calculated as per the extant guidelines formulated by the Board of
Directors of the respective bank and agreed upon by the concerned
statutory auditors.
g. Special consideration should be given to proper reporting of sundry
creditors for the purposes of calculating drawing power.
4. AUDIT REQUIREMENTS:
256
a. The stock statements, quarterly returns and other statements &
Annual reports submitted by the borrower to the bank should be
scrutinized in detail.
b. The monthly stock statement of the month for which the audited
accounts are prepared and submitted should be compared and the
reasons for deviations, should be ascertained.
c. Stock Audit:
i. The stock audit should be carried out by the bank for all
accounts having funded exposure of more than 5 crores.
ii. Auditors can also advise for stock audit in other cases if the
situation warrants the same.
iii. Branches should obtain the stock audit reports from lead bank in
the cases where the Bank is not leader of the consortium of
working capital.
iv. The report submitted by the stock auditors should be reviewed
during the course of the audit and special focus should be given
to the comments made by the stock auditors on valuation of
security and calculation of drawing power.
AUDIT OF ADVANCES
1. OBJECTIVES OF AUDIT: In carrying out audit of advances, the auditor is

primarily concerned with obtaining evidence about the following:
a. Amounts included in balance sheet in respect of advances which are
outstanding at the date of the balance sheet.
b. Advances represent amount due to the bank.
c. Amounts due to the bank are appropriately supported by loan
documents and other documents as applicable to the nature of
advances.
d. There are no unrecorded advances.
e. The stated basis of valuation of advances is appropriate and properly
applied and the recoverability of advances is recognised in their
valuation.
f. Appropriate provisions towards advances have been made as per the
RBI norms, Accounting Standards and generally accepted accounting
practices.
2. EVALUATION OF INTERNAL CONTROLS OVER ADVANCES: The auditor should

examine the efficacy of various internal controls over advances to
determine the nature, timing and extent of his substantive procedures. In
general, the internal controls over advances should include the following:
257
a. CREDIT WORTHINESS: The bank should make an advance only after
satisfying itself as to the credit worthiness of the borrower and after
obtaining sanction from the appropriate authorities of the bank.
b. DOCUMENTATION: All the necessary documents (e.g., agreements,
demand promissory notes, letters of hypothecation, etc.) should be
executed by the parties before advances are made.
c. END USE OF FUNDS: The compliance with the terms of sanction and
end use of funds should be ensured.
d. MARGIN OF SAFETY: Sufficient margin as specified in the sanction
letter should be kept against securities taken so as to cover for any
decline in the value thereof. The availability of sufficient margin
needs to be ensured at regular intervals.
e. CREATION OF SECURITY:
i. If the securities taken are in the nature of shares, debentures,
etc., the ownership of the same should be transferred in the
name of the bank and the effective control of such securities be
retained as a part of documentation.
ii. All securities requiring registration should be registered in the
name of the bank or otherwise accompanied by documents
sufficient to give title to the bank.
iii. In the case of goods in the possession of the bank, contents of
the packages should be test checked at the time of receipt.
iv. The godowns should be frequently inspected by responsible
officers of the branch concerned, in addition to the inspectors
of the bank.
f. DRAWING POWER:
i. Drawing Power Register should be updated every month to
record the value of securities hypothecated. These entries should
be checked by an officer.
ii. The accounts should be kept within both the drawing power and
the sanctioned limit.
iii. All the accounts which exceed the sanctioned limit or drawing
power or are otherwise irregular should be brought to the
notice of the controlling authority regularly.
g. The operation of each advance account should be reviewed at least
once a year and at more frequent intervals in the case of large
advances.
3. AUDIT PROCEDURES: The auditor can obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence about advances by study and evaluation of internal controls
relating to advances, and by:
a. Examining the validity of the recorded amounts.
b. Examining loan documentation. 258
c. Reviewing the operation of the accounts.
d. Examining the existence, enforceability and valuation of the security.
e. Checking compliance with RBI norms including appropriate
classification and provisioning and
f. Carrying out appropriate analytical procedures.
4. SUBSTANTIVE PROCEDURES:
a. In carrying out his substantive procedures, the auditor should
examine all large advances while other advances may be examined on
a sampling basis.
b. The accounts identified to be problem accounts, need to be examined
in detail unless the amount involved is insignificant.
c. Advances which are sanctioned during the year or which are
adversely commented by RBI inspection team, concurrent auditors,
bank’s internal inspection, etc. should generally be included in the
auditor’s review.
AUDIT OF INCOME OF A BANK
A. P & L FORMAT AND INCOMES OF A BANK: Refer ICAI SM – 12.37 to 12.39.

[Not relevant for exams]
B. AUDIT APPROACH:
1. OBJECTIVE: In carrying out audit of income, the auditor is primarily
concerned with obtaining reasonable assurance that:
a. The recorded income arose from transactions,
b. It took place during the relevant period and pertained to the bank,
c. There is no unrecorded income and
d. The income is recorded at appropriate amount.
2. ACCRUAL BASIS: RBI has advised that in respect of any income which
exceeds:
a. 1% of the total income of the bank if the income is reckoned on a
gross basis or
b. 1% of the net profit before taxes if the income is reckoned net of
costs,
Should be considered on accrual basis.
Note: If any item of income is not considered to be material as per the

above norms, it may be recognised when received and the auditors
need not qualify their report in that situation.
3. REVENUE CERTAINTY:
259
a. Banks recognise income (such as interest, fees and commission)
on accrual basis, i.e., as it is earned.
b. It is an essential condition for accrual of income that it should not
be unreasonable to expect its ultimate collection. In modern day
banking, the entries for interest income on advances are
automatically generated through a batch process in the CBS
system.
c. UNCERTAINITY:
i. In view of the significant uncertainty regarding ultimate
collection of income arising in respect of non-performing
assets, the guidelines require that banks should not
recognize income on non-performing assets until it is actually
realised.
ii. When a credit facility is classified as non-performing for the
first time, interest accrued and credited to the income
account in the corresponding previous year which has not
been realized should be reversed or provided for. This will
apply to Government guaranteed accounts also.
d. However, Interest on advances against Term Deposits, National
Savings Certificates (NSCs), Indira Vikas Patras (IVPs), Kisan Vikas
Patras (KVPs) and Life policies may be taken to income account on
the due date, provided adequate margin is available in the
accounts.
e. MEMORANDUM ACCOUNT:
i. On an account turning NPA, banks should reverse the interest
already charged and not collected by debiting Profit and Loss
account and stop further application of interest.
ii. However, banks may continue to record such accrued
interest in a Memorandum account in their books for control
purposes.
iii. For the purpose of computing Gross Advances, interest
recorded in the Memorandum account should not be taken
into account.
4. BILLS PURCHASED:
a. In the case of bills purchased outstanding at the close of the year
the discount received thereon should be properly apportioned
between the two years. [The Unexpired discount/ rebate on bills
discounted i.e., where part of receipt comprising discount charges
on bills purchased relate to the period beyond the year-end,
should be recorded as “Other Liabilities”].
260
b. Interest (discount) component paid by Bank/Branch on rediscount
of bills from other financial institutions, is not to be netted off
from the discount earned on bills discounted.
5. BILLS FOR COLLECTION:

a. In the case of bills for collection, the auditor should also examine
the procedure for crediting the party on whose behalf the bill has
been collected.
b. The procedure is usually such that the customer’s account is
credited only after the bill has actually been collected from the
drawee either by the bank itself or through its agents, etc.
c. The commission of the branch becomes due only when the bill has
been collected.
6. RENEGOTIATIONS:
a. Fees and commissions earned by the banks as a result of re-
negotiations or rescheduling of outstanding debts should be
recognised on an accrual basis over the period of time covered by
the re-negotiated or rescheduled extension of credit.
b. Test check the interest earned by the banks for the sample
selected.
c. Test check the fees and commissions earned by the banks made for
commission on bills for collection, letters of credit and bank
guarantees.
7. PARTIAL RECOVERIES IN NPA:

a. In the absence of a clear agreement between the bank and the
borrower for the purpose of appropriation of recoveries in NPAs
(i.e., towards principal or interest due), banks are required to adopt
an accounting policy and exercise the right of appropriation of
recoveries in a uniform and consistent manner.
b. The appropriate policy to be followed is to recognise income as
per AS 9 when certainty attaches to realisation and accordingly
amount reversed/derecognised or not recognised in the past should
be accounted. Interest partly/fully realised in NPAs can be taken
to income.
c. It should be ensured that the credits towards interest in the
relevant accounts are not out of fresh/additional credit facilities
sanctioned to the borrowers concerned.
8. OTHER INCOMES:
a. INTEREST INCOME ON INVESTMENTS: 261
i. This includes all income derived from Government securities,
bonds and debentures of corporates and other investments
by way of interest and dividend, except income earned by way
of dividends, etc., from subsidiaries and joint ventures
abroad/in India.
ii. Broken period interest paid on securities purchased and
amortisation of premium on SLR investments is net off from
the interest income on investments.
b. PROFIT ON SALE OF INVESTMENTS: Investments are dealt in the

course of banking activity and hence the net profit or loss on sale
of investments is taken to profit and loss account.
c. PROFIT/LOSS ON REVALUATION OF INVESTMENTS: In terms of

guidelines issued by the RBI, investments are to be valued at
periodical intervals and depreciation or appreciation in valuation
should be recognised and taken to profit and loss account.
REVERSAL OF INCOME
1. If any advance, including bills purchased and discounted, becomes NPA as

at the close of any year, the entire interest accrued and credited to income
account in the past periods, should be reversed or provided for if the same
is not realised. This will apply to Government guaranteed accounts also.
2. In respect of NPAs, fees, commission and similar income that have
accrued should cease to accrue in the current period and should be reversed
or provided for with respect to past periods, if uncollected.
3. Further, in case of banks which have wrongly recognised income in the past
should reverse the interest if it was recognised as income during the
current year or make a provision for an equivalent amount if it was
recognized as income in the previous year(s).
4. Furthermore, the auditor should enquire if there are any large debits in the
Interest Income account that have not been explained. It should be enquired
whether there are any communications from borrowers pointing out
differences in interest charge and whether appropriate action has been
taken in this regard.
5. ON LEASED ASSETS: The component of finance income (as defined in AS 19
– Leases) on the leased asset which was accrued and credited to the
income account before the asset became non-performing and remaining
unrealised, should be reversed or provided for in the current accounting
period.
6. ON TAKE-OUT FINANCE:
262
a. A takeout loan is a method of financing whereby a loan that is
procured later is used to replace the initial loan. More specifically, a
takeout loan, or takeout financing, is long-term financing that
the lender promises to provide at a particular date or when
particular criteria for completion of a project are met. Takeout
loans are commonly used in property development.
b. In the case of take-out finance, if based on record of recovery, the
account is classified by the lending bank as NPA, it should not
recognize income unless realised from the borrower/taking-over
institution (if the arrangement so provides).
c. Objectives of Takeout Finance are:
i. To expand sources of finance for Infra projects by facilitating
participation of new entities.
ii. To address sectorial / Group / Entity Exposure issues and
credit mismatch concerns of lenders.
iii. To boose availability of long tenure debt facility for various
projects.
AUDIT OF EXPENSES OF A BANK

A. AUDIT OF INTEREST EXPENDITURE:
1. In carrying out an audit of interest expense, the auditor is primarily
concerned with assessing the overall reasonableness of the amount of
interest expense by analysing ratios of interest paid on different types of
deposits and borrowings to the average quantum of the respective
liabilities during the year.
2. The auditor should obtain from the bank an analysis of various types of
deposits outstanding at the end of each quarter. From such information,
the auditor may work out a weighted average interest rate. The auditor
may then compare this rate with the actual average rate of interest paid
on the relevant deposits as per the annual accounts and enquire into
the difference, if material.
3. The auditor should also compare the average rate of interest paid on
the relevant deposits with the corresponding figures for the previous
years and analyse any material differences.
4. The auditor should obtain general ledger break-up for the interest
expense incurred on deposits (savings and term deposits) and borrowing
each month/quarter.
5. The auditor should analyse month on month (or quarter on quarter)
cost analysis and document the reasons for the variances as per the
benchmark stated. He should examine whether the interest expense
considered in the cost analysis agrees with the general ledger. 263
6. The auditor should understand the process of computation of the
average balance and re-compute the same on sample basis. The auditor
should, on a test check basis, verify the calculation of interest and
ensure that:
a. Interest has been provided on all deposits upto the date of the
balance sheet.
b. Interest rates are in accordance with the bank’s internal
regulations, the RBI directives and agreements with the respective
deposit holder.
c. Interest on savings accounts is in accordance with the rules framed
by the bank/RBI in this behalf.
d. Interest on inter–branch balances has been provided at the rates
prescribed by the head office/RBI.
e. The auditor should ascertain whether there are any changes in
interest rate on saving accounts and term deposits during the
period.
f. The auditor should obtain the interest rate card for various types of
deposits and analyse the interest cost for the period accordingly.
g. The auditor should examine the completeness that interest has
been accrued on the entire borrowing portfolio and the same should
agree with the general ledgers.
h. The auditor should re-compute the interest accrual
B. AUDIT OF OPERATING EXPENSES: For audit of operating expenses:

1. The auditor should study and evaluate the system of internal control
relating to expenses, including authorization procedures in order to
determine the nature, timing and extent of his other audit procedures.
2. The auditor should examine whether there are any divergent trends in
respect of major items of expenses.
3. The auditor should perform substantive analytical procedures (proforma
given below for reference) in respect of these expenses. e.g., assess the
reasonableness of expenses by working out their ratio to total
operating expenses and comparing it with the corresponding figures for
previous years.
4. The auditor should also verify expenses with reference to supporting
documents and check the calculations wherever required.
C. AUDIT OF PROVISIONS AND CONTINGENCIES: For audit of Provisions and

contingencies:
1. The auditor should ensure that the compliances for various regulatory
requirements for provisioning as contained in the various circulars have
been fulfilled.
264
2. The auditor should obtain an understanding as to how the bank
computes provision on standard assets and non-performing assets.
3. It will primarily include checking the basis of classification of loans and
receivables into standard, sub-standard, doubtful, loss and non-
performing assets.
4. The auditor may verify the loan classification on a sample basis.
5. The auditor should obtain the detailed break up of standard loans, non-
performing loans and agree the outstanding balances with the general
ledger.
6. AUDIT OF PROVISION FOR TAX: The auditor should obtain the tax
provision computation from the bank’s management and verify the
nature of items debited and credited to profit and loss account to
ascertain that the same are appropriately considered in the tax provision
computation.
7. The other provisions for expenses should be examined with reference to
the circumstances warranting the provisioning and the adequacy of the
same by discussing and obtaining the explanations from the bank’s
management.
D. DISCLOSURE OF THE PRIOR PERIOD ITEMS: The format of the profit and loss
accounts of banks prescribed does not specifically provide for disclosure of
the impact of prior period items on the current year’s profit and loss, such
disclosures, wherever warranted, may be given.
265
15. GOVERNMENT AUDIT
GOVERNMENT AUDIT AND ITS OBJECTIVES

A. DEFINITION:
1. Government auditing is
a. The objective, systematic, professional, and independent

examination
b. of financial, administrative, and other operations
c. of a public entity
d. made subsequently to their execution
e. for the purpose of evaluating and verifying them,
f. presenting a report containing explanatory comments on audit
findings together with conclusions and recommendations for
future actions
g. by the responsible officials
h. and in the case of examination of financial statements, expressing
the appropriate professional opinion regarding the fairness of the
presentation.
B. OBJECTIVES:
1. ACCOUNTING FOR PUBLIC FUNDS: Government audit serves as a

mechanism or process for public accounting of government funds.
2. APPRAISAL OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES: It also provides public accounting

of the operational, management, programme, and policy aspects of
public administration as well as accountability of the officials
administering them.
3. BASE FOR CORRECTIVE ACTIONS: Audit observations based on factual

data collection also serve to highlight the lapses of the lower hierarchy,
thus helping supervisory level officers to take corrective measures.
NOTE:
The main objective of audit is a combination of ensuring accountability of

administration to legislature and functioning as an aid to administration. In
India, the function of Government Audit is discharged by the independent
statutory authority of the Comptroller and Auditor General through the agency
of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department.
266
AN AUDIT OF EXPENDITURE IS ONE OF THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
GOVERNMENT AUDIT. IN THE CONTEXT OF ‘GOVERNMENT
EXPENDITURE AUDIT’, WRITE IN BRIEF, WHAT YOU UNDERSTAND BY
THE FOLLOWING:
A. AUDIT AGAINST RULES AND ORDERS.
B. AUDIT OF SANCTIONS
C. AUDIT AGAINST PROVISION OF FUNDS
D. PROPRIETY AUDIT
E. PERFORMANCE AUDIT
The audit of Government Expenditure is one of the major components of
government audit. The basic standards set for audit of expenditure are as
follows:
A. AUDIT AGAINST RULES & ORDERS: The auditor has to see that the
expenditure incurred is in accordance with the financial rules and
regulations framed by the competent authority.
B. AUDIT OF SANCTIONS: The auditor has to ensure that each item of

expenditure is covered by a sanction and authorised by the competent
authority, authorizing such expenditure.
C. AUDIT AGAINST PROVISION OF FUNDS: It contemplates that there is a
provision of funds out of which expenditure can be incurred and the amount
of such expenditure does not exceed the appropriations made.
D. PROPRIETY AUDIT: The auditor aims to bring out cases of improper,
avoidable expenditure even though the expenditure has been incurred in
conformity with the existing rules and regulations.
E. PERFORMANCE AUDIT: This involves that the various programmes, schemes
and projects in which huge expenditure has been incurred, are being run
economically and are yielding expected results. It is an objective
examination of the financial and operational performance of an
Organisation or programme and is oriented towards identifying
opportunities for greater economy, and effectiveness.
PROPRIETY AUDIT SEEKS TO ENSURE THAT EXPENDITUURE

CONFIRMS TO CERTAIN PRINCIPLES. COMMENT.
A. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDIT: To identify improper, avoidable, or wasteful
expenditure.
1. Regularity audit alone was not sufficient to protect properly the public
interest in the spending of money because even though expenditure has
267
been incurred in conformity with the existing rules and regulations but
still it may be highly wasteful.
2. Therefore the Auditor should look into the financial propriety of the
transaction with respect to reasonableness, faithfulness and economy
of expenditure.
B. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OR GUIDELINES FOR JUDGING PROPRIETY: It is difficult

to frame any precise rules for regulating the course of audit against
propriety. It purely depends on the common sense and logic applied by the
auditor depending on the circumstances. some general principles have
been laid down as follows:
1. The expenditure should not be prima facie more than the occasion
demands. Every public officer is expected to exercise the same
prudence in respect of expenditure incurred from public moneys as a
person of ordinary prudence would exercise in respect of expenditure of
his own money.
2. No authority should pass an order for sanctioning an expenditure which
will be directly or indirectly to its own advantage.
3. Public moneys should not be utilized for the benefit of a particular person
or section of the community.
4. Exceptions:
a. The amount of expenditure involved is insignificant.
b. A claim for the amount could be enforced in a court of law; or
c. The expenditure is in pursuance of a recognized policy or custom
d. The amount of allowances granted to meet expenditure of a
particular type should be so regulated that the allowances are not
become sources of profit to the recipients.
5. The expenditure should:
a. Pass down to the beneficiary without corruption.
b. Bring out optimum, enduring benefits instead of mere spending the
public money on meeting day to day needs.
c. Should not exceed the benefits derived from the expenditure.
d. Should not become profits when it is only compensatory in nature.
SHORT NOTE ON PERFORMANCE AUDIT
A. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDIT: To ensure that that the various programmes,

schemes and projects where large financial expenditure has been incurred
are being run economically and are yielding results expected of them. It is
an objective examination of the financial and operational performance of
a programme or a project and is oriented towards identifying opportunities
for greater economy and effectiveness.
268
B. COMPONENTS OF PERFORMANCE AUDIT: It includes the following:
1. Efficiency audit: It looks into whether the various schemes/projects are
executed and their operations conducted economically and whether they
are yielding the results expected of them, i.e., Examination aimed to find
out the extent to which operations are carried out in an efficient
manner.
2. Economy audit: It looks into whether the entity has acquired the
financial, human and physical resources in an economical manner, and
whether the sanctioning and spending authorities have observed
economy.
3. Effectiveness audit: It is an appraisal of the performance of programmes,
schemes, projects with reference to the overall targeted objectives as well
as efficiency of the means adopted for the attainment of the
objectives.
C. The procedure for conducting performance audit covers:

1. Identification of topic,
2. Preliminary study,
3. Planning and execution of audit, and
4. Reporting.
AUDIT OF GOVERNMENT RECEIPTS
A. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDIT: It aims to ensure that there is no leakage of

revenue which should legally come to the Government. The basic principle
of audit of receipts is that it is more important to look at the general than
on the particular, though individual cases of assessment, demand, collection,
refund, etc. are important within the area of test check.
B. Aspects to be covered in Audit of Government Receipts:

1. Proper assessment and realization: Whether all revenues or other debts
due to Government have been correctly assessed, realised and credited to
Government account by the authorities.
2. Adequate rules and procedures: Whether adequate rules and procedures
have been designed, by the concerned department to ensure an effective
check on assessment, collection and proper allocation of cases.
3. Adequate controls: Whether adequate controls are imposed for prompt
detection of irregularities regarding double refunds, fraudulent or forged
refund vouchers or other loss of revenue.
269
4. Actual implementation: Whether such regulations and procedures are
actually being carried out.
5. Review of assessment orders: A review of the judicial decisions, taken by
tax authorities, is done to judge the effectiveness of the assessment
procedure.
AUDIT OF STORES AND INVENTORIES IN THE CONTEXT OF

GOVT. AUDIT
A. OBJECTIVE OF AUDIT: To ensure that purchases of stores and inventories

are properly sanctioned, made economical and in accordance with the Rules
for purchase laid down by the competent authority. Audit of the accounts
of stores and inventories has been developed as a part of expenditure
audit.
B. ASPECTS TO BE COVERED IN AUDIT OF STORES AND INVENTORIES:
1. To ascertain whether the Regulations governing purchase, receipt and

issue, custody, sale and inventory taking of stores are well devised and
properly carried out.
2. To ensure that the prices paid are reasonable and are in agreement with
those shown in the contract for the supply of stores, and that the
certificates of quality and quantity are furnished by the inspecting and
receiving units.
3. Cases of uneconomical purchase of stores and losses attributable to
defective or inferior quality of stores.
4. Accounts of receipts, issues and balances are checked regarding accuracy,
correctness and reasonableness of balances.
5. Any excess or idle inventory is specifically mentioned in the report and
periodical verification of inventory is also conducted to ensure their
existence.
6. The valuation of the inventories is seen carefully so that adjustment of
profits or losses due to revaluation, inventory taking or other causes is
carried out.
AUDIT OF COMMERCIAL ACCOUNTS WITH REFRENCE TO GOVT

AUDIT
1. The Government also engages in commercial activities and for the

purpose it may incorporate following types of entities:
270
a. Departmental enterprises engaged in commercial and trading
operations, which are governed by the same regulations as other
Government departments such as defense factories, mints, etc.
b. Statutory corporations created by specific statues such as LIC, Air
India, etc.
c. Government Companies set up under the Companies Act, 2013.
2. All aforesaid entities are required to maintain accounts on commercial
basis.
a. The audit of departmental entities is done in the same manner as any
Government department, where commercial accounts are kept.
b. Audit of statutory corporations depends on the nature of the statute
governing the corporation.
c. In respect of Government Companies, the relevant provisions of
Companies Act, 2013 are applicable.
POWERS OF C&AG IN CONNECTION WITH PERFORMANCE OF

ITS DUTIES
The following powers to the C&AG in connection with the performance of his
duties -
1. To inspect any accounts under the control of the union or a State

Government.
2. To require any accounts, books, papers and other documents which are
relevant to the transactions under audit, be sent to specified places.
3. To put such questions or make such observations as he may consider
necessary to the person in-charge of the office and to call for such
information as he may require for preparation of any account or report,
which is his duty to prepare.
4. To dispense with any part of detailed audit of any accounts or class of
transactions and to apply such limited checks in relation to such accounts
or transaction as he may determine.
DUTIES OF C&AG AS PER THE C&AG ACT, 1971.

The Comptroller & Auditor General’s (Duties, Powers and Conditions of
Service) Act, 1971 lays down duties of the C&AG as under-
1. Compile and submit Accounts of Union and States: The C&AG shall be
responsible for compiling the accounts of the Union and of each State and
union territory. The accounts prepared should be submitted to:
a. In the case of Central Government / Union, to the President of the
Country. 271
b. In the case of state, to the Governor of each State.
c. In the case of Union Territory, to the Chief Administrator
2. He is also responsible to provide such information as may be required by the

Union Government, State Government or the Governments of the Union
Territories which will enable them to compile the accounts.
3. General Provisions Relating to Audit: It shall be the duty of the C&AG –

a. To audit and report on all expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of
India and of each State and of each Union Territory.
b. To audit and report all transactions of the Union and of the States
relating to Contingency Funds and Public Accounts;
c. To audit and report on all trading, manufacturing profit and loss
accounts and balance sheets and other subsidiary accounts kept in
any department of the Union or of a State.
4. Audit of Receipts and Expenditure: Where anybody or authority is

substantially financed by grants or loans from the Consolidated Fund of
India or of any State or of any Union Territory, the CAG shall audit all
receipts and expenditure of that body or authority and to report.
5. Audit of Grants or Loans: Where any grant or loan is given for any specific
purpose from the Consolidated Fund of India or of any State or of any Union
Territory to any authority or body, not being a foreign State or
international Organisation, the CAG shall verify the procedures and the
conditions under which the grant is sanctioned.
6. Audit of Receipts of Union or States: It shall be the duty of the CAG to audit
all receipts which are payable into the Consolidated Fund of India and of
each State and of each Union Territory and to satisfy himself that the
rules and procedures in that behalf are designed to secure an effective
check on the assessment, collection and proper allocation of revenue and
report thereon.
7. Audit of Accounts of Stores and Inventory: The CAG shall have authority to
audit and report on the accounts of stores and inventory kept in any office
or department of the Union or of a State.
8. Audit of Government Companies and Corporations: The duties and powers of

the CAG in relation to the audit of the accounts of Government Companies
shall be performed and exercised by him in accordance with the provisions
of the Companies Act, 2013.
272
ROLE PLAYED BY CAG IN THE AUDIT OF A GOVERNMENT
COMPANY AS PER COMPANIES ACT, 2013.
A. APPOINTMENT OF AUDITORS U/S 139:

1. The CAG has the power to appoint First Auditor u/s 139(5) or Subsequent
Auditor u/s 139(7) and
2. He can also direct such auditor the manner in which the accounts of the
Government Company are required to be audited and later on, the
auditor so appointed shall submit a copy of the audit report to the
CAG. [section 143(5)].
B. SUPPLEMENT THE STATUTORY AUDIT U/S 143(6): The Comptroller and

Auditor-General of India shall within 60 days of receipt of the audit report
have a right to:
1. Conduct a Supplementary Audit of the financial statement of the
company by any persons authorized by him. And he can ask for any
additional information for the purposes of such audit from such person
appointed.
2. CAG can comment on supplement audit report and It any comments
given by the CAG upon, or supplement to, the audit report shall be
a. Sent by the company to every person entitled to copies of audited
financial statements under sub-section (1) of section 136 i.e.,
i. Every member of the company,
ii. To every trustee for the debenture-holder of any debentures
issued by the company, and
iii. To all persons other than such member or trustee, being the
person so entitled and
b. Be placed before the annual general meeting of the company at the
same time and in the same manner as the audit report.
Note: Supplementary audit is not a separate audit but an extension to

original audit carried under Sec.139 of the act.
C. TEST AUDIT [SEC. 143(7)]:

1. If CAG considers necessary, it may order test audit to be conducted on
the accounts of the Government Company.
a. The provisions of section 19A of the Comptroller and Auditor-
General's (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971,
shall apply to the report of such test audit.
273
2. Thus, it is seen that there is a two-layer audit of a government
company, by the statutory auditors, being qualified chartered
accountants, and by the C&AG.
AUDIT AGAINST RULES AND ORDERSD
A. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDIT: To ensure that the expenditure is in accordance

with the:
1. Relevant provisions of the Constitution and of the laws and rules made
thereunder.
2. The financial rules, regulations and orders issued by a competent
authority.
B. CATEGORIES OF RULES AND ORDERS:

1. Rules and orders regulating the powers to incur and sanction
expenditure from the Consolidated Fund or Contingency fund of India or
of a State
2. Rules and orders dealing with the following:
a. Mode of presentation of claims against Government,
b. Withdrawing moneys from the Consolidated Fund, Contingency
Fund and Public Accounts of the Government of the India and of
the States, and
c. Rules and orders regulating the conditions of service, pay and
allowances, and pensions of Government servants.
C. AUTHORITY TO FRAME RULES AND ORDERS:
It is the function of the executive GOVERNMENT to frame rules, regulations

and orders, which are to be observed by its subordinate authorities.
D. DUTY OF THE AUDITOR:

1. It is the function of auditor to see that how rules are applied properly
by the subordinate authorities.
2. While carrying out examination of the various rules, regulations and
orders issued by the executive authorities, the auditor has to see that:
a. They are not inconsistent with any provisions of the Constitution
or any laws made thereunder
b. They are consistent with the essential requirements of audit and
accounts as determined by the C&AG
c. They do not come in conflict with the orders of, or rules made by,
any higher authority and 274
d. In case they have not been separately approved by competent
authority, the issuing authority possesses the necessary rule-
making power.
275
16. AUDIT OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ENTITIES
AUDIT OF SOLE TRADER
A. BACKGROUND:
1. Usually, sole traders are not required by any law (except u/s 44AD, 44AE,
44AB and other provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961) to have their
accounts audited.
2. In some cases, sole traders also get their financial statements audited
due to regulatory requirements, such as inventory brokers or on specific
instructions of the bank for approval of loans, etc.
3. The objective and scope of the audit as well as the conditions under
which it will be carried out are determined by sole trader itself since it
is a Non-statutory or Voluntary audit.
4. Thus, the duties and the nature of auditor’s work will depend upon the
agreement that he has entered into with the sole trader. But he must
obtain clear instructions from his clients in writing as to what he is
expected to do.
B. ADVANTAGES OF AUDIT TO A SOLE TRADER:
Refer Advantages of Audit of Partnership firm
AUDIT OF PARTNERSHIP FIRMS
A. SPECIAL POINTS IN AUDIT OF A PARTNERSHIP FIRM:

1. Letter of appointment: Confirming that the letter of appointment,
a. signed by a duly authorized partner,
b. Clearly states the nature and scope of audit contemplated by the
partners, specially the limitation, if any, under which the auditor
shall have to function.
2. Partnership deed: Examine the partnership deed to confirm,
a. Whether it is signed by all partners and
b. Whether it its registered with the registrar of firms and also
c. To ascertain from the partnership deed about capital contribution,
profit sharing ratios, interest on capital contribution, powers and
responsibilities of the partners, etc.
3. Reading the minutes: Studying the minute book, maintained to record
the policy decision taken by partners relating to
276
a. Authorization of extraordinary and capital expenditure,
b. Raising of loans,
c. Purchase of assets,
d. Extraordinary contracts entered into and other such matters
which are not of a routine nature.
4. Business authorization: Verifying that the business in which the
partnership is engaged is authorized by the partnership agreement; or by
any extension or modification thereof agreed to subsequently.
5. Adequacy of books of account: Examining whether books of account
appear to be reasonable and are considered adequate in relation to the
nature of the business of the partnership.
6. No effect on interest of any partner: Verifying generally that the
interest of no partner has suffered prejudicially by an activity engaged in
by the partnership which, it was not authorized to do under the
partnership deed or by any violation of a provision in the partnership
agreement.
7. Compliance with provisions of income tax Act:
a. Confirming that a provision for the firm’s tax payable by the
partnership has been made in the accounts before arriving at the
amount of profit divisible among the partners.
b. Also see various requirements of legislations applicable to the
partnership firm like Section 44(AB) of the Income-tax Act, 1961
have been complied with.
8. Sharing of profits and losses: Verifying that the profits and losses have
been divided among the partners in their agreed profit-sharing ratio.
B. ADVANTAGES OF AUDIT OF ACCOUNTS OF A PARTNERSHIP FIRM:

1. Audited accounts provide a convenient and reliable means of settling
accounts between the partners and thereby possibility of dispute among
them is mitigated.
2. On the retirement/death of a partner, audited accounts constitute
reliable evidence for computing the amount due to the retiring partner
or representative of deceased partner.
3. Audited accounts are generally accepted by the Income tax authorities
for computing the assessable income.
4. Audited accounts are relied upon by banks for advancing loan, as well
as, by prospective purchasers of the business, as evidence of the
profitability of the concern and its financial position.
5. Audited accounts can be helpful in the negotiation for sale or admission
of a new partner.
6. It is an effective safeguard against any undue advantage being taken by
a working partner as against the non-working partners. 277
C. MATTERS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE STARTING AUDIT: [SELF STUDY]
Before starting the audit, he should examine the partnership agreement

and note the provisions therein as regards the following matters:
1. The name and style under which the business shall be conducted.
1. The duration of the partnership, that has been agreed upon.
2. The amount of capital that shall be contributed by each partner—
whether it will be fixed or could be varied from year to year.
3. The period at the end of which the accounts of the partnership will be
closed periodically and the proportions in which the profit shall be
divided among the partners or losses shall have to be contributed by
them.
4. Whether the losses shall be borne by the partners or whether any of the
partners will not be required to do so.
5. The provisions as regards maintenance of books of account and the
matters which must be taken into account for determining the profits
of the firm available for division among the partners e.g., creation of
reserves, provision for depreciation, etc. also the period within which
accounts can be reopened for correcting a manifest error.
6. Borrowing capacity of the partnership (when it is not implied as in the
case of non-trading firms).
7. The rate at which interest will be allowed on the capitals and loans
provided by partners and the rate at which it will be charged on their
drawings and current accounts.
8. Whether any salaries are payable to the partners or withdrawals are
permitted against shares of profits and, if so, to what extent?
9. Duties of the partners as regards the management of business of the
firm; also, the partners who shall act as managing partners.
10. Who shall operate the bank account of the firm? How will the surplus
funds of the partnership be invested?
11. Limitations and restrictions that have been agreed upon, the rights and
powers of partners and on their implied authority to pledge the firm’s
credit or to render it liable.
AUDIT OF LOCAL BODIES
A. BACKGROUND:
1. A municipality can be defined as a unit of local self-government in an
urban area.
2. Local self-government: By the term ‘local self-government’ is ordinarily
understood as
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a. The administration of a locality – a village, a town, a city or any
other area smaller than a state
b. By a body representing the local inhabitants,
c. Possessing fairly large autonomy,
d. Raising at least a part of its revenue through local taxation and
spending its income on services which are regarded as local and,
therefore, distinct from state and central services.
B. OBJECTIVES OF AUDIT: The external control of municipal expenditure is

exercised by the state governments through the appointment of auditors
to examine municipal accounts. The important objectives of audit are to
report on
1. The fairness of the content and presentation of financial statements.
2. The strengths and weaknesses of systems of financial control.
3. The adherence to legal and/or administrative requirements.
4. Whether value is being fully received on money spent and
5. Detection and prevention of error, fraud and misuse of resources.
C. FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION:
1. Budgetary Procedure:
a. Objective: The objective of local bodies budgetary procedure are
i. Financial accountability,
ii. Control of expenditure, and
iii. To ensure that funds are raised and moneys are spent by the
executive departments in accordance with the rules and
regulations and within the limits of sanction and
authorization by the legislature or Council.
b. Aspects covered: Different aspects covered in budgeting are
determining the level of taxation, fees, rates, and laying down the
ceiling on expenditure, under revenue and capital heads.
2. Expenditure Control:
a. In the local body, legislative powers are vested in the Council
whereas executive powers are delegated to the officers, e.g.,
Commissioners.
b. All matters of regular revenue and expenditures are generally
delegated to the executive wing. For special situations like,
reduction in property taxes, refund of security deposits, etc.,
sanction from the legislative wing is necessary.
3. Accounting System:
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a. Municipal Accounting System has been conventionally prepared
under the cash system. In the recent past however, it is being
changed to the accrual system of accounting.
b. The accounting system is characterized by
i. Subsidiary and statistical registers for taxes, assets, cheques
etc.,
ii. Separate vouchers for each type of transaction,
iii. Compulsory monthly bank reconciliation,
iv. Submission of summary reports on periodical basis to
different authorities at regional and state level.
D. AUDIT PROGRAMME:
1. Appointment: The external control of municipal expenditure is exercised
by the state governments through the appointment of auditors to
examine municipal accounts. The municipal corporations of Delhi,
Mumbai and a few others have powers to appoint their own auditors
for regular external audit. So the auditor should ensure authenticity of
his appointment.
2. Regularity audit: The auditor should ensure that the expenditure
incurred conforms to the relevant provisions of the law and is in
accordance with the financial rules and regulations framed by the
competent authority.
3. Audit against sanctions: He should ensure that all types of sanctions,
either special or general, accorded by the competent authority.
4. Audit against provision of funds: He should ensure that there is a
provision of funds and the expenditure is incurred from the provision and
the same has been authorized by the competent authority.
5. Performance audit: The auditor should check that the different
schemes, programmes and projects, where large financial expenditure
has been incurred, are running economically and getting the expected
results.
6. Reporting: The auditor has to report on,
a. The fairness of the content and presentation of financial
statements.
b. The strengths and weaknesses of systems of financial control.
c. The adherence to legal and/or administrative requirements.
d. Whether value is being fully received on money spent and
e. Detection and prevention of error, fraud and misuse of resources.
AUUDIT OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATION (NGO)
A. BACKGROUND: 280
1. Meaning: NGOs can be defined as non-profit making organizations
a. which raise funds from members, donors or contributors
b. And also receive donation of time, energy and skills for achieving
their social objectives.
2. Incorporation: Non-Governmental Organizations are generally
incorporated as
a. A society under the Societies Registration, Act, 1860 or
b. A trust under the India Trust Act, 1882, or
c. A company under section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013.
B. POINTS OF CONCENTRATION BY AUDITOR:

1. While planning the audit of NGO, the auditor may concentrate on the
following-
2. Knowledge of the NGO’s work, its mission and vision, areas of operations
and environment in which it operates.
3. Updating knowledge of relevant statutes including recent amendments,
circulars, judicial decisions viz. Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act
1976, Societies Registration Act, 1860, Income Tax Act 1961 etc.
4. Reviewing the legal form of the organization and its MOA, AOA, rules and
Regulations.
5. Reviewing the NGO’s Organization chart, Financial and Administrative
Manuals, Project and Programme guidelines, Funding Agencies
Requirements and Formats, budgetary policies, if any.
6. Examination of minutes of the Board/Managing Committee/Governing
Body/Management and Committees thereof to ascertain the impact of
any decisions on the financial records.
7. Study the accounting system, procedures, internal controls and internal
checks existing for the NGO and verify their applicability.
C. AUDIT PROGRAMME:
The audit programme should include in a sequential order all assets,

liabilities, income and expenditure ensuring that no material item is
omitted:
1. Corpus fund: The contributions/grants received towards corpus are

vouched with reference to the letters from the donor(s). The interest
income on investment of corpus is checked with investment Register
and physical investments in hand.
2. Reserves: Vouch transfers from projects/programmes with donor’s letters
and board resolutions of NGO. Also check transfers and adjustments
made during the year.
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3. Ear-marked Funds: Check requirements of donor’s institutions, board
resolution of NGO, rules and regulations of the schemes of the ear-
marked funds.
4. Loans: Vouch loans with loan agreements receipt counterfoil issued.
5. Fixed Assets: Vouch all acquisitions/sale or disposal of assets including
depreciation and the authorizations for the same. For immovable
property, check title, etc.
6. Investments: Check Investment Register and the investments physically
ensuring that investments are in the name of the NGO. Verify further
investments and dis-investments for approval by the appropriate
authority and reference in the bank accounts for the principal amount
and interest.
7. Cash in Hand: Physically verify the cash in hand and imprest balance, at
the close of the year and whether it tallies with the books of accounts.
8. Bank Balance: Check the bank reconciliation statements and ascertain
details for old outstanding and unadjusted amounts.
9. Inventory in Hand: Verify inventory in hand and obtain certificate from
the management for the quantities and valuation of the same.
10. Programme and Project Expenses: Verify agreement with
donor/contributor (s) supporting the particular programme or project to
ascertain the conditions with respect to undertaking the
programme/project.
11. Establishment Expenses: Verify that provident fund, life insurance and
their administrative charges are deducted, contributed and deposited
within the prescribed time. Also check other office and administrative
expenses such as postage, stationery, travelling, etc.
D. AUDIT OF RECEIPTS OF NGO:

1. Contribution and Grants:
a. All grant donations and contributions received should be checked
with reference to the agreement with donors, grant letter, bank
statements.
b. Additionally, foreign contributions received should be checked to
ensure that all such contributions are
c. Received as per RBI guidelines and
d. Are deposited in the foreign contribution bank account as notified
under the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 1976.
2. Examination of internal controls:

a. To ascertain the persons who are responsible for collection of funds.
b. To verify the mode of receipt and
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c. To ensure that they are properly accounted and all collections are
counted and deposited in the bank daily.
3. Membership Fees:
a. Check fees received with membership register;
b. To ensure proper classification is made between entrance and
annual fees and life membership fees.
c. Reconcile fees received with fees to be received during the year.
4. Subscription:
a. Check receipts issued with subscription register and subscription
rate schedule.
b. Reconcile subscription received with printing and dispatch of
corresponding magazine / circulars / periodicals.
5. Interest and Dividends: Check the interest and dividends received and
receivable with investments held during the year.
AUDIT OF CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS

In the case of the audit of a charitable institution, attention should be paid
to the following matters:
A. GENERAL:
1. Studying the constitution under which the charitable institution has been
set up. It may be registered as a society under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860, as a company limited by guarantee or as a
trust.
2. Verifying whether the institution is being managed in compliance with
the law under which it has been set up.
B. SUBSCRIPTIONS AND DONATIONS:

1. The auditor should obtain all receipt books covering the period under
review and check whether that adequate control is imposed over
unused receipt books.
2. Agreeing with the total collections shown in the accounts with
reference to the,
a. Acknowledgment receipts issued.
b. Entries made in the in-cash book.
c. Printed list of subscriptions and donations, if any and
d. Any figures published in reports, etc, if any issued by the charity.
3. Examine the internal controls over collections and ensure that all
collections have been fully accounted for and deposited in the bank
regularly and promptly.
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4. Ascertaining the changes made in amount of annual or life membership
subscription during the year.
C. LEGACIES AND GRANTS:
1. Verify any Government or local authority grant with the relevant papers
of grant. If any expense has been disallowed for purposes of grant,
ascertain the reasons and compliance thereof.
2. Vouching the amount received with the relevant correspondence,
receipts and minute books.
D. INVESTMENTS INCOME:
1. Vouching the amounts received with the counterfoils of dividend and
interests and schedule of investments by making special enquiries into
any investments held for which no dividend or interest has been
received. And also inspect securities physically.
2. Checking that the appropriate dividend has been received subsequently
where any investment has been sold ex-dividend or purchased cum-
dividend.
E. RENTS:
1. Examining the Register of rents and tenancy agreements to verify the
amounts of the rents, and the due dates.
2. Vouching the rents received with reference to Rent register, counterfoils
of receipt books and entries in the cash book.
F. SPECIAL FUNCTIONS:
1. Vouching gross receipts and outgoings in respect of any special functions,
e.g. concerts, dramatic performance, etc., held in aid of the charity
with such vouchers and cash statements as are necessary.
2. In particular, verifying that the proceeds of all tickets issued have been
accounted for, after making the allowance for returns.
G. INCOME TAX REFUNDS:

Confirm that the refund of taxes deducted from the income from
investment (interest on securities, etc.) has been claimed and recovered
since the institutions are generally exempted from the payment of income-
tax.
H. EXPENDITURE:
1. Vouching payment of grants:
a. Verifying that the grants have been paid only for a charitable
purpose or purposes falling within the purview of the objects for
which the charitable institution has been set up and
b. No trustee, director or member of the Managing Committee has
benefited there from either directly or indirectly.
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2. Verifying the schedules of securities held, as well as inventories of
properties both movable and immovable by inspecting the securities and
title deeds of property and by physical verification of the movable
properties on a test-basis.
3. Verifying the cash and bank balances.
4. Ascertaining that any funds contributed for a special purpose have been
utilised for the purpose.
AUDIT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

A. GENERAL:
1. Examination of the basic documents: Verify the Trust Deed or Regulations
in the case of school or college and in the case of a university, refer to
the Act of Legislature and the Regulations framed there under.
2. Reading the minutes: Read through the minutes of the meetings of the
Managing Committee or Governing Body, noting resolutions affecting
accounts to see
a. That these have been duly complied with,
b. Specially the decisions as regards the operation of bank accounts
and sanctioning of expenditure.
B. FEE RECEIVED FROM STUDENTS:

1. Check fees received by comparing counterfoils of receipts granted with
entries in the cash book and tracing the collections in the Fee Register to
confirm that the revenue from this source has been duly accounted for.
2. Total up the various columns of the Fees Register for each month or
term to ascertain that fees paid in advance have been carried forward
and the arrears that are irrecoverable have been written off under the
sanction of an appropriate authority.
3. Check admission fees with admission slips signed by the head of the
institution and confirm that the amount had been credited to a Capital
Fund, unless the Managing Committee has taken a decision to the
contrary.
4. See that free studentship and concessions have been granted by a person
authorized to do so, having regard to the prescribed Rules.
5. Verify that there operates a system of internal check which ensures
that demands against the students are properly raised.
6. Confirm that fines for late payment or absence, etc., have either been
collected or remitted under proper authority.
7. Confirm that hostel dues were recovered before students’ accounts were
closed and their deposits of caution money shown as liability & refunded.
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8. Report any old heavy arrears on account of fees, dormitory rents, etc, to
the Managing Committee.
C. LEGACIES, GRANTS AND DONATIONS:
2. Vouching the amount received with the relevant correspondence, receipts
and minute books.
3. Vouch donations, with the list published with the annual report.
D. INVESTMENTS INCOME:
interests and schedule of investments by making special enquiries into
received.
dividend.
3. See that the investments representing endowment funds for prizes are
kept separate and any income in excess of the prizes has been
accumulated and invested along with the corpus.
E. ASSETS AND LIABILITIES:
1. Report any old heavy arrears on account of fees, dormitory rents, etc. to
the Managing Committee.
2. Confirm that caution money and other deposits paid by students on
admission, have been shown as liability in the balance sheet not
transferred to revenue, unless they are not refundable.
3. See that the investments representing endowment funds for prizes are
kept separate and any income in excess of the prizes has been
accumulated and invested along with the corpus.
4. Verify the inventories of furniture, stationery, clothing, provision and
all equipment etc. These should be checked by reference to Inventory
Register or corresponding inventories of the previous year and values
applied to various items should be test checked.
F. RENTS:
1. Examining the Register of rents and tenancy agreements to verify the
amounts of the rents, and the due dates.
2. Vouching the rents received with reference to Rent register,
counterfoils of receipt books and entries in the cash book.
G. COMPLIANCES:
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1. INCOME TAX / TDS: Confirm that the refund of taxes deducted from the
income from investment (interest on securities, etc.) has been claimed and
recovered since the institutions are generally exempted from the payment
of income-tax.
2. verify the annual statements of account and, that separate statements of
account have been prepared as regards Poor Boys Fund, Games Fund,
Hostel and Provident Fund of staff, etc.
H. EXPENDITURE:
1. Vouch all capital expenditure in the usual way and verify the same with
the sanction for the Committee as contained in the minute book.
2. Vouch in the usual manner all establishment expenses and enquire into
any unduly heavy expenditure under any head.
3. See that increase in the salaries of the staff have been sanctioned and
minuted by the Committee.
4. Ascertain that the system ordering inspection on receipt and issue of
provisions, foodstuffs, clothing and other equipment is efficient and all
bills are duly authorized and passed before payment.
5. Verify the inventories of furniture, stationery, clothing, provision and
all equipment, etc. These should be checked by reference to Inventory
Register and values applied to various items should be test checked.
AUDIT OF HOSPITAL
A. RECEIPTS FROM PATIENTS:
1. Examine the internal check system as regards the receipts of bills from
the patients.
2. Vouch the copy of bills issued by reference to the register of patients.
3. Verify the patient’s attendance record to see that the bills have been
correctly prepared.
4. See that the Bills have been issued to all the patients according to the
rules of the hospital.
5. Check cash collections as entered in the cash book with the receipts,
counterfoils and other evidence.
6. Compare the total income with the amount budgeted for the same and
report to the management for significant variations which have been
taken place.
B. INVESTMENTS INCOME:

interests and schedule of investments by making special enquiries into 287
received. And also verify the securities physically by inspecting title
deeds etc.
dividend.
C. LEGACIES, GRANTS AND DONATIONS:
2. Vouching the amount received with the relevant correspondence,
receipts and minute books.
3. Vouch donations, with the list published with the annual report. If some
donations were meant for any specific purpose, see that the money
was utilized for the same purpose.
D. SUBSCRIPTIONS:
1. Trace all collections of subscription and donations from the Cash Book to
the respective Registers.
2. Reconcile the total subscriptions due (as shown by the Subscription
Register and the amount collected and that still outstanding).
E. EXPENDITURE:
1. Verify that the capital expenditure was incurred only with the prior
sanction of the Trustees or the Managing Committee and that
appointments and increments to staff have been duly authorized.
2. Compare the totals of various items of expenditure and income with the
amount budgeted for them and report significant variations which have
taken place.
3. Examine the internal check as regards the receipt and issue of stores;
ensure that purchases have been properly recorded in the Inventory
Register and that issues have been made only against proper
authorization.
4. Obtain inventories, especially of stocks and stores as at the end of the
year and check a percentage of the items physically; also compare their
total values with respective ledger balances.
5. See that depreciation has been written off against all the assets at the
appropriate rates.
AUDIT OF CLUB
288
A club is usually constituted as a company limited by guarantee. Therefore,
various provisions of the Companies Act, 2013 relating to the audit of
accounts of companies are also applicable to its audit. The special steps
involved in such an audit are stated below:
A. GENERAL:
Examine the constitution, powers of governing body and relevant rules
relating to preparation and finalization of accounts. In case, it is
constituted as a company limited by guarantee, application of provisions
of the Companies Act, 2013 should also be seen.
B. FEE FROM MEMBERS:
1. Vouch the receipt on account of entrance fees with member’s

applications, counterfoils issued to them, and minutes of the Managing
Committee.
2. Vouch Members' subscription with the counterfoils of receipts issued to
them. Trace receipts for a selected period to the Register of Members;
reconcile the amount of total subscription due with the amount collected
and the outstanding.
3. See the Register of Members to ascertain the Member's dues which are
in arrear and enquire whether necessary steps have been taken for their
recovery. The amount considered irrecoverable, should be written off.
4. Ensure that arrears of subscriptions for the previous year have been
correctly brought over and arrears for the year under audit and
subscription received in advance have been correctly adjusted.
5. Verify the internal check as regards members being charged with the
price of foodstuffs and drinks provided to them and their guests as well
as with the fees chargeable for the special service rendered such as
billiards, tennis, etc.
6. Trace debits for a selected period from subsidiary registers maintained in
respect of supplies and services to members to confirm that the
account of every member has been debited with amounts recoverable
from him.
C. INVESTMENTS:
Inspect the share scrips and bonds in respect of investments, check their
current values for disclosure in final accounts, also ascertain that the
arrangements for their safe custody are satisfactory, check the accrual of
income therefrom and provision of income tax thereon.
D. EXPENDITURE:
1. Vouch purchase of sports items, furniture, crockery, etc., and trace their
entries into the respective inventory registers.
2. Vouch purchases of food-stuffs, cigars, wines, etc. and test their sale
price so as to confirm that the normal rates of profit have been earned
289
on their sales. The inventory of unsold provisions and stores, at the end
of the year should be verified physically and its valuation checked.
AUDIT OF CINEMA HALLS
A. AUDIT OF RECEIPTS FROM DAILY SHOW COLLECTIONS:

1. Verify:
a. That entrance to the cinema hall is only through printed tickets;
b. Tickets are serially numbered and bound into books;
c. That the number of tickets issues for each show and class are
different;
d. That for advance booking a separate series of tickets is issued and
e. Inventory of tickets is kept in proper custody.
2. If tickets are issued through computer - audit the system to ensure its
reliability and authenticity of data generated by it.
3. System should provide that at the end of each show a proper statement
should be prepared and cash collected be tallied.
4. Vouch the entries in the Cash Book in respect of cash collected on sale of
tickets for different shows on a reference to Daily Statements with
record of tickets issued for the different shows held.
5. Cash collected is deposited in banks partly on the same day and rest on
the next day depending upon the banking facility available.
6. Verify that proper record is kept for free passes issued and the same are
issued under proper authority.
7. Reconcile the amount of Entertainment Tax collected with the total
number of tickets issued for each class.
B. INCOME FROM ADVERTISEMENT:

Verify the charges collected for advertisement slides and shorts by reference
to the Register of Slides and Shorts Exhibited kept at the cinema as well
with the agreements, entered into with advertisers in this regard.
C. RESTAURANT INCOME:
1. The arrangement for collection of the share in the restaurant income
should be enquired into either a fixed sum or a fixed percentage of the
taking may be receivable annually.
2. In case the restaurant is run by the Cinema, its accounts should be
checked.
3. The audit should cover sale of various items of foodstuffs, purchase of
foodstuffs, cold drink, etc. as in the case of club.
4. Verify the basis of other incomes earned like car and scooter parking and
display windows etc. 290
D. EXPENDITURE:
1. Vouch the expenditure incurred on advertisement, repairs and
maintenance. No part of such expenditure should be capitalized.
2. Vouch the expenditure incurred on publicity of picture, electricity
expenses etc.
3. Confirm that depreciation on machinery and furniture has been charged
at appropriate rates which are higher, as compared to those admissible
in the case of other businesses, in respect of similar assets.
4. Vouch payment of film hire with reference to agreement with distributor
or producer.
5. Examine unadjusted balance out of advance paid to the distributors
against film hire contracts to see that they are good and recoverable. If
any film in respect of which an advance was paid has already run, it
should be enquired as to why the advance has not been adjusted. The
management should be asked to make a provision in respect of advances
that are considered irrecoverable.
AUDIT OF HOTEL
A. INTERNAL CONTROL:
Pilferage is one of the greatest problems in any hotel and it is extremely
important to have a proper internal control to minimize the leakage. The
following points should be checked:
1. Effectiveness of arrangement regarding receipts and disbursements of
cash.
2. Procedure for purchase and inventory stocking of various commodities
and provisions.
3. Procedure regarding billing of the customers in respect of room service,
telephone, laundry, etc.
4. System regarding recording and physical custody of edibles, wines,
cigarettes, crockery and cutlery, linen, furniture, carpets, etc.
B. ROOM SALES AND CASH COLLECTIONS:

1. The charge for room sales is made from the guest register, and tests are
to be carried out to ensure that the correct numbers of guests are
charged for the exact period of stay.
2. The total sales reported with the total bills issued at various sales points
have to be reconciled.
3. Special care must be taken in respect of bills issued to customers who are
staying in the hotel, because they may not be required to pay the bills
immediately in cash but at a future date or by credit cards.
291
4. Billing is to be done room-wise. It must be ensured that all customers
pay their bills on leaving the hotel or within specified dates.
5. The auditor should verify the restaurant bills with reference to KOT
(Kitchen order Ticket).
6. The occupancy rate should be worked out, and compared with other
similar hotels, and with previous year. Material deviations should be
investigated.
7. The compliance with all statutory provisions and compliance with the
Foreign Exchange Regulations must also be verified by the auditor,
especially because hotels offer facility of conversion of foreign
exchange to rupees.
C. RECEIPTS FROM FUNCTION HALLS: Special receipts on account of letting out

of auditorium, banquet hall, spaces for shops, boutiques, and special shows
should be verified with the arrangements made.
D. SHARING INCOME FROM TRAVEL AGENTS: It is common that hotels get their
bookings done through travel agents. The auditor should ensure that the
money is recovered from the travel agents as per credit terms allowed.
Commission paid to travel agents should be checked by reference to the
agreement on that behalf.
E. INVENTORY: The inventories in a hotel are all saleable item like food and
beverages. Therefore, following may be noted in this regard:
1. All movement and transfer of inventories must be properly documented.
2. Areas where inventories are kept must be kept locked and the key
retained by the departmental manager. The key should be released only
to trusted personnel and unauthorized persons should not be permitted
in the stores area.
3. The auditor should ensure that all inventories are valued at the year end
and that he should himself be present at the year-end physical
verification, to the extent practicable, having regard to materiality
consideration and nature and location of inventories
4. Apart from control over inventory of edibles, control over issue and
physical inventory of linen crockery, cutlery, glassware, silver, toilet
items, etc. should be verified.
F. FIXED ASSETS: The fixed assets should be properly depreciated, and the Fixed
Assets Register should be updated.
G. CASUAL LABOUR: In case the hotel employs a casual labour, the auditor
should consider, whether adequate records have been maintained in this
respect and there is no manipulation taking place. The wages payment of
the casual labour must also be checked thoroughly.
292
H. EXPENDITURE:
1. Consumption shown in various physical inventory accounts must be
traced to the customers’ bills to ensure that all issues to the customers
have been billed.
2. All payments to the foreign collaborator, are to be checked.
3. Expenses and receipts are to be compared with figures of the previous
year, having regard to the average occupancy of visitors and changes in
rates.
4. Expenses for painting, decoration, renovation of building, etc. are to be
properly checked.
5. Computation and payment of salaries and wages vis-a-vis number of
employees must be checked.
AUDIT OF LIMITED LIABILITY PARTNERSHIPS (LLP)
A. BOOKS OF ACCOUNTS: LLP’s are required to maintain books of accounts

which shall contain-
1. Particulars of all sums of money received and expended by the LLP.
2. A record of the assets and liabilities of the LLP,
3. Statements of costs of goods purchased, inventories, work-in-progress,
finished goods and costs of goods sold,
4. Any other particulars which the partners may decide.
B. REQUIREMENT OF AUDIT:
1. The accounts of every LLP shall be audited in accordance with Rule 24 of
LLP, Rules 2009.
2. Exceptions: Any LLP, whose turnover does not exceed, in any financial
year, 40 lakh rupees, or whose contribution does not exceed 25 lakh
rupees, is not required to get its accounts audited.
3. However, if the partners of such limited liability partnership decide to
get the accounts of such LLP audited, then the accounts shall be
audited.
C. APPOINTMENT OF AUDITOR:
1. Authority for appointment:
a. The appointment of auditors of LLP, whether first or subsequent
auditors including filling of casual vacancy, may be made by the
designated partners of the LLP.
b. The other partners may appoint the auditors if the designated partners
have failed to appoint them.
2. Time limit for appointment:
a. First auditor: At any time for the first financial year but before the end
of first financial year, 293
b. Subsequent auditor: At least 30 days prior to the end of each financial
year (other than the first financial year).
D. ADVANTAGES / PURPOSE / NEED OF AUDIT: Refer Partnership Firm advantages
E. AUDITOR’S DUTY REGARDING AUDIT OF LLP:

1. The auditor should get definite instructions in writing as to the work to
be performed by him.
2. The auditor should mention
a. Whether the records of the firm appear to be correct & reliable.
b. Whether he was able to obtain all information & explanation
necessary for his work.
c. Whether any restriction was imposed upon him.
3. The auditor should read the LLP agreement & note the provisions
4. If partners maintain minute book, he shall refer it for any resolution
passed regarding the accounts
F. ADDITIONAL POINTS:
1. Filing of documents with ROC:
a. Every LLP would be required to file annual return in Form 11 with ROC
within 60 days of closer of financial year. The annual return will be
available for public inspection on payment of prescribed fees to
Registrar. The following documents/information will be available for
inspection by any person:
i. Incorporation document
ii. Names of partners and changes, made therein
iii. Statement of Account and Solvency
iv. Annual Return
The fees for such inspection of an LLP is ₹ 50/- and fees for certified
copy or extract of any document u/s 36 shall ₹ 5/- per page.
b. Every LLP is also required to submit Statement of Account and Solvency

in Form 8 which shall be filed within a period of 30 days from the end
of six months the financial year to which the Statement of Account
and Solvency relates.
c. PUNISHMENT FOR FAILURE: It has been provided that in case LLPs file
relevant documents after their due dates with additional fees up to 300
days, no action for prosecution will be taken against them. In case
there is delay of 300 days or more, the LLPs will be required to pay
normal filing fees, additional fee and shall also be liable to be
prosecuted. The Act also contains provisions for compounding of
offences which are punishable with fine only.
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2. Powers of Registrar:
a. Registrar would have power to obtain such information which he may
consider necessary for the purposes of carrying out the provisions of
the Act, from any designated partner, partner or employee of the
LLP.
b. He would also have power to summon any designated partner, partner
or employee of any LLP before him for any such purpose, in case the
information has not been furnished to him or in case the Registrar
is not satisfied with the information furnished to him.
AUDIT OF HIRE - PURCHASE COMPANY

1. The object clause of hire-purchasing company to see that the goods like
capital goods, consumer durables etc. in respect of which the company
can undertake such activities.
2. Whether there exists a procedure to ascertain the credit analysis of hire
purchaser like his ability to meet the instalment under hire purchase, past
credit record, capital strength, availability of collateral security, etc.
3. Hire purchase agreement is in writing and is signed by all parties.
4. Hire purchase agreement specifies clearly:
a. The hire-purchase price of the goods to which the agreement relates;
b. The cash price of the goods, the price at which the goods may be
purchased by the hirer for cash;
c. The date on which the agreement shall be deemed to have
commenced;
d. The number of instalments by which the hire- purchase price is to be
paid, the amount of each of those instalments, and the date, or the
mode of determining the date, upon which it is payable, and the
person to whom and the place where it is payable; and
e. The goods to which the agreement relates, in a manner sufficient to
identify them.
5. Ensure that payments are being received regularly as per the agreement.
6. Examine the hire purchase proposal form submitted by the hire purchaser
requesting the hire vendor to provide him the equipment on hire purchase.
7. Examine the acceptance letter obtained from the hire purchaser indicating
that the equipment has been received in order and is acceptable to him.
8. See the Board resolution authorizing a particular director to execute the
hire purchase agreement has been passed by the hire purchaser.
9. See that the copies of the insurance policies have been obtained by the hire
vendor for his records.
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AUDIT OF LEASING COMPANY
1. The object clause of leasing company to see that the goods like capital
goods, consumer durables etc. in respect of which the company can
undertake such activities. Further, to ensure that whether company can
undertake financing activities or not.
2. Whether there exists a procedure to ascertain the credit analysis of lessee
like lessee’s ability to meet the commitment under lease, past credit record,
capital strength, availability of collateral security, etc.
3. The lease agreement should be examined and the following points may be
noted:
a. The description of the lessor, the lessee, the equipment and the
location where the equipment is to be installed.
b. The tenure of lease, amount of lease rentals, dates of payment, late
charges, deposits or advances etc. should be noted.
c. Whether the equipment shall be returned to the lessor on termination
of the agreement and the cost shall be borne by the lessee.
d. Whether the agreement prohibits the lessee from assigning the
subletting the equipment and authorises the lessor to do so.
4. Examine the lease proposal form submitted by the lessee requesting the
lessor to provide him the equipment on lease.
5. Ensure that the invoice is retained safely as the lease is a long-term
contract.
6. Examine the acceptance letter obtained from the lessee indicating that the
equipment has been received in order and is acceptable to the lessee.
7. See the Board resolution authorising a particular director to execute the
lease agreement has been passed by the lessee.
8. See that the copies of the insurance policies have been obtained by the
lessor for his records.
AUDIT OF INCOMPLETE RECORDS [SELF STUDY]
1. The examination of records and documents is one of the most important

techniques through which an auditor collects evidence. Therefore, in case
the records and documents maintained by an enterprise are incomplete, it
would prove to be a great handicap to the auditor.
2. An auditor may face the situation of incomplete records under the
following circumstances:
a. Where records are kept on single entry basis or
b. Where records are kept on double entry basis, but some of the records
are destroyed accidentally, or are seized by authorities, or are
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otherwise not available for the auditor’s examination due to similar
reasons.
3. Audit approach where records are kept on single entry system: On the other
hand, when books are maintained on single entry basis, then the
management of the enterprise would be asked to write up the books, to the
extent possible, as they would have been written up under double entry
system.
4. Audit approach where records are kept on double entry but were lost,
destroyed or seized by authorities:
a. The auditor may direct the management of the enterprise to complete
or reconstruct the accounting records, e.g., if vouchers are available
but the cash book, journal and the ledger are not maintained, then
the cash book, journal and ledger should be written up.
b. However, if vouchers are also not available, then cash
book/journal/ledger will have to be prepared by correlating the
evidence available, e.g., memoranda records, bank statements,
statements from outside parties, etc.
c. Even though such books which are prepared may not be complete,
but may still contain useful information for the auditor.
5. Audit approach in any case: In any case, the following steps would be
required to conduct an audit:
a. Ascertain that the balance sheet or statement of affairs as at the
beginning of the year should be prepared and all the relevant
accounts should be opened in the ledger. Normally, under the single-
entry system, cash, bank, and personal accounts are maintained.
b. Confirming that all entries on receipt side of the cash book are posted
in the ledger, even by opening new account(s) wherever necessary.
c. Check that all entries on the payment side of cash book are posted in
the ledger.
d. Confirming that all entries appearing in bank account are posted in
the ledger.
e. Analyse personal accounts of trade receivables. This will provide vital
information regarding credit sales, sales returns, discounts allowed,
bills received, etc. It would be necessary to post such items to
relevant accounts, to complete the double entry from the debtor’s
accounts.
f. Similarly, it would be necessary to analyse the trade payables'
accounts and post entries relating to credit purchase made, discounts
earned, purchases returns, bills payable issued to suppliers, bills
payable dishonoured, etc., to relevant accounts.
6. From an auditor's view point, the supervisory controls exercised by the
owners are generally less reliable and hence while auditing incomplete 297
records, auditor will largely depend on extensive substantive procedures and
obtain external evidence, physical examination/ observation, management
representation and perform analytical procedures.
AUDIT OF RECEIPTS FROM ENTRY FEES OF AN AMUSEMENT

PARK
1. Evaluate the internal control system regarding entry and collection for
entry tickets including rotation of staff.
2. Ensure that tickets are pre numbered.
3. Ensure that the deposit of cash collected into the bank account very same
next day.
4. Compute analytical ratios in respect of the receipts pattern i.e., on
weekends, holidays, etc. and make comparisons to draw conclusions.
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17. AUDIT OF ITEMS OF FINANCIAL
STATEMENTS
ASSERTIONS USED FOR AUDIT OF PROFIT AND LOSS, BALANCE
SHEET AND PRESENTATION AND DISCLOSURE
A. TRANSACTIONS:
1. OCCURRENCE: Ensure that the transactions in the financial statements
have occurred and are relate to the entity.
2. COMPLETENESS: All transactions that were supposed to be recorded have
been recognized in the financial statements and further, transactions
have been recognized in the correct accounting periods (Cut-off).
3. MEASUREMENT: Transactions have been recorded accurately at their
appropriate amounts.
B. BALANCES:
1. EXISTENCE: Assets, liabilities and equity balances exist as at the
period end.
2. COMPLETENESS: All assets, liabilities and equity balances that were
supposed to be recorded have been recognized in the financial
statements.
3. VALUATION: Assets, liabilities and equity balances have been valued
appropriately.
4. RIGHTS & OBLIGATIONS: Entity has the right to ownership or use of the
recognized assets, and the liabilities recognized in the financial
statements represent the obligations of the entity.
C. PRESENTATION AND DISCLOSURES:

1. OCCURRENCE AND EXISTENCE: Transactions and events disclosed in
the financial statements have occurred and relate to the entity and
further, the closing balance does exist as at the period- end.
2. COMPLETENESS: All transactions, balances, events and other matters
that should have been disclosed have been disclosed in the financial
statements.
3. MEASUREMENT AND VALUATION: Transactions, events, balances and
other financial matters have been measured and disclosed correctly at
their appropriate values and in a manner that promotes the
understandability of information contained in the financial
statements.
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UNDERSTANDING REVENUE FROM SALES IN BREIF
A. UNDERSTANDING OF REVENUE CENTERS:
Auditor needs to obtain a clear understanding about the organization and

its revenue centers, Specifically the following items:
1. Type of services or products they provide.

2. Major selling products/services.
3. Introduction of new products/service line.
4. Discontinuance of products/services.
5. Major customers.
6. General sales terms and conditions.
B. BRIEF AUDIT PROCEDURE:
1. An auditor needs to identify the control points over sales.
2. An auditor shall test the controls over sales to determine their
effectiveness.
3. The auditor selects a random sample of transactions and examines
the related customer purchase orders, invoices and customer
statements.
4. Performing substantive audit procedures by sales trend analysis,
comparison with previous accounting period, category wise sales
etc.
PROCEDURE FOR VERIFICCATION OF SALES
A. OCCURENCE: Recorded sales represent goods shipped/ services performed

during the period. Ensure that the sales are not overstated or understated
by performing the following procedures:
1. Check whether a single sales invoice is recorded multiple times.
2. Whether any fictitious sales have been recorded.
3. Whether any shipments were done without the consent and agreement of
the customer.
4. Whether any substantial uncertainty exists about collectability.
5. Review sequence of sales invoices.
6. Review journal entries for unusual transactions.
7. Calculate the ratio of sales return to sales and compare it with previous
year and investigate material deviations.
8. Check the sales return with sales invoice, challan, credit note, stock
register, reversal of GST etc.
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B. COMPLETENESS: All sales made during the period were recorded and there
in no understatement or overstatement.
Cut-off arrangement:
1. Perform cut-off test to ensure that revenues are recognised in the

current accounting period.
2. This arises when companies recognise revenue based on the date of
sales invoices rather than the date on which the risks and rewards are
transferred to the buyer.
3. In order to perform a robust sales cut-off test, auditors need to
understand and consider the specific cut-off error risk of each
engagement.
4. If credit notes issued after the accounting period immediately for the
current year end sales, it may be a case of fictitious sales.
5. Check reconciliation of total sales/goods dispatched as per stock records
and financial records and GST invoice.
6. Review the GST and GST returns and ensure that the same are reconciled
with revenue reported in the profit and loss account.
C. MEASUREMENT: All sales are accurately measured as per applicable

accounting standards and correctly journalized, summarized, and posted.
1. If there are any export sales, consider Exchange gain/ loss arising from
the sales.
2. Trace a few transactions from beginning to completion (Audit in Depth).
3. Auditor must understand client’s operations and related GAAP issues
regarding revenue recognition method.
4. E.g., Point of sale revenue recognition vs. Percentage of completion.
5. Ensure that the related party sales are properly authorized, and the
value of such transactions were reasonable and at arm’s length.
AUDIT OF OTHER INCOME
A. INTEREST INCOME ON FIXED DEPOSITS:

1. Obtain a list of fixed deposits opened during the period under audit along
with the applicable interest rate and the number of days for which the
deposit was outstanding during the period.
2. Verify the arithmetical accuracy of the interest calculation made by the
entity.
3. For deposits still outstanding as at the period- end, trace the same to
the direct confirmation obtained from the respective bank/ financial
institution. (Balance confirmation)
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4. Obtain a confirmation of interest income from the bank and verify that
the interest income as per bank is matching with entity records.
(Interest Certificate)
5. Obtain a copy of Form 26AS and reconcile the interest reflected therein
to the calculation shared by client.
B. DIVIDENDS:
1. Verify that the dividends are recognized only when the entity’s right to
receive payment of the dividend is established
2. Verify that Gain/(loss) on sale of investment in mutual funds is recorded
as other income only on transfer of title from the entity.
3. Obtain the mutual fund statement and trace the gain / loss as recorded
in the books of account is matching with the statement.
UNDERSTANDING OF AN ENTITY’S PURCHASE PROCESS

1. A typical internal control questionnaire for Purchases is:
a. Whether segregation of duties exist.
b. Whether competitive quotes are invited.
c. Whether a purchase committee exists who authorises purchase price.
d. Who issues and authorizes purchase orders?
e. Who checks the quality, quantity and specifications of the goods
received and prepares goods receipt note (GRN).
f. Who approves the vendor invoice?
2. Whether a 2 way/ 3-way match process exists (i.e., Tally between purchase
order, grn and vendor invoice).
3. How the purchases have been recognised in the accounting system.
4. The auditor selects a random sample of transactions and examines the
related purchase orders, GRN, purchase invoices, inward gate entry register
and vendor reconciliation/ statements.
5. Performing substantive analytical procedures such as trend analysis,
comparison with previous accounting period, category wise purchases.
6. The auditor would need to know the purchase prices of the products or
services over the year, monthly average purchase price per product or
service etc.
DETAILED AUDIT PROCEDURE FOR PURCHASES
A. OCCURRENCE: Ensure that the recorded purchases represent the goods

received during the year. Ensure that the purchases are not understated or
overstated by performing the following procedure:
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1. Whether any fictitious vendor and purchase has been recorded by
reviewing the vendor selection process followed by the entity.
2. Whether the goods were received at the factory gate and ensure that it
is recorded in security gate inward register.
3. Whether quality inspection of goods was done.
4. Whether a goods receipt note (GRN) was prepared and signed by an
appropriate client staff.
5. Whether the purchase invoice was approved as per delegation of
authority and whether a 3 or 2-way match was done.
6. Whether stock record has been updated by the stores personnel.
7. Verify the following special items during audit of purchases:
a. The purchase invoice received should be the Original copy (and not
photocopy/ carbon copy).
b. Purchase invoice should have been booked only once risk and
reward incidental to ownership has been transferred to the entity.
c. Purchase invoice should be in the name of auditee. However, in
case of different branches, it should be addressed to the
appropriate branch.
d. Input tax component should have been booked in the input tax
ledger.
e. In case of purchases made from related parties, the auditor needs
to verify approval from Board and compare arm’s length price
details and purchase price.
f. Review journal entries for unusual transactions.
g. Vouch from the purchase journal to the supporting documents.
B. COMPLETENESS AND MEASUREMENT:

1. CUT-OFF PROCEDURES:
a. Perform cut-off test to ensure that purchases are recognised in the
correct accounting period.
b. For the purpose, the auditor should examine material inward
records for few days say last 5 days prior to closing date to check
that all corresponding invoices have been duly entered in the
Purchases book and none have been omitted.
c. Ensure correct accounting treatment of goods – in – transit as per
the agreed terms with the vendor regarding transfer of risk and
reward of ownership in goods.
2. PERFORM ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES: To obtain audit evidence as to

overall reasonableness of purchase quantity and price the auditor shall
analyse the following:
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a. Consumption Analysis: Auditor should scrutinize raw material
consumed as per manufacturing account and compare the same
with previous years with closing stock and ask for the reasons
from Management If any significant variations found.
b. Stock Composition Analysis: Auditor to collect the reports from
management for composition of stock i.e., raw materials as a
percentage of total stock and compare the same with previous
year and ask for reasons from management in case of significant
variations.
c. Ratios Analysis: Auditor should compare the creditors turnover
ratios and stock turnover ratios of the current year with previous
years.
3. Auditor should review quantitative reconciliation of closing stocks with
opening stock, purchases and consumption.
AUDIT PROCEDURE FOE EMPLOYEE BENEFIT EXPENSES
A. ENTITY HIRING, APPRAISAL AND RETIREMENT PROCESS:

1. Verify the controls the entity has set for employee benefit payment
process to determine how strong and reliable they are.
2. If the controls are strong, the auditor can reduce transaction testing.
3. Generally internal controls over the employee benefit expenses
includes:
a. Maintaining of attendance records,
b. Employee Payroll or Master,
c. Authorisation and approval of monthly payroll processing and
disbursement,
d. Computation of deductions like payroll taxes, provident fund etc.
e. Accrual of other benefits like gratuity, leave encashment, bonus
etc.
4. The auditor selects a random sample of transactions and examines the
related appointment letters, appraisal letters, attendance records, HR
policies, employee master etc.
5. Performing analytical procedures is must. Substantive analytical
procedure will consist of:
a. Monthly expense reasonability,
b. Comparison with previous accounting period and
c. Compare the client’s business operations and overall trend in the
industry.
B. DETAILED AUDIT PROCEDURE:

304
1. Verify the employee attendance process and related controls and try to
Identify any fictitious or ghost workers.
2. Obtain a list of employees as at the period end along with a monthly
movement split between new hires, leavers and continuing employees.
3. For a sample of new hires, obtain the appointment letter and verify
whether the salary for first month and subsequent months was
processed as per the agreed terms.
4. For a sample of resigned employees, obtain their full and final
computation and verify whether all their dues including post-retirement
benefits like gratuity, leave encashment have been paid.
5. Obtain the monthly salary registers for all 12 months and compare with
the previous year. If unusual deviations exist, inquire for such
differences.
6. Verify whether provision has been made for all employee benefits and
obligations like bonus, gratuity, leave encashment
7. In case Provident fund (PF), Employee state insurance (ESI) are applicable
to the entity:
a. Re – calculate monthly liability of employer and employee
contributions to be paid and compare with actual details.
b. Also obtain monthly deposit challans to verify monthly liability
deposited with the authorities within the due dates.
8. Perform analytical procedures to obtain audit evidence as to overall
reasonableness of employee benefit expense which may include
production per employee analysis.
AUDIT OF DEPRECIATION AND AMORTISATION
1. Identify the entity’s accounting policy related to depreciation and

amortization and ensure that the depreciation methods are as per the
relevant provisions of Companies Act, applicable accounting standards.
2. Whether the depreciation has been calculated after making adjustment of

residual value from the cost of the assets.
3. Whether depreciation and amortization charges are accurately calculated

and recorded:
4. Obtain the fixed asset register maintained by the entity.
5. Obtain a list of all additions/ deletions along with their authorisation.
6. Select the sample of assets from the Fixed Assets Register and verify the
rates of depreciation, depreciation calculation.
7. Ensure that the revaluation, is considered appropriately. 305

8. Whether all depreciation and amortization charges are recorded in the
proper accounting period.
a. Ensure depreciation is charged on the assets from the date when it is

ready to use.
b. Perform analytical procedures to obtain audit evidence as to overall

reasonableness.
9. Ensure the parts (components) of each item of property, plant and

equipment that are to be depreciated separately has been properly
identified.
10. Whether the most appropriate depreciation method for each separately
depreciable component has been used.
11. In case of Income tax audit, check the calculations are as per Income tax
act, 1961 and verify the value of additions by comparing to books of
accounts.
AUDIT OF OTHER EXPENSES

A. GENERAL POINTS:
While the auditor verifies monthly trends for expenses like rent, power and
fuel, an auditor generally prefers to vouch for other expenses to verify
following attributes:
1. Whether the expenditure pertained to current period under audit.

2. Whether the expenditure qualified as a revenue and not capital
expenditure.
3. Whether the expenditure had a valid supporting document, such as
bills, tickets etc.
4. Whether the expenditure has been classified under the correct expense
head.
5. Whether the expenditure was authorised by proper personnel.
6. Ensure that the expenditure is not personal in nature of management.
7. Also perform Analytical procedure to compare with previous year data
and unusual deviations shall be inquired.
B. RENT EXPENSES:
1. Obtain a month wise expense schedule along with the rent agreements.
2. Ensure that the rent is recorded for all 12 months and whether the rent
amount is as per the Rental agreement.
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3. Specific consideration should be given to escalation clause to verify if
the rent was increased/ adjusted during the period under audit.
4. Verify that the agreement is in the name of the entity and whether the
expense pertains to premises used for running business operations of
the entity.
C. POWER AND FUEL:

1. Obtain a month wise expense schedule along with the power bills.
2. Ensure that the expense has been recorded for all 12 months.
3. Compile a month wise summary of power units consumed and the
applicable rate and check the arithmetical accuracy of the bill raised on
monthly basis.
4. Analyse the monthly power units consumed by linking it to units of
finished goods produced and investigate reasons for variance in
monthly trends. (Analytical Procedures)
D. INSURANCE:
1. Obtain a summary of insurance policies taken along with their validity
period.
2. Verify if the expense has been correctly classified between prepaid and
expense for the period based on number of days.
3. Verify the last premium paid receipt to ensure that the policy is not
discontinued.
E. LEGAL AND PROFESSIONAL EXPENSES:

1. Obtain a month wise and consultant wise summary in case of monthly
retainer ship agreements.
2. Verify if the expenditure for all 12 months has been recorded correctly.
For non-recurring expenses,
3. Select a sample and vouch for the attributes discussed above.
4. The auditor should be cautious while vouching for legal expenses as the
same may highlight a pending dispute which is not being discussed/
highlighted to the auditor for his specific consideration in light of SA –
501.
F. TRAVEL, REPAIR & MAINTENANCE, PRINTING & STATIONERY:

1. The auditor should select a sample and vouch for the various attributes.
2. Wherever possible, the auditor and try and prepare a summary of
expenditure on monthly basis and then analytically compare the trends.
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AUDIT OF RESERVES AND SURPLUS OR OTHER EQUITY UNDER
IND AS
A. MEANING OF PROVISIONS:
1. Provisions are amounts charged against revenue to provide for:
a. Renewal or diminution in the value of assets or
b. A known liability, the amount whereof could only be estimated
and cannot be determined with accuracy; or
c. a claim which is disputed.
2. Provisions are normally charged to the Statement of Profit and Loss
before arriving at the amount of profit Reserves are appropriations out
of profits.
B. MEANING OF RESERVES:
1. Reserves are amounts appropriated out of profits that are not intended
to meet any liability, contingency, commitment or diminution in the
value of assets known to exist as at the date of the Balance Sheet.
2. There are two types of reserves, broadly:
a. Revenue Reserves: Represent profits that are available for
distribution to shareholders held for the time being or any one or
more purpose.
b. Capital Reserve: represents a reserve which does not include any
amount regarded as free for distribution through the Statement of
Profit and Loss
C. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESERVES AND PROVISIONS:
1. Provisions are amounts set aside to meet specific/ identified liabilities or
diminution in recoverable value of assets. These must be provided for
regardless of the fact whether the Company has earned profit or not.
2. Reserves, represent amounts appropriated out of profits, held for
equalising the dividends of the company from one period to another or
for financing the expansion of the company or for generally strengthening
the company financially. (E.g., Dividend Equalization reserve, Retained
Earnings
D. AUDIT PROCEDURE FOR RESERVES:

1. Tally the opening balance of reserves and surplus to the previous year
audited financial statements for addition/ utilization in current year,
2. Profit and Loss balance:
a. Trace the movement as disclosed in Statement of changes in Equity
to Surplus/ Deficit as per Income Statement for the year under
audit.
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b. For adjustment related to dividend payment and the tax related
thereto i.e., dividend distribution tax, verify the resolution passed
by the board of directors regarding declaration of dividend.
3. Share Premium:
a. It needs to be confirmed that company has issued shares in excess
of the nominal value of the shares and for the same, the auditor
should obtain and verify the resolution passed by the board of
directors.
b. The withdrawal from securities premium account could be done
only for limited purposes verify whether the same has been
complied.
AUDIT OF BORROWINGS
A. EXISTANCE: All borrowings on balance sheet date represents valid claims:
1. Review board minutes for approval of new lending agreements and make
sure that any new loan agreements or bond issuances are authorized.
2. Verify that borrowing limits not exceeded as authorized by the board and
within the limits set by Articles of Association and Companies act.
3. Verify the overdrafts and loans with bank confirmation / confirmation
from lenders.
4. Verify details of leases and hire purchase creditors recorded as per the
agreement.
5. When debt is closed, ensure that a dis-charge is received on assets
securing the debt.
6. If auditor become aware of significant transactions that are outside
the normal course of business or appear to be unusual, perform the
following procedures:
7. Gain an understanding of the business rationale for such significant
unusual transaction.
8. Consider whether the transactions involve previously unidentified related
parties.
B. COMPLTENESS: All borrowings have been accounted for in the books of the
entity on timely basis:
1. Obtain a schedule of borrowing showing beginning and ending balances,
additional borrowings and repayments during the year.
2. Consider any evidence of additional debt obtained through examination
of minutes of the board, significant contracts, confirmations of bank
accounts.
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3. Review debt activity for a few days before and after end of the reporting
period to determine if there are unrecorded liabilities at year-end and
the transaction is recorded in the correct period.
4. For each lender, send a confirmation request for the amount(s) owed to
the lender, and perform the following:
a. Mail the Confirmation request to appropriately selected party.
b. Send reminders for non-replies.
c. Compare replies to requests.
d. Reconciliations of exceptions.
e. Trace reconciling items to supporting documents.
C. VALUATION: Ensure that the liability is recorded at correct amount:

1. Ensure the loan balance and loan payables are as per loan agreement.
2. Recalculate the interest accrual, and discount or premium on
redemption.
3. Check computation of the amortization of premium or discount.
4. For foreign current loans, Verify the closing exchange rate(s) used and
test the translation calculations.
AUUDIT OF TRADE RECEIVABLES
A. COMPLIANCE PROCEDURE: The auditor shall ensure the system of trade

receivables shall have the following features:
1. All sales are only to approved customers.
2. All such sales are recorded.
3. Once recorded, the debts can only be eliminated by receipt of cash or on
the authority of a responsible official.
4. Debts are collected promptly.
5. Balances are regularly reviewed and aged, a proper system of follow up
exists.
6. If necessary adequate provision for bad debt exists.
7. Clear segregation of duties relating to identification of debt, receipt of
income, reconciliations and write off of debts.
B. SUBSTANTIVE AUDIT PROCEDURE:

1. EXISTANCE:
a. Check controls to ensure that invoices cannot be recorded more
than once.
b. Ask for a period-end accounts receivable aging report and ensure
that they were completely recorded in entity’s general ledger.
310
c. Ensure that the total of Receivables report Total is matching with
total of General ledgers.
d. See whether realization is recorded invoice wise or not. If not, check
that money received from debtors is adjusted chronologically
invoice wise and on FIFO basis i.e. previous bill is adjusted first. If
realization is made on account.
e. Verify if the Company has obtained confirmations from debtors.
f. Direct confirmation procedures:
i. A significant and important audit activity is to contact
customers directly and ask them to confirm the amounts of
unpaid accounts receivable as of the end of the reporting
period under audit.
ii. This should necessarily be done for all significant account
balances as at the period- end while certain random
customers having smaller outstanding invoices should also
be selected.
iii. The auditor employs direct confirmation procedure with the
consent of the entity under audit.
iv. There may be situations where the management of the
entity requests the auditor not to seek confirmation from
certain trade receivables.
v. In such cases, the auditor should check whether there are
valid grounds for such a request.
vi. The trade receivables may be requested to confirm the
balances either as at the date of the balance sheet or as at
any other selected date which is reasonably close to the date
of the balance sheet.
vii. The date should be decided by the auditor in consultation
with the Company.
viii. The form of requesting confirmation from the trade
receivables may be either use
ix. the ‘positive’ form of request, wherein the trade receivable is
requested to respond whether or not he is in agreement with
the balance shown
x. the ‘negative’ form of request, wherein the trade receivable is
requested to respond only if he disagrees with the balance
shown.
xi. It may be appropriate to use the positive form for trade
receivables with large balances and the negative form for
trade receivables with small balances.
311
xii. A list of trade receivables selected for confirmation should be
given to the entity for preparing request letters for
confirmation.
xiii. Where no reply is received, the auditor should perform
additional testing regarding the balances. This testing could
include:
xiv. Agreeing the balance to cash received;
xv. Agreeing the detail of the respective balance to the
customer’s remittance advice;
xvi. Preparing a detailed analysis of the balance, ensuring it
consists of identifiable transactions and confirming that
these revenue transactions actually occurred;
xvii. Prepare a final summary of the results to draw the final
conclusion.
2. COMPLETENESS:
a. The auditor needs to satisfy himself of correct and proper cut-offs.
Without a correct cut-off, sales could be understated or overstated,
hence, the need to perform the following cut off tests:
b. For the invoices issued during the last few days closer to the
reporting date/ cut-off date and which have been included in the
debtors; the goods should have been dispatched and not lying with
the Company and included in closing stock;
c. All good dispatched prior to the period/ year-end have been invoiced
and included in debtors;
d. Select few invoices from the accounts receivable ageing report and
compare them to supporting documentation to see if they were
billed with the correct amounts, to the correct customers, and on
the correct dates.
e. Match invoice dates to the shipment dates for those items in the
shipping/ dispatch log, to see if sales are being recorded in the
correct accounting period. This can include an examination of
invoices issued subsequent to the period being audited, to see if
they should have been included in the period under audit.
f. Review the receiving log to see if the Company has recorded an
inordinately large amount of customer returns after the audit
period, which would suggest that the Company may have shipped
more goods near the end of the audit period, than the customers
had authorized.
g. Study the system of giving discounts and check the following:
i. Whether the same is being given as per the Company policy.
312
ii. Whether cash discount is given on the basis of date of
realization of cheque which is within reasonable time limit.
3. VALUATION:
a. Assess the allowance for doubtful accounts. Review the process
followed by the Company.
b. Obtain the ageing report of accounts receivable and split between:
i. Not currently due,
ii. 30 days old,
iii. 30-60 days old,
iv. 60- 180 days old,
v. 180- 365 days old and
vi. More than 365 days old
c. Obtain the list of debtors under litigation and compare with
previous year.
d. Scrutinize the analysis and identify those debts which appear
doubtful & their reasons, if any of these debts are not included in
the provision for bad debts; Perform further testing where any
disputes exist; Reach a final conclusion regarding the adequacy of
the bad debts provision.
e. Assess bad debt write-offs. Prepare schedule of movements on Bad
Debts – Provision Accounts and Debts written off and compare
the proportion of bad debt expense to sales for the current year in
comparison to prior years, to see if the current expense appears
reasonable.
f. Check that write-offs or other reductions in the receivable balances
have been approved by an appropriate and authorized member of
senior management.
AUDIT OF CASH AND CASH EQUUIVALENTS
A. AUDIT PROCEDURE:
1. There should be a verification of cash, to the extent possible, as on the
date of reporting period.
2. The cash should be checked not only on the last day of the year, but
also checked again sometime after the close of the year without giving
notice of the auditor’s visit either to the client or to his staff (Surprise
check).
3. If there are more than one cash balances, e.g., when there is a cashier, a
petty cashier, a branch cashier and, in addition, there are imprest
balances with employees, all of them should be checked simultaneously.
313
4. If the auditor is unable to check the cash balance on the Balance Sheet
date, he should arrange with his client for all the cash balance to be
banked and where this cannot conveniently be done on the evening of
the close of the financial year, it should be deposited the following
morning.
5. The practice should also be adopted in the case of balance at the
factory, depot or branch where cash cannot be checked at the close of
the year.
6. In case it is not possible, the auditor should verify the receipts and
payments of cash up to the date he counts the cash. This should be done
soon after the cash balances have been counted.
7. The Cash Book on the date of verification should be signed by the auditor
to indicate the stage at which the cash balance was checked. If any
cheques or drafts are included in cash balance, the total thereof should
be disclosed.
8. The auditor needs to obtain bank reconciliation statements for all bank
accounts maintained by the entity as at the reporting period and
additionally needs to understand the client’s process and periodicity of
making the BRS.
9. Auditor should request the client to provide BRS signed by the
accountant and approved by the Finance Head/authorized senior
company official so that he is able to assign responsibility in case of any
errors. Verification of BRS shall entail the following:
a. Tallying the balance as per bank to the bank confirmation/
statement
b. Checking of all material reconciling items included under cheques
issued but presented ‘for payment’ to the underlying bank book
forming part of books of account.
c. The auditor should request for bank statement of subsequent
period and should verify if the cheques issued have subsequently
been cleared by bank.
d. Checking of all material reconciling items included under
‘’cheques deposited but not credited by bank’’ by requesting for
bank deposit slips, duly acknowledged by bank and verifying if the
balances were credited by bank subsequently by tallying to the
bank statement of subsequent period.
e. Checking of all material reconciling items included under
‘’Amounts/Charges debited/ credited by bank but not accounted for’’
by requesting for bank statements for the period under audit and
tallying the same.
314
B. DIRECT CONFIRMATION PROCEDURES:
1. A significant and important audit activity is to contact banks/ financial
institutions directly and ask them to confirm the amounts held in various
accounts as of the end of the reporting period under audit. This should
necessarily be done for all account balances as at the period-end.
2. The Company should be asked to investigate and reconcile the
discrepancies, if any including seeking written explanations/
clarifications from the banks/ financial institutions on any unresolved
queries.
3. This testing could include Agreeing the balance to bank statement
received by the Company or internet/ online login to account in
auditor’s personal presence
AUDIT OF INVENTORY
A. EXISTANCE:
To Ensure inventories are existing as at year end.
1. Review client’s plan for performing inventory count. Plan should also
allocate staff responsible for each class of inventory.
2. Observe inventory being counted and personally perform test counts to
verify counts. Test counts by auditor should include:
a. Ensure that the employees are counting as per managements plan.
b. Assuring that all items are properly tagged (E.g., Bar codes or QR
Codes).
c. Staying alert at all times and specifically being cautious about
empty boxes, etc. And obsolete items.
d. Establishing cut off by documenting last receiving reports and
shipping details for the period.
e. Ensuring exclusion of third party stock and damaged or obsolete
stock.
f. Investigating any significant differences between the physical
stock take and the stock records.
3. Further, the auditor should ask the client personnel to sign all stock
count sheets.
4. When control risk is high and/or client uses periodic system - inventory
count should be undertaken at end of period. If client uses perpetual
system with proper and adequate records, inventory may be counted at
interim dates.
B. COMPLETENESS:
1. Perform analytical procedures like:
a. Compute inventory turnover ratio (COGS/ average inventory) 315
b. Compare budgetary expectations vis-à-vis actuals
2. Examine non-financial information related to inventory, such as weights
and measures.
3. Perform purchase and sales cut-off tests.
4. Verify the clerical and arithmetical accuracy of inventory listings.
5. Reconcile physical inventory amounts with perpetual records.
6. Reconcile physical counts with general ledger control totals.
C. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATION:

1. Vouch recorded purchases to underlying documentation.
2. Evaluate the consigned goods. Examine client correspondence, sales and
receivables records, purchase documents.
3. Determine existence of collateral agreements.
4. Review material purchase commitment agreements.
5. Examine invoices for evidence of ownership.
6. In respect of inventory held by third party, the auditor should insist on
obtaining declaration from the third party on its business letterhead and
signed by an authorized personnel of that third party confirming that
the items of inventory belong to the entity and are being held by such
third party on behalf of and for the benefit of the entity under audit.
(External Confirmation).
D. VALUATION:
1. Raw materials and consumables:
a. Ascertain what elements of cost are included e.g., carriage in,
duties etc.
b. If standard costs are used then compare with actual costs.
c. Test check cost prices used with purchase invoices received in the
months prior to counting.
d. Follow up valuation of all damaged or obsolete inventories noted
during observance of physical counting with a view to
establishing a realistic net realizable value.
2. Work in progress:
a. Ascertain how the various stages of production are measured.
b. Ascertain what elements of cost are included. Ascertain the basis
on which overheads are included and compare such basis with the
available costing and financial information maintained by the
entity.
c. Ensure that material costs exclude any abnormal wastage factors.
3. Finished goods and goods for resale: 316

a. Enquire into what costs are included and ensure that the overheads
included have been determined based on normal costs.
b. Ensure that inventories are valued at net realizable value if they
are likely to fetch a value lower than their cost.
c. Follow up for items that are obsolete, damaged, slow moving and
ascertain the possible realizable value of such items. For the
purpose, request the client to provide inventory ageing split
between less than 30 days, 30-60 days old, 60- 90 days old, 90-
180 days old, 180- 385 days old and more than 365 days old
d. Examine vendor price lists to determine if recorded cost is less than
current prices.
e. Calculate inventory turnover ratio. Obsolete inventory may be
revealed if ratio is significantly lower.
f. In manufacturing entities, test overhead allocation rates and
ensure that only direct labour, direct material and overhead have
been included.
AUDIT OF FIXED ASSETS
A. EXISTANCE: To Establish the existence of Fixed assets at year end.

1. Review client’s plan for performing physical verification of PPE and its
periodicity. Ensure it is appropriately supervised.
2. Obtain PPE physical verification report backed by the working sheets
from the client and perform the following procedures:
a. Assess if all items of PPE are properly tagged and carry
identification marks/ numbers.
b. Reconciliation of items of PPE as physically verified with the fixed
asset register maintained by the entity as at the date.
c. Specifically verify if the PPE additions up to the date of physical
verification have been updated in the fixed asset register.
d. Verify the discrepancies noted, based on physical verification
undertaken and how such discrepancies have been dealt books of
accounts.
B. COMPLETENETSS: Additions to PPE during the period under audit have
been properly recorded in the financial statements.
1. Verify the movement in the PPE schedule (asset class wise like building,
P&M etc.) compiled by the management i.e., Opening + Additions -
Deletions= Closing.
2. Check the arithmetical accuracy of the movement in PPE schedule, tally
the opening balances to the previous year audited financial
statements.
317
3. Ensure that the assets belong to third parties are not included in FAR and
a separate record is maintained for that.
4. For additions during the period under audit, obtain a list of all additions
from the management.
5. For all material additions, verify if such expenditure is to be treated as
capital expenditure or revenue expenditure.
6. Verify the installation certificate or report to establish the date of
addition, for all additions to PPE during the period under audit.
7. Verify if the PPE additions have been approved by appropriate entity’s
personnel.
8. Verify if proper internal controls like inviting competitive quotations/
tenders etc. were followed prior to finalizing the vendor for procuring
item of PPE.
9. In relation to deletions to PPE:
a. understand from the management the reason and rationale for
deletion and the manner of disposal.
b. Obtain the management approval and discard note authoring
discard of the asset from its active use.
c. Verify the Internal controls for sale of discarded PPE. (E.g., Tenders)
d. Verify that the management has accurately recorded the deletion of
PPE.
C. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS:

1. The auditor shall verify that all PPE purchase invoices are in the name of
the entity that entitles legal title of ownership to the respective entity.
2. For all additions to land, building the auditor should obtain copies of
conveyance deed/ sale deed to establish whether the entity name is
mentioned therein.
3. The auditor should insist and verify the original title deeds for all
immoveable properties held.
4. In case the entity has given such immoveable property as security for
any borrowings and the original title deeds are not available with the
entity, the auditor should request the entity’s management for
obtaining a confirmation from the respective lenders that they are
holding the original title deeds of immoveable property as security.
5. In addition, the auditor should also verify the register of charges,
available with the entity to assess the PPE that has been given as
security to any third parties.
D. VALUATION: Ensure that PPE has been valued properly and as per GAAP.
1. The auditor should verify that the entity has charged depreciation on all
items of PPE. 318
2. Verify that the depreciation method used is selected by considering
consumption pattern.
3. A variety of depreciation methods can be used to allocate the
depreciable amount of an asset on a systematic basis over its useful
life. These methods:
a. Straight-line depreciation results in a constant charge over the
useful life if the asset’s residual value does not change.
b. The diminishing balance method results in a decreasing charge over
the useful life.
c. The units of production method result in a charge based on the
expected use or output.
4. The entity selects such method that most closely reflects the expected
pattern of consumption of the future economic benefits embodied in the
asset.
5. Ensure that method should have been applied consistently from period to
period unless there is a change in the expected pattern of consumption
of those future economic benefits.
6. The auditor should also verify if the management has undertaken an
impairment assessment to determine whether an item of property,
plant and equipment is impaired and such impairment shall be
appropriately recorded.
AUDIT PROCEDURES TO BE PERFORMED AS AN AUDITOR FOR

COMPLETENESS (ASSERTION) OF INTANGIBLE ASSETS.
A. EXISTANCE:
1. Since an Intangible Asset is an identifiable non-monetary asset, without
physical substance, for establishing the existence of such assets, the
auditor should verify whether such intangible asset is in active use in
the production or supply of goods or services, for rental to others, or for
administrative purposes.
2. In case any intangible asset is not in active use, deletion should have
been recorded in the books of account post approvals by the entity’s
management and amortization charge should have ceased to be charged
beyond the date of deletion.
B. COMPLETENESS:
1. Verify the movement in the Intangible assets schedule (asset class wise
like software, designs/ drawings, goodwill etc.) compiled by the
management i.e., Opening + Additions - Deletions= Closing and tally the
closing balance to the entity’s books of account. 319
2. Check the arithmetical accuracy of the movement in intangible asset
schedule, tally the opening balances to the previous year audited
3. For all additions, verify if it meets the criterion for recognition of an
intangible asset.
4. Verify the certificate or report to establish the date of use of the
intangible for all additions to intangible assets during the period under
audit.
5. Verify if the additions have been approved by appropriate entity’s
personnel.
6. In relation to deletions to intangible assets:
a. Understand from the management the reason and rationale for
deletion and the manner of disposal.
b. Obtain the management approval and discard note authoring
discard of the asset from its active use.
c. Verify that the management has accurately recorded the deletion of
intangible asset and the resultant gain/ loss on discard in the
entity’s books of account.
SELF STUDY:
1. Intangible asset shall be recognised only if:
2. The said asset is identifiable.
3. The entity controls the asset i.e. The entity has the power to obtain the
future economic benefits flowing from the underlying resource.
4. The cost of the item can be measured reliably.
5. To assess whether an internally generated intangible asset meets the
criteria for recognition, an entity classifies the generation of the asset
into:
a. a research phase and
b. a development phases
6. Research phase:
a. No intangible asset arising from research (or from the research
phase of an internal project) shall be recognised. Expenditure on
research shall be recognised as an expense when it is incurred since
in the research phase of an internal project, an entity cannot
demonstrate that an intangible asset exists that will generate
probable future economic benefits.
Examples of research activities are:
b. Activities aimed at obtaining new knowledge.
c. The search for, evaluation and final selection of, applications of
research findings or another knowledge.
320
7. Development phase:
a. An intangible asset arising from development or from the
development phase of an internal project) shall be recognized only
if, an entity can demonstrate all of the following:
b. The technical feasibility of completing the intangible asset so that
it will be available for use or sale.
c. Its intention to complete the intangible asset and use or sell it;
d. Its ability to use or sell the intangible asset.
e. How the intangible asset will generate probable future economic
benefits.
f. The availability of adequate technical, financial and other resources
to complete the development and to use or sell the intangible
asset;
g. Its ability to measure reliably the expenditure attributable to the
intangible asset during its development.
8. The cost of an internally generated intangible asset comprises all

directly attributable costs necessary to create, produce, and prepare the
asset to be capable of Operating. Examples of directly attributable
costs are:
a. Costs of materials and services used or consumed in generating the
intangible asset.
b. Costs of employee benefits arising from the generation of the
intangible asset.
C. VALUATION: Ensure that the Intangibles have been properly valued as per
GAAP.
1. The value of intangible assets may diminish due to of time, use and/ or
obsolescence.
2. The auditor should:
3. Verify that the entity has charged amortization on all intangible assets.
4. Verify that the amortization method used reflects the pattern in which
the asset’s future economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the
entity.
5. The auditor should also verify if the management has undertaken an
impairment assessment to determine whether an intangible asset is
impaired.
AUDIT OF LAONS AND ADVANCES
A. EXISTANCE AND COMPLETENESS:

321
1. For establishing existence of loans and advances, direct confirmation
procedures are to be used.
2. Obtain a list of all advances and other current assets and compare them
with balances in the ledger.
3. Inspect loan agreements and acknowledgements of parties in respect of
outstanding loans.
4. In addition, the auditor should confirm that the loans advanced were
within the competence of persons who had advanced the same.
5. Inspect the minutes of meeting of board of directors to confirm if all
material loans and advances were approved by the board of directors.
6. Verify that the loan has been acknowledged by the party and inspect if
any security has been deposited against due repayment of the loan.
7. Ascertain if loans are being recovered regularly as per agreed
installments.
8. In relation to balances with statutory authorities, verify the balances
with external confirmation.
9. Further, the auditor should obtain copies of statutory returns filed with
the authorities like GST returns etc. and verify whether the amount
recorded as per books of account tallies with the claim made with the
authorities.
B. VALUATION: (Self Study)

1. Assess the allowance for doubtful accounts. Review the process followed
by the Company to derive an allowance for doubtful accounts. This will
include a consistency comparison with the method used in the last year,
and a determination of whether the method is appropriate for the
underlying business environment.
2. Obtain the ageing report of loans and advances, split between not
currently due, 30 days old, 30-60 days old, 60- 180 days old, 180- 365
days old and more than 365 days old.
3. Obtain the list of loans and advances under litigation and compare with
previous year.
4. Identify those loans and advances that appear doubtful.
5. Ensure the adequacy of the bad and doubtful loans/ advances provision.
6. Check that write-offs or other reductions in the recoverable balances
have been approved by an appropriate and authorised member of
management.
7. Check that the restatement of foreign currency loans and advances/
other current assets has been done properly.
AUDIT OF CONTINGENCIES AND PROVISIONS

322
1. Obtain a list of all provisions and compare them with balances in the ledger.
2. Inspect the underlying arrangements like appointment agreement with
employees to understand the entity’s commitment towards defined
benefits, agreement with customers to assess warranty commitments, any
legal and other claims on the entity i.e. litigations.
3. Obtain the underlying working and the basis for each of the provisions
made, from the management and verify whether the same is complete and
accurate.
4. Where ever required the auditor may take the help of management expert
or auditors expert depending on circumstances.
5. Generally we may take assistance of actuary for determining retirement
benefits. Assistance of Legal experts, Lawyers, in respect of determining
outcome of pending litigation.
6. As per SA 500- Audit Evidence, issued by ICAI, when using the work of a
management’s Expert, audit evidence that the auditor should obtain
include:
a. Evaluate the competence, capabilities and objectivity of that expert:
b. Whether the expert is employed by the entity or is engaged by it
c. The extent to which management can exercise influence or control
over the expert
d. Auditor’s previous experience of the work of the expert
e. Knowledge of the expert’s qualification, membership of a professional
body or industry association
f. Obtain an understanding of the work of that expert.
AUDIT ON GOODS SENT OUT ON SALE OR RETURN BASIS
1. Check whether a separate memorandum record is maintained. The party

accounts are debited only after the goods have been sold and the sales
account is credited.
2. See that price of such goods is unloaded from the sales account and the
trade receivable’s record. Refer to the memoranda record to confirm that
on the receipt of acceptance from each party, his account has been
debited and the sales account correspondingly credited.
3. Ensure that the goods in respect of which the period of approval has expired
at the close of the year either have been received back subsequently or
customers’ accounts have been debited.
4. Confirm that the inventory of goods sent out on approval, the period of
approval in respect of which had not expired till the close of the year lying
with the party, has been included in the closing inventory.
323
EXPENSES WHICH ARE OF ESSENTIALLY REVENUE IN NATURE,
IF INCURRED FOR CREATING AN ASSET OR ADDING TO ITS
VALUE FOR HIGHER PRODUCTIVITY ARE REGARDED AS
EXPENSES OF A CAPITAL NATURE. EXPLAIN SUCH EXPENSES
1. Material and wages- capital expenditure when expended on the

construction of a building or erection of machinery
2. Legal expenses- capital expenditure when incurred in connection with the
purchase of land or building.
3. Freight- capital expenditure when incurred in respect of purchase of plant
and machinery
4. Repair- Major repairs of a fixed asset that increases its productivity
5. Wages- Wages paid on installation costs incurred in Plant & machinery
6. Interest- Interest incurred during the eligible period as defined under Ind AS
23 i.e., during the period of construction of the asset.
ADDITIONAL TOPICS TO BE READ FROM

ICAI STUDY MATERIAL
Refer Additional Notes from ICAI Study Materials, in the chapter Items of
Financial Statements for the following Topics:
1. Loans and Advances

2. Trade Receivables
3. Borrowings
4. Final Notes given at the end of Chapter of ICAI SM for Items of F/S in relation
to approx. 6 topics [Disclosures about CSR Unspent Money, Disclosures of
Benami Proceedings and Rounding Off Financial statements]
Note: Watch Revision Video in YT of CA Ram Harsha [Uploaded in September

2022] for getting more clarity on these items.
324

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PAPER 6

AUDITING AND ASSURANCE

THIS NOTES SHALL BE RECOMMENDED ONLY FOR THE STUDENTS OF REGULAR

Author: Ram Harsha, FCA, DISA, B. Com

2. OBJECTIVE OF THE AUDIT/AUDITOR:

c. USERS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS:

6. APPLICABLE FINANCIAL REPORTING FRAMEWORK:

7. GENERAL PURPOSE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (GPFS):

8. SPECIAL PURPOSE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS (SPFS):

9. GENERAL PURPOSE FRAMEWORK:

10. COMPLIANCE FRAMEWORK (CFW):

11. FAIR PRESENTATION FRAMEWORK:

PART – I (INTRO AND CONCEPTS OF AUDIT)

B. PURPOSE OF AN AUDIT: [Different from Objective of Audit]

OBJECTIVES OF AN AUDITOR AS PER SA 200

As per SA-200 the overall objectives of the auditor are:

a. To obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements as

b. To report on the financial statements as per relevant SA’s based on the

D. LIMITATION ON SCOPE: If there is a limitation on the auditor’s scope that

E. TECHNICAL DUTIES ARE EXCLUDED: The auditor is not expected to perform

PRINCIPAL ASPECGS TO BE COVERED IN AUDIT

The principal aspects to be covered in an audit of financial statements are:

1. INTERNAL CONTROLS: An examination of the system of accounting and

2. SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES: Reviewing the system and procedures to find

3. ARITHMETICAL ACCURACY: Checking of the arithmetical accuracy of the

4. AUTHORISATIONS: Verification of the authenticity and validity of

5. ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES: Ascertaining that a proper distinction has been

7. VERIFICATION OF ASSETS: Verification of the title, existence and value of the

8. VERIFICATION OF THE LIABILITIES stated in the balance sheet. 8

10. AUDIT CONCLUSIONS AND REPORTING: Reporting to the appropriate

VARIOUS TYPES OF AUDITS

Audit is not mandatory for all forms of organisations. Depending on

B. NON - STATUTORY AUDIT / VOLUNTARY AUDIT:

4. INDEPENDENCE OF MIND ENOUGH: The auditor need not be independent

5. AUDIT OF TRUSTS: [4 MARKS QUESTION]

ADVANTAGES OF AN INDEPENDENT AUDIT

2. It acts as a moral check on the employees from committing frauds or

3. For negotiating loans from lenders.

5. For detection of weakness in internal controls those are leading to

6. To help in the settlement of accounts at the time of admission or death of

7. Government may require audited and certified statement before it gives

8. To ascertain whether the necessary books of account and allied records

9. Also helps to settle insurance claims in case of any catastrophe.

INHERENT LIMITATIONS OF AUDIT

A. NATURE OF FINANCIAL REPORTING:

B. NATURE OF AUDIT PROCEDURES: [4 MARKS QUESTION]

5. AUDIT VS INVESTIGATION: [IMP FOR 4 MARKS QUESTION]

C. TIMELINESS OF F/R AND COST-BENEFIT BALANCING:

D. OTHER LIMITATIONS: [JULY 2021 – 3 MARKS]

In the case of certain assertions or subject matters, the potential effects

He is concerned with the reporting on financial matters of business and

A. PROFESSIONAL QUALITIES / TECHNICAL QUALITIES:

1. KNOWLEDGE OF ACCOUNTING: He is called upon constantly to critically

2. KNOWLEDGE OF LAW AND TAXATION: The Companies Act need special

3. KNOWLEDGE OF FINANCE AND MANAGEMENT: He must pursue an

4. KNOWLEDGE OF CLIENT BUSINESS: The auditor should be equipped with

2. The qualities required, according to Dicksee, are tact, caution, firmness,

3. He must have the highest degree of integrity backed by adequate

ETHICAL REQUIREMENTS RELATING TO AN AUDIT OF FINANCIAL STATEMETNS