IST FINAL REPORT OCT 2022 v4 PDF

JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN
OCTOBER 2022 FINAL REPORT
KASA
KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE

SEWAGE TREATMENT SYSTEM TO STANDARD A EFFLUENT
KASA/JPP/KAJIAN IST/SCC/2021
OCTOBER 2022
PERUNDING PINANG SDN. BHD.

FINAL REPORT
Kajian Optimizing Removal Efficiency of On-Site
Sewage Treatment System To Standard A Effluent
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TABLE OF
CONTENTS
JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN TOC-0

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KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE SEWAGE

TREATMENT SYSTEM TO STANDARD A EFFLUENT
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Individual Septic Tank (IST) 1-1
1.2 Problem Statement 1-3
1.3 Previous Government Strategies 1-7
1.4 Way Forward for IST 1-12
1.5 Study Objective 1-13
1.6 Scope of Work 1-13
1.7 Study Methodology 1-15
1.8 Work Programmes 1-17
1.9 Organisation Chart 1-20
1.10 Scope of Personnel Involvement 1-21
1.11 Prototype Design 1-23
1.12 Deliverables 1-24
1.13 References 1-25

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background 2-1
2.2 Characteristics of Rural Development Area 2-2
2.3 Domestic Wastewater 2-4
2.4 Sewerage in Malaysia 2-6
2.5 Septic Tank 2-9
2.6 Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) 2-10
2.7 ATUs Treatment Principle 2-13
2.8 Literature Review 2-14
2.8.1 Overview 2-14
2.8.2 Past Research 2-15
2.8.3 Summary of Treatment Systems 2-29
2.9 References 2-33
CHAPTER 3 MARKET AND PRODUCT REVIEW
3.1 Introduction 3-1
3.2 Product Review 3-1
3.3 Product Examples 3-3
3.4 Products Comparison 3-14
3.5 References 3-16

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CHAPTER 4 PROTOTYPE PROPOSAL
4.2 The Proposed System 4-3
4.3 Submerged Aerobic Biofilter (SAB) 4-4
4.4 Proposed Prototype Plants 4-6
4.4.1. Introduction 4-6
4.4.2 Proposed Technical Specification 4-6
4.5 Design Calculations 4-8
4.6 Mass Balance Calculations 4-12
4.7 Engineering Drawings 4-18
4.8 Brochures 4-24
4.8.1 Biofilter Media 4-25
4.8.2 PE Brush Media 4-30
4.9 References 4-33

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CHAPTER 5 SUSTAINABLE RENEWAL ENERGY
5.2 Renewable Energy 5-1
5.3 Sustainable Energy 5-2
5.4 Proposed Alternative Energy for Prototype 5-3
5.5 Electricity Cost 5-3
5.6 Solar Power Technology 5-4
5.7 Off-Grid Solar System 5-6
5.8 On-Grid Solar System 5-7
5.9 Design Proposal 5-8
5.9.1 Option 1 : Off-Grid System 5-9
5.9.2 Option 2 : On-Grid System 5-14
5.10 Proposed Solar System for Prototype 5-16
5.12 Brochures 5-19
5.12.1 PV Modules 5-20

5.12.2 Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) 5-22
5.12.3 Hybrid Inverter 5-23
5.12.4 PV Modules/Micro Inverter 5-25
5.13 Solar System Supplier 5-30

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CHAPTER 6 PROPOSED SOLAR SYSTEM FOR IST
6.2 Proposed Footprints of ISTs 6-1
6.3 Proposed Footprints of Solar System 6-5
6.4 System Overvie 6-18
6.5 System and Operational & Maintenance Costs 6-18
6.6 Design Concept 6-20
6.7 Technical Datasheet 6-26
6.8 SEDA and TNB 6-26
6.9 Installed Solar System for IST 5 PE 6-27
6.10 Solar System Payback Period and ROI 6-34
6.11 Operation and Maintenance of Solar System 6-37
6.13 Appendix 6.1 : Technical Datasheet for Off-Grid System 6-38
6.14 Appendix 6.2 : Technical Datasheet for On-Grid System 6-48
6.15 Appendix 6.3 : Operation and Maintenance of Solar System Manual 6-54

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CHAPTER 7 SAMPLING REGIME
7.2 Sample Types 7-1
7.3 Sewage Characteristics 7-2
7.4 Preservation of Wastewater Samples 7-4
7-5 Sampling and Monitoring Plan 7-5
7-6 Installation and Commissioning of Prototypes 7-6
7-7 Redesigning the Prototypes 7-10
7-8 Proposed Sampling Program 7-12
7-9 References 7-17
CHAPTER 8 PERFORMANCE STUDY
8.2 Institutions for Wastewater Management in Malaysia 8-1
8.3 Sampling Integrity 8-2
8.4 Biochemical Treatment Processes 8-4
8.5 Significance of Parameters 8-6
8.6 Submerged Aerated Biofilter (SAB) Principle 8-9
8.7 Results and Discussion 8-10
8.7.1 Seven Days Performance Study 8-12

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8.7.2 Twenty Four-Hours Performance Study 8-41
8.8 Operational Cost 8-59
8.9 Recommendations 8-60
8.10 Conclusions 8-61

8-62
8.11 References
CHAPTER 9 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IST
9.2 Comparatively High Operational Cost 9-2
9.3 Biofilter/ Media Lifespan 9-3
9.4 Comparison Between IST and Submerged Aerobic Biofilter 9-3
9.5 IST 5 PE Cost Estimation 9-4
9.6 References 9-5
9.7 Appendix 9.1 : Operation and Maintenance of IST Manual 9-7

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KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE SEWAGE

TREATMENT SYSTEM TO STANDARD A EFFLUENT
TABLES PAGE
2.1 Typical Composition of Untreated Municipal Wastewater 2-5

2.2 Comparison of Energy Requirements 2-16
2.3 The Removal of COD and Ammonium 2-22
2.4 Summarized Past Studies with On-Site Treatment Systems 2-27
2.5 Suspended Growth Biological Processes 2-30
2.6 Fixed Film/Hybrid Biological Processes 2-31
2.7 Other Biological Processes 2-32
3.1 Comparison of Reviewed Small Sewage Treatment Plants 3-15
4.1 Summary of Mass Balance Calculations 4-14
5.1 Load Profile 5-8
5.2 PV Panel Sizing 5-10
5.3 Inverter LXP3K-Solar Panel Matching 5-11
5.4 Battery Sizing 5-12
5.5 PV System Design Simulation Report 5-15
6.1 Power Requirements and O&M Costs of IST 5 PE 6-21
6.5 Typical Capital and Operating Costs for Power Generation 6-35
6.6 ROI and Payback Periods of Proposed Solar Systems 6-36

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7.1 Preservation of Wastewater Samples 7-4

7.2 List of Parameters for Study 7-12
8.1 Acceptable Conditions of Sewage Discharge of Std A and B 8-8
8.2 Steady-State Study Test Results 8-11
8.3 Seven Days Performance Study for Tank A 8-14
8.4 Seven Days Performance Study for Tank B 8-15
8.5 Seven Days Performance Study for Tank C 8-16
8.6 Influent and Effluent Averages for Seven Days Study 8-20
8.7 Average Removal Efficiencies for Seven Days Study 8-21
8.8 Twenty Four Hours Performance Study for Tank A 8-42
8.9 Twenty Four Hours Performance Study for Tank B 8-43
8.10 Twenty Four Hours Performance Study for Tank C 8-44
8.11 Performance Study Comparison 1 8-46
8.12 Performance Study Comparison 2 8-47
8.13 Performance Study Septic Tank Mode 8-58
9.1 Comparison Between IST and SAB 9-4
9.2 Summary of 5 PE IST Production Cost 9-5

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FIGURES PAGE
1.1 Typical Septic Tank 1-1

1.2 The Two Enclaves in Weld Quay with no Central Sewer 1-5
1.3 The Pollution Along Weld Quay Sea Shore 1-6
1.4 Majlis Perbandaran Sepang’s Tender 1-7
1.5 Study Methodology 1-15
1.6 Proposed Work Programmes 1-18
1.7 Actual Work Programme 1-19
1.8 Organisation Chart 1-20
2.1 Decentralized Domestic Wastewater Treatment 2-6
2.2 Evolution of Sanitation in Malaysia 2-6
2.3 Sewerage Data Malaysia 2-7
2.4 Sewerage for Single Development up to 30 units or 150 PE 2-7
2.5 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System In Malaysia 2-8
2.6 Typical Septic Tank 2-9
2.7 Typical Air Treatment Unit 2-11
2.8 Schematic Diagram of the Modified Septic Tank (MST) 2-17
2.9 BOD concentration with Time in MST-A and MST-S 2-17
2.10 COD concentration with Time in MST-A and MST-S 2-18
2.11 NO3-N Concentration with Time in MST-A and MST-S 2-18
2.12 TN Concentration with time in MST-A and MST-S 2-19
2.13 TP Concentration with time in MST-A and MST-S 2-19
2.14 E. coli Concentration with Time in MST-A and MST-S 2-20
2.15 Effluents BOD Comparison 2-21
2.16 Reductions in BOD Comparison 2-21
2.17 Schematic of Submerged Aerated Bioreactor 2-23

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3.1 trans Bio-Filter Wastewater Treatment Plant 3-4

3.2 BIOROCK Complete System 3-5
3.3 Klargester Biodisc Sewage Treatment Plant 3-6
3.4 Delphin Compact WWTP 3-7
3.5 Stählermatic System with Rotating Disc Filters 3-8
3.6 BioKube Sewage Treatment Plant 3-9
3.7 RetroFast Sewage Treatment Plant 3-10
3.8 Roclean Wastewater Treatment Plant 3-11
3.9 VFL Small Wastewater Treatment Plant 3-12
3.10 Tricel Novo Wastewater Treatment Plant 3-13
4.1 Mass Balance Diagram 4-17
4.2 Process Flow Chart 4-20
4.3 Engineering Drawing of Prototype A (Control) 4-21
4.4 Engineering Drawing of Prototype B (Biofilter) 4-22
4.5 Engineering Drawing of Prototype C (Biomedia) 4-23
5.1 Simplified Layout of a Common Grid Connected Solar Power
System 5-5
5.2 Configuration of Off-Grid Solar PV Energy System 5-7
5.3 Proposed Single Line Drawing for Off-Grid 5-13
5.4 Proposed Single Line Drawing for On-Grid 5-16
6.1 Proposed Footprint of IST 5 PE 6-2
6.4 Proposed Layout of IST 150 PE 6-3
6.5A Typical Layout of Inlet Works 6-4
6.5B Typical Section of Inlet Works 6-5

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6.6 Footprint of IST 5 PE On-Grid Solar System 6-6

6.7 Footprint of IST 5 PE Off-Grid Solar System 6-7
6.14 SLD of IST 5 PE On-Grid Solar System 6-14
6.15 SLD of IST 5 PE Off-Grid Solar System 6-14
6.22 Concept of Off-Grid Solar System 6-25
6.23 Concept of On-Grid Solar System 6-25
6.24 Solar System Installation 1 6-27

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6.33 S-Miles Enduser Operating Data 6-33

7.1 Aeration Tank A without Biomedia 7-6
7.2 Aeration Tank B with Biofilter 7-7
7.3 Aeration Tank C with Biomedia 7-7
7.4 Three Prototypes Without Cover 7-8
7.5 Side View of Three Prototypes 7-8
7.6 Three Prototypes With Cover 7-9
7.7 Side View Storage Tank for Raw Sewage 7-9
7.8 Top View Storage Tank for Raw Sewage 7-10
7.9 Sampling Points Elevation 7-12
7.10 Sampling Points Plan 7-13
8.1 Sampling by IWK’s Personnel 8-3
8.2 In-Situ Monitoring by Testing Laboratory Personnel 8-3
8.3 Daily Handing Over Samples 8-4
8.4 Sampling Points 8-11
8.5 Picture of IST Tank C 8-12
8.6 Picture of Aeration Tank B 8-13
8.7 Picture of Aeration Tank C 8-13
8.8 Composite Samples Day 1 8-17
8.15 Temperature deg C Vs Time 8-22
8.16 pH Vs Time 8-23

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8.17 Dissolved Oxygen Vs Time 8-24

8.18 BOD5 Vs Time 8-26
8.19 COD Vs Time 8-27
8.20 SS Vs Time 8-30
8.21 Ammoniacal Nitrogen Vs Time 8-33
8.22 Picture of Nitrogen Gas Bubbles of Tank C 8-35
8.23 Total Phosphorus Vs Time 8-37
8.24 Oil & Grease Vs Time 8-38
8.25 Picture of Primary Clarifier of Tank C 8-39
8.26 E Coli Vs Time 8-40
8.27 Grab Samples for Influent and Tank B 8-45
8.28 Temperature degC Vs Time 8-48
8.29 8-49
pH Vs Time
8.30 Dissolved Oxygen Vs Time 8-50
8.31 BOD5 Vs Time 8-51
8.32 COD Vs Time 8-52
8.33 SS Vs Time 8-53
8.34 Ammoniacal Nitrogen Vs Time 8-54
8.35 Total Phosphorus Vs Time 8-55
8.36 Oil & Grease Vs Time 8-56
8.37 E Coli Vs Time 8-57

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BROCHURES PAGE
4.7.1 Biofilter Media 4-19

4.7.2 PE Brush Media 4-24
5.12.2 Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) 5-22
5.12.3 Hybrid Inverter 5-23
5.12.5 Micro Inverter 5-28
5.13 Solar System Supplier 5-30
APPENDIX PAGE
6.13 DATASHEET 1 : Technical Datasheet for Off-Grid System 6-36
6.14 DATASHEET 2 : Technical Datasheet for On-Grid System 6-46
6.15 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR SYSTEM 6-52

MANUAL
9.7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IST MANUAL 9-7

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN 1-0

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INDIVIDUAL SEPTIC TANK (IST)
Malaysia's most common form of on-site sewerage system is the Individual Septic
Tank (IST). Premises with a proper individual septic tank (Malaysian Standards -
MS 1228 ) has 3 to 4 rectangular metal covers and is usually located outside the
premises compound either at the side, rear or front. Figure 1.1 shows a typical septic
tank.
Figure 1.1 Typical Septic Tank [3]
Septic tanks usually comprise two chambers and do not fully treat sewage. They
are settlement tanks that require regular desludging. The maximum amount of
sludge that a septic tank can store is approximately a third of its total volume. Raw
sewage flows into septic tanks, and solid matter or sludge settles to the bottom. Oil
and grease from the sewage floats to the top, forming a layer of scum. Scum

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prevents oxygen from dissolving in the sewage and results in anaerobic digestion
taking place. Raw sewage has to be retained for at least twenty-four hours for
anaerobic digestion to breakdown the solid matter.
If desludging is not carried out, the sludge level may exceed maximum level. When
this happens, sewage retention time decreases. This will result in an incomplete
breakdown of sewage and thus, untreated sewage and sludge solids will be
released from the septic tank into the drain. Where septic tanks have a filter bed
after the settlement chamber, the filter beds will become choked. This too will result
in untreated sewage and sludge solids being discharged into drains. [iwk.com.my].
The septic tank only provides partial treatment of the sewage that flows into it and
needs to be desludged on a regular basis, approximately once in two years, to
ensure that it functions efficiently. IWK provides this important and mandatory
scheduled desludging service to government premises only.
There are currently more than 1.3 million individual septic tanks serving 6.7 million
residents in urban areas and housing estates nationwide. The situation was
aggravated after the septic tank cleaning service provided by Indah Water
Konsortium Sdn Bhd was stopped on Jan 1, 2008.
The Septic Tank Treatment Regulations have been around since 2010 but were not
enforced because septic tanks are considered as individual or private property
under the National Water Services Industry Act 2008, which allows premises owners
to maintain their own sewage tanks. Section 65(1)(c) of the Water Services Industry
Act 2006 (Act 655) states that individual septic tank owners need to maintain the
system, and failure to do so could result in fines of not more than RM50,000. [STAR
03/07/2017]
The discharge of untreated sewage water may also affect aquatic life in the river.
Indirectly, such contamination can also affect the socio-economic activities of the
surrounding area due to the unbearable stench. Effluents from the inefficient septic
tank can also have an impact on groundwater. The sludge will seep into the ground

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and the situation will worsen during rainfall. The rain will drain the overflowing sludge
into the river.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Rural waste management is simple in their hardware that special engineering is

rarely needed.
Sometimes in rural areas, individual homes or several homes are served by a

community sewer which may either terminate at the nearest water course or at a
scaled-down version of a municipal treatment plant, commonly referred to as the
septic tank or communal septic tank or imhoff tank. Maintenance in rural situations
is generally not provided, and the life of almost any wastewater treatment system
will be prematurely terminated by a combination of poor design and near total
neglect.
The major challenges to this conventional treatment plant include poor effluent
quality discharge, odour and desludging since most septic tanks are located with no
access to desludging tanker. Thus, in view of these challenges, the planners,
engineers and researchers around the world have been working towards natural
treatment systems which are relatively cost-effective, energy-sensitive and also self-
contained systems for wastewater treatment. Sewage from individual homes is a
complex brew. It consists of all manner of things that go down drains or are flushed
down toilets. The composition of sewage varies from day to day, from house to
house, even from hour to hour. Thus, the best practice to solve the issue is to have
a sustainable approach as well as less cost operation and maintenance.
These are 2 recent actual case studies highlighting the problem caused by the
conventional septic tanks.
i. USM study [1] showed that 2 enclaves in Weld Quay, Penang are not
connected to the central sewer. These premises are using conventional septic

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tanks to treat their sewage. As a result the pollutants contaminate the adjacent
seawater along Jalan Weld Quay. Figure 1.2 shows the two enclaves not
connected to the central sewer. Figure 1.3 shows the gross pollution along
Jalan Weld Quay sea shore.

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Figure 1.2 The Two Enclaves in Weld Quay with no Central Sewer

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Figure 1.3 The Pollution Along Weld Quay Sea Shore
ii. Recently Majlis Perbandaran Sepang [2] advertised for the quotation to
appoint consultant to upgrade the communal septic tank in Sepang (refer
Figure 1.3) where 1,837 houses are involved. This tender closed on 2
September 2021. The problem is the deteriorating communal septic tanks
are emanating foul odour to the environment and the effluent are polluting
the drains and rivers in the vicinity.

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Figure 1.4 Majlis Perbandaran Sepang’s Tender
1.3 PREVIOUS GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES
Before 1957, when Malaysia declared its independence, local sanitation committees were
responsible for sanitation in rural areas while local governments managed sanitation in
urban areas. From the end of the 1960s, the Malaysian government launched of a series
of five-year plans which had for purpose to construct appropriate sanitation facilities in
both urban and rural areas. At that time, septic tanks were the main sanitation systems
and, in the 1970s, the government started a “National Sewerage Development Program”
to develop sewerage facilities in major cities with the aim to introduce modern sewerage
systems in urban areas. This program was integrated into the five-year development plan

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and resulted in the development of a series of master plans. However, due to the inability
of existing financing structures and the difficulty for the government to gather sufficient
resources, these master plans were implemented in only Kuala Lumpur, Butterworth, and
Kinabalu. As a result, sewerage services and development were fully entrusted to local
governments, which faced difficulties as well, such as financial shortage and lack of
knowledge to provide modern sanitation infrastructure.
From the 1950s to the 1960s Malaysia focused on the primary treatment of wastewater
to improve public sanitation, and promoted the use of non-flush toilets with pit latrines,
flush toilets with pour flush latrines, and septic tanks. In the 1970s and later, the
government aimed at the secondary treatment of wastewater to purify polluted rivers as
the next step of public sanitation. Imhoff tanks were diffused in the 1970s, as well as the
stabilization pond method and the aerated lagoon process in the1980s, and the activated
sludge and biological filtration processes in the 1990s. Since around 2000, the Malaysian
government has focused on environmental preservation to introduce and install
wastewater treatment plants that can remove nitrogen and phosphorus.
In the 1980s, to slow a rise in population having no basic sanitation, the Malaysian
government developed a new policy. This obliged any development projects for 30
households or 150 people equivalent to install a sewerage system. Meanwhile, septic
tanks for individuals or communities prevailed in places with a more limited number of
houses. This new arrangement has encouraged the private sector to play a key role in
developing sewerage systems in Malaysia, building about 70 to 80 percent of the
wastewater treatment infrastructure. The arrangement has also enabled the public sector
to give priority to infrastructure construction for drinking water and energy, and to delay
the investment in large-scale sewerage.
Notwithstanding, a rise in the number of small-scale sewerage systems resulted in an

accumulation of a wide range of low-cost technologies for wastewater treatment and
disposal systems while leaving unsolved the problem of houses without wastewater
treatment facility. In an effort to regulate and standardize sewerage products, the

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government set up an inter-ministry committee, formed under the Ministry of Housing, in

charge of approving new construction systems built by developers.
Until 1994, 144 local government’s controlled sewerage services all over the country.
However, these services were not consistent and in many areas, standards were not met.
The federal government understood the need for improving the sanitation level of the
country and passed the Sewerage Service Act (SSA) in 1993. The purpose of the Act
was to make Malaysia an advanced nation with modern infrastructure. According to the
Act, the federal government became responsible for controlling all sewerage assets and
signed a concession agreement with IWK to entrust the management of sewerage
services. The contract included operation, maintenance, and development (that is,
upgrading, rehabilitation and expansion of sewerage infrastructure) over a 28-year
concession period.
More specific purposes were to build infrastructure, to improve the efficiency of

investments and services, to reduce the governmental involvement ratio, and to provide
a venue for competition from the private sector. The Sewerage Service Department (SSD)
regulate and monitor sewerage services entrusted to IWK. The concession covers the
entire country except the states of Johor, Kelantan, Sabah, and Sarawak, which remain
under the control of their respective local governments. When management was
transferred to IWK, the ratio of connection to sewerage was 5 percent and large-scale
sewerage systems were installed only in large cities having a population of more than
100,000 persons. IWK agreed to increase the sewer connection rate to 85 percent in
major cities and to 30 percent in small to medium cities, and to conduct septage
management.
IWK planned activities and first conducted a number of sewerage studies in order to
assess demand and capacity from a 30-year planning horizon. Next, IWK designed a 3-
phase strategy according to the study results. The phases were :
i) locating and upgrading the old wastewater treatment plants as well as
increasing septage collection capacity,

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ii) using available oxidation ponds as a temporary measure for septage

treatment and constructing trench treatment facilities in accordance with the
guidelines provided by the Department of Environment, and
iii) building centralized and mechanized treatment facilities in areas with high
population density. In addition, IWK developed a database of the houses
connected to a septic tank and started scheduled desludging by geographic
area.
To improve operation and maintenance, IWK has gradually taken over sewerage systems
of various sizes and types. From 1994 to 2008, more than 8,800 systems have become
public systems and come under IWK’s control while more than 3,000 systems remain
under the direct management of the owners and, thus, are classified as private systems.
IWK does not own the public facilities but only operates and maintains them, which gives
this organization the right to collect sewerage charges. On average, IWK takes over 300
treatment facilities and 1,000 km of sewer network yearly. However, in areas where large-
scale sewerage systems are not provided, private developers will continue to construct
small-scale sewerage systems.
IWK’s involvement as a contractor introduced a sewerage charging system for individuals

and enterprises. The system induced citizen’s complaints, resulting in three-time charge
reduction.
Furthermore, the sewerage charges could not cover the business expenses and IWK had
difficulties to collect the charges which if continued would have led the company to
insolvency and would have affected sewerage services. As a result, IWK was placed
under governmental control in 2000. Since then, IWK has been managed as a private
company while the government, under the Ministry of Finance, has been controlling
capital expenditure. SSD took the new responsibility of being an implementing agency
managing sewerage constructions, in addition to its previous role as a regulator of the
sewerage industry.

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In 2006, the Malaysian Parliament passed the Water Service Industry Act (WSIA), which
replaced the Sewerage Service Act. The latter provides the regulatory framework of
sewerage and septage management, and requires the owners and occupants having
septic tanks to take the responsibility of operating and maintaining them appropriately.
Under the previous legal arrangement, IWK had no right to oblige the users to pay
desludging costs and sewerage charges, or to impose a fine on them. The new act
features the integration of drinking water and sewerage services. This holistic approach
to water management enables enforcement and water supply cut on users who do not
pay sewerage charges. This framework also reinforced SSD’s roles and provided by law
a new regulator, Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (SPAN)
SSD became a project implementation agency, in charge of defining the planning for new
constructions and upgrades of sewers and wastewater treatment plants. Through the
monitoring and regulation of sewerage services, SPAN follows the performance of IWK.
To improve the quality of new systems constructed by the private sector, SPAN provides
them guidelines to ensure that new facilities are built according to the standards set and
that the effluent would be able to meet the quality requirements determined by the
Department of Environment. Accordingly, the developers must select any of the systems
that are approved by SPAN.
One of Malaysian sanitation characteristics is that sewerage systems and septic tanks
are equally considered to contribute to the improvement of sanitation regardless of
whether they are constructed by the public sector or the private sector. Therefore, based
on this concept, both systems’ regulation, operation and maintenance are provided by the
same organizations.
The ratio of connected houses to the sewerage system was 5 percent in 1993, but it
drastically increased to reach about 70 percent in 2010. Furthermore, the number of
wastewater treatment plants that conform to the standards for discharged effluent
increased year after year. In 2006, 69 percent of wastewater treatment plants met the
Environmental Quality Act standard.

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1.4 WAY FORWARD FOR IST
Data released by the Department of Environment (DoE) in 2017 showed that there were
579 rivers in 2008, but currently, there are only 477 rivers. According to the Malaysian
Environmental Quality Report 2016, out of 477 monitored rivers, only 47% of the rivers
were classified as clean and the rest were slightly polluted (43%) and polluted (10%) [8].
Subsequent monitoring in 2017 showed that the percentage of clean rivers was declining.
A total of 219 (46%) of the 477 supervised rivers were categorized as clean, 207 (43%)
were slightly polluted and 51 (11%) were polluted [6].
Frighteningly, river water quality has declined, making it much more difficult to make it
available for use than in the past. Our rivers are threatened by both point and non-point
sources of pollution. Sewage treatment plants, agro-industry, manufacturing, sulfur or
greywater from commercial and residential premises, and pig farms are the main point
sources of pollution.
The provision of quality water and sewerage services has become more challenging due
to rapid urbanisation and economic development. Added to this challenge is the need to
comprehensively restructure these services in terms of industry structure and their
regulatory policy to be in line with current requirements and market needs.
Although poorly maintained connected sewerage facilities contribute about 47.8% of

water pollution point sources, greater environmental and health concerns arise from non-
connected systems such as septic tank and pour flush systems. These systems represent
37% of total PE and are not regulated under the EQA 1974. These systems, mostly found
in suburban and rural areas, discharge untreated effluent and sludge directly into water
bodies.
Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara (SPAN) through the National Sewerage Master
Plan provide integrated and holistic long term policy directions and strategic shifts for the
sewerage services industry. The master plan include strategic plans on identification of

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catchment areas, rationalisation of treatment plants and funding mechanisms. It will also
provide appropriate strategies to encourage migration from individual septic tank and pour
flush systems to standardised treatment systems, to minimise pollution [5].
Thus this study is timely as the country need to gradually phase out the individual septic
tank and replace it with a more sustainable system capable of complying to Standard A
of the EQA1974.
1.5 STUDY OBJECTIVE
The specific objectives of this study based on the Terms of Reference (TOR) are:
i) To propose IST that is capable of treating sewage complying to Standard A
of the Environmental Quality Act 1974.
ii) To develop a commercially viable IST that is affordable, durable and reliable
and meet the effluent compliance Standard A of Environmental Quality Act
1974.
1.6 SCOPE OF WORK
Based on the TOR, the scope of work to be implemented for this study consists of but not
limited to the following:
i) To assess and review the suitability of any previous strategies in terms of

overall development concepts and ability to adequately serve IST areas in
the short and long terms stage in accordance with current Government
sewerage policy.
ii) To evaluate various IST process alternatives with respect to the designated
study area as well as the characteristic of the incoming sewage and then
recommend the preferred alternatives based on effluent compliance to
Standard A, cost benefit (both capital and operating cost), constructability,
reliability and operability, health, safety and environmental impacts and

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hence to prepare Layout Plan (both location, route, size of facility, etc). In
preparing this evaluation, the consultant shall include detail estimates for
various alternatives including Capital Expenditures, Operating Expenditures
and a sensitivity test against Net Present Value (NPV) as well as assist the
Government in obtaining approval from all relevant Statutory Undertakers,
Local Authority, etc and follow the legislative procedures. Eventually the
Consultant shall recommend the most beneficial solution for the study.
iii) To develop and to fabricate the IST prototype that is suitable for usage in
Malaysia. The prototype should be dimensioned for real applications.
iv) To carry out testing of the prototype in a real environment in order to analyze
the actual performance of the prototype. The prototype should be connected
to an actual premise and treat actual domestic sewage.

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1.7 STUDY METHODOLOGY

The proposed study methodology for the study is as shown in Figure 1.5.
Task 1 :
Establish Objectives
Task 2 :
Study Current
Systems
Task 3 :
Design Prototypes
Task 4 :
Fabricate Prototype &
Instal on R&D Site
Task 5 :
Performance Study
Task 6 :
Prototype
Optimisation
Task 7 :
Finalise Prototype
Design
Figure 1.5 Study Methodology

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The study methodology is as shown in the Figure 1.5. The objective of this study is to
produce IST that is commercially viable and is capable of treating sewage to Standard A
of the EQA. The consultant need to study the existing current systems that is presently
available worldwide and make comparisons. The consultant then need to design a
suitable IST to meet the objective.
The process alternative design prototypes need to be developed and proposed by the
Consultant. The selection of the prototype(s) design for production shall be based on the
ability to meet the effluent Standard A and cost beneficial solution for the study. The
selected prototypes will be fabricated using non-degradable, non-corrodible and of inert
and durable materials. All fitting, pipe, partition or any other component part shall be made
of non-degradable, non-corrodible and durable materials that is compatible with the tank.
The prototypes will be pre-installed with all related mechanical and electrical
accessories/components before being transported to the testing site. Full installation will
be carried out so as the prototypes can function as planned.
Three prototypes will be designed and fabricated to be tested. These prototypes must
treat real sewage. One prototype will serve the purpose of a control for comparison
purposes. The other two prototypes will have different aerobic treatment systems. The
design of the prototypes shall take into consideration of sustainable renewable energy
sources and energy efficient equipment (EEE) in operating the prototype.
These three prototypes will be installed at one of IWK treatment plant site. Performance
studies will be carried out on the three prototypes to evaluate compliance to the EQA and
which system gives the best performance. The samplings are to be carefully selected and
tested to give representative and reliable date for the propose of the study.
Samples to be taken should cover parameters for enclosed water body such as follows:
i. Temperature
ii. pH
iii. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)
iv. Suspended Solids (SS)

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v. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

vi. Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3N)
vii. Nitrate Nitrogen
viii. Total Phosphorus
ix. Oil & Grease (O&G)
x. E-Coli
xi. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Prototype optimization will be carried out to maximise performance and treatment

efficiency. Finally the optimum design will be finalised. A final prototype will be finalized
after completion of the study. The final prototype design shall be prepared will full
engineering drawings as well as calculations (manual and actual soft copy calculations)
and to be submitted to JPP. The consultant shall present the Final Prototype in a proper
Engineering Report and Drawings.
1.8 WORK PROGRAMMES
Figures 1.6 and 1.7 show the proposed and actual work programmes respectively.

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Figure 1.6 Proposed Work Programme

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Figure 1.7 Actual Work Programme

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1.9 ORGANISATION CHART
Figure 1.8 Organisation Chart

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1.10 SCOPE OF PERSONNEL INVOLVEMENT
1. PROF MADYA IR NIK FUAAD NIK ABLLAH – Overall Coordinator
Coordinate from beginning to end of project. All activities in Gantt Chart need to be
discussed and obtained approval from Coordinator. All arising problems need to be
identified and relevant actions taken. Job scopes include:
- Prototypes fabrication monitoring. Prototypes fabrication is one of the

most important activity. Careful and close monitoring is very important so
as not to compromise prototype’s performances.
- Quality assurance of all study deliverables. QA is paramount to achieving
excellent study results.
- Supervision. Supervise day to day activities to ensure compliance to
project objectives and milestones. Provide verbal or written instructions
for process control changes to system to ensure prototypes meet
targeted quality requirements.
2. PROF DR NORLI ISMAIL
- Prototype design. Detailed design for all 3 prototypes including preparing

engineering drawings good for fabrication.
- Identification of all prototype’s elements including valves, piping, circuit
board, submersible pump, biofilters, air blowers, etc.
- Plan and monitor performance testing. Testing activity include identifying
sampling points, time interval and sampling routine.
- Results analysis. Results analysis is very important to identify as early as
possible the weakness or strength of the prototype design. Improvements
to the prototypes if required will be executed immediately along the way.
- Preparation of all reports. Reports include inception, 2 interim, final draft
and final reports.

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3. PROF IR DR MOHD ZULKIFLY ABDULLAH
- Design and installation of solar panels. Detailed design and engineering

drawings of solar panels good for fabrication.
- Design and fabrication of mechanical and electrical components.
- Preparation of all the mechanical and electrical portion of the reports.
Reports include inception, 2 interim, final draft and final reports.
- Routine Inspection. Monitor and inspect plant equipment and systems to
detect equipment malfunctions and to ensure plant systems are operating
normally.
4. MOHAMAD FIKRILLAH MOHAMAD RIDWAN
- Preparation of engineering drawings good for fabrication.

- Sampling. Collect, mark, store samples and bring to testing laboratory.
- Prototype fabrication. Involve in fabrication, transporting and lay
prototypes on-site.
- Prototype assembly on-site. Including positioning prototypes on-site,
assembly all pipings from submersible pumps to all 3 prototypes to allow
for proper system functioning.
- Plant logs. Complete and maintain plant logs and reports.
- Operation. Operate control systems, monitor gauges and meters,
perform routine checks, maintain equipment and start or stop operations
when necessary.
- Security. Perform security checks in plant and on grounds.
- Maintenance. Perform minor maintenance or assist skilled tradespersons
with installation and repair of plant machinery if and when required.
5. NURUL HUDA BT ZAKARIA
- Sampling. Collect, mark, store samples and bring to testing laboratory.

- Prototype fabrication. Involve in fabrication, transporting and lay
prototypes on-site.

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- Prototype assembly on-site. Including positioning prototypes on-site,

assembly all piping from submersible pumps to all 3 prototypes to allow
for proper system functioning.
- Daily operation. Operate control systems, monitor gauges and meters,
perform routine checks, maintain equipment, and start or stop operations
when necessary.
- Laboratory analysis. Supervise and plan laboratory analysis for all
required tests.
- Routine monitoring. Overall monitoring of day-to-day monitoring to
ensure all is well. Patrol plant to check pumps, motors, filters, and other
plant equipment; monitor and read gauges, meters and other recording
instruments to detect equipment malfunctions and ensure plant systems
and equipment are operating within prescribed limits.
- Test and adjustment. Test and adjust influent feed flowrates to ensure
that processes meet quality standards.
1.11 PROTOTYPE DESIGN
A prototype is an early sample, model or release of the product built to test a

concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. A prototype
is designed to test and trial a new design to enhance precision by system analysis
and users. Prototypes allow designers to “figure out” their design. Prototyping
servers to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical
one.
For this study, the consultant is required to evaluate IST PROCESS

ALTERNATIVES with respect to the designated study area as well as the
characteristics of the incoming sewage and then recommend the preferred
alternatives based on effluence compliance to Standard A cost benefit (both capital
and operating cost), constructability, reliability and operability, health, safety, and
environmental impacts. The aerobic treatment process is classified according to

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the working principles, process configuration, feed condition, and oxidation state.
Process configuration defines the way in which water is in contact with the
biomass, which can from a layer on some supporting media to from a fixed biofilm
or be suspended in a reactor, or a combination of these. Suspended growth
provides higher mass transfer, but the biomass subsequently needs to be
separated from the water. Both configurations generate excess biomass to be
disposed off.
The process alternative design prototypes need to be developed and proposed by

the Consultant. The selection of the prototype(s) design for production shall be
based on the ability to meet the effluent Standard A and cost beneficial solution for
the study. The selected prototype(s) will be fabricated using non-degradable, non-
corrodible and of inert and durable materials. All fitting, pipe, partition or any other
component part shall be made of non-degradable, non-corrodible and durable
materials that compatible with the tank. The prototype(s) will be pre-installed with
all related mechanical and electrical accessories/components before being
transported to the testing site. Full installation will be carried out so as the
prototype(s) can function as planned.
1.12 DELIVERABLES
The deliverables shall be submitted to the Government and to include but not
necessarily limited to the followings:
i) The study stage shall have deliverables including a report and plans (hard
& soft copies), soil investigation, survey drawings and photographs. The
report shall contain the results of the investigative works carried out, the
consultant’s assessment and evaluation of the existing condition, options for
solutions, costing, evaluation and recommended option.
ii) All plans shall be prepared on original stable reproducible materials and
have blocks approved by JPP. All dimensions shall be in metric units. At
least a partner of the Consulting Firm shall sign all plans and all plans

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submitted for the approval shall also bear the Professional Engineer’s Seal
of the partner concerned.
iii) Preliminary plans shall be submitted from time to time to JPP or as
requested for the approval or endorsement of JPP before the final report are
drawn.
1.13 REFERENCES
1. Final Report : Sewerage Catchment Study for Clan Jetties, Pulau Pinang, April 2014,
Jabatan Perkhidmatan Pembetungan.
2. Sebut Harga Perkhidmatan Perunding Untuk Cadangan Lantikan Perunding Bagi Kerja-
Kerja menaiktaraf Sistem Kumbahan Tangki Septik Komunal ( Communal Septic Tank )
di Daerah Sepang Untuk Majlis Perbandaran Sepang Bagi Tahun 2021.
3. Cekpremi Septic Tank ( https://www.cekpremi.com )
4. Country Sanitation Assessment in Malaysia Report, Nov 2011, Japan Sanitation
Consortium.
5. Ensuring Quality and Efficient Water and Sewerage Services Strategy Paper, Economic
Planning Unit 2019, PM Department.
6. The River Quality Before and During The MCO in Malaysia, Science Direct Elsevier, Vol
2, September 2020.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE
REVIEW

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BACKGROUND
There is a growing need to develop sustainable and cost-effective technologies to treat

wastewater. Within the context of adaptive water resources management, centralized
wastewater treatment is an appropriate approach for large communities. In small
communities, however, centralized wastewater collection and treatment systems are
not feasible because of the relatively high cost of capital investment and intensive
operation and maintenance requirements. Decentralized solutions in wastewater
management are recognized as cost-effective alternatives to centralized systems,
which could be effectively integrated into rural as well as urban settings. This can
significantly support future water resources management plans. Moreover, an
extension of wastewater management services to small communities is essential to
address serious concerns in water scarcity, pollution, and public health. Accordingly,
decentralized wastewater treatment has been recognized as an effective solution
allowing the sanitation requirements to be met.
The septic tank system is the most widely used onsite treatment system for domestic
wastewater. Most developing countries lack the technology and economic power to
construct and operate sewerage systems for the conveyance of domestic wastewater
to central sewage treatment facilities, so a greater population relies on the septic tank
system for sewage treatment.
It is an enclosed receptacle designed to collect wastewater, segregate settleable and

floatable solids (sludge and scum), accumulate, consolidate and store solids, digest
organic matter and discharge treated effluent. The septic tank is an anaerobic reactor
due to the insufficiency of oxygen concentration to act as an electron acceptor.

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Microorganisms degrade wastewater aerobically while the C, CO2, and SO4 act as
electron acceptors to form CO2, H2, CH4, and S2-(sulfides). At the same time, most
organic N is converted to NH4+ (inorganic). The effluent flows into the drain field where
aerobic degradation occurs due to the abundance of oxygen in the unsaturated soil
layer. The C in the wastewater is now oxidized to CO2 while NH4+ is oxidized to NO2-
thus raising the nitrate level of the sewage to about seven times the limit acceptable
for dumping water. The H+ released from the oxidation of NH4+now reduces the pH of
the effluent [1].
A properly functioning septic tank system should be able to reduce the pollution level
of wastewater to such a level as is within local and international standards for
wastewater disposal. All things being equal, the septic tank system does not pose
much problem and requires little maintenance. However, when the system is not
working properly, it merely serves as a route for recycling pathogens and deadly
chemicals through the ecosystem.
2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT AREA
According to the United Nations in 2007, more than 50% of the world’s population are
living in cities. Malaysia is no exception to this trend with an estimation of 77% of its
population residing in urban areas in 2018. By 2030, 26 million people, or 80 percent
of Malaysians are expected to be city dwellers. Rural Malaysia is still home to 7.3
million people, who live in 26,400 villages across the country. About 3.1 million of them
reside in 46 remote districts in the peninsula, Sabah, and Sarawak. The interior
dwellers are spread across a vast rural landscape covering 52% of Malaysia’s land
mass [1]. The rapid urbanization and improvement of education levels throughout
Malaysia have resulted in different generations of rural people experiencing changes
in various ways. Older people are less likely to migrate to an urban area, and their
migrant children, who live and work in urban areas and are used to some normal urban

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amenities such as good roads that do not flood, organized waste disposal, etc., see
the lack of these basic amenities as a problem [2].
The change in rural Malaysia in the recent decade also shows that migration from the
village has led to a change in the local activity. The knowledge acquired when working
in urban areas sometimes is used to start a local business. In addition, the Malaysian
government has initiated One-District-One-Industry Programme (ODOI) in 2003 to
facilitate the growth of small enterprises in rural areas in Malaysia. This has shifted the
original local activities to include also small industries activities. In one Kelantan village,
skills acquired working on building sites in Singapore enabled building materials to be
made locally to facilitate the construction of new village homes of more modern
materials [2]. The change in local activities also leads to the change in wastewater
generated. Through ‘Pelan Tindakan Dasar Pembangunan Luar Bandar’ which
highlights 10 main Trusts, providing complete and innovative amenities is highlighted
in Trust 4. This includes providing paved roads, clean water supply, upgrading Orang
Asli villages, safe solid waste management, and increasing the implementation of
septic tank usage for domestic wastewater treatment (Kementerian Pembangunan
Luar Bandar, 2018).
The application of septic tanks in rural areas is a popular choice due to the simplicity
of the installation and it is the cheapest type of treatment system available. However,
the use of septic tanks, in general, can lead to an increase in nutrient loading in streams
and rivers. The performance and efficiency of a septic tank can be quite uncertain as
several factors such as design, siting, age, and maintenance, will affect the discharged
water quality [2]. The change in wastewater generated due to the change in local
activities might also affect the efficiency of septic tank application as the main treatment
method. Nevertheless, implementing a fully automated treatment system for
wastewater for a small population can be overkill. Thus, evaluation of alternative
technology for treating wastewater is a must for rural areas.

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2.3 DOMESTIC WASTEWATER
Malaysia has a population of 28.3 million based on the Report of Census 2010 by the
Department of Statistics. The estimated volume of wastewater generated by municipal
and industrial sectors is 2.97 billion cubic meters per year. Domestic wastewater also
known as municipal wastewater is the waste produced from residential, institutional,
commercial, and also establishments. Domestic wastewater is produced due to human
activities. Household waste is usually from toilets, showers, kitchens, and sinks that
are disposed of through sewers. The composition and strength of wastewater change
almost every hour, daily mostly depending on per capita of water usage domestically.
Domestic wastewater quality constituents can usually be separated into three groups
of parameters for analysis; physical, chemical, and biological. The main objective in
assessing the quality of the wastewater is to determine the most suitable type of
operation and processes for its treatment and to match the design of the treatment
facility. The fractions of each group (biodegradable organics, inorganic, heavy metals,
dissolved inorganics) can also be applied for the quality assessment. Mainly the
physical characteristics such as suspended solids, turbidity, color, and odor are the
most significant parameters that need to be considered for the treatment processes.
Suspended solids, for example, can lead to the development of sludge deposits and
anaerobic conditions when untreated wastewater is discharged into the aquatic
environment. The biodegradable organics, which are usually measured using BOD and
COD, are composed primarily of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. These constituents,
if discharged untreated into the environment, may lead to depletion of the natural
oxygen resources due to their biological stabilization. Nutrients, which are the
inorganics, may lead to eutrophication of the water being discharged in excess into a
water body. Table 2.1 shows the typical composition of untreated municipal wastewater
and the concentrations of each parameter.

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Table 2.1 Typical Composition of Untreated Municipal Wastewater [25]
CONSTITUENTS WEAK MEDIUM STRONG
Mg/liter
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 50 100 200
Ammonia 10 25 50
BOD5 100 200 300
Chloride 30 50 100
COD 250 500 1000
Solids
TSS 120 210 400
VSS 95 160 315
Fixed 25 50 85
Settleable Solids (ml/L) 5 10 20
Sulfates 20 30 50
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS() 200 500 1000
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) 20 40 80
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 75 150 300
Total Phosphorus (as P) 5 10 20

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2.4 SEWERAGE IN MALAYSIA

Figures 2.1 – 2.5 highlight the sewerage scenes in Malaysia.
Figure 2.1 Decentralized Domestic Wastewater Treatment [22]
Figure 2.2 Evolution of Sanitation in Malaysia [22]

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Figure 2.3 Sewerage Data Malaysia [22]
Figure 2.4 Sewerage for Single Development up to 30 units or 150 PE [22]

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Figure 2.5 Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System In Malaysia [22]
In Malaysia, it is mandatory for wastewater from households/developments above 150

PE to be treated before being discharged into surface waters, and the quality of effluent
from treatment plants is regulated by the Environmental Quality Act 1974 and its
regulations such as the Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009 and
Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent) Regulations 2009. However, due to the lack
of appropriate wastewater facilities in rural areas, the discharging of wastewater
without sufficient treatment may result in many environmental issues and a negative
impact on the local economy.
In most rural areas, before pour-flush latrines are introduced, wastewater can be
directly used in the agriculture sector. After pour-flush latrines were introduced, there
is no direct use of wastewater in the agriculture sector as treated wastewater effluent
had undergone dilution when coming into contact with surface waters.

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2.5 SEPTIC TANK
Septic tanks are used in nearly all onsite systems regardless of the daily wastewater
flow rate or strength. The tanks provide suspended solids removal, solids storage, and
digestion. Three zones are present in a septic tank: a scum layer that forms a crust on
the surface of the tank liquor; the wastewater from which solids deposit; and a bottom
sludge layer of the deposited material. The organic matter in the tank may undergo
anaerobic digestion. The degree of digestion depends on the tank size, frequency of
cleaning, and temperature. The capacity of the tank required is governed by the
number of people it serves and the desludging interval. Although a fraction of
particulate solids are removed by flotation and sedimentation, nearly all entering
dissolved organics pass through the septic tank without any significant treatment.
Moreover, these systems have several technical and constructional weaknesses.
Thus, septic tank effluent needs further processing in a post-treatment system to meet
environmental standards, which increases the cost and complexity of the system. A
typical septic tank is shown in Figure 2.6 [24]
Figure 2.6 Typical Septic Tank [24]

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It is evident that there is a need for a more efficient and reliable septic tank system.
Modifications of septic tank design have been proposed in different studies in order to
improve onsite wastewater system performance. For example, changing septic tank
retention times and including packing materials have been suggested [7,8,9]. Other
studies investigated the times and including packing materials have been suggested
[7,8,9]. Other studies investigated the effects of baffles on the treatment process. The
findings reported an increased number of baffles resulted in the treatment performance
enhancement [7,10]. Generally, most septic tank modifications resulted in enhanced
treatment performance [7,10]. Generally, most septic tank modifications were
suggested to enhance the performance of the septic system. However, if a septic tank
is recognized as a stand-alone treatment unit, the rational modification should be
considered.
2.6 AEROBIC TREATMENT UNITS (ATUs)
Aerobic treatment units (ATUs) refer to a broad category of pre-engineered wastewater

treatment devices for residential and commercial use. ATUs are designed to oxidize
both organic material and ammonium-nitrogen (to nitrate nitrogen), decrease
suspended solids concentrations, and reduce pathogen concentrations. A typical ATU
is shown in Figure 2.7 [24].
A properly designed treatment plant that incorporates an ATU and a disinfection

process can provide a level of treatment that is equivalent to that level provided by a
conventional municipal biological treatment facility. The AUT, however, must be
properly designed, installed, operated, and maintained.
Although most ATUs are suspended growth devices, some units are designed to
include both suspended growth mechanisms combined with fixed-growth elements.

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The third category of ATU is designed to provide treatment entirely through the use of
fixed-growth elements such as trickling filters or rotating biological contactors. Typical
ATU’s
Figure 2.7 Typical Air Treatment Unit [24]
Most ATUs are designed with compressors or aerators to oxygenate and mix the
wastewater. Partial pathogen reduction is achieved. Additional disinfection can be
achieved through chlorination, UV treatment, ozonation, or soil filtration. Increased
nutrient removal (denitrification) can be achieved by modifying the treatment process
to provide an anaerobic/anoxic step or by adding treatment processes to the treatment
plant.
ATUs may be designed as continuous or batch flow systems. The simplest continuous
flow units are designed with no flow equalization and depend upon aeration tank
volume and/or baffles to reduce the impact of hydraulic surges. Some units are
designed with flow-dampening devices, including airlift or float-controlled mechanical
pumps to transfer the wastewater from the aeration tank to a clarifier. Other units are

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designed with multiple-chambered tanks to attenuate flow. The batch (fill and draw)
flow system design eliminates the problem of hydraulic variation. Batch systems are
designed to collect and treat wastewater over a period of time.
Pumps are used to discharge the settled effluent at the end of the cycle (usually one
day). Fixed film treatment plants typically are operated as continuous flow systems.
Oxygen is transferred by diffused air, sparged turbine, or surface entrainment devices.

When diffused air systems are used, blowers or compressors are used to force the air
through diffusers near the bottom of the tank. The sparged turbine is typically designed
with a diffused air source and an external mixer, e.g., a submerged flat-bladed turbine.
The sparged turbine is more complex than the simple diffused air system. A variety of
surface entrainment devices aerate and mix the wastewater. Air is entrained and
circulated in the mixed liquor through violent agitation from mixing or pumping.
The separation of process-generated solids by clarification or filtration is a critical

design factor for successful ATU performance. Most ATUs are designed to rely on the
process of simple gravity separation to remove most of the solids. Some systems
include effluent filters within the clarifier to further screen and retain solids in the
treatment plant. Gas deflection barriers and scum baffles are a part of some designs
and are a simple way to keep floating solids away from the weir area. Properly
managed to upflow clarifiers can improve separation [20].
There are, of course, some drawbacks to ATUs. The basic unit is more expensive to
own and operate than a septic tank and requires more maintenance. The solids must
be pumped out at much more frequent intervals, and the electrical-mechanical parts
must be maintained.

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2.7 ATUs TREATMENT PRINCIPLE
The process most aerobic units use to treat wastewater is referred to as suspended or
attached growth or a hybrid of both. These units include a main compartment called an
aeration chamber in which air is mixed with the wastewater. Because most home
aerobic units are buried underground like septic tanks, the air must be forced into the
aeration chamber by an air blower or a compressor.
The forced air mixes with wastewater in the aeration chamber, and the oxygen
supports the growth of aerobic bacteria that degrade the solids in the wastewater. The
biomass in the chamber is called mixed liquor.
The treatment occurring in the mixed liquor is referred to as suspended growth

because the bacteria grow and die as they are suspended in the liquid unattached to
any surface media.
Unfortunately, the bacteria cannot degrade all the solids in the mixed liquor, and these
solids eventually settle out as sludge. Many aerobic units include a secondary chamber
called a settling chamber or clarifier where excess solids can settle. Other designs
allow the sludge to accumulate at the bottom of the tank. In aerobic units designed with
a separate settling compartment, the sludge returns to the aeration chamber (either by
gravity or by a pumping device). The sludge contains active bacteria that also aid in
the treatment process. Although, in theory, the aerobic treatment process should
eventually be able to consume the sludge completely, in practice, the generated sludge
will need to be pumped out frequently so that solids do not clog the operation unit [20].

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2.8 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.8.1 OVERVIEW
Submerged Aerated Biofilter (SAB) also referred to as Biological Aerated Filter (BAF)
depending on the filter material are examples of ATUs. It is one of the newest
secondary treatment methods. It is able to remove nitrogen (ammonia) as well as
organic matter. SABs/BAFs are submerged, aerated, fixed-film reactors where
microorganisms are used to remove organic matter, ammonia, and suspended solids
(SS) are filtered out by granular/biofilter media. The first commercial full-scale
SAB/BAF was in operation in Soissons, France in 1982 [21]. Subsequently, a large
number of SAB/BAF systems were introduced in Europe, Japan, and North America.
The granular/biofilter media is submerged in the reactor and fed wastewater after the
removal of some solids by primary settling (clarifying). Treated wastewater enters the
SAB/BAF at the top or the bottom depending upon the design of the plant. Air is
diffused upward through granular/biofilter media during operation. Coarse or fine
media is used to facilitate microbial growth in the system. The air promotes the growth
of biomass in the voids of the media by providing the required oxygen for the
organisms. Simultaneous SS and nitrogen removal can be obtained with upflow
SAB/BAF reactors.
Ammonium ions can be removed from the system in several ways. The common
method is to remove nitrogen by nitrification which is a two steps process where ionized
- -
ammonia is oxidized first to nitrite (NO2 ) and then nitrite is oxidized to nitrate (NO3 ).
Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira oxidize ionized ammonia (ammonia) to nitrite while

Nitrobactor and Nitrospira do the rest [21].
Nitrosomonas and Nitrosospira

NH4+ + 1.5O2 ̄
NO2 + 2H+ + energy

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Nitrobactor and Nitrospira

NO2 ̄ + 0.5O2 ̄
NO3 + energy
In this process, nitrification is used as a prime method to remove ammonia by

converting it to nitrate in the water. This requires a high aeration rate to supply sufficient
oxygen and maintain sufficient energy needs in the system.
The second approach is simultaneous nitrification and denitrification in the system. In

this case, aeration energy and chemical use can be reduced effectively as ammonium
and nitrite act as electron donors and acceptors respectively [21]. Denitrifying bacteria
are facultative anaerobic bacteria that use nitrite and nitrate for the degradation of
Carbonaceous BOD.
Facultative anaerobic bacteria

6NO3 ̄ + 5CH3OH 3N2 + 5CO2 + 6OH ̄
2.8.2 PAST RESEARCH
Two innovative modified septic tank systems as shown in Figure 2.8 were designed as
stand-alone technologies to treat domestic wastewater. The results are shown in
Figures 2.9 – 2.14. Configurations with and without attached growth media were
evaluated and demonstrated significant treatment capacities with 95–98% BOD and
92–98% TSS removal observed at hydraulic retention times ranging from 2.6 to 4.4
days. Significant nitrogen removal of 59% was observed in the attached growth system
(corrugated plastic media with a specific area of 100 m2/m3 filled to 2/3 of the tank
working capacity) at 2.6 d HRT, while results varied between 26–33% removal at
higher loading rates and between 0–29% in the suspended growth configuration.
Effluent quality met secondary wastewater quality criteria as well as the Jordanian
standard for wastewater reuse for all parameters except for E. coli, where further

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disinfection is required. Corrugated plastic fixed growth media showed a slight

improvement in system performance over the suspended growth alternative.
As per Abbassi et al., (2018), the energy demands for the altered septic system when
operated at high hydraulic loading can be significantly reduced, making this system a
minimal technology. Aside from the benefit of low energy consumption, MST systems
exhibited fewer operating and maintenance needs, as well as cheaper construction
and operating costs, than more automated systems [3]. Energy demands under various
hydraulic loadings are compared in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Comparison of Energy Requirements
Hydraulic Loading, m3 /d Energy Requirement (kWh/c.y) (Power

consumption per capita per year)
1.2 65
1.6 49
2.0 39

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Figure 2.8 Schematic Diagram of the Modified Septic Tank (MST)
The analysis results are summarized in Figures 2.9 to 2.14.
Figure 2.9 BOD concentration with time in MST-A and MST-S

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Figure 2.10 COD Concentration with Time in MST-A and MST-S
Figure 2.11 NO3-N Concentration with Time in MST-A and MST-S

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Figure 2.12 TN Concentration with time in MST-A and MST-S
Figure 2.13 TP Concentration with time in MST-A and MST-S

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Figure 2.14 E. coli concentration with time in MST-A and MST-S
Another study [12] presents the results of random BOD testing of selected on-site
wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) constructed in Poland in Masovia Voivodship
in the years 2011–2016. The vast majority of tested on-site WWTPs were compact
(container) type treatment plants, based on low rate activated sludge (AS), sequencing
batch reactors (SBR), or a hybrid (activated sludge supported with biological film, AS
+ BF) method.
Monitoring of on-site WWTPs constructed between 2014 and 2016 was performed in
the years 2017–2019. Effluent samples from different types of WWTPs were collected
and analyzed. Among 23 analyzed on-site WWTPs, 19 were the container type (5 of
AS, 5 of SBR, and 9 of AS+BF), two were hydrophonic (HP), one was a sand filter
(SF), and one was a septic tank (IF, septic tank with infiltration).
The concentration of BOD5 observed in effluents from selected plants is presented in

Figures 2.15 and 2.16. Six of the 19 analyzed container-type on-site systems
discharged wastewater with BOD5 below 40 mg/L, which is a limit for effluents

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discharged to water bodies, and were also the predicted result of on-site WWTPs
implementation programs. The highest mean concentration of BOD5 in the effluent was
observed for AS plants and the lowest for hybrid systems (AS + BF).
Figure 2.15 Effluents BOD Comparison
Figure 2.16 Reductions in BOD Comparison
The results of this study confirmed the previous findings of other authors [13,14].
Greater reduction of organic substances in the hybrid bioreactor compared to the
reactor. Greater reduction of organic substances in the hybrid bioreactor compared to
the reactor using conventional activated sludge was reported by Krzanowski and

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Wałęga [4]. They achieved BOD 5 removal of between 90% and 99.7%, while in a
comparable AS bioreactor, BOD 5 reduction was only 52.6%.
In case of the systems operating on a classic active sludge (AS) basis, severe
exploitation problems may occur, such as sludge rinsing during significant hydraulic
frictions or a lack of stability in activated sludge biocenosis development due to
considerably irregular sewage inflow, which as a consequence influences the treated
sewage quality [14,15]. Fluctuations in pollutant loading, in the volume of wastewater,
and also variable environmental conditions typical for on-site wastewater treatment
plants negatively affect the operation of systems using AS.
Another research[16] studied the effects of continuous and intermittent aeration on

submerged aerated biofilter (SAB) reactor. Three reactors shown in Figure 2.17 were
set up parallel to treat artificial grey water by using sucrose: C12H22O11 with the
concentration of 300 mg COD L-1. The bio ball media was used as support material to
attach microorganisms. All reactors were operated under batch and continuous
conditions. Air supply to each reactor was continuous, two hours on and off intermittent
and four hours on and off intermittent modes. Up-flow rate of 0.048 m3 day-1 and airflow
rate of 3.5 L h-1 were applied for the continuous reactor. The results as shown in Table
2.3 showed that all reactors have no significant differences in removal efficiency of
COD (81-87%) as well as DO concentration and ammonium removal.
Table 2.3 The Removal of COD and Ammonium

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Intermittent or continuous aeration by influent concentration of 300 mg/L COD and 2.5
mg/L ammonium has no significant effect to the rate of organic removal under
Submerged Aerated Bio filter reactor. The average COD removal for continuous
aeration, two hours and four hours intermittent aeration are 83%, 81% and 87%,
respectively. The lowest dissolved oxygen occurred in two hours on and off aeration
which is around 4 mg/L. Aeration mode affected the efficiency of ammonium removal.
Efficiency of ammonium removal for continuous aeration, two hours and four hours
intermittent aeration are 75%, 61%, and 60%, respectively.
Another research [17] studied the influence of hydraulic loading and air flow rate on
urban wastewater nitrogen removal with a submerged fixed-film reactor. Nutrient

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disposal to sensitive areas, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater

treatment plants, provokes eutrophication reducing water quality. Fixed film technology
is widely used for the removal of organic matter and nitrogen by the biological process
of nitrification–denitrification. This research studied a nitrification and post-
denitrification lab-scale plant with a downflow aerobic submerged filter for removal of
organic matter and nitrification, followed by an anoxic upflow biofilter for denitrification.
Recycled construction material (clay shists) was employed as support material and
methanol was used as a carbon source. After 2 weeks of acclimation in which
nitrification reached steady-state conditions, different hydraulic loadings (0.35–
1.59 m3/m2 h) and air flow rates (7.78–43.5 m3/m2 h) were applied for 1 year. The
highest hydraulic loading which complied with the EU regulation on nitrogen disposal
was 0.71 m3/m2 h (1.6 h). Hydraulic retention time (HRT), which corresponded to a
nitrogen removal of 0.64 kg N/m3 per day operating at an air flow rate of 25.6 m3/m2 h.
Concerning organic matter removal efficiency, the aerobic reactor accepted a
maximum chemical oxygen demand (COD) volumetric loading of 16.0 kg COD/m3 per
day with a 75% COD removal efficiency. For all the tests carried out, suspended solids
(SS) concentration in the outlet water was less than 35 mg/L.
Another research [18] explored the options of phosphorus and nitrogen removal with
biological submerged aerated filters with semi-industrial pilot plants. Phosphorus was
precipitated with iron salts in lamella settlers before aerated biofilter treatment. The
efficiency of settling and biological treatment was related to hydraulic and operational
parameters. Nitrification was achieved by reducing the carbonaceous load on the
biofilter. The limits of loading were verified to obtain a final effluent quality of around 1
mg/L each of Phosphate-P and ammonia-N, and 10mg/l each of BOD and SS. By
counterbalancing the slow growth rate of nitrifying bacteria through attachment on a
surface, fixed biomass reactors are particularly efficient in ammonia removal.
Another study [19] evaluated the performance of a semi-pilot scale BAF in order to
obtain a highly polished effluent in terms of removal of organic matter, suspended

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solids and ammonia and to observe the influence of temperature, pH and nitrite
accumulation on the nitrification process. The ammonia removal efficiency during
summer and winter and the nitrite accumulation in presence of free ammonia were
observed. The biomass density was measured at different filter bed heights and the
sludge production from the effluent of the backwashing water was evaluated. The
results obtained were used to calibrate a mathematical model for the prediction of the
ammonia removal profile in the filter bed and of biomass thickness.
The effect of temperature on the nitrification process has been much higher than
expected; the average ammonia removal efficiency has been 82% in summer and 32%
in winter. Higher organic and ammonia removal rates were obtained at higher hydraulic
retention time (HRT). At low HRT and during winter conditions, a nitrite accumulation
occurred in the presence of free ammonia, increasing with the filter bed height; at high
HRT, the nitrite profile along the filter height showed a bell-shaped curve with the
maximum values at 35 cm and at 55 cm from the bottom of the filter, at 20°C and at
25°C respectively. The temperature increase of 5°C caused a translation of the nitrite
peak towards the entrance of the filter.
From the Gap Analysis point of view, there are numerous technologies for on-site
sewage treatment, only a small number of them have been examined for their viability
in actual field settings [25]. Table 2.3 provides a summary of the effectiveness of these
systems for the on-site treatment of sewage effluent. By utilising post-treatment
techniques, the majority of these systems enhanced the effluent quality of septic tanks.
There haven't been many studies on treatment systems specifically looking at how
changes in operating circumstances affect how well they operate.
The majority of the on-site systems that are employed as post-treatment procedures
for septic tank effluent are based on a combined treatment process, as seen by the
data in Table 2.3. There is a limited number of households that use aerobic treatment
systems for the on-site treatment of domestic wastewater. The previously examined

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aerobic treatment systems are somewhat effective at producing effluent with

acceptable quality that can meet discharge criteria.
However, aerobic treatment systems need constant upkeep and expert supervision,
which might not be practicable at the home level but might be a viable solution overall.
The poor performance of an aerobic on-site treatment system in settings of highly
variable residential wastewater flow is one of the most frequent issues.
The aerobic treatment systems also need electricity or other external resources to run
continuously. Despite producing energy in the form of usable methane gas, anaerobic
treatment systems are less effective than aerobic treatment systems. Employment of
biofilter aerated treatment systems is a better choice than aerobic and anaerobic
treatment systems based on performance statistic
Table 2.4 summarizes past studies with on-site treatment systems.

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Table 2.4 Summarized Past Studies with On-Site Treatment Systems [25]

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2.8.3 SUMMARY OF TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Tables 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7 depict the comparison between the different wastewater
treatment technologies in terms of performance, benefits, drawbacks, footprints and
operating expenditures. Table 2.5 compares the different suspended growth biological
processes, Table 2.6 compares the different fixed film/hybrid biological processes and
Table 2.7 compares the different of other biological processes.

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Table 2.5 Suspended Growth Biological Processes
TECHNOLOGY PERFORMANCE ADDITIONAL FOOTPRINT OPEX

COMMENTS
BOD TSS AM- P BENEFITS DRAWBACKS
N $$
AERATED
Requires
LAGOON Good Good Poor Poor Very
aeration system
simple
Sensitive to cold
Minimal climate issues $$
operational Large footprint
controls Sludge extraction
periodically is a
major operation
ACTIVATED
Require Requires high
SLUDGE Good Good Poor Well known
separate efficiency
system technology
aeration system
Continuous flow
mode requires
external stage $$
following the AS
unit
Requires closely
controlled
operational
conditions
OXIDATION
Require Requires
DITCH Good Good Poor Low energy
separate aeration system
system for aeration
Requires
external
clarification
stage $$
following
aeration
Requires closely
controlled
operational
conditions
SEQUENCING
Requires high
BATCH Good Good Good Poor Flexibility
efficiency
REACTOR
aeration system
Does not
require &controlled
external operational
clarification conditions
stage
Changes in
loading require
intervention
Requires skilled
operator

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Table 2.6 Fixed Film/Hybrid Biological Processes

COMMENTS
BDD TSS AM--N P BENEFITS DRAWBACKS
TRICKLING Minimal Requires pre-treatment

FILTER Good Require Poor Poor operation and (primary settling)
separate $
system
maintenance
requirements Sensitive to cold climate
issues
ROTATING Low energy
BIOLOGICAL Good Require Variable Poor for aeration Requires external
CONTACTOR separate clarification stage following
system the RBC unit
Requires electrical supply
for shaft motor
Requires closely controlled $
operational
conditions
Sensitive to environmental
conditions and
fluctuations in influent
quality
SUBMERGED
AEROBIC Good Good Can accept Requires aeration system
Variable Poor
BIOFILTER fluctuation
in organic High energy use
loadings
Minimal O&M $$
requirements
Suitable for
small
treatment
plants
RECIRCULAT Steady
ING Good Good Requires pre-treatment
Poor Poor performan
SAND FILTER unit
ces
Requires
recirculation/
$$
dilution tank
(backwash
water)
Sensitive to cold climate
issues
INTERMITTE Steady
NT Good Good Requires pre-treatment
Poor Poor performan
SAND unit
ces $$
FILTER Sensitive to cold climate
issues

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COMMENTS
BDD TSS AM--N P BENEFITS
DRAWBACKS
MEMBRANE
BIOREACT Good Very Good Good Tertiary
OR good quality Requires pre-treatment
effluent
Requires aeration system
Operation
easily Performance closely linked
$$$
followed to maintenance
remotely quality
Retain Risk of membrane fouling

bacteria (redundancy required)
such as E.
Coli
Table 2.7 Other Biological Processes

COMMENTS
BDD TSS AM-N P BENEFITS DRAWBACKS
CONSTRUCT
ED Not applicable to cold
WETLANDS weather
Minimal
Large surface area
operation and
maintenance Surface flow wetlands are
Fair Good Poor Poor less effective in $
removing ammonia than
No energy
subsurface or vertical
source
flow wetlands
required.
Poor flexibility towards
variation (hydraulic & loading)
ACTIVATED
SLUDGE
BIOREACTOR
Requires frequent carbon
WITH POWDER
May not addition
ACTIVATED require
CARBON external Changes in organic loadings
Good Good Good Poor clarification in the influent $$$
stage if affects the operations time;
operated in increases control
SBR mode
Require high efficiency
aeration system
ANAEROBIC
REACTORS Additional
biogas
Polishing phase (aerobic)
recovery $ required to discharge
Poor in the environment
Good Good (generate Poor Suited for high $
ammonia) BOD loads
Low sludge
production

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It can be concluded from the above summaries that the Submerged Aerobic Biofilter
(SAB) is the best option for a small treatment plant system. Its main advantages in being
able to accept organic loadings fluctuation, minimal operation and maintenance
requirements makes it ideal for a small treatment plant system. Comparatively to other
systems, SAB has excellent BOD, SS and Ammonia removal efficiencies. Its footprint is
also comparatively small.
2.9 REFERENCES
1. Adnan, H. (2019). Revitalising rural Malaysia. New Straits Times. Retrieved from
https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists/2019/02/463706/revitalising-rural-
malaysia
2. Preston, D., & Ngah, I. (2012). Interpreting rural change in Malaysia. Singapore
Journal of Tropical Geography, 33(3), 351–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjtg.12002
3. Bassim E. Abbassi , Raihan Abuharb , Bashaar Ammary , Naser Almanaseer &
Christopher. (28 Apr 2018) Modified Septic Tank: Innovative Onsite Wastewater
Treatment . Water Journal.
4. Nasr, F.A.; Mikhaeil, B. Treatment of domestic wastewater using conventional and
baffled septic tanks. Environ. Technol. 2013, 34, 2337–2343.
5. Tchobanoglous, G.; Ruppe, L.; Leverenz, H.; Darby, J.L. Decentralized
wastewater management: Challenges and opportunities for the twenty-first
century. Water Supply 2004, 4, 95–102
6. Krzanowski, S.; Walega, A.; New Technologies of Small Domestic Sewage Volume
Treatment Applied in Poland. INFRASTRUCTURE AND EKOLOGY OF RURAL
AREAS, Nr 3/2007, POLSKA AKADEMIA NAUK, Oddział w Krakowie, s. 69–78
Komisja Technicznej Infrastruktury Wsi

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8. Sharma, M.K.; Kazmi, A.A. Anaerobic onsite treatment of black water using filter-
based packaged system as an alternative of conventional septic tank. Ecol. Eng.
2015, 75, 457–461.
9. Anil, R.; Neera, A.L. Modified Septic Tank Treatment System. Proc. Technol.
2016,24, 240–247.
11. Nguyen, V.A.; Nga, P.T.; Nguyen, H.T.; Morel, A. Improved septic tank and, a
promising decentralized wastewater treatment alternative in Vietnam. In
Proceedings of the GMSARN International Conference on Sustainable
Development: Issues and Prospects for GMS, Hanoi, Vietnam, 6–7 December
2006.
12. Agnieszka, K.; Baryla, A. Assessment of the Efficiency, Environmental and
Economic Effects of Compact Type On-Site Wastewater Treatment Plants-Results
from Random Testing, 19 Jan 2021, Sustainability, MDPI.
13. Krzanowski, S.; Wałe ga, A. Effectiveness of organic substance removal in
household conventional activated sludge and hybrid treatment plants. Environ.
Prot. Eng. 2008, 34, 5–12.
14. Wałega, A.; Chmielowski, K.; Młynski, D. Influence of the hybrid sewage treatment
plant’s exploitation on its operation effectiveness in rural areas. Sustainability
2018, 10, 2689.
15. Krzanowski, S.; Wałega, A. New technologies of small domestic sewage volume
treatment applied in Poland. Infrastruct. Ecol. Rural Areas 2007, 3, 69–78.
16. Soewondo,P.; Yulianto.A. The Effect of Aeration on Submerged Aerobic Bio Filter
Reactor for Grey Water Treatment, Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental
Sanitation, Vol 3, Number 3: 169-175, dec 2008
17. Galvez,J.M.; Gomez, M.A; Hontoria,E. Influence of Hydraulic Loading and Air
Flowrate on Urban Watewater Nitrogen Removal with a Submerged Fixed-Film
Reactor. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol 101, Issue 2, 18 July 2003, 219-229.

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18. Rogalla,F.; Payraudeau,M,;Bacquet, G,;Bourbigot,M. Nitrification and Phosphorus

Precipitation with Biological Aerated Filters. Research Journal of Water Pollution
Control Federation Vol 62, No.2, Mar1 990, pp.169-176.
19. Farabegoli,A.; Chiavola,A.;Rolle,E.;Stracquadanio,S. Experimental Study on
Nitrification in a Submerged Aerated Biofilter, Water Science and Technology, Vol
49, No 11-12, pp 107-114.
20. Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual, Chapter 4:Treatment Processes
and Systems, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protectioin Agency. Feb 2002.
21. Han, D., Yun, H. and Kim, D. (2001) Autotrophic nitrification and denitrification
characteristics of an upflow biological aerated filter. Chemical Biotechnology 76,
1112- 1116.
22. Malaysia Water Industry Guide 2018
23. Mohd Roslee Mahyudin, Regulations and Standards on Decentralized Domestic
Wastewater Treatment, Sewerage Regulatory Department, SPAN, 2018.
24. Types of Septic Tank, United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Meena Kumari Sharma;Vinay Kumar Tyagi;Nitin Kumar Singh;Surya Pratap
Singh;Absar Ahmad Kazmi; (2021). Sustainable technologies for on-site domestic
wastewater treatment: a review with technical approach . Environment, Development
and Sustainability, (), –. doi:10.1007/s10668-021-0159
25. Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse, Metcalf and Eddy,McGraw-Hill,5th
Edition 2003.

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CHAPTER 3
MARKET AND
PRODUCT REVIEW

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CHAPTER 3
MARKET AND PRODUCT REVIEW
3.1 INTRODUCTION
As a solution to the shortcomings of centralized systems, over the last two decades large
numbers of decentralized small sewage treatment plants of different technology types
have been installed all over the world.
In comparison to septic tank that separates liquid waste from solid waste and discharge
into a soakaway/drain, decentralised small sewage treatment plants add an important
extra stage in a process that makes the effluent discharge substantially cleaner and less
harmful to the environment.
This is generally achieved through a three stages process. The first stage is the same as
that of a septic tank, sewage and wastewater enters a holding chamber where gravity
separates the solids from the liquids. The liquid then flows into a second chamber, leaving
the solid waste behind (for later removal by a registered waste carrier). The second stage
then involves the introduction of oxygen into the system via an air pump. This encourages
the growth of aerobic bacteria which works to break down the remaining sewage into a
cleaner effluent within the tank. This bacterial infused liquid then flows into a final chamber
where the bacteria, having done its job, is allowed to settle to the bottom (for recycling
back into the first chamber) before the clean effluent is discharged. This discharge can
be directly into a ditch, stream or other watercourse.
3.2 PRODUCT REVIEW
Numerous firms worldwide dealing with widely understood natural environment protection
offer various solutions for domestic sewage treatment plants. While choosing the suitable

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variant of such installation, an investor is driven in the first place by economic factors,
easy operation and high operational reliability.
Because of the specific character of sewage produced in the areas with dispersed
buildings, sewage treatment plant installations must prove highly reliable under variable
operating conditions, they should be cheap to construct and utilize and not require
complicated service. It seems that installations which join a classic activated sludge
method and submerged or mobile biofilter systems meet these requirements.
Technical solutions which combine activated sludge and biofilter methods are becoming
increasingly more popular. Such treatment plants incorporate advantages of both
methods. They are especially recommended in rural areas where considerable irregularity
of sewage inflow and storage occurs. During the period of low hydraulic loading or when
no sewage outflow is registered, biocenosis in the form of activated sludge will not die
back fast because the substrate necessary for microorganism development will be
obtained from forming biofilm covering the biofilter.
Small sewage treatment plants are mostly biological aerobic treatment plants with
activated sludge or biofilters, although these two systems combined into one are more
and more frequently observed as hybrid systems. At present, prefabricated treatment
plants with a daily throughput of between several to many thousand cubic meters have
been available worldwide.
Among numerous solutions of small sewage treatment plants are technologies based on
low rate activated sludge with prolonged aeration and aerobic stabilization of sludge. In
case of biofilters, dominant are systems using stationary, mobile or revolving filter beds,
which are usually naturally aerated.
Like in the case of semi-natural systems, before biological treatment processes sewage
must undergo preliminary treatment in order to remove solid particles. This process
occurs in pre-settlement tanks. In small sewage treatment plants biological part of the

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process is usually combined with secondary settlement tanks in which sedimentation of

produced bacterial mass occurs.
The method of sewage treatment using activated sludge has been known since the
beginning of the twentieth century. Activated sludge is composed of microorganisms
which at suitable oxygen supply are capable of organic substance mineralization from
sewage. At proper modification of the process by creating alternative aerobic, anoxic and
anaerobic conditions it is possible to cause additional reduction of biogenic substances
(nitrogen and phosphorus) apart from removing carbon compounds.
3.3 PRODUCT EXAMPLES

Here are listed some of the commercially available small sewage treatment plants.

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Figure 3.1 trans Bio-Filter Wastewater Treatment Plant
trans Bio-Filter Wastewater Treatment Plant [1] as shown in Figure 3.1 is a bed of organic
material which supports hybrid earthworms and microbes that break down solids and
converts it to carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients. It uses the ability of the earthworms
and beneficial microbes (transzyme) to reduce contaminants present in the wastewater.

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It involves the removal of toxic matter by adsorption and filtration followed by biological
degradation and oxygen supply by natural aeration to the Wastewater treatment plant.
Figure 3.2 BIOROCK Complete System
The BIOROCK Complete System [2] as shown in Figure 3.2 functions as a three-stages
treatment process. Initially the raw sewage enters a primary tank to provide separation
and the breakdown of organic solids (Primary Treatment). The sewage then passes
through an effluent filter before discharging into the BIOROCK unit which incorporates
the well proven aerobic digestion process (Secondary Treatment) and filtration process
(Tertiary Treatment).

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Figure 3.3 Klargester Biodisc Sewage Treatment Plant
Central to the operation of the Klargester BioDisc [3] as shown in Figure 3.3 is the
Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC), which supports a biologically active film or biomass
on to which aerobic micro-organisms, naturally found in sewage, become established.
Natural breakdown of sewage can then occur as described below. The treatment principle
is as follows:
• Wastewater and sewage flows into the primary settlement zone (1) where solids
are settled out and retained. This accumulated sludge should be drawn out
periodically.

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• Partially clarified liquor containing fine suspended solids flows upwards into the
first stage Biozone (2) for breaking down by micro-organisms on the RBC.
Suspended solids return to the primary settlement zone and the liquor is
transferred to the second stage Biozone (3) for further treatment.
• Any solids remaining are settled out in the final settlement tank (4) . The very high
effluent quality is discharged to a watercourse.
• The RBC comprises banks of vacuum formed polypropylene media supported by
a steel shaft. This is slowly rotated by a low energy consumption electric motor
and drive assembly.
Figure 3.4: Delphin Compact WWTP

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The Delphin Compact WWTP [4] as shown in Figure 3.4 which uses the fixed-bed
technology is based on different microorganisms, which naturally occur in domestic
wastewater. Contrary to sludge-based processes, these organisms don’t need to be kept
in suspension as activated sludge in the reactor, but have a fixed surface to grow on, the
so called fixed-bed. Due to their special structure, the fixed-bed elements have a high
specific surface for increased contact between the biofilm and the wastewater. The air for
the aerobic processes is brought in from the outside by a side channel compressor.
Underneath the fixed-bed the air is dispersed evenly in small bubbles by membrane
diffusors. The specific arrangement of the aerators causes a vertically circulation flow,
which guarantees a homogeneous mixing in the reactor.
Figure 3.5 Stählermatic System with Rotating Disc Filters
Stählermatic System [5] as shown in Figure 3.5 combines disc filter with activated sludge.
The mode of this appliance operation is as follows: after mechanical pre-treatment in the
pre-settlement tank, sewage is fed into a spherical container composed of biological

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chamber with integrated secondary settlement tank. Biological decomposition of

pollutants takes place under conditions of constant oxygen supply from the air. The air is
forced to the bottom of the biotank and simultaneously enforces rotation of the filter with
numerous profiled plastic discs. The discs are driven by an aerator installed in a control
box. Excessive sludge accumulating on the bottom is removed from the biotank to the
pre-settlement tank by a mammoth pump. A characteristic feature of this installation is a
set of filter discs with special surface profile on which additional attachments in the form
of scoops are installed, which while rotating gather a portion of sewage together with air
ensuring very good self-aeration and self-oxygenation of sewage due to diffusion.
Figure 3.6 BioKube Sewage Treatment Plant

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Another example of innovative biofilter appliance is a Danish BioKube Sewage Treatment

Plant [6] for 5 and 1000 PE. It is based on submerged biofilters. The discussed technology
uses BIO-BLOCK liner in the form of piping made of polyethylene net placed in blocks.
Sewage is pre-cleaned in the pre-settlement tank and then flows to section one and two
containing biofilters where the process of organic pollutants removal occurs first followed
by sedimentation. In section three nitrification process and secondary sedimentation take
place. Sludge produced in each of the three sections is returned to the pre-settlement
tank
Figure 3.7 RetroFast Sewage Treatment Plant

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The RetroFAST Sewage Treatment Plant [7] as shown in Figure 3.7 is promoted by
American Smith & Loveless Inc. enterprise [www.biomicrobics.com]. This is a
mechanical-biological sewage treatment plant composed of pre-settlement tank,
bioreactor with special filling and aeration blower. RetroFAST treatment plants are hybrid
system using submerged biofilter and activated sludge. Sewage in the bioreactor is
aerated with compressed air supplied by blower as an of water-air hoist. Organic
constituents contained in the inflowing sewage are food for aerobic bacteria which attach
themselves to a honeycomb resembling medium inside the container. Organic substance
mineralization process and ammonium nitrogen nitrification occur on the surface of the
biofilter. Nitrified sewage is then carried away outside the biofilter into the anaerobic
environment where denitrification process takes place. Excessive sludge generated in the
purification process is deposited on the bottom of the tank and is pumped out periodically
Figure 3.8 Roclean Wastewater Treatment Plant

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Roclean Wastewater Treatment Plant [8] as shown in Figure 3.8 are available from 6 PE
to 2000 PE. Roclean Wastewater Treatment Plant Use advanced SBR Technology.
Roclean is a one piece-two chamber tank which treats the sewage in batches ensuring a
high efficiency of cleaning.
Wastewater treatment and a high efficiency of cleaning is achieved by treating

wastewater in batches. The system operates 4 cycles per day and involves 6 stages
Each cycle consists of six stages as follows:
1. Wastewater enters first chamber and allowed to settle

2. Airlift transfers sewage from chamber 1 to chamber 2 (aeration chamber)
3. Aeration – air is circulated in chamber via membrane diffuser on base of tank
4. Sedimentation – Treated wastewater is separated from sludge – no aeration
5. Treated wastewater discharged from aeration chamber via sampling chamber
6. Activated sludge returned to chamber 1
Figure 3.9 VFL Small Wastewater Treatment Plant

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VFL Small Wastewater Treatment Plant [9] as shown in Figure 3.9 use a continuous-flow,
suspended growth activated sludge process with the patented technology of Vertical Flow
Labyrinth VFL® for wastewater treatment plants and combine the following processes in
a single tank:
• mechanical pre-treatment,
• excess sludge storage,
• biological treatment using a low-loaded activated sludge process,
• separation of the treated water from activated sludge in the final clarification
chamber and
• flow balancing of fluctuating inflow of wastewater in the integrated retention
zone.
Figure 3.10 Tricel Novo Wastewater Treatment Plant

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The Tricel Novo WWTP [10] as shown in Figure 3.10 uses the submerged aerobic filter
system. In the first stage of sewage treatment, anaerobic breakdown takes place in the
primary settlement chamber. The wastewater is introduced, and the solids drop to the
bottom, becoming separated from the liquid. The next stage of the wastewater treatment
involves aerobic breakdown. This takes place in the aeration chamber, where masses of
naturally occurring bacteria inhabit specially designed filter media. These bacteria are
sustained with air, which is continuously supplied from a purpose-built pump in the unit’s
top section. As the liquid flows slowly through the filter media, the bacteria feed on the
waste and remove it from the liquid.
In the last stage of wastewater treatment, the liquid flows from the aeration chamber into
the final settlement chamber. Suspended sludge consisting of bacteria is carried with the
liquid into the settlement chamber and settles to the bottom of the chamber. From there,
a continuous sludge return system pumps it back to the primary settlement chamber.
3.4 PRODUCTS COMPARISON
Table 3.1 summarises the comparison of the reviewed commercially small sewage
treatment plants.

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Table 3.1 Comparison of Reviewed Small Sewage Treatment Plants
EFFLUENT STANDARD (MG/L)
L X W X H (M)
FOOTPRINT
COUNTRY
COST FOR
BOD SS COD AMM PH
FOR 5 PE
INSTAL)
(EXC
NO PRODUCT SYSTEM OF ORIGIN
5 PE
- OS
NIT
1 TRANS BIO- BIO 10- 20- 50- <1 1-2 INDIA 3 X 1.5 NA
FILTER X2
FILTER 20 50 80
5-12 0PE
2 BIOROCK SAB 35 30 90 8 4 LBOURG 6X3X NA

5-50 PE 2
3 KLARGESTER RBC 11 16 90 8 4 UK 2M £1,800

6-18 PE DIA
BIODISC (RM9,454)
X 3M L
4 DELPHIN SAB 35 30 90 8 4 GERMANY 2M EURO

1-46 PE DIA 1,550
(RM6,880)
X 3M L
5 STÄHLERMATIC RBC 35 30 90 8 4 MEXICO 3 X 1.5 NA

5-50 PE X2
6 BIOKUBE SAB 35 30 90 8 4 DENMARK 2.5 M NA

5-50 PE DIA
X 3M H
7 RETROFAST SAB/AS 25 35 125 8 5 USA 2M USD

8-126 PE DIA 2,400
X 3M L (RM10,648)
8 ROCLEAN SBR 11 16 90 8 4 UK 2M £2,100

6-30 PE DIA
(RM11,030)
X 3M L
9 VFL AS 35 30 90 8 4 SLOVAKIA 2M EURO

6-20 PE DIA 1,5 70
(RM6,971)
X 3M H
10 TRICEL NOVO SAB 11 16 90 8 4 UK 2.1 X £2,862

6-50 PE 1.6 X
(RM15,241)
2.2

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3.5 REFERENCES
1. Trans Bio-Filter Wastewater Treatment Plant ( https://www.transbiofilter.com )

2. BIOROCK Complete System ( https://biorock.com )
3. Klargester Biodisc Sewage Treatment Plant ( https://www.kingspan.com/gb/en-
gb/products/water-management/domestic-sewage-treatment-plants/klargester-
biodisc-domestic-sewage-treatment-plant )
4. Delphin Compact WWTP ( https://www.delphin-ws.de/en/ )
5. Stählermatic System with Rotating Disc Filter ( http://www.amds.com/EN/hubert.html )
6. BioKube Sewage Treatment Plant ( https://www.biokube.com/biokube-wastewater-
technology/ )
7. RetroFast Sewage Treatment Plant ( https://biomicrobics.com/products/retrofast-
wastewater-treatment-systems )
8. Roclean Wastewater Treatment Plant ( https://roto-group.co.uk/roclean-sbr-
wastewater-treatment-plant/ 0
9. VFL Small Wastewater Treatment Plant ( https://www.environmental-
expert.com/companies/aquatec-vfl-sro-91686/products )
10. Tricel Novo Wastewater Treatment Plant ( https://www.tanksforeverything.co.uk/tricel-
novo8uk-8-person-shallow-dig-sewage-treatment-plant-p )

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CHAPTER 4
PROTOTYPE
PROPOSAL

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CHAPTER 4
PROTOTYPE PROPOSAL
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Septic tanks need to be upgraded into small wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in
order for them to produce a much cleaner effluent.
For small WWTPs, a wide range of different cleaning methods is available for use e.g.,
single-stage trickling filter systems, rotary dipping body plants, plants with submerged
fixed bed, systems with freely movable growth bodies, activated sludge plants in the
stock-up operation, combination systems, pass-activated aeration plants, and
membrane-activated aeration plants [6] which are commonly known as compact or
container type on-site wastewater treatment plants.
The most popular solutions for single households are low-rate activated sludge,
sequencing batch reactors (SBR), and plants with submerged fixed bed or freely movable
growth bodies known as hybrid plants. Activated sludge and biofilm are characteristics
forms of biomass used in wastewater treatment [7].
Sequencing Batch Reactors are a special form of activated sludge treatment in which all
of the treatment process takes place in the reactor tank and clarifiers are not required.
This process treats the waste water in batch mode and each batch is sequenced through
a series of treatment stages.
Activated sludge is a suspension composed of microorganisms, which at a suitable

oxygen supply level are capable of organic substance mineralization from sewage. In
SBR, the whole treatment process occurs in a single tank with the use of an automatic
control system ensuring the realization of subsequent treatment cycles composed of
succeeding phases of filling, aeration, sedimentation and decantation, and periodical
excessive sewage discharge.

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Hybrid systems are a combination of biofiltered and activated sludge. Sewage in the
bioreactor is aerated and organic constituents contained in the inflowing sewage are food
for aerobic bacteria, which attach themselves to a medium submerged inside the
container [6]. The species composition of microorganisms present in the suspended
biomass as well as in the immobilized biomass is different. Filamentous bacteria, ciliates,
and rotifers are frequent in the suspended biomass, while free-swimming ciliates were
mainly observed in the immobilized biomass [7].
Technical solutions which combine activated sludge and biofilter methods are
increasingly becoming more popular. Hybrid treatment plants incorporate advantages of
both methods, which is of primary importance for on-site system working conditions
(involving changes in the quality and quantity of supplied wastewater). During the period
of low hydraulic or organic loading or when no sewage outflow is registered, biocenosis
in the form of activated sludge will not end quickly because the substrate necessary for
microorganism development is obtained by forming biofilm covering the biofilter [4].
The highest operation costs in decentralized treatment systems are generated by the
aeration system and in the study [9], it was estimated to represent 44.2–61.1% of total
operation costs. The unit cost of treated organic load is usually higher in on-site systems
compared to centralized systems. Unit cost of BOD5 removed in on-site systems
analyzed in this study varied from 19.50 to 24.77 €/kg while for six medium size WWTPs
with P.E. between 614 and 2338, it ranged from 0.46 €/kg (for 2338 P.E.) to 0.84 €/kg (for
614 P.E.) with an average cost of 0.62 €/kg [5]. Similar costs (0.71 €/kg) were reported
for nine wastewater treatment plants in EU member countries [6]. Also, the cost of
treatment of the volume of wastewater decreases with increasing P.E. in centralized
systems and ranged from 0.93 €/m3 (P.E. 2338) to 1.80 €/m3 (P.E. 614) with an average
cost of 1.32 €/m3. This shows that the cost of the treatment of 1 m3 of wastewater in
centralized treatment systems is over 7 times lower than in the decentralized systems
analysed in this study. A similar relation exists when considering the cost of wastewater
treatment per person. In medium size centralized WWTPs, the cost ranged from 20

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€/person (P.E. 2338) to 38 €/person (P.E. 614) with average cost being 28 €/person [5]
while in analyzed on-site systems, the cost amounts to 98.18–128.59 €/person.
4.2 THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
The final proposed system should have the following characteristics :

i. It must comply to Standard A of the Environmental Quality Act.
ii. It should be commercially viable. This means the price need to be
competitive. The present 5 PE prefabricated septic tank cost around RM
1,000 – 1,500. The proposed upgraded system should cost not more than
RM 4,000 ( excluding installation ) for it to be commercially viable.
iii. It should be easily and cheaply maintained. Preferably the only
maintenance is the periodic desludging. This criteria rules out the
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR), Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) and
Conventional Activated Sludge (CAS). SBR, MBR and CAS are normally
used in medium to big treatment plants. The only viable option is using
Submerged Aerobic Biofilter which requires the least maintenance.
iv. It should be modular, similar to the lego system. Modularity is an added
advantage due to the fact that the present septic tanks could easily be
retrofitted with the new system.
v. Preferably it should be prefabricated. Prefabrication will reduce the cost
price of the system.
vi. It should be rectangular in shape since it is in the prototype phase. Other
shapes can be incorporated in the commercial phase.
In conclusion the Submerged Aerobic Biofilter system is the only system that fulfils all
of the above criteria.

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4.3 SUBMERGED AEROBIC BIOFILTER (SAB)
SAB is an innovative technology that combines aerobic degradation of pollutants and

physical retention of suspended matter in one reactor. At the same time high
concentration of active biomass can be achieved in the packed bed/biofilter. This hybrid
system of attached and suspended biomass is the hallmark of this technology.
SABs are invariably cited as a low-cost and low-maintenance technology [12,13] ,

especially compared with conventional treatment technologies, such as activated sludge
[14]. For example, it is practically impossible for activated sludge to treat low-strength
wastewater with BOD lower than 20 mg l-1 as the difficulty of maintaining a normal value
for MLSS and conventional efficiency. Substrate-transforming microorganisms in the
biofilter are often grown as biofilm on surfaces that can be either synthetic media [15,16],
or natural media (i.e., gravel, sand, tuff, zeolite) [17,18]. Another important advantage of
microbial film process is that interference in the biofilter is also more easily adjusted
because biofilm reactors contain a negative feedback control system to stabilize
treatment efficiency [19]. For example, If the increment of the influent loading arises, the
substrate concentration on a biofilm surface will increase correspondingly and the depth
of the effective layer will also increase, resulting in the suppression of the increment in
substrate concentration, and vice versa. Therefore, wastewater of a wide range of
strengths can be treated effectively with microbial film processes. In addition, the biofilter
exhibits a high potential for sustainability when properly designed and maintained [9].
Biofilters have been tested with numerous types of wastewater and it can be a valid
treatment option for significant cost savings, e.g. effluent from anaerobic digesters [21,22],
nitrobenzene wastewater treated by an anaerobic baffled reactor [23], and pretreatment
process for petroleum refinery wastewater [23].
SAB can combine ammonia, carbonaceous matter, and solids removal in a single-unit
process. Biological nutrient removal (N and P) can also be accomplished. Removal rates
based on reactor volume for carbonaceous BOD, ammonia, and nitrates of up to 4.1 kg

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BOD/m3/day, 1.27 kg NH3-N m3/day and 5 kg NO3-N m3/day respectively are normally
reported. Although many configurations are available, including upflow and downflow,
sunken, and floating media, the process still requires some optimization, especially with
regard to media type, backwashing rates, and aeration control to decrease power
consumption [31].
It will be a dangerous risk to use secondary treated or even tertiary effluent for irrigation
without disinfected for removing potential human pathogenic microorganisms. Filtration,
which is regarded as one of attractive and effective processes, is usually used to remove
suspended solids from wastewater effluents of biological processes to improve water
quality. Therefore, biofilter is needed to filter effluent before discharged into the receiving
waters, reused in agriculture, or utilized in body contact recreational reservoirs [25]. Bio-
filters could also be applied to perform a post-treatment step for low-strength wastewater
purification, e.g., secondary treatment of chromium-bearing tannery wastewaters [14],
and secondary or tertiary treatment of municipal wastewater [15,26]. The stability of bio-
filter plays an important role in restraining the change of effluent water quality [27]. In
order to obtain better process stability and performance efficiency, several studies have
focused on combinations of anaerobic and aerobic processes for the treatment of
wastewater [15,28,29].
The application of biofilters should be considered to be an efficient option for reducing the
amount of various wastewaters discharged into aquatic ecosystems [27]. An
understanding of processes involved in pollutant removal is therefore necessary, both for
improving the design and for predicting their long-term sustainability under a range of
environmental conditions [30].

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4.4 PROPOSED PROTOTYPE PLANTS

4.4.1 INTRODUCTION
All of the septic tanks in Malaysia are either made of concrete or FRP/HDPE material.
Septic tanks are only allowed to be installed in bungalows in rural areas and urban houses
in small developments (<30 units of houses or <150 PE). Most of the septic tanks for
single household are the one chamber type. However, most of the communal septic tanks
are the multiple chamber type which cater for bigger capacity. The main objective of the
individual septic tank is meant for primary treatment of the sewage. In most cases, the
purpose of the septic tank is to capture and store the solids present in the sewage. Thus,
the effluent from the septic tanks are always low quality and smelly (anaerobic) in nature.
The discharge often cannot achieve Standard B quality, because there were no built-in
secondary treatment. Some individual packaged septic tank manufacturers have
introduced some form of bio-filter media in the one chamber septic tank. However, there
are not much improvement to the discharge quality. Even there were biofiltration system
built into the larger capacity communal septic tank (>5 PE), the discharge quality failed to
comply with Standard B requirements after a short period of operation. The bio-media
(stones and gravels) used always get clogged after a short period of operation. Thus,
there is a requirement to develop a Standard A septic tank (5 PE) which can consistently
produce high quality effluent for Malaysian and export markets.
4.4.2 PROPOSED TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
The design criteria adopted for the septic tank are following the MS 1228:1991, Code of
Practice of Design and Installation of Sewerage Systems and SPAN Guidelines (Vol V:
Septic Tank). According to the MS 1228 and SPAN Guidelines (Vol V), the minimum
effective working volume required for 5 PE septic tank is 1.125 m3. The supplied effective
volume is 2.4 m3. Material of construction for the septic tank is molded FRP panels c/w

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SS304 bolts & nuts. All pipes and fittings are made of UPVC material. The types of biofilter
recommended for this project are the brush and crossflow corrugated PVC sheets types,
which are made in Malaysia. The type of air blower to be used is the ring blower type
(180W). The type of air diffuser to be used is the tube diffuser (500 mm). The type of
sludge transfer pump to be installed in the clarifier is the air lift system. Control panel and
electrical sockets are to comply with IP65 (weatherproof) standard.
It is proposed that 3 prototypes utilizing the aerobic upflow submerged filter treatment
system be fabricated, each having a pre-treatment and primary sedimentation chamber,
an upflow submerged filter aeration chamber and a final sedimentation chamber. The only
difference are the 3 different types of aeration mechanism. One will have a suspended
aeration chamber, one with an attached growth submerged fixed-bed media and one with
a hybrid suspended and biofilter media. The suspended aeration chamber will act as a
control for comparison purposes.
The three Prototypes will consist of the following 3 chambers:
i. THE PRIMARY CLARIFIER
The Primary Clarifier will capture and store the suspended solids (SS), grit and grease
(G&G) in the raw sewage. Both the raw SS and GG will be retained in the Primary Clarifier
for a period of more than one year before they are removed by desludging tanker. The
secondary biological sludge generated in the Aeration Tank and collected by the
Secondary Clarifier will be continuously transferred to the Primary Clarifier for storage.
The aerated effluent from the Secondary Clarifier will maintain the Primary Clarifier in a
facultative condition. The upper layer of water in the Primary Clarifier is aerobic. The
bottom layer of water in the Primary Clarifier is anaerobic. The continuous transfer of
sludge from Secondary Clarifier to Primary Clarifier also serves to recycle the effluent,
which will help to improve the discharge standard.

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ii. THE AERATION TANK

Two types of submerged biofilter (brush and crossflow corrugated PVC sheets) will be
installed in the Aeration Tank. Both types of biofilter have specific surcharge area of
>100m2/m3. The large surface area of the biofilters will allow a large population of
bacteria to grow. The bacteria will consume the BOD and multiply. The higher the influent
BOD, the thicker will be the biofilm on the surfaces of the biofilter. The dissolved oxygen
required for biodegradation is supplied by the air blower/air diffuser system. The air
blower will supply air to the air diffuser as well as the air lift pump installed in the Aeration
Tank. The operation (frequency and duration) of the air blower is controlled by a timer.
iii. THE SECONDARY CLARIFIER

The Secondary Clarifier is to allow the sludge generated form the Aeration Tank to settle.
The air lift system will transfer the settled sludge to the Primary Clarifier. The air lift system
will operate, as long as the air blower is in operation. Excess treated sewage will overflow
the Secondary Clarifier to the discharge drain
4.5 DESIGN CALCULATIONS
INFLUENT PARAMETER
DESIGN DATA 5 PE
Wastewater flow per person = 0.225 m3/PE day

DWF = 0.225 x 5 m3/day
DWF = 1.125 m3/day
Peak flow factor assumed = 4.7
= 4.7 x P-0.11
-0.11
= 4.7 x (5 P.E. /1000)
Peak flow rate = 8.418 m3/hr
Influent BOD = 250 mg/l
Effluent BOD = 20 mg/l
Influent SS = 300 mg/l
Effluent SS = 50 mg/l

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PRIMARY CLARIFIER TANK

DESIGN
Sludge accumulation rate (SPAN
Guideline) is 0.04 m3/PE/yr =
Sludge Storage assumed 2.0 years = 2 years
Minimum volume required = 0.04 x 5 P.E. x 2 years
= 0.40 m3
Supplied dimensions of the FRP tank
Proposed Length, L = 1.00 m
Width provided, W = 1.00 m
Depth provided, D = 0.80 m
Supplied volume of the FRP tank = 0.80 m3
AERATION TANK DESIGN

Proposed Length, L = 1.00 m
Width provided, W = 1.00 m
Depth provided, D = 0.80 m
A) PE-BRUSH MEDIA
Length of brush media = 1.10 m
Specific surface area of the brush media = 50 m2/m3/brush
Organic loading of 5 P.E. = 5 x 0.225 x 250 / 1000 x 0.80
= 0.225 kg BOD/m3/d
[NOTE: Design Factor 0.7-0.8 for normal
sewage & 0.9-1.0 for strong sewage]
Organic loading rate of brush for 95% BOD reduction efficiency
= 0.015 kg BOD/d
Minimum number of brush required = 0.225 / 0.015
= 15 nos
Supplied number of brush = 21 nos
Proposed radius of brush media = 0.07 m
Volume of brush media = 21 x 3.142 x 0.07 x 0.07 x 1.1
= 0.36 m3

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B) BIOFILTER MEDIA (CROSS-FLOW TYPE)
Specific surface area of Biofilter = 100 m2/m3

Organic loading rate of Biofilter for 90% BOD reduction efficiency
= 0.90 kg BOD/m3/d
Organic loading of 5 P.E. = 5 x 0.225 x 250 / 1000 x 0.80 kg/d
= 0.225 kg/d
Minimum volume of Biofilter media required = 0.225 / 0.9
= 0.25 m3
Supplied dimensions of biofilter media
Area = Length x Width =1.0m x 1.0m = 1.00 m2
Depth = 0.40 m
Thickness = 0.0005 m
Supplied volume of biomedia media = 1x0.4 m3
= 0.40 m3 > 0.25m3
C) SECONDARY CLARIFIER DESIGN

Peak flow rate = 8.42 m3/hr
Surface overflow loading rate assumed = 8.6 m3/m2/h
Minimum surface area required = 8.42 / 8.6 m2
= 0.98 m2
Length = 1.00 m
Width = 1.00 m
Supplied area = 1 x 1.00 m2
Supplied area = 1.00 m2
D) AIR PUMP & DIFFUSERS DESIGN

Aeration Rate
Provided air rate = 2.000 kg O2/BOD remove

Amount of BOD to be removed = 0.25 kg O2/BOD/m3 - 0.01 kg O2/BOD/m3
= 0.24 kg O2/BOD/m3 of sewage
Total BOD per day = 8.42 m3/day x 0.24 kgO2/BOD/m3
= 2.02 kg O2/day
Amount of O2 to supply = 2.02 kg O2/day x 2.000 kg O2/BOD
= 4.04 kg O2/day

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Field Conditions
N = 9.17 Ns / [(Cs - CL) ( 1.024 )T-20 a]
Where :
N -O2 transferred in field condition kg O2/hr. = ( 9.17 x 4.04 ) / ( 6.38 x 1.125 x 0.85 )
Ns - O2 transfer standard condition kg O2/hr. = 6.07 kgO2/day
Cs - DO saturation value at 25 °C - 8.38 mg/l = 0.004 kg O2/min.
CL - 1- 2 mg/l in mixed liquor ( ass2.00 mg/l )
T - Temperature 25 °C
a - Correlation factor ( 0.85 )
Air volume required
Assume O2 = 23.2 % of air

Weight of 1 m3 air = 1.20 kg
Air required normally = (0.004 x 100 ) / ( 23.2 x 1.2 )
= 0.015 m3/min.
But efficiency of diffuser = 18 %
Actual volume of air required = 0.083 m3 of air /min.
Selected pump capacity :

1. Air Blower 0.50 kW with 0.12 m3 /min air ( Airspec AS40 or equivalent )
2. Air Blower 0.25 kW with 0.08 m3 /min air ( Airspec AS20 or equivalent )
Air diffusers
Type : Jager Tube Diffuser or equivalent

Model : JetfFex TD Tube
Capacity : 3.0 m3 /hr
Quantity. : 2 units
NOTE : In practice IWK’s requirement is for each IST to have 2 air blowers of the same
capacity (1 duty and 1 standby). However each of the 3 prototypes are installed with one
0.5kW and one 0.25kW air blowers. This is to enable the consultant to study the varying
air capacities supplied.
E) HYDRAULIC RETENTION TIME
HRT at Qav. = Vol tank/Qav

= (0.8x1x3)/1.125
= 2.133 day
= 51.20 hours
HRT at Qpeak = Vol tank/Qpeak
= (0.8x1x3)/8.418
= 0.285 day
= 6.84 hours

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4.6 MASS BALANCE CALCULATIONS
I. MASS BALANCE
(a) Water balance

Based on the design flows (influent and effluent) of IST, the water balance of each unit
operations is calculated as follows:
The influent flow from each unit operation, Influent flow: Qin = 1.125 m3 /day.
The effluent flow from each unit operation, Effluent flow: Qout = 1.125 m3 /day
Notes:
The influent and effluent flow of IST storage tank (raw), primary clarifier, aeration tank,
secondary clarifier is designed to have similar flow.
The flow from secondary clarifier to be uplifted back to primary clarifier and from primary
clarifier to desludging tanker is negligible
(will be operated whenever needed/necessary).
(b) Mass balance

Based on BOD5 and SS concentrations, the mass balance of IST is calculated.
The influent and effluent load to each appropriate tank is calculated according to Equation 1.0
and Equation 2.0
Influent load = Qin · Cin Equation 1.0
Effluent load = Qout · Cout Equation 2.0
STREAM 1: PRIMARY CLARIFIER (INLET)

Calculation:
Influent BOD5 load = 1.125 m3 /day × 250 mg/L x 1 kg/1x106 mg x 1000 L/1 m3 = 0.281 kg/day
Influent SS load = 1.125 m3 /day × 300 mg/L x 1 kg/1x106 mg x 1000 L/1 m3 = 0.338 kg/day
STREAM 2: PRIMARY CLARIFIER (OUTLET)

Calculation:
Effluent BOD5 load = 1.125 m3 /day × 160 mg/L x 1 kg/1x106 mg x 1000 L/1 m3 = 0.18 kg/day
Effluent SS load = 1.125 m3 /day × 180 mg/L x 1 kg/1x106 mg x 1000 L/1 m3 = 0.202 kg/day

FINAL REPORT
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STREAM 3 AND 4 (INLET AND OUTLET) FOLLOW THE SIMILAR CALCULATION AS

STREAM 1 AND STREAM 2 (INLET AND OUTLET)
STREAM 5: UNDERFLOW SECONDARY CLARIFIER OUTLET (CALCULATED)

Calculation:
Qunderflow = 0.025 m3/day
Underflow SSload:
Influent SSload - Effluent SSload = 0.0562 kg/day - 0.0092 kg/day = 0.047 kg/day
SS concentration in underflow (calculated):

SSload in underflow / Flow in underflow
0.047 kg/day / 0.025 m3/day = 1.88 kg/m3
Underflow BODload:
Influent BODload - Effluent BODload = 0.0225 kg/day - 0.0091 kg/day = 0.0134 kg/day
BOD concentration in underflow (calculated):

BODload in underflow / Flow in underflow
0.0134 kg/day / 0.025 m3/day = 0.536 kg/m3
STREAM 6: UNDERFLOW SECONDARY CLARIFIER OUTLET (CALCULATED)

Calculation:
Qunderflow = 0.025 m3/day
Underflow SSload:
Influent SSload - Effluent SSload = (0.338 kg/day + 0.047 kg/day) - 0.202 kg/day = 0.183 kg/day
SS concentration in underflow (calculated):

SSload in underflow / Flow in underflow
0.183 kg/day / 0.025 m3/day = 7.32 kg/m3
Underflow BODload:
Influent BODload - Effluent BODload = (0.281 kg/day + 0.0134 kg/day) = 0.1144 kg/day
BOD concentration in underflow (calculated):

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BODload in underflow / Flow in underflow

0.1144 kg/day / 0.025 m3/day = 4.576 kg/m3
Table 4.1 summarises the mass balance calculations.
Table 4.1 Summary of Mass Balance Calculations
II. REDUCTION EFFICIENCY OF THE MAIN UNIT OPERATION
(a) Primary Clarifier (OUTLET)

STREAM 2
Typical removal efficiency of the BOD5 and SS in the Primary Clarifier is within 40-60 %
for SS and 20-50% for BOD5 respectively.
The treated effluent BOD of the Primary Clarifier is calculated based on 36% reduction
efficiency and is calculated as follows:
Influent BOD = 250 mg/L (Design BOD)
[(Influent BOD - Effluent BOD) / Influent BOD] x 100

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Therefore calculated effluent BOD:

[(250 mg/L - Effluent BOD) / 250 mg/L] x 100 = 36
(250 mg/L - Effluent BOD) = [(36 x 250 mg/L)] / 100
Effluent BOD = 250 mg/L - 90 mg/L = 160 mg/L
The treated SS of the Primary Clarifier is calculated based on 40% reduction efficiency
and is calculated as follows:
Influent SS = 300 mg/L (Design SS)
[(Influent SS - Effluent SS) / Influent SS] x 100
Therefore calculated effluent BOD:

[(300 mg/L - Effluent SS) / 300 mg/L] x 100 = 40
(300 mg/L - Effluent SS) = [(40 x 300 mg/L)] / 100
Effluent SS = 300 mg/L - 120 mg/L = 180 mg/L
(b) Aeration Tank (OUTLET)

STREAM 3
Influent BOD = 160 mg/L
Effluent BOD = 20 mg/L (Design BOD)
[(160 mg/L - 20 mg/L) / 160 mg/L] x 100 = 87.5 = 88% (reduction efficiency)
Influent SS = 180 mg/L

Effluent SS = 50 mg/L (Design
SS)
[(180 mg/L - 50 mg/L) / 180 mg/L] x 100 = 72.2% (reduction efficiency)
(c) Secondary Clarifier (OUTLET)

STREAM 4
Effluent BOD = 8.3 mg/L (average concentration of the IST performance study)
[(20 mg/L - 8.3 mg/L) / 20 mg/L] x 100 = 58.5% = 59% (reduction efficiency)

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Effluent SS = 8.4 mg/L (average concentration of the IST performance study)

[(50 mg/L - 8.4 mg/L) / 50 mg/L] x 100 = 83.2% (reduction efficiency)
Overall reduction efficiency of the IST is calculated as follows:

Effluent BOD = 8.3 mg/L (average concentration of the IST performance study)
[(250 mg/L - 8.3 mg/L) / 250 mg/L] x 100 = 96.68% = 97.0% (reduction efficiency)

Effluent SS = 8.4 mg/L (average concentration of the IST performance study)
[(300 mg/L - 8.4 mg/L) / 300 mg/L] x 100 = 97.2% (reduction efficiency)
Figure 4.1 shows the Mass Balance Diagram of BOD and SS for the proposed 3
prototypes

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Figure 4.1 Mass Balance Diagram

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4.7 ENGINEERING DRAWINGS
Figures 4.2 – 4.5 show the process flow chart and engineering drawings of the proposed
prototypes.
The influent raw sewage enters the primary clarifier. The primary clarifier provides
suspended solids removal under quiescent condition, solids storage and anaerobic
digestion. Particles, soli, liquid, or gaseous that have different density from that of water,
will settle downward because of gravity or rise to the top because of buoyancy. Three
zones are present in a primary clarifier: a scum layer which forms a crust on the surface
of the tank liquor; the wastewater from which solids deposit; and a bottom sludge layer of
deposited material. Although some particulate solids are removed by sedimentation, the
dissolved organics pass through the primary clarifier into the aeration tank without
significant treatment.
The principle of operation of the aeration tank is that the settled wastewater from the
primary clarifier passes through the filter bed where a bacterial culture called biofilm
degrades dissolved organic pollution. Also, a fraction of suspended solids and colloids
are adsorbed by the biofilm and thus removed from the wastewater. Coarse bubble
membrane diffusers are employed as aeration systems.
The air diffusion, besides supplying oxygen, induces an internal recirculation of water
enabling intense contact between the biofilm and aerated wastewater, conducting to an
oxygen transfer optimization and improving yields. These coarse bubble diffusers prevent
clogging, and also due to the intense movement that they introduce beneath water, as a
mammoth pump, improves mass transfer into the biofilm. The biofilm excess is
continuously detached by sloughing so a final settling becomes necessary. However, bed
backwash is not needed.

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The secondary clarifier will remove the settleable suspended solids created in the
aeration tank. It acts to separate biological floc from the treated liquid waste stream.
Unlike suspended biomass processes the system does not require sludge return or
recirculation. The settled secondary sludge will be uplifted back into the primary clarifier
for storage before desludging.

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Requirements:
Mandatory (M) / Optional (O)
Treatment Stage Treatment Process Functions
5 PE 50 PE 100 150
PE PE
Primary Removes rocks, roots and

1 - M M M
Screen rags
Lifts sewage and provides

Pump
2 - M M M consistent flow to the
Station treatment system
Pre
Treatment
Secondary Removes smaller/finer
3 - M M M
Screen particles from sewage
Removes sand, gravel and

Grit/Grease
4 - M M M other inorganic materials;
Removal separates oil & grease
Balancing Balances and equalises

5 - O O M
Tank flow
Primary Primary Removes settleable

6 M O O O
Treatment Clarifier solids/materials
Biological
Remove major pollutants
7 Treatment/ Aeration M M M M (BOD and SS)
Tank
Secondary Secondary Separates treated effluent

Treatment 8 M M M M
Clarifier and settled sludge
Destroy disease causing

9 Disinfection O O O O organisms
10 Flow Meter O O O O Measures and records flow
Thickener Reduces potential

detrimental effect on the
Bio Solids Stabilisation
Handling 11 - O O O environment and converts
sludge to a form suitable
Holding for ultimate disposal
Dewatering
Sludge Disposal
Figure 4.2 Process Flow Chart

CONSTRUCTION DRAWING
3000
1000 1000 1000 1000
PRIMARY CLARIFIER AERATION TANK SECONDARY SECONDARY
TANK CLARIFIER TANK CLARIFIER TANK
CONTROL
PANEL
A
AIR BLOWER
Ø50 HEADER
AIR PIPE
AIR BLOWER 1 AIR BLOWER 2
DISCHARGE
Figure 4.3
INLET CONTROL PANEL
2000
1000
500
3100 1000
Ø50 TUBE DIFFUSER Ø100 OPENING AIR LIFT PIPE
PLAN VIEW SIDE VIEW
A
3000
1000 1000 1000 1000
2000
Ø50xØ25 DISCHARGE AIR BLOWER 2 AIR BLOWER
AIR LIFT PIPE AIR BLOWER 1 Ø50 HEADER
AIR PIPE Ø50 HEADER
Ø20 INLET AIR PIPE
Ø25 AIR PIPE AIR LIFT PIPE
Ø80 INLET
Ø80 DISCHARGE PIPE
INLET
DISCHARGE CONTROL PANEL PROJEK
KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL

EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE SEWAGE
TREATMENT SYSTEM TO STANDARD A
EFFLUENT
1000
AIR LIFT PIPE
800
800
UNTUK TETUAN:
500 JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN
PEMBETUNGAN
Ø50 TUBE DIFFUSER AIR LIFT PIPE

Ø100 OPENING DRAWING TITLE :
SECTION A-A ENGINEERING DRAWING

SECTIONAL VIEW OF PROTOTYPE A (CONTROL)
Engineering Drawing of Prototype A (Control)

SCALE : DRAWN : FRD
EQUIPMENT AIR DIFFUSER AIR BLOWER 1 AIR BLOWER 2 TANK A DATE : AUGUST 2022 CHECKED : NIK FUAAD
BRAND Jager Tube Diffuser/Equivalent Airspec Air Blower/Equivalent Airspec Air Blower/Equivalent DRAWING NO. : PPSB/IST/2022/CONSTRUCTION-DWG
MODEL JetFlex TD Tube AS 40 AS 20
CAPACITY 4 cu.m/hr 0.12 cu.m/min 0.08 cu.m/min
HEAD - - -
(90939O-H)
POWER - 0.50 kW 0.25 kW
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY
QUANTITY 2 Units 1 Unit 1 Unit PRACTICE
SUITE 111, KOMPLEKS EUREKA
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
11800 USM PULAU PINANG
Tel: 04-6573105 Fax: 04-6573107
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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3000
1000 1000 1000 1000
CONTROL
PANEL
A
AIR BLOWER
Ø50 HEADER
AIR PIPE
Figure 4.4
INLET DISCHARGE CONTROL PANEL
2000
1000
1000
500
1100
3100
PLAN VIEW SIDE VIEW
A
3000
1000 1000 1000 1000
2000
Ø25 AIR PIPE Ø20 INLET AIR PIPE
AIR LIFT PIPE
Ø80 INLET
Ø80 DISCHARGE PIPE
INLET
1000 KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL

150 150 EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE SEWAGE
EFFLUENT
1000
125
800
800
UNTUK TETUAN:
JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN
500 PEMBETUNGAN
AIR LIFT PIPE

Ø100 OPENING
DRAWING TITLE :
SECTIONAL VIEW SECTION A-A ENGINEERING DRAWING

OF PROTOTYPE B (BIOFILTER)
Engineering Drawing of Prototype B (Biofilter)

SCALE : DRAWN : FRD
EQUIPMENT AIR DIFFUSER AIR BLOWER 1 AIR BLOWER 2 TANK B DATE : AUGUST 2022 CHECKED : NIK FUAAD
HEAD - - -
(90939O-H)
POWER - 0.50 kW 0.25 kW
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY
Tel: 04-6573105 Fax: 04-6573107
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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4-22
3000
1000 1000 1000 1000
CONTROL
PANEL
A
AIR BLOWER
Ø50 HEADER
AIR PIPE
1000
Figure 4.5
INLET DISCHARGE CONTROL PANEL
2000
1000
500
1000
1100
3100
PLAN VIEW SIDE VIEW
A
3000
1000 1000 1000 1000
2000
Ø20 INLET AIR PIPE
Ø25 AIR PIPE AIR LIFT PIPE
Ø80 INLET
Ø80 DISCHARGE PIPE
INLET
1000
KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL
EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE SEWAGE
EFFLUENT
400
1000
800
800
UNTUK TETUAN:
500 JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN
PEMBETUNGAN
AIR LIFT PIPE

Ø100 OPENING
DRAWING TITLE :
SECTIONAL VIEW SECTION A-A ENGINEERING DRAWING

OF PROTOTYPE C (BIOMEDIA)
SCALE : DRAWN : FRD

EQUIPMENT AIR DIFFUSER AIR BLOWER 1 AIR BLOWER 2
Engineering Drawing of Prototype C (Biomedia)

TANK C DATE : AUGUST 2022 CHECKED : NIK FUAAD
HEAD - - -
(90939O-H)
POWER - 0.50 kW 0.25 kW
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY
Tel: 04-6573105 Fax: 04-6573107
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4.8 BROCHURES

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4.8.1 BIOFILTER MEDIA

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4.8.2 PE BRUSH MEDIA

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4.9 REFERENCES
1. MS 1228:1991, Code of Practice of Design and Installation of Sewerage Systems.

2. DWA Technical Committee KA-10; DWA Working Group KA-10.2. Principles for
the Use of Small Waste Water Treatment Plants; DWA German Association for
Water, Waste Water and Waste e. V.: Hennef, Germany, 2017.
3. Sowinska, A.; Makowska, M. Suspended and immobilized biomass in individual
wastewater treatment systems SBR and SBBR. Desalin. Water Treat. 2016, 57,
23610–23621.
4. Krzanowski, S.; Wałe ̨ga, A. New technologies of small domestic sewage volume
treatment applied in Poland. Infrastruct. Ecol. Rural Areas 2007, 3, 69–78.
Available online: http://www.infraeco.pl/en/art/a_15103.htm
5. Krzanowski, S.; Wałe ̨ga, A. Effectiveness of organic substance removal in
household conventional activated sludge and hybrid treatment plants. Environ.
Prot. Eng. 2008, 34, 5–12.
6. Surgiel, P.; Kiniorski, W. The Concept of the Sewage System of the Kowala
Commune, Based on Small Local Sewage Treatment Plants and the Possi-bility
of Discharging Sewage to the Sewage System of the City of Radom. Eko-Plan
Design and Service Office, 2016. Available online: http://www.biuletyn.net/nt-
bin/_private/kowala/5384.pdf
7. Mitchell, R. Introduction to Environmental Microbiology, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1974.
8. Gerardi, M. Nitrification and Denitrification in the Activated Sludge
Process,Wiley,2002.
9. Eawag, Spuhler, D. Activated Sludge System, Compendium of Sanitation Systems
and Technologies, 2019.
10. Nitrification and Denitrification in The Activated Sludge Process, Compendium of
Sanitation Systems and Technologies, 2019.
11. Sanderson,H.; Brown. R.S; Fricker. C. Antibiotic Resistance Genes as an
Emerging Environmental Contaminant, Environmental Reviews, Feb 2016

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12. Malaysian Sewerage Industry Guidelines, Volume V : Septic Tanks, Suruhanjaya

Perkhidmatan Air Negara, Ministry of Energy, Water and Communication Malaysia.
13. Alcalde L, Folch M, Tapias J C, Martínez F, Enguídanos S and Bernácer I 2008
Secondary effluent reclamation: Combination of pre-treatment and disinfection
technologies Water Sci. Technol. 57 1963-8
14. Toscano A, Langergraber G, Consoli S and Cirelli G L 2009 Modelling pollutant
removal in a pilot-scale two-stage subsurface flow constructed wetlands Ecol. Eng.
35 281-9
15. Dotro G, Castro S, Tujchneider O, Piovano N, Paris M, Faggi A, Palazolo P, Larsen
D and Fitch M 2012 Performance of pilot-scale constructed wetlands for secondary
treatment of chromium-bearing tannery wastewaters J. Hazard. Mater. 239–240
142-51
16. Rebah F B, Kantardjieff A, Yezza A and Jones J P 2010 Performance of two
combined anaerobic–aerobic biofilters packed with clay or plastic media for the
treatment of highly concentrated effluent Desalination 253 141-6
17. Mollaei J, Mortazavi S B and Jafari A J 2015 Applying moving bed biofilm reactor
for removing linear alkylbenzene sulfonate using synthetic media I. J. H. E.
18. Pratt C and Shilton A 2009 Suitability of adsorption isotherms for predicting the
retention capacity of active slag filters removing phosphorus from wastewater
Water Sci. Technol. 59 1673-8
19. Sabbah I, Baransi K, Massalha N, Dawas A, Saadi I and Nejidat A 2013 Efficient
ammonia removal from wastewater by a microbial biofilm in tuff-based intermittent
biofilters Ecol. Eng. 53 354-60
20. Iwai S and Kitao T 1994 Wastewater Treatment with Microbial Films (Lancaster,
USA: Technomic Publishing Company)
21. de la Varga D, Díaz M A, Ruiz I and Soto M 2013 Avoiding clogging in constructed
wetlands by using anaerobic digesters as pre-treatment Ecol. Eng. 52 262-9
22. Alvarez J A, Ruíz I and Soto M 2008 Anaerobic digesters as a pretreatment for
constructed wetlands Ecol. Eng. 33 54-67

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23. Comino E, Riggio V A and Rosso M 2013 Constructed wetland treatment of

agricultural effluent from an anaerobic digester Ecol. Eng. 54 165-72
24. Lin Y, Yin J, Wang J and Tian W 2012 Performance and microbial community in
hybrid anaerobic baffled reactor-constructed wetland for nitrobenzene wastewater
Bioresource Techn. 118 128-35
25. Dai X, Chen C, Yan G, Chen Y and Guo S 2016 A comprehensive evaluation of
re-circulated bio-filter as a pretreatment process for petroleum refinery wastewater
J. Environ. Sci. China 50 49-55
26. Hamoda M F, Al-Ghusain I and Al-Mutairi N Z 2004 Sand filtration of wastewater
for tertiary treatment and water reuse Desalination 164 203-11
27. Greenway M 2005 The role of constructed wetlands in secondary effluent
treatment and water reuse in subtropical and arid Australia Ecol. Eng. 25 501-9
28. Hamoda M F, Al-Ghusain I and Al-Jasem D M 2004 Application of granular media
filtration in wastewater reclamation and reuse J. Environ. Sci. Heal. 39 385-95
29. Qi W-K, Guo Y-L, Su L-M, Norton M, Qin Y and Li Y-Y 2014 An anoxic/oxic
submerged constructed wetlands process for wastewater treatment: Modeling,
simulation and evaluation Ecol. Eng. 67 206-15
30. Bustillo-Lecompte C F and Mehrvar M 2017 Treatment of actual slaughterhouse
wastewater by combined anaerobic–aerobic processes for biogas generation and
removal of organics and nutrients: An optimization study towards a cleaner
production in the meat processing industry J. Clean. Prod. 141 278-89
31. Sakadevan K and Bavor H 1999 Nutrient removal mechanisms in constructed
wetlands and sustainable water management Water Sci. Technol. 40 121-8
32. Espinosa, L.M and Stephenson. T 1999 A Review of Biological Aerated Filters for
Wastewater Treatment ,Environmental Engineering cience, Vol 16, Number 3,
1999.
33. Water Services Industry Act 2006.
34. Malaysian Sewerage Industry Guideline (MSIG)

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CHAPTER 5
SUSTAINABLE
RENEWAL
ENERGY

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CHAPTER 5
SUSTAINABLE RENEWABLE ENERGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the requirement of the study is the need to look into sustainable renewable energy
and energy efficient equipment (EEE) in operating the prototype. The world is fast
becoming a global village due to the increasing daily requirement of energy by all
population across the world while the earth in its form cannot change. The need for energy
and its related services to satisfy human social and economic development, welfare and
health is increasing. Returning to renewables to help mitigate climate change is an
excellent approach which needs to be sustainable in order to meet energy demand of
future generations [1,2,3].
“Renewable energy” and “sustainable energy” are often used interchangeably, even
among industry experts and veterans. There is some overlap between the two, as many
sustainable energy sources are also renewable.
5.2 RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable energy is defined by the time it takes to replenish the primary energy
resource, compared to the rate at which energy is used. This is why traditional resources
like coal and oil, which take millions of years to form, are not considered renewable. On
the other hand, solar power can always be replenished, even though conditions are not
always optimal for maximizing production.
Under this definition, examples of renewable energy sources include:

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• Biomass: Organic material that is burned or converted to liquid or gaseous

form. Biomass from trees was the leading source of energy in the United States
before the mass adoption of fossil fuels. Modern examples of biomass include
ethanol and biodiesel, which are collectively referred to as biofuels.
• Geothermal: Heat produced by decaying radioactive particles found deep
within the earth. Geothermal energy can be used as a direct heat source or to
generate electricity.
• Hydropower: One of the oldest sources of electricity, requiring not only
massive amounts of water but also a formidable amount of force. Hydropower
was the largest source of renewable electricity until 2019.
• Solar: A favoured green alternative, although production requires a large
surface area and consistent sunlight. Solar farms should be combined with
storage solutions in order to harness the sun’s potential. Like geothermal
energy, solar power is often used as a direct heat source and electricity
generator.
• Wind: Utilizes turbines to convert the wind’s kinetic energy into mechanical
energy, which is then used to accomplish a task like grinding rain. Alternatively,
the mechanical energy can be rotated at high speeds to produce electricity.
5.3 SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
Sustainable energy is derived from resources that can maintain current operations without
jeopardizing the energy needs or climate of future generations. The most popular sources
of sustainable energy, including wind, solar and hydropower, are also renewable.
Biofuel is a unique form of renewable energy, as its consumption emits climate-affecting

greenhouse gasses, and growing the original plant product uses up other environmental
resources. However, biofuel remains a major part of the green revolution. The key
challenge with biofuel is finding ways to maximize energy output while minimizing the
impact of sourcing biomass and burning the fuel.

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5.4 PROPOSED ALTERNATIVE ENERGY FOR PROTOTYPE
The renewable energy has attracted a lot of attention all over the world in the
recent times due to the growing energy demand, increased environmental
sustainability concerns, and scarcity and increased prices of fossil fuels. The solar
energy is the most prominent among all the renewable sources, as it is an inexhaustible
and cleanest resource of energy and its utilization is also ecologically friendly. The
current worldwide energy demands are fairly less than the available potential of
solar energy [4]
Considering the miniscule amount of electricity needed by the blower which is the only
electricity consuming equipment, the most appropriate renewable and sustainable option
is the solar power. This clear option is due to the fact that the currently commercially
available cheap technology that have alternatives to deliver very small energy
requirement is the solar power system. All the other technologies are not economical for
very small power supply requirement.
5.5 ELECTRICITY COST
The proposed air blower has a power rating of 0.50 kW.

Assume 24 hour operation with 1hour ON and 1 hour OFF mode.
Electricity consumption = 0.50 kW x 12 hour

= 6.0 kWh per day
Electricity cost per month = RM 0.218 per kWh
Electricity cost per month = 0.218 x 6.0 x 30
= RM 39.24 per month

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This calculation is only for the smallest model catering for 5 Population Equivalent. It is
proposed that the commercial IST to have models catering up to 150 Population
Equivalent.
5.6 SOLAR POWER TECHNIOLOGY
The exploitation of solar energy for electricity production in the last few years has
been increasing substantially as compared to other renewable resources, majorly
because of the photovoltaic (PV) technology as it is the best and reliable way of converting
solar radiation into electric power [5].
Due to the modular nature in comparison to other renewable technologies, the solar PV
technology emerges as an ideal solution for off-grid power [6]. This technology has
gained a great attention for the successful attempts to supply electrical power
to autonomous off-grid rural areas and since many implementations
has been successfully done worldwide. Moreover; owing to zero sound pollution
and greenhouse gas emission, it highly contributes towards the sustainability of the
environment [7]. In addition, its production capability can be conveniently expanded
as per need and low maintenance is required due to the absence of any
moving parts [8]. Depending upon the consumer demands, a variety of
configurations, ranges from few watts to hundreds and from hundreds to kilo-watts
power systems and micro-grids can be designed using this technology for small
housing and business communities either in urban or in remote localities [9].
But, the major problem with this technology is its high initial cost. However, a
dramatic reductions in prices of PV panels or modules have been observed
worldwide in the last few years due to the growth in their demands and competitiveness
of the markets [6,9]. The stand-alone electricity generation systems using PV
technology has come up as a major and favoured way to harness the solar energy due

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to its multi-dimensional advantages such as energy independence, safety, security,

lack of electric bills, easier and timely installation, long-term back-up in case of
storage system and power whenever and wherever you needed [10].
All solar power systems work on the same basic principles. Solar panels first convert
solar energy or sunlight into DC power using what is known as the photovoltaic (PV)
effect. The DC power can then be stored in a battery or converted by a solar inverter
into AC power which can be used to run home appliances. Depending on the type of
system, excess solar energy can either be fed into the electricity grid for credits, or
stored in a variety of different battery storage systems [15].
There are 3 main types of solar power systems namely :

i. On-grid
ii. Off-grid
iii. Hybrid
Figure 5.1 shows a simplified layout of a common grid connected solar power system.
Figure 5.1 Simplified Layout of a Common Grid Connected Solar Power System [15]

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On-grid solar systems are by far the most common and widely used by homes and
businesses. These systems do not need batteries and use solar inverters and are
connected to the public electricity grid. Any excess solar power that you generate is
exported to the electricity grid and when the solar system is non-functional due to non-
availability of sunlight the grid electricity is utilised.
An off-grid system is not connected to the electricity grid and therefore requires battery
storage. Off-grid solar systems must be designed appropriately so that they will
generate enough power throughout the year and have enough battery capacity to meet
the home’s requirements. Off-grid require specialised off-grid inverters and battery
systems large enough to store energy.
Modern hybrid systems combine solar and battery storage in one and are now available
in many different forms and configurations. Hybrid grid-connected systems use lower
cost hybrid battery/inverters, and only require a battery large enough to supply energy
for 5 to 10 hours (overnight) depending on the application [15].
5.7 OFF-GRID SOLAR SYSTEM
Therefore, the off-grid solar PV system is an ultimate, convenient and self-sufficient

alternative to provide electricity for people living far from the electric grid in remote
locations where grid extension is practically unavailable or for people living in
metropolitan areas who want electric power without having a connection to utility
grid [11].
The general configuration of off-grid solar PV power system is given in Figure 5.2
An off-grid solar power system comprises of a PV panels array to collect solar
energy, a charge controller as a control unit, a battery as a storage device and
an inverter for DC/AC conversion for AC loads [12]. Due to the simple, easier,

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uncomplicated and trouble-free nature of the off-grid PV systems, they are rapidly
prevalent throughout the world [13]. The working of off-grid solar system starts with
the capturing of sunlight by tilted PV panels that is converted into electricity. The
produced electricity is then regulated by a charge controller. The electricity
generated in excess of the demand can be stored in the batteries to be utilized as
backup during the night time or at any other time when the sun-shine is not available
due to cloudy weather. The inverter converts the DC electricity to AC to run the AC loads
Figure 5.2 Configuration of Off-Grid Solar PV Energy System [14]
5.8 ON-GRID SOLAR SYSTEM
An on-grid connected system without batteries are the simplest and cheapest solar power
setup available, and by not having to charge and maintain batteries they are also more
efficient. It is important to note that a grid connected solar power system is not an
independent power source unlike a stand-alone system. Should the mains supply from
the electrical grid be interrupted, the electricity may go out, even if the sun is shining. One

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way to overcome this is to have some form of short term energy storage built into the
design.
An on-grid connected PV system is one where the photovoltaic panels are connected to
the utility grid through a power inverter unit allowing them to operate in parallel with the
electric utility grid.
5.9 DESIGN PROPOSAL
Load Profile
• System design is based on presumed load as follows:
Power consumption: 0.50 kW
Daily Operation Time: 12 hours
Daily Energy Consumption = 6.0 kWh
Table 5.1 shows the load profile of the prototype.
Table 5.1 Load Profile
Total Surge Surge

Power Usage kWh kVAh Surge
Item Description Qty
(W)
PF Diversity
(h) average average
Power
Factor
Power Power
(W) (W) (VA)
1 BLOWER 1 500 1.00 1.00 12 6 6.00 500.00 1.00 500 500
Daily Energy Required 6 6.00 500.00 1.00 500 500

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5.9.1 OPTION 1 : OFF-GRID SYSTEM
PV modules:
• Total PV capacity: 6 pcs of 540Wp Half Cell PV modules
• Total of 3.24kWp PV capacity
• Able to generate average approximately 11kWh of green energy daily (without
shading, depending on location)
Battery :
• 3 pcs of 2.45kWh Lithium Ferrophosphate Battery (LFP)
• Total of 7.35kWh of LFP Batteries
• ~1day autonomy
Hybrid Inverter:
• 3kW hybrid inverter
• Grid connection ready
Tables 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 show the PV Panel Sizing, Inverter and Battery Sizing. Figure 5.3
shows the proposed Single Line Drawing for Off-Grid. Brochures 5.12.1, 5.12.2 and
5.12.3 show the proposed PV Modules, Battery Energy Storage System and Hybrid
Inverter respectively.

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Table 5.2 PV Panel Sizing
Item Description Value

1 Tcell Average (Deg C) 60
2 Tcell Min (Deg C) 20
3 Missmatch factor efficiency 1
4 Dirt factor efficiency 0.98
5 Temperature factor efficiency 0.88
6 Cable efficiency 0.95
7 PV charge controller efficiency 0.99
8 Battery inverter efficiency 0.96
9 Battery efficiency 0.90
10 Min PSH (tilted) (h) 4
11 Over-supply Factor 1.2
12 Sub system efficiency 0.8126
13 Pmp_corr (W) 464.373
14 No. of PV module required 5
15 Min PV System Capacity required (Wp) 2700

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Table 5.3 Inverter LXP3K-Solar Panel Matching

1 Maximum PV Input Power (W) 6600
2 Max PV Input Voltage (V) 550
3 Min. MPP Voltage (V) 120
4 Max. MPP Voltage (V) 500
5 No. of MPPT 2
6 Max.PV Input Current (A) 12.5
7 Voc_max (V) 50.28
8 Vmp_min(V) 36.39
9 Max. No. of Module Per String 10
10 Min. No. of Module Per String 5
Array 1
11 Designed No. of Module Per String 6
12 Designed No. of String 1
13 Designed No. of charge controller 1
14 Total No. of PV module 6
15 Total Capacity of PV module Wp 3240

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Table 5.4 Battery Sizing

1 System Voltage (V) 51.2
2 Autonomy (day) 0.9
3 Max. DOD 0.9
4 Battery Inverter Efficiency 0.99
5 Discharge Current @MD (A) 9.86
6 Capacity Required (AH) 118.37
7 Designed Discharge Rate (H) 12
Selected Battery: GBL2.45
1 Battery Voltage (V) 51.2
2 Battery Capacity @C10 (Ah) 47.8
3 total of batt 3
4 No. of Bank 1
5 No. in Series 1
6 No. in Parallel 3
7 Total battery capacity (AH) 143.4
8 Discharge Rate (H) 14.5373

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Figure 5.3 Proposed Single Line Drawing for Off-Grid

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5.9.2 OPTION 2 : ON-GRID SYSTEM
PV modules:
• Total PV capacity: 4 pcs of 500Wp 1/3 Cut Cell PV modules
• Total of 2kWp PV capacity
PV Inverter
• 1.5 kW micro inverter
• Single microinverter connect four PV modules with dual MPPT
• 12 years warranty
The inverter is the most important part of any grid connected system. The inverter extracts
as much DC (direct current) electricity as possible from the PV array and converts it into
clean mains AC (alternating current) electricity at the right voltage and frequency for
feeding into the grid or for supplying domestic loads. It is important to choose the best
quality inverter possible for the budget allowed as the main considerations in grid
connected inverter choice are:
Power – Maximum high and low voltage power the inverter can handle, and
Efficiency – How efficiently does the inverter convert solar power to AC power.
Table 5.5 shows the PV System Design Simulation Report. Figure 5.4 shows the
proposed Single Line Drawing for On-Grid. Brochure 5.12.4 shows the proposed PV
Modules and Micro Inverter.

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Table 5.5 PV System Design Simulation Report
Estimated produced energy = 2910kWh/year*

Specific production = 1455 kWh /kWh/year
Performance ratio. = 0.801
*For Peak Sun Hour up to 1455kWh/kWp, actual readings depend on site condition

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Figure 5.4 Proposed Single Line Drawing for On-Grid
5.10 PROPOSED SOLAR SYSTEM FOR PROTOTYPE
It is proposed that one of the prototype be fitted with the on-grid solar system as most
of the commercial IST to be installed in the country are on the grid.
Nevertheless the off-grid solar system could be an alternative for commercial ISTs
installed in off-grid areas.

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5.11 REFERENCES
1. Panwar, N. , Kaushik, S. , & Kothari, S. (2011). Role of renewable energy sources

in environmental protection: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews , 15 , 1513–1524.10.1016/j.rser.2010.11.037
2. Edenhofer, O. , P.Madruga, R. , Sokona, Y. , Seyboth, K. , Matschoss, P. , Kadn
er, S. ,von Stechow, C. (2011). Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change
Mitigation . Cambridge : Cambridge University
3. Førsund, F. R. (2015). Hydropower economics (Vol. 217 ). New York,
NY: Springer.
4. R.K. Akikur, R. Saidur, H.W. Ping and K.R. Ullah, “Comparative study of stand-
alone and hybrid solar energy systems suitable for off-grid rural electrification: a
review,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 27, pp. 738–752,
2013
5. S. Ahsan, K. Javed, A.S. Rana and M. Zeeshan, “Design and cost analysis
of 1 kW photovoltaic system based on actual performance in Indian
scenario,” Perspectives in Science, vol. 8, pp. 642-644, 2016.
6. K.R. Sharma, D. Palit and P.R. Krithika, “Economics and management of
off-grid solar PV system,” in Solar Photovoltaic System Applications - A
Guidebook for Off-Grid Electrification, P. Mohanty et. al, Eds. Switzerland:
Springer, 2016, pp. 1-191.
7. A.S. Joshi, I. Dincer and B.V. Reddy, “Performance analysis of
photovoltaic systems: a review,” Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews,
vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 1884–1897, 2009.
8. S. Bhattacharyy, “Introduction,” in Solar Photovoltaic System
Applications - A Guidebook for Off-Grid Electrification, P. Mohanty et. al, Eds.
Switzerland: Springer, 2016, pp. 1-191.
9. “Solar System Price in Pakistan – Hisel Power Corporation,”. [Online]. Available:
http://www.hiselpower.com/solar-system-price-in-pakistan/.

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10. “Benefits of Off Grid Solar Power Light Systems,” March 16, 2015. [Online].
Available: https://www.sepco-solarlighting.com/blog/ben efits-of-off-grid-solar-
power-light-systems.
11. M. Hankins, Stand-alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earthscan Expert
Handbook for Planning, Design and Installation. London, UK: Earthscan,
2010.
12. A. Ghafoor and A. Munir, “Design and economics analysis of an off-grid
PV system for household electrification,” Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 42, pp. 496–502, 2015.
13. COC Oko, E.O Diemuodeke, E.O Omunakwe and E. Nnamdi “Design and
economic analysis of a photovoltaic system: a case study,” Int. Journal of
Renewable Energy Development, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 65–73, 2012.
14. H. Farooq, A. Rahman, A. Noman, “Design Considerations of Stand-Alone Solar
Photovoltaic Systems,” International Conference on Computing, Electronoc and
Electrical Engineering, Nov 2018.
15. Clean Energy Reviews (https://www.cleanenergyreviews.info/blog/2014/5/4/how-
solar-works)

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5.12 BROCHURES

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5.12.1 PV MODULES

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5.12.2 BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM (BESS)
2.45 Kwh Lithium Iron Phospate(LFP) battery pack

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5.12.3 HYBRID INVERTER

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5.12.4 PV MODULES/ MICRO INVERTER

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5.13 SOLAR SYSTEM SUPPLIER
ABOUT US
Realizing that renewable energy would play an important role
in our lives, Pekat expanded its portfolio in 2006, to provide
end-to-end solutions for commissioning Solar Photovoltaic (PV)
systems through its subsidiary Pekat Solar Sdn. Bhd.
O U R S T R E N G T H S
22 ENGINEERING ACCREDITATIONS
YEARS EXPERIENCE
SOLUTION
TOP PARTNERS
Incepted in 1999 by a team of vigorous and > 120

MWp
FULL EPCC
SYSTEM
innovative engineers to provide earthing and
lightning protection solutions, Pekat quickly
grew to become a prominent brand name in FINANCIAL
the industry, renowned for its commitment,
VERSATILE SOLUTIONS
innovation and reliability.
AFTER
DEDICATED SALES
Engineered for a Brighter and Sustainable Future

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CHAPTER 6
PROPOSED SOLAR
SYSTEM FOR IST

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CHAPTER 6
PROPOSED SOLAR SYSTEM FOR IST
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will highlight the solar system proposals for all models of the ISTs, namely
for 5, 50, 100 and 150 Population Equivalent (PE).
Malaysian state national sewerage company Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) has
committed to installing solar photovoltaic systems at 53 sewage treatment plants (STPs)
in an effort to slash energy costs and minimise its carbon footprint.
The first phase of construction, starting October 2021 will see 19 STPs fitted with solar
panels capable of meeting up to 20% of the plants’ energy needs. This phase will be
implemented through a power purchase agreement with private companies MFP Solar
and Timeless Green. IWK is now looking for partners to implement the next phase,
covering the remaining 34 STPs [5].
6.2 PROPOSED FOOTPRINTS OF ISTs
Figures 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4 show the proposed footprints of the 5, 50,100 and 150 PE
IST models respectively. Figures 6.5A and 6.5B show the details of a typical Inlet Works.

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PRIMARY AERATION SECONDARY

CLARIFIER TANK CLARIFIER
Figure 6.1 Proposed Footprint of IST 5 PE

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OIL & GREASE

CHANNEL
SECONDARY SCREENS
SUBMERSIBLE PUMP
STAIRCASE
PRIMARY SCREENS
Figure 6.5A Typical Layout of Inlet Works

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SECONDARY
SCREENS
STAIRCASE OIL & GREASE

CHANNEL
PRIMARY
SCREENS
SUBMERSIBLE
PUMP
PUMP
Figure 6.5B Typical Section of Inlet Works
6.3 PROPOSED FOOTPRINTS OF SOLAR SYSTEM
Figures 6.6 – 6.21 show the proposed footprints and Single Line Diagrams (SLD) of the
solar systems for 5, 50,100 and 150 PE IST models for on-grid and off-grid respectively.
The ISTs footprints are also included for comparison.
It must be noted that the air blowers for the 3 prototypes in the study were attached to the
side of the tanks. But in actual practice, IWK ‘s requirement is for the air blowers to be
housed in a blower house as shown in the Figures. It must also be noted that the
configurations of the IST in the Figures are only proposed footprints. Actual configurations
for PEs above 5 may differ depending on actual site parameters.

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Figure 6.6 Footprint of IST 5 PE On-Grid Solar System

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Figure 6.7 Footprint of IST 5 PE Off-Grid Solar System

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Figure 6.14 SLD of IST 5 PE On-Grid Solar System
Figure 6.15 Proposed SLD of IST 5 PE Off-Grid Solar System

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Figure 6.17 SLD of IST 50 PE Off-Grid Solar System

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6.4 SYSTEM OVERVIEW
The proposed solar off-grid system with battery backup power is to provide power supply
to the electrical appliances to power up the wastewater treatment system. Capacity of the
system has been designed based on the daily energy consumption of the appliances.
Proposed systems consist of advance hybrid inverter that allows bidirectional power
conversion of AC-DC and vice versa, with high technology of Lithium battery as energy
storage.
The proposed solar on-grid system uses Micro Inverter that converts DC power directly
on the roof itself with 10-30% more energy harvest compared to string inverters. In the
event that power supply is insufficient, the system will be importing energy from the Grid.
6.5 SYSTEM AND OPERATIONAL & MAINTENANCE COSTS
Operational costs can be differentiated as personnel costs, maintenance costs, energy

costs, chemicals and material costs, disposal costs and miscellaneous costs for
administration, insurance, external services etc.. Maintenance is often considered a
subset of operations, being one of the activities businesses perform to reach their
objectives.
The difference between operations and maintenance is operations is the activities

performed to reach business objectives, whereas maintenance is everything done to
keep equipment in running order. Maintenance means making repairs when assets break
down, performing preventive maintenance tasks, and monitoring equipment health.
Energy consumption is a major contributor to the operation cost of wastewater systems

and therefore is an important parameter for choosing a treatment technology. The costs

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for energy usually amount up to 50 % of the total operation costs. Energy costs include
the consumption (and internal production) of electricity, gas and oil [6].
The system costs for the solar system are sourced from local sources and the costs
include design, supply, instal and commission. The system costs for the IST are sourced
from local suppliers supplying a similar but slightly inferior system. Only the 5 PE IST’s
cost is higher than the present anaerobic IST price of around RM 1,500.00 – 2,000.00.
For the other models the present similar but slightly inferior system cost will not differ
much from the proposed upgraded IST. This is due to the fact that the present system
also utilised an aerobic concept.
The Environment and Water Ministry had recently mandated that houseowners must
clean their septic tanks once in two years as per the Water Services Industry Act
(Desludging Services) 2021, which took effect on March 30 this year. IWK charges for
desludging services are RM48 (low-cost housing), RM72 (village homes and plantations)
and RM144 (government premises, quarters and private residential homes) [3]. The
operation cost shown is the twice per year visits by the supplier/contractor including once
yearly sludge desludging.
The full operation and maintenance procedures for IST are shown in Appendix 6.3
( OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUAL ).
Tables 6.1– 6.4 list the Power Requirements and Operational and Maintenance Costs of
the ISTs. Below is the electricity cost for the 5 PE IST having a 0.5 kW air blower.
Electricity consumption = 0.50 kW x 12 hour = 6.0 kWh per day

Electricity cost per month = RM 0.218 per kWh
= RM 39.24 per month = RM 471 per year

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Energy requirement per capita/year = ( 6.0 kWh x 365 days ) /5 PE

= 438 kWh/capita/year
With reference to Table 2.2 Comparison of Energy Requirements ( 65 kWh/capita/year

for 1.2 m3 /d ) it can be seen that the value 438 kWh/capita/year is relatively high for a
1.125 m3 /d average flow. If nitrification is not required the energy requirement can be
reduced substantially. There is not much reference from past research on energy
requirements on small sewage treatment plants for a better comparison to be made.
The operation cost per year for the IST system is the cost of electricity to operate the IST.
This is the cost of electricity to power all the mechanical and electrical equipments needed
by the IST. The maintenance cost for the IST is the cost that a private contractor would
charge the owner to maintain the IST according to the IST Operation and Maintenance
Manual. Normally the private contractor would visit the plant every 3-4 months.
The maintenance cost for the IST solar system is the cost that a private contractor would
charge the owner to maintain the IST solar system according to the Solar System
Operation and Maintenance Manual. Normally the private contractor would also visit the
plant every 3-4 months. Appointing a private contractor to operate and maintain the IST
and IST solar system is optional.
These operation and maintenance costs do not include costs for replacing faulty items.
Any costs incurred to make good defects or to improve performance will be charged to
the owner. However the IST owners could choose to maintain both systems by
themselves.

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Table 6.1 Power Requirements and O&M Costs of IST 5 PE
EQUIPMENT SYSTEM SUMMARY

Daily
Type of Nominal Operating Description On-grid Off-Grid
Equipment Power Hour (hr/day)
(kW)
Pump Sump NA NA PV Capacity 1.5 kWp 3.17 kWp
Air 0.5 12 Battery Capacity N/A 7.0 kWh

Blower
PE 5 Diffuser N/A N/A Inverter Micro Hybrid
Inverter Inverter
Submersible SYSTEM COST
Transfer (IST/ RM 4,000/ RM 4,500/
N/A N/A
Pump SOLAR) RM 10,000 RM 23,000
Operation IST SYSTEM RM 471 RM 1 413

Cost/yr
Maintenance IST SYSTEM RM 250 RM 250
Cost/yr SOLAR SYSTEM RM 200 RM 300
NOTE :
For Operation Costs in Tables 6.1 – 6.4
For Operation Cost it is assumed that for :
On-Grid – Grid electricity cost to run the IST’s equpments as in the Tables 6.1-
6.4.
Off-Grid – Diesel powered generator to run the IST’s equpments as in the
Tables 6.1-6.4. It is assumed that diesel powered generator cost 3
times the cost of grid electricity.
For System Costs in Tables 6.1 – 6.4
The system costs for both IST and Solar System are capital costs only and installation
costs are not included.

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Daily
(kW)
Pump Sump 1.50 3 PV Capacity 3.38 kWp 7.13 kWp
Air 0.75 12 Battery N/A 15.0 kWh

Blower Capacity
Inverter Inverter
Submersible I hr once SYSTEM
Transfer COST
1.10 every 3
Pump (IST/ RM 15,000/ RM 15,000
months
SOLAR)) RM 28,000 RM 50,000
Operation IST SYSTEM RM 1 060 RM 3 180
Cost/yr
Cost/yr SOLAR RM 300 RM 500
SYSTEM

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Daily
(kW)

Blower Capacity
Inverter Inverter
Submersible I hr once SYSTEM
Transfer COST
1.1O every 3
Pump (IST/ RM 35,000/ RM 35,000
months
SOLAR)) RM 45,000 RM 85,000
Cost/yr
Cost/yr
SOLAR RM 500 RM 800
SYSTEM

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Daily
(kW)

Blower Capacity
Inverter Inverter
Submersible I hr once
Transfer
1.1O every 3
Pump
months
Balancing 1.10 3 SYSTEM
Tank COST
(IST/ RM 50,000/ RM 50,000/
SOLAR)) RM 65,800 RM 120,000

Cost/yr
Cost/yr SOLARSYSTEM RM 800 RM 1600
6.6 DESIGN CONCEPT
Figures 6.22 and 6.23 show the design concept for On-Grid and Off-Grid Solar System
respectively.

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Figure 6.22 Concept of Off-Grid Solar System
Figure 6.23 Concept of On-Grid Solar System

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6.7 TECHNICAL DATASHEET
The Technical Datasheets for the Off-Grid System is shown in APPENDIX 6.1 :
DATASHEET 1 and for the On-Grid System is shown in APPENDIX 6.2 : DATASHEET
2.
6.8 SEDA AND TNB
Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA) administers and manages the

implementation of Malaysia’s Feed in Tariff (FiT) mechanism. FiT incentive provides a
fixed rate to the electricity generator (e.g. house owners) for every kilowatt-hour (kWh) of
electricity generated and exported to the grid. This rate provided under FiT is at a premium
over the electricity rate that is being paid to TNB (Tenaga Nasional Bhd) as it is an
incentive for the generation of renewable green clean energy.
In order to kick start the green revolution towards renewable energy in Malaysia, SEDA
designed Feed in Tariff (Fit) incentive. The FiT incentive facilitates the sale of electricity
generated from cleaner renewable source such as biomass, biogas, small hydro and solar
photovoltaic (PV), to be sold back to utility companies at a fixed price for a specific period
of time. The generated electricity will be linked to electricity grid and exported into the
grid. Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) then pays the individual, a fixed premium rate per
kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity.
Solar Energy Purchase (SEP) is an option for TNB customers to buy energy using solar
panels owned by a third-party Investor/Asset Owner. SEP is a financial arrangement in
which the Investor/Asset Owner owns, operates and maintains the solar photovoltaic (PV)
system, whereas the customer acts as the ‘host site’ that purchases and consumes the
solar PV system output power for a predetermined period and set energy price with TNB
as a contracting and billing entity.

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This arrangement allows the customer to purchase energy at a cheaper price than the
normal rate taken from TNB, with an option to export the excess energy from solar PV
system to the TNB grid to offset their energy bills. The export option is known as Net
Energy Metering (NEM). NEM is a scheme introduced by the Energy Ministry to
encourage Malaysia’s renewable energy uptake.
NEM is a mechanism for consumer to use solar energy that they produced for their own
consumption. The excess energy generated will be exported to TNB grid and will be
turned to credit that may be used to offset part of the electricity bill
6.9 INSTALLED SOLAR SYSTEM FOR IST 5 PE
Figures 6.24 to 6.32 show the installed On-Grid Solar System for one of the prototype.
Figure 6.24 Solar System Installation 1

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Figure 6.33 shows the S-Miles Enduser mobile application operating data. S-Miles
Enduser is a mobile application developed by Hoymiles especially for owners of
distributed PV power plants, which can absorb the operating data of PV power plants
from S-Miles Cloud. There are more functions, such as module-level monitoring, real-time
data display for both plant-level & module-level as well as daily, monthly, annual, and total
energy display. Furthermore, you can easily see the alarm information with the
equipment, which could assist the owner in monitoring the operation of the PV power
plant, ensuring normal operation of the power plant and obtaining of the expected yield.
The solar system was installed and commissioned on 22 December 2021.
Among others the main display outputs on the S-Miles Enduser app are :
i. The production for the day, month and lifetime are 9.61kWh, 46.87kWh and
1.75 MWh respectively.
ii. Assuming the electricity price is RM 0.218 per kWh, the plant revenue for the
day, month and lifetime are RM 2.09, RM 10.22 and RM 382.20 respectively.
iii. The daily, weekly, monthly and yearly power production of the solar system.
iv. The daily, monthly and yearly energy production of each of the 4 PV panels.

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Figure 6.33 S-Miles Enduser Operating Data

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6.10 SOLAR SYSTEM PAYBACK PERIOD AND ROI
Though solar is a big purchase up front, that investment quickly pays for itself in energy
savings over the life of ownership. The payback schedule is accelerated by federal tax
incentives that reward people who invest in green energy.
An on-grid system can pay for itself in around 3 to 6 years for DIY projects, and 5 to 9
years if installed by a contractor. Since solar panels are warrantied for 25 years, any
energy generated beyond the initial payback period represents a profit on the investment.
However, the solar system can go on producing electricity even longer than the
warrantied period. An off-grid system can pay itself a lot faster than on-grid system due
to the increased cost of diesel generator power alternative [4].
Before deciding whether to purchase solar system, owners should keep in mind their
expected solar panel payback period, or the amount of time it will take to recoup their
investment or the time it takes to recover the initial cost of installing the system. The
payback period is calculated by taking the overall system price and dividing it by the
average projected solar savings each year to find out how long your solar panels will take
to pay for themselves.
The basic formula for calculating a payback period for solar is to divide the cost of the
system, including tax rebates and financial incentives, by the annual amount you'll save
on utility bills. This will give you the number of years required for you to “break even” with
your solar panels.
Return On Investment (ROI) is a widely used financial metric for measuring the probability
of gaining a return from an investment or an approximate measure of an investment’s
profitability. ROI is calculated by subtracting the initial value of the investment from the
final value of the investment (which equals the net return), then dividing this new number
(the net return) by the cost of the investment, then finally, multiplying it by 100 [1].

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Table 6.5 Typical Capital and Operating Costs for Power Generation[2]
Using the data from Table 6.5, it is assumed that the price for producing electricity from
natural resources is 3 times more than using solar. This factor of 3 is used to compute
the financial analysis of the off-grid solar system.
NOTE 1 : Assume 40% of electricity needed to power the ISTs come from On-Grid Solar
System without battery. Therefore the cost of operation for on-grid is 0.4 multiplied by the
operation cost per year figures in Tables 6.1 - 6 .4.
As an example the simple Payback Period for On-Grid Solar System calculation for 5
PE IST is :
= RM 10 000 / ( 0.4 x RM 471 )
= 10 000 / 188.4
= 53.1 years
It must be noted that this Payback Period is taking into consideration the air blowers are
operating on 1 hr On and 1 hr OFF mode. It also means that for full 24 hr operation the
Payback Period would be 26.5 years.
NOTE 2 : Assume 100% of electricity needed to power the ISTs come from Off-Grid Solar
System with battery. Therefore the cost of operation for off-grid is as given in Tables 6.1
– 6.4.

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As an example the simple Payback Period for Off-Grid Solar System calculation for 5 PE
IST is :
= RM 23 000 / ( RM 1 413 )
= 16.2 years
It must be noted that this Payback Period is taking into consideration the air blowers are
operating on 1 hr On and 1 hr OFF mode. It also means that for full 24 hr operation the
Payback Period would be 8.1 years.
For other IST PEs a similar calculation applies. Table 6.6 shows the payback period and
ROI of the proposed 5, 50,100 and 150 PE IST models.
Table 6.6 ROI and Payback Periods of Proposed Solar Systems
IST PE SOLAR ROI % PAYBACK

SYSTEM PER YEAR PERIOD (YRS)
5 PE ON-GRID 1.85 53.1
OFF-GRID 6.1 16.2
50 PE ON-GRID 1.5 56.6
OFF-GRID 6.35 15.8
100 PE ON-GRID 2.15 46.4
OFF-GRID 8.55 11.6
150 PE ON-GRID 2.65 37.6
OFF-GRID 11.75 9.2
It can be concluded from Table 6.6, the payback periods for on-grid solar system varying
from 37.6 to 56.6 years are too long and not practically feasible . However the payback
periods for off-grid solar system varying from 9.2 to 16.2 years are more practical. It is
advisable for ISTs served by grid electricity to use the available grid power.

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6.11 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR SYSTEM
For the newly-installed solar system to offer optimal power generation that it is capable
of, the user need to ensure that the effective operation and maintenance is carried out
regularly. If the plant infrastructure and equipment are maintained well, the result is an
extended equipment lifespan with minimal depreciation and damage.
The full Operation and Maintenance of Solar System Manual is in Appendix 6.3.
6.12 REFERENCES
1. A Guide to Calculating Return on Investment
https://www.investopedia.com/articles/basics/10/guide-to-calculating-roi.asp
2. John Leone, 2020, Basic Economics of Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution, Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, PennState University.
3. “Mandatory Desludging of Septic Tanks Starts June 1”, The Star Monday,24 May 2021.
4. “Solar Panel Price of Installation and Maintenance in Malaysia”,
( https://getsolar.ai/blog/solar-panel-installation-maintenance-price-malaysia/ )
5. “Malaysia to roll out solar for sewage treatment”, Global Water Intelligence,10
September 2021 (https://www.globalwaterintel.com/news/2021/36/malaysia-to-roll-
out-solar-for-sewage-treatment)
6. A. Wendland, 2020, Operation Costs of Wastewater Treatment Plants, Efficient
Management of Wastewater.

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6.13 APPENDIX 6.1

DATASHEET 1
Technical Datasheet for Off-Grid System

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PV MODULES

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Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)

2.45 Kwh Lithium Iron Phospate(LFP) battery pack
(PE5)

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Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)

5.8kWh Lithium Iron Phospate(LFP) battery pack
(PE50, PE100 & PE 150)

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Hybrid Inverter

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6.14 APPENDIX 6.2

DATASHEET 2
Technical Datasheet for On-Grid System

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PV MODULES

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Micro Inverter

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6.15 APPENDIX 6.3

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF SOLAR SYSTEM MANUAL
A. ON-GRID SYSTEM
No. Component Description Interval
Spot cleaning for PV modules with water (if
required).
1 PV Module Check PV modules for any visible damage or Annually
discoloration.
2 PV Array structure Check for sign of corrosion, deformation and Annually
damaged mounting.
3 PV Array Inspect if any new objects cast the shadow on Annually
PV modules.
Inspect electrical junction boxes for corrosion,
intrusion of insects and water leakage.
Examine each combiner box and check all the
fuses and circuit breakers functionality. Check
AC/DC junction status of indicators on fuse holders and SPDs.
4 Annually
boxes Re-tightening all the electrical connection
terminals with the appropriate torque. Cleaning
as necessary.
Thermal imaging inspection to identify
termination hot-spots.
AC/DC cables, Inspect cables condition and check for signs of
conduit, trunking tears, embrittlement or damage.
5 Tightness check for all cable termination. Annually
Inspection of conduit/trunking for any visible
damage.
Inspection of all incoming cables and outgoing
cables, cable glands for signs of damage,
embrittlement or deformation.
6 Micro-inverter Annually
Data verification for AC voltages & Power
readings recorded by the Inverter. (From
Hoymiles)

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Visual inspection and tightening of connectors

and jointing parts for grounding system at PV
modules, structure, AC/DC junction boxes,
inverters and main DB and earth chamber.
7 Earthing System Annually
Check for cable embrittlement, damage or
deformation.
Check on connectivity and jointing. Perform
tightening as required.
Check the monitoring system for any signs of
power failure.
Check the functionality of data logging device,
Monitoring System (if
USB Modem, Wireless Router.
8 available), Data Annually
Check for detection of inverters by the
Transfer Unit (DTU)
monitoring system.
Ensure communication cable are intact and no
visible damage to the cable.

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B. OFF-GRID SYSTEM
No Job Description Frequency
A Structure and racking
1 Check for sign of corrosion, deformation and
damaged mounting on the rack. Half Yearly
2 Torque check on PV modules and the racking
system.
3 Report any deformed structure if found. Half Yearly
B PV Array
1 Walk through each row of the PV array and check Half Yearly
the PV modules for any visible damage or
discolouration.
2 Inspect any foreign objects, such as debris, Half Yearly
vegetation growth, bird nest or dropping and satelite
dish which cast shadow to the existing array.
3 Report any damaged modules, indentify location in Half Yearly
the layout drawing of questionable modules.
4 Cleaning for PV modules with clean water or mild Half Yearly
detergent (if required).
5 Use thermal imager to inspect for hot spots area. Half Yearly
C DC Array Junction/Combiner Box

1 Inspect any sign of water penetration and find the Half Yearly
root cause. Seal up any possible points of water
penetration.
2 Check if any deformation or cracks on the Junction Half Yearly
Box
3 Report any tripped breaker/fuse on first encounter Half Yearly
with respect to drawing
4 Inspect DC MCB, fuse continuity with DMM voltage Half Yearly
measurement. Report and replace if faulty.
5 Visual Inspection on DC SPD indicator. Report and Half Yearly

replace if faulty.
6 Ensure the Electrical Cables termination is properly Half Yearly
tightened and no damages.

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7 Visual Inspection on electrical cable glands, conduits

and trunking in good conditions. Rectify any which is Half Yearly
deformed.
8 Ensure all strings/ array is functioning measure with Half Yearly
Clamp meter and Volt meter.
9 Cables markers should be still visibly tagged. Rectify Half Yearly
any which is deformed.
10 Clean all foreign objects and debris Half Yearly
D Inverters
1 Inspect the cabling on inverter and make sure all Half Yearly
connectors are properly tightened and not
deformed
2 Record/ Extract Fault Messages if any of the Half Yearly
inverters not functioning with respect to tagging
and S/N:
3 Ensure inverters tagging is still visible and intact Half Yearly
4 Clean dust particles and cooling fans with brushes Half Yearly
and damp cloth
5 Check if any inverters shown any signs of Half Yearly
abnormalities from Inverters' Display
6 Visual Inspection on electrical cable glands, Half Yearly

conduits and trunking in good conditions. Rectify
any which is deformed.
7 Record Voc of inverter input and ensure is within Half Yearly
inverter operating specification
8 Ensure all strings/ array is functioning with Current Half Yearly

Clamp meter
9 Estimate the height of inverters installed and Half Yearly
positioning.
10 House Keeeping of Inverter Room to maintain Half Yearly
tidiness and cleanliness

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E Batteries Rack
1 Inspect the cabling on batteries rack and make sure Half Yearly
all connectors are properly tightened and not
deformed
2 Record if any of the battery not fuctioning with Half Yearly
respect to tagging and S/N:
3 Ensure battery tagging is still visible and intact Half Yearly
4 Ensure battery low warning indicator is fucntioning Half Yearly
5 Check if any batteries shown any signs of
abnormalites from SwitchGear indicator Half Yearly
6 Visual Inspection on conduits and trunking in good

conditions. Rectify any which is deformed. Half Yearly
7 Record SOC and voltage of each battery output and

ensure is within inverter operating specification Half Yearly
8 House Keeeping of Battery Room to maintain Half Yearly

tidiness and cleanliness

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CHAPTER 7
SAMPLING
REGIME

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CHAPTER 7
SAMPLING REGIME
7.1. INTRODUCTION
The analytical results of a sample are only as accurate as the quality of the sample taken.
If the technique for collecting samples is poor, then no matter how accurate the laboratory
procedures are, the results will be poor. By sampling according to set procedures, we
reduce the chance of error and increase the accuracy of the sample results.
7.2 SAMPLE TYPES
Wastewater sampling is generally performed by one of two methods, grab sampling or

composite sampling. Grab sampling is just what it sounds like; all of the test material is
collected at one time. As such, a grab sample reflects performance only at the point in
time that the sample was collected, and then only if the sample was properly
collected. Composite sampling consists of a collection of numerous individual discrete
samples taken at regular intervals over a period of time, usually 24 hours.
Numerous industry references list various parameters for wastewater testing and whether
samples should be collected using grab sampling or composite sampling methods. For
example, grab sampling allows the analysis of specific types of unstable parameters such
as pH, dissolved oxygen, chlorine residual, nitrites and temperature [1].
The 4 sampling types are :
1. Grab- Each sample shows the characteristics of the water at the time of sampling
only. Grab sampling is done for such procedures as batch discharge, constant
waste stream characteristics and when the parameter tested deteriorates rapidly.

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2. Composite- These are individual samples taken and deposited in the same
collection bottle. There are two methods that are most common to collecting
composite samples. Time paced is when samples are collected at set increments
of time. Flow paced samples are taken when a measured volume of water flows
over the sensor of a flow meter. The preferred method of sampling is by flow pacing.
This gives the most representative sample.
3. Grab Composite- Individual samples are grabbed in the field and then composited
in the lab or in the field for analysis. After all the predetermined times of sampling
are done the composite is made with portions of each grab sample according to
the amount of flow at the time of sampling.
4. Discrete Sampling- This method is used when you want to look at the
characteristics of the wastewater flow at certain times of the day, for certain
parameters, such as high or low pH, or for high or low flow events. Samples are
taken in individual bottles at the time of the event and each sample is analyzed.
7.3 SEWAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Sewage characterization is important to ensure the effective and economical sewage

treatment system, since sewage contain organic and inorganic materials in dissolved,
suspended or colloidal form as well as various microorganisms that might be useful or
harmful to human life [4]. Sewage characteristics can be divided into three; physical,
chemical and biological characteristics.
Temperature of sewage are useful to indicate solubility of oxygen, which affects

transfer capacity of aeration equipment in aerobic systems and the rate of biological
activity. Bacteria in sewage function best between 20 - 35°C like humans and other
living organisms. pH is used to indicate how acidic or basic the sewage is. pH is very
important to determine the solubility and biological availability of chemical constituents

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such as nutrients like phosphorus, nitrogen and carbon and heavy metals like lead,
copper, and cadmium.
Sewage is generally soapy and cloudy in appearance depending upon its

concentration, the sewage becomes stale, and the unpleasant smell causing by
microbial activity. The sewage solids can be classified into dissolved solids,
suspended solids and volatile suspended solids. Volatile suspended solids (VSS) is
the better indicator for organic-solids concentrations because bacteria are mostly
organic. The estimation of suspended solids, both organic and inorganic gives a
general picture of load on sedimentation and grit removal system during sewage
treatment.
Nitrogen is a component of all proteins, such as amines, amino acids and urea, and it
can be found in all living systems. Nitrogen is essential to life on Earth, and sewage
treatment needs sufficient nitrogen to perform well [4].
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen required for biochemical
decomposition of biodegradable organic matter under aerobic conditions [4].
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) is the measure of the oxygen required for chemical
oxidation. Heavy metals and compounds in sewage including chromium, copper,
cyanide, are the toxic that can cause harmful effect to the health of community. At the
pilot site, there are tolerable range of heavy metal.

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7.4 PRESERVATION OF WASTEWATER SAMPLES

Table 7.1 shows the preservation procedures for wastewater samples.
Table 7.1 Preservation of Wastewater Samples [10]
PARAMETER CONTAINER PRESERVATION MAXIMUM

HOLDING TIME
BACTERIA TESTS
E. Coli P, G Cool 4 deg C 6 hours
INORGANIC TESTS
BOD P,G Cool 4 deg C 48 hours
COD P,G Cool 4 deg C, 28 days
H2SO4 to pH<2
pH P,G None 28 days
Organic Nitrogen P,G Cool 4 deg C, 28 days
H2SO4 to pH<2
Ammoniacal P,G Cool 4 deg C, 28 days
Nitrogen H2SO4 to pH<2
Nitrate Nitrogen P,G Cool 4 deg C 48 hours
Total Phosphorus P,G Cool 4 deg C, 48 hours
H2SO4 to pH<2
OTHERS
Dissolved Oxygen G None In-Situ
Temperature G None In-Situ
Suspended Solids P,G Cool 4 deg C, 7 days
Oil & Grease G Cool 4 deg C, 28 days

H2SO4 to pH<2

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7.5 SAMPLING AND MONITORING PLAN
Routine variations in the volume and strength characteristics of incoming wastewater

create fluctuations in the quality of treatment plant effluent. Therefore, an effluent grab
sample taken at one specific time throughout the daily flow pattern will not be
representative of system performance over the entire day.
Composite samples of effluent collected, stored, analyzed, tabulated and averaged over
an extended period of time provide the only verifiable indication of treatment plant
performance. Attempting to evaluate a residential treatment system in the field by
analyzing a grab sample taken from a sump or any other containment vessel provides a
compound degree of error and will yield erroneous conclusions about system
performance.
The first step in developing a monitoring plan is to clearly identify the objectives of the
monitoring. The main objective of this study is to gain an understanding of the aquatic
ecosystem and the physical, chemical and biological processes that operate within the
treatment system.
Variability, in time and space, is probably the most significant aspect to be considered in
the design of sampling plans. Variability will determine the number of sites, number of
replicates and the frequency of sample collection. High variability in treatment ecosystem
combined with poor sampling design or too few samples can result in data that is too
variable to reveal an impact, disturbance or trend.
It is important when developing a monitoring plan that the amount and frequency of
sampling is sufficient to provide confidence in the interpretation of results. There are no
strict rules regarding how frequently sampling should occur, but the sampling frequency
will be dictated by the variability of the discharge and the objectives of the plan. During
the planning stages, consider the aims of the study and choose a sampling frequency

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that has the best chance of providing the information required to meet the objectives of
the plan. It is important to consider the frequency carefully. If samples are not taken
frequently enough, the characteristics of the waters or wastewaters might not be
adequately described resulting in a poor understanding of the system and potentially
inaccurate reporting of compliance or non- compliance. Alternatively, overly frequent
sampling may be a waste of time and resources [2].
7.6 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING OF PPROTOTYPES
Figures 7.1 to 7.8 show the installation and commissioning of the prototypes at the IWK
site from the beginning until being commissioned.
Figure 7.1 Aeration Tank A without Biomedia

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Figure 7.2 Aeration Tank B with Biofilter
Figure 7.3 Aeration Tank C with Biomedia

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Figure 7.4 Three Prototypes Without Cover
Figure 7.5 Side View of Three Prototypes

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Figure 7.6 Three Prototypes With Cover
Figure 7.7 Side View Storage Tank for Raw Sewage

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Figure 7.8 Top View Storage Tank for Raw Sewage
7.7 REDESIGNING THE PROTOTYPES
The ultimate goal of prototyping is to enhance performance. The design process involves
multiple loops and circles around the final solution. By employing prototypes the
consultant will test the solution, find problems and make changes, test the new solution,
find new problems and make further changes, and so on, before settling on a final design.
This process of testing, determining issues, fixing the issues, and then retesting multiple
times is repeated until the solution is perfected.
Parallel prototyping where multiple design concepts are embodied and compared
concurrently is used in this study. Parallel prototyping can help provide critical feedback
for concept selection and lead to higher concept diversity (9).

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Once the prototypes are fully installed and commissioned, the process of redesigning or
tweaking or refining will start. Redesigning include changing the position and alignment
of the media/biofilter, introducing, repositioning or abandon baffles and varying aeration
rates.
Redesigning is the process of gradually improving a design. Several of the benefits of

prototyping relate to design concept refinement. Prototyping is used to validate
requirements, reveal critical design concerns reduce errors (5), to identify performance-
enhancing design changes (6), design feature optimization via the sequential testing and
manipulation of parameters (7), and design refinement through simulated use via
individual or multiple testing efforts (8).
Redesigning a prototype is a lot easier and less expensive than reworking a finished
product. The redesigning phase help the consultant learn what features need
improvement so as perfecting the product can be undertaken before final performance
study is undertaken.
Redesigning also allow the consultant to identify unnecessary elements that are best
abandoned. It also allows testing the design’s correctness before it comes onto
production and at the same time discover design errors. Engineering is expensive, and
making changes to a final product is often not as straightforward as teams anticipate. So,
finding and fixing errors during the design process is critical.

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7.8 PROPOSED SAMPLING PROGRAM
Table 7.2 shows the list of parameters for this study.
Table 7.2. List of Parameters for Study
No. Test Parameter

1 Temperature
2 pH
3 BOD5 at 20°C
4 Suspended Solid
5 COD
6 Ammoniacal Nitrogen
7 Nitrate Nitrogen
8 Total Phosphorus
9 Oil and Grease
10 E-Coli
11 Dissolved Oxygen
Figures 7.9 and 7.10 show the sampling points from the elevation and plan views.
Figure 7.9 Sampling Points Elevation

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1
2 4
3
Figure 7.10 Sampling Points Plan
Sampling Point 1 is the Influent. The influent sewage originate from the storage tank that
receives raw sewage from the STP pump sump. Sampling Point 2 is the settled sewage
from the Primary Clarifier before entering the Aeration Tank. Sampling Point 3 is the mixed
liquor from the Aeration Tank. Sampling Point 4 is the treated effluent.
Creating prototypes is an integral part of product design. The main reason for creating
prototypes is to quickly and cost effectively test ideas and see if the new design is likely to
help achieve the larger goals. The testing protocol should push the capability of the
prototype to the maximum limit under peak operating condition. The tests should be as
meaningful as possible to replicate the true operational environment of the released
product.

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The prototype will need to undergo a performance study whereby it need to be simulated
as close as possible to normal domestic use. However it must be subjected to the worst
practical possible hydraulic and organic loadings scenario. The most severe test for the
prototype is during the peak loading periods. If it can produce an effluent meeting the set
standard consistently while running at a peak loading regime then it can surely meet the
set standard running at an average flow regime.
At the same time the operating cost need to be kept to the minimum. This means that the
blower producing the aeration need to be working at minimum performance so long as
the effluent quality standards are met. While efforts to reduce operating cost is important,
the effluent quality standards must not be compromised.
For the prototype to be commercially marketable the production cost need to be kept as
low as practically possible. This means that the prototype’s design will be kept to the bare
minimum so long as it can meet the set effluent standard.
The Terms of Reference for this study stipulate that the effluent BOD and SS comply to
Standard A for 7 consecutive days without fail. The other parameters shall be tested in 7
consecutive days for record and monitoring purpose. JPP has approved the consultant’s
request that the composite sampling procedure be used.
The one-day 6-hourly grab samples are optional and will also be carried out to gauge the
system overall performance.
To meet the above criteria the proposed testing conditions are thus:
i. The duration of the test period should be 7 days continuously after steady-state
conditions have been reached by the prototypes under test. Composite

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samples will be taken every 24 hours. Composite samples for a 24 hour period
will consist of four 6-hourly grab samples.
The samples are:
COMPOSITE SAMPLING
INFLUENT
1 INFLUENT POINT = 4 X 7 days
= 28 GRAB SAMPLES
1 COMPOSITE SAMPLES = 4 GRAB SAMPLES
FOR 7 DAYS TESTING = 7 COMPOSITE SAMPLES
EFFLUENT
3 EFLUENT POINTS (3 TANKS) = 4 TIMES/DAY x 7 DAYS x 3 TANKS
= [4 EFFLUENT x 7] x 3 TANKS
= 84 GRAB SAMPLES
1 COMPOSITE SAMPLE = 4 GRAB SAMPLES/TANK/DAY

FOR 7 DAYS TESTING. = 3 TIMES x 7 COMPOSITE SAMPLES
= 21 COMPOSITE SAMPLES
THEREFORE TOTAL SAMPLES TO BE TESTED FOR 7 CONSECUTIVE

DAYS WITHOUT FAIL ( PARAMETERS BOD & SS )
= INFLUENT + EFFLUENT
= [7 + 21] COMPOSITE SAMPLES
= 28 COMPOSITE SAMPLES

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GRAB SAMPLING
The grab samples over 24 hours 6 hourly are :
4 INF + [ 4 ( POINT 2 + POINT 3 + EFF ) X 3 TANKS ]
= 4 + 36 GRAB SAMPLES
= 40 GRAB SAMPLES
TOTAL SAMPLES TO BE TESTED = 28 + 40 = 68 SAMPLES
NOTE: COMPOSITE/GRAB SAMPLES OVER 24 HOURS ARE

12.00/16.00/24.00/06.00
ii. The prototypes should be tested under conditions of peak/maximum volumetric

and organic loadings. The prototype’s capability should be assessed to
produce an effluent that meet Standard A of the EQA Act following the
maximum loadings. To simulate the peak loadings in domestic actual case use
the prototypes will be loaded at 3 commonly accepted peak periods of 6.00-
8.00, 11.00-13.00 and 19.00-21.00.
iii. Samplings should be carried out in a manner and at a frequency which is

representative of effluent quality. Sampling frequency should take account of
the residence time of the influent in the prototype. A minimum of 20 influent,
intermediate and effluent samples should be collected to permit a
representative statistical analysis of the data (mean, maximum, minimum and
variance ).

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7.9 REFERENCES
1. Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 2003. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and
Reuse. 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY

2. EPA Guidelines. Regulatory Monitoring and Testing Water and Wastewater
Sampling, June 2007.
3. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. American Public
Health Association, 1992.
4. Golconda, Z. (2016). Characteristics of Sewage and Treatment Required.
5. Gordon, V. S. & Bieman, J. M. 1995 Rapid prototyping: lessons learned. IEEE
software 12, 85–95.
6. Viswanathan, V. K. & Linsey, J. S. 2012b Physical models and design thinking: a study
of functionality, novelty and variety of ideas. Journal of Mechanical
Design 134, 091004
7. Anderl, R., Mecke, K. & Klug, L. 2007 Advanced prototyping with parametric
prototypes. In Digital Enterprise Technology, pp. 503–510.
8. Otto, K. & Wood, K. 2001 Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and
New Product Design. Prentice-Hall
9. Dow, S. P., Heddleston, K. & Klemmer, S. R. 2009 The efficacy of prototyping under
time constraints. In ACM Conference on Creativity and Cognition, pp. 165–174.
10. APHA (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 19th
Edition, American Public Health association Inc.

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CHAPTER 8
PERFORMANCE
STUDY

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CHAPTER 8
PERFORMANCE STUDY
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The analytical results of a sample are only as accurate as the quality of the sample taken.
If the technique for collecting samples is poor, then no matter how accurate the laboratory
procedures are, the results will be poor. Strict Standard Operating Procedure on testing
was adhered throughout this performance study period.
8.2 INSTITUTIONS FOR WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT IN MALAYSIA
The National Water Services Commission (SPAN) was set-up to regulate the water
supply services and sewerage services industry through fair, effective, and transparent
implementation of Water Services Industry Act 2006 (Act 655) towards a sustainable,
reliable and affordable water services for all. Amongst the objective of WSIA is to establish
the framework to regulatory intervention and to promote the National Policy Objective for
the water supply end sewerage services industry.
The Sewerage Services Department is responsible for the implementation of STP

projects and act as advisory body to the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology, and Water
pertaining to sewerage issues.
Indah Water Konsortium, a company owned by the Minister of Finance Incorporated, is

Malaysia's national sewerage company which has been entrusted with the task of
developing and maintaining a modern and efficient sewerage system for all Malaysians.
The Department of Environment (DOE) is the regulatory body for wastewater effluent
quality through the Environmental Quality Act 1974 and its regulations such as the
Environmental Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009 and Environmental Quality (Industrial
Effluent) Regulations 2009. The quality of surface water is determined by the Water

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Quality Index and the suitability of surface water for irrigation is based on the designated
classifications in the National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia established by DOE
It is mandatory for wastewater in urban areas and townships to be treated before

discharged into surface waters. The quality of effluent from treatment plants is regulated
by the Environmental Quality Act 1974 and its regulations such as the Environmental
Quality (Sewage) Regulations 2009 and Environmental Quality (Industrial Effluent)
Regulations 2009. [8]
8.3 SAMPLING INTEGRITY
The testing was carried out and supervised fully by Indah Water STP plant supervisor En
Izwande. He carried out the sampling and handed the iced-packed samples to the Testing
Laboratory’s personnel daily at 12.00 noon. The loadings to the 3 ISTs was carried out
fully by him. The consultant was not involved in any of the performance study’s
procedures to avoid any conflict of interest and to safeguard fully the integrity of the
testing.
Figures 8.1 shows the daily typical sampling operations by IWK’s personnel, Figure 8.2
shows the in-situ monitoring by the Testing Laboratory personnel and Figure 8.3 shows
the daily handing over of samples by IWK personnel to the Testing Laboratory personnel.

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Figures 8.1 Sampling by IWK’s Personnel
Figures 8.2 In-Situ Monitoring by Testing Laboratory Personnel

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Figures 8.3 Daily Handing Over Samples
8.4 BIOCHEMICAL TREATMENT PROCESSES
Recent efforts have been made to combine fixed-film reactors with suspended growth
processes to efficiently remove organic materials from wastewater. For example, the
combination of a trickling filter with an activated-sludge process has allowed for the
elimination of shock loads to the more sensitive activated sludge while providing a highly
polished effluent that could not be achieved by a trickling filter alone.
The first step in a wastewater treatment process utilizes primary or mechanical systems
to remove large suspended and floating solids from raw sewage. In the next step, called
secondary or biological wastewater treatment, high concentrations of naturally occurring
bacteria are confined in treatment tankage and combined with protozoa and other
microbes to form activated sludge. The activated sludge bacteria break down organic

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molecules into inert substances creating effluent water suitable for discharge to rivers,
lakes or streams.
Sewage may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive
release to the environment can lead to nutrient pollution, which can manifest itself in
eutrophication. This process can lead to algal blooms, a rapid growth, and later decay, in
the population of algae. In addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species
produce toxins that contaminate drinking water supplies.
Ammonia nitrogen, in the form of free ammonia (NH3) is toxic to fish. Ammonia nitrogen,
when converted to nitrite and further to nitrate in a water body, in the process of
nitrification, is associated with the consumption of dissolved oxygen. Nitrite and nitrate
may also have public health significance if concentrations are high in drinking water,
because of a disease called metahemoglobinemia [5]
Nitrogen is removed through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia to nitrate
(nitrification), followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen
gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water.
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of
bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2−) is most often facilitated by
bacteria such as Nitrosomonas spp. ("nitroso" referring to the formation of a nitroso
functional group). Nitrite oxidation to nitrate (NO3−), though traditionally believed to be
facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro referring the formation of a nitro functional group), is
now known to be facilitated in the environment predominantly by Nitrospira spp.
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological

communities to form. "Anoxic conditions" refers to a situation where oxygen is absent but

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nitrate is present. Denitrification is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. The activated

sludge process, sand filters, waste stabilization ponds, constructed wetlands and other
processes can all be used to reduce nitrogen. Since denitrification is the reduction of
nitrate to nitrogen (molecular nitrogen) gas, an electron donor is needed. This can be,
depending on the wastewater, organic matter (from the sewage itself), sulfide, or an
added donor like methanol. The sludge in the anoxic tanks (denitrification tanks) must be
mixed well (mixture of recirculated mixed liquor, return activated sludge, and raw influent)
e.g. by using submersible mixers in order to achieve the desired denitrification[6].
Phosphorus removal is important as phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in

many fresh water systems. Therefore, an excess of phosphorus can lead to
eutrophication. Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced
biological phosphorus removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate-
accumulating organisms (PAOs), are selectively enriched and accumulate large
quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to 20 percent of their mass)[7]
8.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF PARAMETERS
The overall volume of solids contains the solids which are suspended and dissolved. This
can be detected by evaporating the water sample and measuring the remaining residual
residue. The suspended solids hold much of the organic matter, and this further increases
the degree of water contamination.
The COD provides calculation of the oxygen required for chemical oxidation. It does not
differentiate between oxidizable biological material and non oxidizable material. However,
the COD-to-BOD ratio does not substantially shift for specific waste and so this measure
may be used easily to define treatment unit output efficiencies.

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The sewage BOD is the amount of oxygen needed under aerobic conditions for the
biochemical decomposition of biodegradable organic matter. The oxygen absorbed
during the cycle is related to the amount of organic matter which is decomposable.
Nitrates presence indicates fully oxidized and the most stable form of nitrogenous organic
matter in sewage there by indicating the well oxidized and treated sewage increase in
proportion of nitrates during the process of sewage treatment serves as guide for
measuring the progress achieved in sewage treatment.
Phosphate joins the domestic water from animal waste, discharged from kitchen grinders
and concentrated inorganic phosphate compounds used in various household
detergents, from human body waste.
Bacteria also do not readily break down fatty organic materials from vegetables and
petroleum, which can cause contamination in receiving ecosystems. When vast amounts
of oils and greases are discharged from municipal structures to collect waters, they raise
BOD, so they can rise to the surface so harden, creating undesirable conditions for
aesthetics. They can also catch garbage, plants and other products, creating foul odors,
attracting mosquitoes and flies and other vectors of disease. Too much oil and grease in
some situations triggers septic conditions in wetlands and lakes by stopping oxygen from
entering the surface from the atmosphere.
"Biodegradability index" (B.I.). It is generally considered the cut-off point between

biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste [11]. Once an average B.I. has been
established for the plant wastewater stream, COD test can be used to predict BOD5. The
BOD5-to-COD ratio is typically 0.5:1 for raw domestic wastewater, and may drop to be as
low as 0.1: 1 for a well-stabilized secondary effluent[4].

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Table 8.1 list the acceptable conditions of sewage discharge of Standards A and B of the
Environmental Quality ( Sewage ) Regulations.
Table 8.1 Acceptable Conditions of Sewage Discharge of Standards A and B

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8.6 SUBMERGED AERATED BIOFLTER (SAB) PRINCIPLE
The SAB is an upflow bioreactor which employs a high efficiency neutral buoyancy plastic
media. The SAB consists of a containment vessel made in GRP with internal dividing
walls, internal air and water distribution systems, charge of plastic media and internal
The media provides a large surface area on which the bacteria attach themselves to grow
and live. Wastewater is introduced into the base of the SAB unit into the under decking
plenum space. Air is introduced into the SAB through a separate diffuser system also
located near the base of the unit. Dual alternating air blowers supply oxygen to the SAB
environment on a continuous basis. The air and water distribution system design is such
that it creates a very effective mixing pattern within the SAB. This pattern allows for rapid
distribution of the wastewater throughout the packed media bed. This produces a
homogeneous solution in full contact with the entire microbial population for the period of
time that the wastewater is in the reactor.
The uniform mixing pattern is of key importance in providing a stable environment which
has the ability to smooth out fluctuations that may occur in the influent concentrations.
The SAB is constructed in a very similar way to the Biological Activated Filter plants
except that they have a secondary settling tank to clarify the solids that slough from the
filter rather than using back-washing. The high media voidage eliminates the need for
backwashing, thus reducing operating costs and ensures minimal disruption of the
biological process.
Because of the high media porosity, SAB plants are characterised by high retention times
making them ideally suited to both BOD5 removal and nitrification of wastewater. The
neutral buoyancy of the media also simplifies reactor construction and maximises active
biological volume.

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SAB main features are :

• Established/robust fixed film technology • Resilience to shock & toxic loads
• Resilience to shock & toxic loads • Compact footprint
• Low environmental impact • Simple to operate
• Minimal manpower & energy requirements
• Low maintenance & low whole life costs
• Suitable for below ground, partially buried or above ground installation
8.7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The fabrication of the 3 prototypes took about 2 weeks from 27 September – 12 October
2021. The 3 prototypes were installed on-site on 27 October 2021. The on-site
infrastructure and mechanical & electrical preparation were done from 27 October until 5
November 2021. The 3 prototypes were tested from 6 November 2021 until 9 July 2022.
The start-up process for all 3 tanks took 4 weeks. All 3 tanks were seeded with 0.5 m3
active sludge ( MLSS 3000kg/l) from the aeration tank of IWK Extended Aeration Sewage
Treatment Plant on 18 April 2022. The mixed liquor was transferred into the aeration tanks
of the 3 prototypes IST to jumpstart the biological system. This wet seeding process was
undertaken since the activated sludge was in good condition. Figure 8.2 shows the
steady-state test results.
The prototypes reached steady-state by the end of the second week after seeding.
Excellent bacterial masses were noticeable in the aeration tanks of Tank B and C. Steady
state was considered achieved once the BOD/SS removal efficiencies were both above
95 percent. Steady state study test results were taken on 11 and 15 May 2022. Figure
8.2 shows the steady-state test results. It can be seen that the incoming sewage strength
is very strong.

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Table 8.2 Steady-State Study Test Results

11 MAY 2022 15 MAY 2022
PARAMETERS/ TANK A TANK B TANK C TANK A TANK B TANK C
% REMOVALS (inf/eff) (inf/eff) (inf/eff) (inf/eff) (inf/eff) (inf/eff)
mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
BOD 401/16 401/13 401/10 465/17 465/11 465/9
% BOD REMOVAL 96.0 % 96.7 % 97.5 % 96.3 % 97.6 % 98.0 %
SS 643/25 643/15 643/9 587/23 587/15 587/11
% SS REMOVAL 96.1 % 97.7 % 98.6 % 96.1 5 97.4 % 98.1 %
Performance appraisal was carried out from 17-24 May 2022 by comparing the
concentrations of pollutants at the inlet and outlet of the treatment unit. The intermediate
chambers of the Primary Clarifier, Aeration Tank and Secondary Clarifier Tank were also
analysed. The sampling points are shown in Figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4 Sampling Points

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8.7.1 SEVEN DAYS PERFORMANCE STUDY

Figure 8.5 shows the picture of the IST Tank C during the performance study. Figure 8.6
shows the aeration tank of Tank B while Figure 8.7 shows the aeration tank of Tank C.
Figures 8.8 – 8.14 show the daily pictures of the composite samples.
It can be seen that the primary clarifier compartment is black in colour and is anaerobic.
A thick layer of scum has formed in the primary clarifier tank. The middle compartment is
the aeration tank and the brownish colour signified the good aerobic condition. The final
compartment is the secondary clarifier tank where the content is clear in colour.
The overall results for Tanks A, B and C of the study are presented in Tables 8.3 – 8.5.
The results are then presented in graphical forms in Figures 8.15 – 8.26. Table 8.6 show
the influent and effluent averages for seven days study. Table 8.7 show percentages of
removal averages for seven days study
Figure 8.5 Picture of IST Tank C

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Figure 8.6 Picture of Aeration Tank B
Figure 8.7 Picture of Aeration Tank C

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Table 8.3 Seven Days Performance Study for Tank A

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Table 8.4 Seven Days Performance Study for Tank B

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Table 8.5 Seven Days Performance Study for Tank C

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Figure 8.8 Composite Samples Day 1

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Table 8.6 Influent and Effluent Averages for Seven Days Study
PARAMETERS AVERAGE AVERAGE EFFLUENT

(mg/l) INFLUENT TANK A TANK B TANK C
Temp (deg C) 32.2 32.1 32.4 32.6
pH 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.0
DO 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.3
BOD 831.6 16.9 12.3 8.3
COD 1789.0 67.2 51.0 49.7
SS 1677.1 21.4 14.4 8.4
Ammoniacal N 66.5 17.2 14.2 9.6
T Phosphorus 68.1 4.8 5.6 3.8
Oil & Grease 93.5 ND ND ND
E-Coli 159.1 60.8 35.0 21.6
(MPN/100ml)

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Table 8.7 Average Removal Efficiencies for Seven Days Study
PARAMETERS AVERAGE REMOVAL EFFICIENCIES

(%)
TANK A TANK B TANK C
BOD5 96.1 96.9 98.1
COD 92.7 94.4 95.1
SS 97.4 98.2 99.0
Ammoniacal N 56.5 61.3 68.5
T Phosphorus 70.1 75.6 81.9
Oil & Grease 100 100 100
E-Coli 55.0 67.2 80.9
The Terms of Reference for this study stipulate that the effluent BOD (20mg/l) and SS
(50mg/l) comply to Standard A for 7 consecutive days without fail. The other parameters
shall be tested in 7 consecutive days for record and monitoring purpose.
Referring to Table 8.6 it can be concluded that only IST Tanks B and C prototypes
complied to the above TOR. However only Tank C complied fully to the Standard A of
EQA. From the percentages of removal averages of Table 8.6 it can be concluded that
Tank C performed the best with Tank B coming second best. Tank A did not comply to
the BOD/SS TOR as expected since it was just a control tank. It does not has a media
aeration tank similar to Tanks A and B and there was no return sludge into the aeration
tank.
The concentration of pollutants in domestic wastewater treated in household treatment

plants is characterised by high variability. The average influent BOD of 831.6 mg/l is much
than the design BOD of 250 mg/l. Similarly the average influent SS concentration of
1677.1 mg/l is also much higher than the design value of 300 mg/l. This is however

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considered to be the much higher than the average values for Malaysian domestic
wastewater.
These much higher concentrations of most parameters ( BOD, COD, SS, Ammoniacal
Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus and Oil & Grease ) detected in the influent could be due to
the fact that the IWK Kepala Batas Sewage Treatment Plant received very high Oil and
Grease loadings from a big fast food outlet, a bakery , a restaurant, a hotel (Hotel Seri
Malaysia ) and a very big nasi kandar caterer.
Figure 8.15 Temperature deg C Vs Time
As is true of any biological system, the activity and efficiency of the biomass in an
activated sludge facility is dependant to a fairly large extent on the temperature of the
wastewater. It has been demonstrated that each 10 deg C drop in water temperature in
the aeration tank reduces biomass activity by about 50%. This means that as the water
temperature drops, organism growth rate slows down. BOD removal will occur more

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slowly, and the system will require a longer recovery after upset. Biological activity
increases to a maximum at a temperature of about 37.7 deg C. Increased temperature
beyond that point would be expected to result in a sudden die-off of the biomass [14].
The average influent temperature is 32.2. The temperatures of Tanks A, B and C with
averages 32.1, 32.4 and 32.6 deg C respectively are within this favourable range. Figure
8.15 depicts the temperature range for the seven days study of all the tanks.
Figure 8.16 pH Vs Time
Biological activity in an activated sludge plant is best in a pH range of about 6.5 to 8.5.
Growth may occur outside of that range, but at a reduced rate, and may result in the
filamentous bacteria, especially at low pH values. Oxygen uptake is thought to be
optimum between pH 7.0 and 7.4. Generally pH values below 7 are more detrimental than
those above 7 [14].

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The average influent pH is 6.7. The pH of all the Tanks A, B and C with averages 6.7, 7.1
and 7.0 respectively are within this favourable range. Figure 8.16 depicts the pH range
for the seven days study of all the tanks
Figure 8.17 Dissolved Oxygen Vs Time
Aeration of the contents of the activated sludge reactor accomplishes two important
requirements. Mixing must occur in order to provide contact between the biomass and
the incoming pollutants; assuring that the entire contents of the aeration tank are kept in
suspension. Aeration must also provide oxygen to the huge population of aerobic and
facultative bacteria and other organisms in the mixed liquor. Operators typically control
the aeration rate to assure a concentration of 2-3 mg/l of dissolved oxygen (D.O.) at the
discharge end of the aeration tank and 1-2 mg/l in the effluent. Higher D.O. concentrations
waste power, while low D.O. (<1 mg/L) may encourage the growth of filamentous bacteria
[4].

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The average influent DO concentration is 1.2 mg/l. The DO of Tanks A, B and C effluent
with averages 1.4, 1.4 and 1.3 mg/l as shown in Table 8.5 are sufficient for optimum
performance while minimising aeration costs. Figure 8.17 depicts the DO range for the
seven days study of all the tanks.
It must be noted that the air blowers are operated with one-hour ON and one-hour OFF.
This procedure was adopted to minimise electricity cost and at the same time to maintain
optimum attached bacterial mass in Tanks B and C.

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STD A 20mg/l
Figure 8.18 BOD5 Vs Time

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STD A 120mg/l
120
Figure 8.19 COD Vs Time

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It is helpful to understand a little about the bacterial to remove pollutants. The inside of
the cell contains reproductive information and food storage mechanisms. Surrounding the
cell is a membrane which keeps the organism together, and through which dissolved food
may pass. The cell wall is coated with a slime layer which is used to trap particles. Soluble
organic pollutants pass through the cell membrane (absorption) and are used as a direct
food source. Particulate organics cannot pass through the membrane, but stick to the
slime layer (adsorption). The organism begins to produce enzymes which are secreted
through the membrane and solubilize the particulate, allowing it to pass through the
membrane where it too is used as food. In this way the organism is able to remove both
soluble and particulate organics from the wastewater. Like other life forms, the organism
needs nitrogen and phosphorus, among other minor nutrients, in order to metabolize food
and build new cells.
The treatment process relies on the cultivation of a population of millions of

microorganisms of many different types, mostly aerobic and facultative heterotrophic
bacteria attached and suspended in the aeration tank. This attached and suspended
biomass is supplied with oxygen and the suspension kept mixed by bubbling air through
it. These are naturally occurring organisms; there is no need to supply them from an
external source. As the organisms feed on the organic pollutants in the wastewater, the
pollutants are converted to more organisms (biomass) and some by products.
Since this is a living and growing process, it will continue to build biomass to the point of
having too much. The amount of biomass in the process is controlled by the agitation of
the diffused air from the blower.
The average influent BOD5/COD concentration are 831.6/1789.0 mg/l. The effluents
BOD5/COD of all the Tanks A, B and C with averages 16.9/67.2, 12.3/51.0 and 8.3/49.7
mg/l respectively fully comply to Standard A of EQA. The average BOD/COD removal

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percentages as shown in Table 8.6 of all the Tanks A, B and C are 96.1/92.7, 96.9/94.4
and 98.1/95.1 respectively. Figures 8.18 and 8.19 depict the BOD and COD ranges for
the seven days study of all the tanks.
The results of this study confirmed the previous findings of other authors [11,12]. Greater
reduction of organic substances in the hybrid bioreactor compared to the reactor using
conventional activated sludge was reported by Krzanowski and Wałęga [11]. They
achieved BOD5 removal of between 90% and 99.7%, while in a comparable AS
bioreactor BOD5 reduction was only 52.6%.

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STD A 50mg/l
Figure 8.20 SS Vs Time

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Primary clarifiers remove a large part of the solids and BOD load which would otherwise
have to be treated in the secondary process, allowing smaller secondary process design
and improved efficiency. Floatable material such as oil and grease is skimmed from the
surface of the clarifier. Primary clarifier effluent will contain the particulates which are not
readily settleable as well as all of the dissolved solids in the influent wastewater. This flow
then passes on to the secondary portion of the treatment process [14].
Although secondary sludge is usually more stable than primary sludge, it is important to
keep the sludge blanket level under control. Secondary sludge is typically lighter than
primary sludge and may be carried out of the clarifier if the sludge blanket level gets too
high. The organisms must combine into properly sized particles that have sufficient
density to allow them to sink to the floor of the secondary clarifier. The biomass must
compact well enough that the sludge blanket does not occupy an excessive amount of
space in the clarifier or solids may be lost in the effluent.
The average influent SS concentration is 1677.1 mg/l. The SS Tanks A, B and C average
effluents as shown in Table 8.5 are 21.4, 14.4 and 8.4 mg/l respectively fully comply to
Standard A of EQA. The removal percentages as shown in Table 8.6 of Tanks A, B and
C are 97.4, 98.2 and 99.0% respectively. Figure 8.20 depicts the SS range for the seven
days study of all the tanks.
The efficiency of the clarifier in removing solids is also related to the physical aspects of
the clarifier. Generally, as surface area increases the more efficient the clarifier. Depth
must be adequate to prevent scouring solids from the sludge blanket into the effluent. The
size of the clarifier as it relates to the quantity of flow through it (hydraulic loading), the
size of the clarifier as it relates to the quantity of solids (solids loading), the shape of the
clarifier, influent/effluent design, the solids removal mechanism, and operation and
maintenance of the clarifier all affect efficiency. Flow characteristics in the clarifier are a

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big factor in determining its ability to settle solids. The flow must be dispersed as evenly
as possible throughout the clarifier so that solids are not carried out by areas of high flow
velocity. Short circuiting in clarifiers may be defined as a situation in which the flow in part
of the clarifier is higher than in the rest of the clarifier [14]. The excellent SS removal
percentages signify that the prototypes clarifiers are performing well.
SVI is used by operators to determine and compare mixed liquor settleability. It

mathematically relates settled sludge volume in the mililiter occupied by one gram of
activated sludge which has settled for 30 minutes
The SVI for Tanks A, B and C are 250, 330 and 340 mL/gram respectively. These high
values of SVI is due to the fact that that there is not much suspended growth in all the 3
tanks. A good quality sludge has an SVI in the range 50-150 mL/gram. SVI above 250
mL/gram means the sludge is very slow to settle and does not compact well. The sludge
is normally light and fluffy. The main reason for this high SVI values is due to the fact that
there is no return sludge to the aeration tank resulting in very low MLSS concentrations.

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STD A 10mg/l
Figure 8.21 Ammoniacal Nitrogen Vs Time
Nitrification is also a biological process, but involves autotrophic bacteria. These bacteria
are able to utilize inorganic compounds (like ammonia) as an energy source, using carbon
dioxide (or bicarbonate) as a carbon source to build cells. Two types of autotrophic
bacteria are involved in the nitrification process: Nitrosomonas oxidize ammonia
(released by heterotrophic bacteria) to nitrite, and then Nitrobacter oxidize nitrite to nitrate.
NH3 NO2 NO3

Denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to nitrite, and then to nitrogen gas by heterotrophic
(BOD consuming) bacteria.
NO3 NO2 N2

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As indicated by the equation above, heterotrophic bacteria are able to use oxygen from
nitrate and nitrite, releasing nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas released during denitrification
sometimes presents an operational problem in plants that are nitrifying. As mixed liquor
enters the secondary clarifier, the solids settle to the bottom. If the solids remain in the
clarifier too long the D.O. may begin to drop, creating an anoxic condition. Nitrate
becomes denitrified, releasing nitrogen gas in the form of very small bubbles which rise
to the surface of the clarifier, bringing some of the settled biomass with it. This may result
in globs of biomass floating on the surface. Figure 8.22 shows nitrogen gas bubbles of
Tank C.
The average influent Ammoniacal Nitrogen concentration is 66.5 mg/l. Tanks A, B and C
average Ammoniacal Nitrogen effluents’ concentration as shown in Table 8.5 are 17.2,
14.2 and 9.6 mg/l respectively. Tanks A and B effluents’ Ammoniacal Nitrogen do not
comply to Standard A of EQA where the concentration is 10.0 mg/l for an enclosed water
body. Only Tank C average Ammoniacal Nitrogen effluent complied. However Tank’s C
daily composite Ammoniacal Nitrogen do not comply as there are 3 days when the levels
are above 10 mg/l. The removal percentages as shown in Table 8.6 of Tanks A, B and
C are 56.5, 61.3 and 68.5 % respectively. Figure 8.21 depicts the Ammoniacal Nitrogen
range for the seven days study of all the tanks. The Ammoniacal Nitrogen removals prove
that some nitrification took place. The miniscule concentration of nitrates detected in all
the tank’s effluents signify that denitrification also did occur.
The above results are in agreement to a study done by Bassim E. Abbassi and Raihan
Abuharb. Significant ammoniacal nitrogen removal of 59% was observed in the attached
growth system (corrugated plastic media with a specific area of 100 m2/m3 filled to 2/3 of
the tank working capacity) at 2.6 d HRT [15].

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Figure 8.22 Picture of Nitrogen Gas Bubbles of Tank C

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STD A 5mg/l
Figure 8.23 Total Phosphorus Vs Time

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Phosphorus is regulated in wastewater discharged to surface water due to its properties

as a fertilizer. Like nitrogen, phosphorus is taken up by living organisms. It is one of the
essential nutrients needed to build cells and sustain life. Plants do not grow where there
is not an adequate supply of P. This is true in agriculture where P is added to soil to
encourage the growth of crops, but is also true in aquatic systems where limiting plant
growth is desired. There are two methods of removing phosphorus from wastewater:
biological removal and chemical removal. Biological phosphorus removal can be
achieved by cycling the wastewater in anaerobic and aerobic conditions, which can build
up a population of microorganisms that are capable of storing phosphorus intracellularly
as polyphosphate. If these specific microorganisms exist in sufficient numbers, then the
phosphorus will be removed along with the waste sludge [13].
The average influent Total Phosphorus concentration is 68.1 mg/l. Tanks A, B and C Total
Phosphorus effluents’ concentration as shown in Table 8.5 are 4.8, 5.6 and 3.8 mg/l
respectively. Tanks A and B effluents’ Total Phosphorus do not comply to Standard A of
EQA where the concentration is 5.0 mg/l for an enclosed water body. Only Tank C Total
Phosphorus effluent complied. The removal percentages as shown in Table 8.6 of Tanks
A, B and C are 70.1, 75.6 and 81.9 % respectively. Figure 8.23 depicts the Total
Phosphorus range for the seven days study of all the tanks. The Total Phosphorus
removals prove that some removal took place.
The above results are in compliance with the “poor” performance for phosphorus removal
data in Table 2.6 Fixed Film/Hybrid Biological Processes. However the ISTs phosphorus
removal could be better had the influent sewage strength being normal.
The study Total Phosphorus removal is better than a conventional trickling filter and
activated sludge treatment plants. A facility with a primary clarifier followed by a trickling
filter may remove 20 - 30% of the total influent Total Phosphorus. A facility with a primary

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clarifier followed by activated sludge may remove 30 - 50% of the total influent Total
Phosphorus [14]
STD A 5mg/l
Figure 8.24 Oil & Grease Vs Time

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Figure 8.25 Picture of Primary Clarifier of Tank C
The average influent Oil & Grease concentration is 93.5 mg/l. Oil & Grease effluents’
concentration as shown in Table 8.5 are all non-detectable. Tanks A and B effluents’ Oil
and Grease all complied to Standard A of EQA where the concentration is Oil and Grease
is 5mg/l. The Oil and Grease range for the seven day study of all the tanks are shown in
Figure 8.24. All tanks removed almost all the Oil and Grease. Figure 8.24 depicts the Oil
and Grease range for the seven days study of all the tanks.
Figure 8.25 shows the primary clarifier compartment of Tank C. It can be clearly seen that
there was a lot of scum accumulation. This scum accumulation just took about one month.
In a normal household septic tank it would have taken several months for this much scum
to be accumulated. The primary clarifier compartment trapped almost all of the incoming
Oil and Grease.

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Figure 8.26 E Coli Vs Time
The average influent E Coli concentration is 159.1 MPN/100ml. Tanks A, B and C E Coli
effluents’ concentration as shown in Table 8.5 are 60.8, 35.0 and 21.6 MPN/100ml
respectively. Tanks A, B and C E Coli average removal percentages as shown in Table
8.6 are 55.0,m 67.2 and 80.9 respectively. Figure 8.26 depicts the E Coli range for the
seven days study of all the tanks.
If the need arises an extra facility can be incorporated to remove pathogens. Chlorine can
be fed into the effluent to kill pathogenic bacteria, and to reduce odour. Done properly,
chlorination will kill more than 99 percent of the harmful bacteria in an effluent.

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8.7.2 TWENTY FOUR HOURS PERFORMANCE STUDY
The twenty four hours performance study was undertaken from 12.00 on 19 May 2022 till
06.00 on 20 May 2022.
Table 8.8 – 8.10 show the twenty four-hours performance study results for Tank A, B and
C respectively. Figure 8.27 shows grab samples for influent and Tank B. Figures 28 –
37 show the graphical representations of all the parameters during the 24-hour study
period.
The Terms of Reference for this study stipulate that the effluent BOD (20mg/l) and SS
(50mg/l) comply to Standard A for 7 consecutive days without fail. The other parameters
shall be tested in 7 consecutive days for record and monitoring purpose.
Referring to Tables 8.8 - 8.10 it can be concluded that all the 3 IST tank prototypes
complied to the above TOR. However only Tank C complied fully to the Standard A of
EQA as shown in Table 8.1. Tables 8.11 and 8.12 summarises and compare the
performance for seven-days and twenty four-hours studies. From the performance study
comparison 2 of Table 8.11. it can be concluded that Tank C performed the best with
Tank B coming second best.
The twenty four hours performance study’s results are in compliance to the seven -day
performance study’s results. It must be noted that the primary clarifiers of all 3 tanks
remove a significant amount of organic, solids, ammoniacal nitrogen, total phosphorus,
oil and grease and E Coli.

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Table 8.8 Twenty Four Hours Performance Study for Tank A
TIME 12.00 18.00 24.00 06.00

PARAMETER A1 A2 A3 A4
S
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(mg/l)
Temp 30.9 31. 31. 32. 31. 33. 32. 32. 31. 32. 32. 31. 32. 28. 30. 31.
4 0 2 1 3 6 3 5 4 2 4 5 6 7 0
pH 6.6 6.8 6.9 6.7 6.5 7.2 7.5 7.2 6.6 6.6 7.2 7.2 6.6 7.2 7.2 6.9
DO 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.5 1.4 2.6 2.5 2.4
BOD5 436 55 12 17 394 33 14 13 372 22 17 16 271 17 15 14
COD 1085 209 52 76 846 147 61 58 856 109 77 74 611 77 65 50
SS 620 235 37 32 480 32 33 22 470 72 84 39 450 21 34 29
Amm N 36.1 25. 16. 15. 59. 17. 15. 16. 34. 21. 19. 17. 33. 18. 18. 19.
1 0 5 4 2 2 6 4 6 0 9 1 9 4 1
Nitrate N ND ND ND ND ND ND 0.1 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Phos 11.3 10. 3.8 2.9 19. 5.1 4.7 6.4 7.3 4.2 4.7 3.3 3.8 1.5 3.3 3.3
9 3
O&G 53.0 14. ND ND 50. 4.6 ND ND 45. ND ND ND 17. ND ND ND

4 4 4 8
E-Coli 170 350 49 130 32 350 79 49 140 110 140 350 350 110 27 33

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Table 8.9 Twenty Four Hours Performance Study for Tank B
TIME 12.00 18.00 24.00 06.00

PARAMETER B1 B2 B3 B4
S
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
(mg/l)
30.9 32. 32. 32. 31. 34. 32. 33. 31. 31. 31. 31. 32. 31. 31. 31.
Temp
4 4 5 1 0 6 1 5 0 2 5 5 3 1 2
pH 6.6 6.8 7.3 7.3 6.5 6.9 7.2 6.9 6.6 7.0 7.4 7.2 6.6 7.3 7.2 6.6
DO 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.4 2.6 2.5 2.6
BOD5 436 55 33 11 394 27 32 7 372 236 35 16 271 20 17 16
COD 1085 255 129 31 846 147 157 42 856 421 183 50 611 90 65 59
SS 620 276 91 9 480 130 120 10 470 400 173 24 450 55 77 22
36.1 16. 14. 11. 59. 17. 15. 7.5 34.4 19. 18. 15. 33. 20. 18. 12.
Amm N
7 1 8 4 8 2 9 7 3 1 8 6 3
Nitrate N ND ND ND 2.8 ND ND ND 3.6 ND ND ND 1.3 ND ND 0.4 2.8

6 8 4 5 2
Phos 11.3 17. 9.1 6.4 19. 7.8 6.2 1.5 7.3 19. 7.8 1.5 3.8 5.5 1.5 3.3
5 3 7
O&G 53.0 12. 4.6 ND 50. 5.8 6.2 ND 45. 12. 5.8 ND 17. ND ND ND
4 4 4 0 8
E-Coli 170 350 79 2 32 140 170 1.8 140 10 130 49 350 46 21 2

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Table 8.10 Twenty Four Hours Performance Study for Tank C
TIME 12.00 18.00 24.00 06.00

PARAMETER
C1 C2 C3 C4
S
(mg/l) 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Temp 30.9 32. 27. 32. 31. 33. 32. 32. 31. 31. 31. 31. 32. 31. 30. 30.
2 9 0 1 4 9 5 5 3 5 3 5 4 6 6
pH 6.6 7.5 7.3 7.3 6.5 6.7 6.8 6.6 6.6 7.3 7.2 7.2 6.6 7.1 7.2 6.5
DO 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.4 2.5 2.4 2.4
BOD5 436 57 11 8 394 20 30 16 372 21 24 15 271 17 18 5
COD 1085 298 40 37 846 105 136 78 856 118 124 65 611 93 108 37
SS 620 248 29 6 480 44 77 7 470 57 87 4 450 60 89 7
36.1 14.3 4.8 5.7 59.4 21.6 19.0 17.9 34.4 16.3 10.9 10.4 33.1 13. 6.1 10.
Amm N
9 8
Nitrate N ND ND 1.0 ND ND ND 1.0 0.8 ND ND ND ND ND ND 1.2 ND

9 9 1 2
Phos 11.3 10. 4.2 2.4 19. 4.2 4.2 3.8 7.3 3.3 2.9 6.4 3.8 25. 6.0 4.2
4 3 5
O&G 53.0 7.2 ND ND 50. ND 3.6 ND 45. ND ND ND 17. ND ND ND

4 4 8
E-Coli 170 40 49 1.8 32 49 110 1.8 140 110 220 27 350 47 130 39

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Figure 8.27 Grab Samples for Influent and Tank B

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Table 8.11 Performance Study Comparison 1
TWENTY FOUR HOURS STUDY

Temperature 31.5 31.7 32.1 31.6
pH 6.6 7 7 6.9
DO 1.8 2.1 2.2 2.1
BOD 368.3 15 12.5 11
COD 849.5 64.5 45.5 54.3
SS 505 30.5 16.3 6
Ammoniacal N 40.75 17.3 11.7 11.2
T Phosphorus 10.4 4.0 3.2 4.2
E-Coli
(MPN/100ml) 173 140.5 13.7 17.4
SEVEN DAYS STUDY

Temp (deg C) 32.2 32.1 32.4 32.6
pH 6.7 7.1 7.2 7.0
DO 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.3
BOD 831.6 16.9 12.3 8.3
COD 1789.0 67.2 51.0 49.7
SS 1677.1 21.4 14.4 8.4
Ammoniacal N 66.5 17.2 14.2 9.6
T Phosphorus 68.1 4.8 5.6 3.8
E-Coli 159.1 60.8 35.0 21.6
(MPN/100ml)

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Table 8.12 Performance Study Comparison 2
TWENTY FOUR HOURS STUDY

(%)
S1 - S2 S1 – S4 S1 - S2 S1 – S4 S1 - S2 S1 – S4
BOD5 87.4 91.7 77.4 96.4 92.5 97.0
COD 80.7 84.5 73.8 94.2 82.8 93.9
SS 62.1 83.9 57.8 96.6 81.3 97.7
Ammoniacal N 30.5 45.4 50.8 68.3 58.7 69.2
T Phosphorus 3.5 45.0 0 57.1 47.0 57.0
Oil & Grease 0 68.6 84.7 100 96.6 100
E Coli 45.0 44.5 89.8 89.4 32.8 86.8
(MPN/100ml)
SEVEN DAYS STUDY

(%)
BOD5 96.1 96.9 98.1
COD 92.7 94.4 95.1
SS 97.4 98.2 99.0
T Phosphorus 70.1 75.6 81.9
Oil & Grease 100 100 100
E-Coli 55.0 67.2 80.9

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Figure 8.28 Temperature degC Vs Time

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Figure 8.29 pH Vs Time

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Figure 8.30 Dissolved Oxygen Vs Time

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STD A 20mg/l
Figure 8.31 BOD5 Vs Time

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STD A 120mg/l
Figure 8.32 COD Vs Time

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STD A 50mg/l
Figure 8.33 SS Vs Time

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STD A 10mg/l
Figure 8.34 Ammoniacal Nitrogen Vs Time

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STD A 5mg/l
STD A 5mg/l
STD A 5mg/l
Figure 8.35 Total Phosphorus Vs Time

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STD A 5mg/l
STD A 5mg/l
STD A 5mg/l
Figure 8.36 Oil & Grease Vs Time

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Figure 8.37 E Coli Vs Time

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The ISTs were also tested in septic tank mode with all the blowers turn OFF. The ISTs
effluents were tested one week after the blowers were turned OFF. The effluents samples
were taken on 27 June 2022. Table 8.13 summarises the effluents’ results for the septic
tank mode.
Table 8.13 Performance Study Septic Tank Mode
PARAMETERS TANK A TANK B TANK C

(mg/l)
pH 6.7 6.3 6.2
DO 3.2 0.5 0.5
BOD 67 114 74
COD 164 351 173
SS 19 150 82
T Phosphorus 3.8 2.1 ND
Oil & Grease 7.6 16.4 8.2
E-Coli (MPN/100ml) 79 46 350
It can be seen from Table 8.12 that generally all 3 ISTs effluents do not comply to
Standard A of the EQA. However some parameters do comply to Standard B. For Tank
A the COD, SS, Ammoniacal N, Total Phosphorus and Oil & Grease complied to Standard
B. For Tank B only Ammoniacal N and Total Phosphorus complied to Standard B. For
Tank C the COD, SS, Ammoniacal N, Total Phosphorus and Oil & Grease complied to
Standard B.
This non-compliance was expected since the prototypes were not designed to function
without aeration. Another reason for this non-compliance was the exceptionally high
strength influent sewage. It is expected that the prototypes should at least comply to
Standard B of EQA for normal strength sewage.

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8.8 OPERATIONAL COST
Throughout the performance study period only one blower was used for each of the 3
prototypes. The blowers were operated on a one-hour ON and one-hour OFF mode. This
mode is the best since it reduces the operating cost by 50 % but at the same time promote
enough dissolved oxygen for optimum performance.
The air blower has a power rating of 0.50 kW. Assume 12 hour operation.
Electricity consumption = 0.50 kW x 12 hour

= 6.0 kWh per day
Electricity tariff = RM 0.218 per kWh
= RM 39.24 per month

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8.9 RECOMMENDATIONS
The slightly higher average effluent ammoniacal nitrogen concentrations in Tank A and B
could be due to the low dissolved oxygen levels (1.2- 2.6 mg/l ) in the aeration tanks. It is
also be due to the very high average ammoniacal nitrogen level of 66.5 mg/l in the influent.
The effect of dissolved oxygen concentration on the rate of nitrification has been
investigated by a number of researchers using both pure and mixed cultures, and cultures
found in wastewater treatment systems. The maximum growth rate of both nitrification
reactions are reported to be affected by dissolved oxygen concentration over the range
of 0.3 mg/l to as much as 4.0 mg/l. In some instances, it has been reported that a
dissolved oxygen concentration in excess of 4.0 mg/l is required to achieve maximum
nitrification rates, while other investigators have found that only 0.5 to 1.0 mg/l is required
[16]. It is recommended that the dissolved oxygen level in the aeration tanks be increased
to around 2.5 – 4.00 mg/l if there is a need for a more nitrified effluent.
As for the removal of phosphorus an extra polishing compartment is needed. Phosphorus

can either be removed by chemical or biological treatment. Chemical treatment for
phosphorus removal involves the addition of metal salts to react with soluble phosphate
to form solid precipitates that are removed by solids separation processes including
clarification and filtration. The most common metal salts used are in the form of alum
(aluminum sulfate), sodium aluminate, ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate, and
ferrous chloride. The biological phosphorus removal process relies on polyphosphate
accumulating organisms (PAOs) which take up and store excessive amounts of P which
are then removed together with the waste sludge. These removal technologies are
beyond the scope of this study [17].

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8.10 CONCLUSIONS
Fully centralized sewage treatment plants may not be a sustainable solution for a
developing country such as Malaysia. Despite the unquestionable high efficiency of the
activated sludge and biological film technology in centralized municipal wastewater
treatment plants, the miniatures of these technologies used in on-site systems are
performing exceptionally well [9].
This proposed Submerged Aerated Biofilter small wastewater treatment plant is a

treatment system which through mechanical, biological, and chemical processes reduces
the pollution load to the values specified in Standard A of the Environmental Act.
In choosing a suitable on-site decentralized small sewage treatment system, an investor

is driven in the first place by economic factors, easy operation and maintenance and high
operational reliability. These proposed prototypes satisfied all 3 criteria. Therefore the
proposed design should eventually be adopted nationwide once the relevant authorities
have approved the system. In future, the proposed prototypes should be promoted as
the most reliable container type on-site wastewater treatment system, and existing
conventional septic tank systems should be replaced or upgraded into the proposed
system.

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8.11 REFERENCES
Reuse. 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.

2. C.P. Grady, G.N. Daigger, N.G. love & D.M. Filipe, Biological Wastewater Treatment,
CRC Press, #rd Edition, 2011.
3. APHA, AWWA, WPCF. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater. 20th edition, American Public Health Association, Washington,DC, New
York, USA, 1998.
4. A. Papadopoulous, G. Parissopoulous, F. Papadopoulos & A. Karteris, "Variations of
COD/ BOD5 Ratio at Different Units of Wastewater Stabilization Pond Pilot Treatment
Facility", 7th international conference on Environmental science and technology, Syros
Island, Greece, 2001.
5. Von Sperling, M. (2015). "Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and
Disposal". Water Intelligence Online.
6. EPA. Washington, DC (2004). "Primer for Municipal Waste water Treatment
Systems." Document no. EPA 832-R-04-001.
7. Von Sperling, M. (2015-12-30). "Activated Sludge and Aerobic Biofilm
Reactors". Water Intelligence Online.
8. E.A. Tuan Mat, J. Shaari & V.K. How, Wastewater Production, Treatment and Use in
Malaysia.
9. A. Karczmarczyk, A. Bus, A.Baryla, “ Assessment of the Efficiency, Environmental and
Economic Effects of Compact Type On-Site Wastewater Treatment plants “
Sustainability, 2021.
10. Small Wastewater Treatment Systems for Up to 50 PT—Part 3: Packaged and/or Site
Assembled Domestic Wastewater Treatment. British Standard EN 12566-3:2005

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11. Krzanowski, S.; Wałe ̨ga, A. Effectiveness of organic substance removal in household
conventional activated sludge and hybrid treatment plants. Environ. Prot. Eng. 2008,
34, 5–12.
12. Wałega, A. Chmielowski, K. Młynski, D. Influence of the hybrid sewage treatment
plant’s exploitation on its operation effectiveness in rural areas. Sustainability 2018,
10, 2689
13. S. Comber, M. Gardner, K. Georges, D. Balckwood, D. Gilmour. Domestic source of
phosphorus to sewage treatment works. Environ Technol. May-June 2013.
14. Activated Sludge Process Control : Training Manual for Wastewater treatment Plant
Operators. State of Michigan Department of Environmental Quality.
15. Bassim E. Abbassi , Raihan Abuharb , Bashaar Ammary , Naser Almanaseer &
Christopher. (28 Apr 2018) Modified Septic Tank: Innovative Onsite Wastewater
Treatment . Water Journal.
16. Michael K. Stenstrom Richard A. Poduska The Effect of Dissolved Oxygen
Concentration on Nitrification. Water Research Vol 14, Issue 6
17. Phosphorus Treatment and Removal Technologies, Minnesota Pollution Control
Agency. June 2006

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CHAPTER 9
OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE
OF IST

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CHAPTER 9
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IST
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Operation refers to daily operation of the components of a sewerage system such as

collection system, pumping stations, pumping mains, STP’s, machinery and equipment,
etc., in an effective manner by various technical personnel, and is a routine function.
The term maintenance is defined as the art of keeping the structures, plants, machinery
and equipment and other facilities in optimum working order. Maintenance includes
preventive maintenance or corrective maintenance, mechanical adjustments, repairs,
corrective action and planned maintenance.
The purpose of the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Manual is to provide

owners/operators with the proper understanding of recommended operating techniques
and procedures, and the references necessary to efficiently operate and maintain their
facilities.
The O&M Manual shall contain all information necessary for the plant operator to properly
operate and maintain the collection, treatment and disposal systems in accordance with
all applicable laws and regulations. A copy of the approved O&M manual shall be
maintained at the treatment plant at all times.
The Operation and Maintenance Manual for the IST is attached in Appendix 9.1

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9.2 COMPARATIVELY HIGH OPERATIONAL COST
Table 2.4 ( Fixed Film/Hybrid Biological Processes ) of Chapter 2 highlights the high
energy use of Submerged Aerobic Biofilter. This dis due to the fact that the aeration in
the aerobic tank need not only supply dissolved oxygen for organic removal but must
also be sufficient to slough regularly the bacterial mass that has accumulated on the
biofilter/media. The sloughing process is important to allow for self-cleaning of the
biofilter/media.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the aeration tank is an important process control
parameter that has a great effect on the treatment efficiency, operational cost and system
stability. If dissolved oxygen is 5.0 or higher there is a good chance that dead zones are
minimal since normal currents and mixing will transport the oxygenated mixed liquor
throughout the reactor[5].
It was observed that the treatment efficiency of the ISTs are not adversely affected by not
supplying aeration continuously 24 hours. Regulating the air blower ON and OFF hourly
will cut the operation cost by 50 % without compromising the treatment efficiency.
It must be stated that SPAN/IWK requirements mandate that 2 blowers of the same
capacity must be installed to blow air into the air diffusers. Dual air blowers with one
working and one standby must be used in order to prolong the air blowers lifespan and
as a precautionary measure at least one air blower is available in the event one is faulty.
The operational costs will be minimised considerably by using any of the two options.
Another proposal to reduce operational cost without compromising treatment efficiency is

to instal 2 set of air blowers with different capacities and running alternately hourly. One

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blower need to induce a minimum dissolved oxygen of 1.00 mg/l and the other one around
5.00 mg/l. A minimum dissolved oxygen level of 1.00 mg/l is sufficient for the system to
perform as per Standard A effluent.
These two operational regimes will be proposed to be used for the newly proposed ISTs.
These proposals must be approved by SPAN and IWK before the proposals can be
implemented.
9.3 BIOFILTER/MEDIA LIFESPAN
All biofilter/media suppliers stated that the lifespan of their product is at least 10 years
[6,7,8,9,10,11]
9.4 COMPARISON BETWEEN IST AND SUBMERGED AEROBIC BIOFILTER
Simplistic in design, a conventional septic tank operates through the accumulation of solid
and liquid waste. Heavier in weight, the solid waste accumulates to the bottom of the
tanks, before forming sludge, while the liquid waste accumulates on the top and produces
scum. Through anaerobic microbes present in the tank, this accumulated liquid and solid
waste is broken down into wastewater before delivery to the municipal drain
While having a higher up-front cost and great complexities, aerobic septic systems are all
encompassing waste accumulation systems that feature utilize a trash tank, unique
treatment system and pump tank. To begin, liquid and solid waste accumulates in the
trash tank, much like conventional septic tank methods. From there, the wastewater is
pumped out and taken to a treatment facility, where they add aerated oxygen bubbles to
provide a stable environment for Aerobic microbes to break down the liquid waste.
Compared to the anaerobic microbes used in conventional septic systems, these

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microbes are capable of breaking down waste in a more efficient and effective manner.
Once fully broken down, the wastewater makes its final destination into the municipal
drains.
Table 9.1 summarises the comparison between IST and SAB.
Table 9.1 Comparison Between IST and SAB
IST SAB
COMPARISON - Std B effluent - Std A effluent

- Anaerobic Mode - Aerobic mode
- Has odor - No odor
- Less environmentally - Environmental friendly
friendly
- Cheap - Expensive
RM 1000-2000 RM 2500-4000
- No electricity needed - Electricity needed
- Less maintenance - More maintenance
- Less operational cost - More operational cost
9.5 IST 5 PE COST ESTIMATION
The cost of fabrication of the prototype cannot be used to estimate the price of the same
product when the supplier commercialise it. Once commercialised the product will be
mass produced. The cost of the raw material and all the other components will be much
reduced since the supplier will buy in bulk. Table 9.2 summarises the cost to mass
produce the 5 PE IST using the average cost of raw material and components. This cost

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estimation is based on the assumption of Fibre Reinforced Plastic being used as the tank
material. This estimation does not take into consideration of the profit margin.
Table 9.2 Summary of 5 PE IST Production Cost
NO ITEM ESTIMATED COST

1 FIbre Reinforced Plastic 500.00
2 Piping & Valves 300.00
3 2 Nos Air Blowers each 0.5 kW ( incl House ) 2 500.00
4 Air Diffuser 200.00
5 Brush Media/Biofilter Media 500.00
Total Production Cost 4 000.00
9.6 REFERENCES
Reuse. 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY

2. Crites, R. and G. Tchobanoglous, 1988, Small and Decentralized Wastewater
Management Systems. The McGraw-Hill Companies. Boston, Massachusetts
3. PA (2003) - Handbook for Management of Onsite and Clustered (Decentralized)
Wastewater Treatment Systems.
4. Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment, Part B : Operation and Maintenance,
Japan International Cooperation Agency, Dec 2012.
5. Holenda, B.; Domokos, E.; Rédey, Á.; Fazakas, J. Dissolved oxygen control of the
activated sludge wastewater treatment process using model predictive control.
Comput. Chem. Eng. 2008, 32, 1270–1278.

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6. Tongxiang Small Boss Special Plastic Products Co Ltd.

(https://mart.ecer.com/mbbrfiltermedia/pz69e1c72-sewage-treatment-white-mbbr-bio-
media-moving-bed-filter-aquarium.html)
7. HDPE Plastic Filter Media (https://www.mbbrfiltermedia.com/quality-9528435-hdpe-
plastic-filter-media-mbbr-for-ras-system-long-life-span-media)
8. Virgin Polyethylene Biological Filter Media (https://chemxing.en.made-in-
china.com/product/JjPmrByuHfcX/China-Virgin-Polyethylene-Biological-Bio-Filter-
Media.html)
9. Plastic Floating Biofilter Media for wastewater Treatment (https://china-
biomedia.com/product/hdpe_plastic_floating_mbbr_bio_filter_media_for_waste_wate
r_treatment_25_10mm_mbbr_media)
10. Autonomous Wastewater Biofiltration System-Premier Tech Aqua
(http://www.enviroaccess.ca/expert-conseil/en/directory-of-companies-offering-
environmental-solutions/autonomous-wastewater-treatment-wastewater-biofiltration-
system-ecoflo-premier-tech-aqua/)
11. Waterloo Biofilter (https://waterloo-biofilter.com/nitrogen-removal/

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9.7 APPENDIX 9.1

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF IST MANUAL
1.0 Introduction
The owner of a wastewater treatment system has to maintain the function of cleaning
at the same time as carrying maintenance work regularly i.e. checking the function of
the unit and components conditions of the whole system and effluent quality to spot
any or irregularities in order to maintain the normal function of the system.
2.0 Maintenance Of Preliminary Components
2.1 Primary/Secondary Screen(Optional For Models > 50 PE)
The purpose of primary and secondary screen is to remove material such

as plastic, paper, cloth and other particles that may cause problems with the
treatment process downstream. The secondary screen is installed after the
inlet pump station. The screen here is of fine screen type and has to
maintain weekly.
2.2 Grit and Grease Chamber (Optional For Models > 50 PE))
This unit process is important to minimize problems associated with grit and
grease. The velocity of the flow is reduced slightly to allow larger, heavier
particles (such as eggshells, sands and gravel) to settle out and then be
removed. Oil and grease are also removed from top surface (floatation
process) of the chamber manually on monthly basis.

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3.0 Maintenance Of Secondary Treatment System
3.1 Introduction
The System operates on the principles of the Submerged Aerobic

Filter/Media Model which is one of the most widely used secondary
treatment process for treatment of domestic wastewater.
3.2 Process Description
The system process basically uses microorganisms in suspension to oxidize

soluble and colloidal organic in the presence of molecular oxygen. To
operate the process on a continuous basis, the solids generated must be
separated in a Primary Clarifier Tank. The major portion of the sludge is
attached to the fixed filter/media rendering the system to operate with mostly
attached growth principle.
The essential units of the process are Primary Clarifier Tank, Submerged
Aerobic Filter/Media Tank and Secondary Clarifier Tank. Figure below
shows the process flow chart of a typical system.

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PROCESS FLOW CHART

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3.3 Primary Clarifier Tank
The tank is incorporated with the inlet pipe, transfer pipe, inspection
chambers and manhole covers. The tank is to hold the wastewater, stabilize
the loading and transfer to the aeration tank in a fairly uniform loading
characteristics.
3.4 Aeration Control
Tube diffusers are provided to prevent the sedimentation of solid at bottom

of the tank and aerates the sewage in the Submerged Aerobic Filter/Media.
Adjust the valve so that the whole chamber is agitated gently at high water
pressure.
3.5 Maintenance Of Aeration Tank (Submerged Aerobic Filter/Media)
The Aeration Tank is equipped with non-clog membrane air diffusers. The
air is supplied from electrically operated air blower. The wastewater in the
Aeration Tank is completely mixed and aerated for a period of 24 hours.
3.6. Secondary Clarifier Tank
This is a hopper tank designed to separate the sludge and scum from the
liquid of the treated wastewater which flows from the Submerged Aerobic
Filter/Media. This tank is incorporated with a center well, where the treated
wastewater enters and an acquiescent zone is created for sedimentation
to occur.

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Airlift pump of force main pumping system is incorporated to transfer the

settled sludge to the Primary Sedimentation Tank. Cleared effluent passes
into the effluent outlet pipe.
4.0 Operation Instructions
4.1 System Operation
The system is set in manual operation.
The equipments to be operated are :
i. Two (2) units air blower (working alternately with timer)

ii. One unit sludge air-uplift transfer pipe
Manual Operation
Under manual mode of operation, all the above equipment can be set into
running without any restricted control by turning on the key-switch.
Automatic Operation
Under automatic mode of operation, certain equipment mentioned above
will be subject to control before it can be operated. It is advisable for the
system to run on automatic mode.
4.2 Air Blowers
The air blower operation is continuous however the timer control will control
the duty and standby unit to operate alternately. The relief valve control the
pressure of the blowing out. To minimise electricity cost, the blowers should
be set to run 1 hour ON and 1 hour OFF.

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The capacities of the air blowers will be specified according to the PE of the
IST.,
4.3 Desludging Operation
At an interval of approximately 24 month period, sludge level within the

Primary Sedimentation Tank is required to be inspected and checked.
Flow of reticulation of waste sludge from Secondary Sedimentation Tank
to Primary Sedimentation Tank is to be examined, when necessary.
However actual desludging frequency will depend on sludge level in the
tank.

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5.0 Maintenance Frequency Of System
No Items Detail Frequency

5.1 Primary Components (Optional
For Models > 50 PE)
5.1.1 Coarse Screen Screening remove screenings with a rake Weekly

5.1.2 Grit Chamber Clear sand and debris deposit Monthly
5.1.3 Influent Pump Check the discharge, too low check for any Monthly
Sump blockage at the inlet or in the pipe.
Check the float switch/float level check for
any tangle in the cable lift up and clean.
Remove the grease/scum on the surface
clean the bottom of the sump.
Flush out scum or grease attached to the
floats.
5.1.4 Fixed fine screen Remove screening which can’t be Weekly
and by pass fine removed by coarse screen in the pump
screen sump. In case the fixed fine screen filled
by screenings, the by pass screen can by
pass the flow.
5.2 Primary Sedimentation Tank
5.2.1 Storage Tank Check sludge level, (using normal UPVC Monthly
vacuum pipe or deep stick)
5.2.2 Scum Check scum level. If excessive remove. Quarterly
5.3 Control Box (Optional

For Models > 50 PE)

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5.3.1 Compartment Clear deposits from wall of baffle plates Monthly

and at bottom
5.3.2 Weir Notch Check the measurement During testing
Check for any loosening of the screw on and
the weir commissioning
and monthly
5.4 Aeration Tank
5.4.1 Piping Check inflow pipe from Primary Monthly

Sedimentation Tank
5.4.2 Air Pipe System Check and ensure all joints are tightened. Monthly
5.4.3 Air Diffusers Adjust gate valves observe air bubbles in Monthly
tank (agitation condition). Aeration should
be done evenly. Check the diffusers tubes
ensure they are fixed securely check for
any blockage or leakage. Detach and
clean.
5.5 Secondary Sedimentation Tank
5.5.1 Piping Observe flow in inflow pipe from aeration Monthly

tank. Observe flow from sedimentation
tank to discharge chamber.
5.5.2 Sludge Return Check for sludge return rate by and Monthly
regulate the sludge return flow into
Primary Sedimentation Tank.
5.5.3 Center Well Observe scum formation and clear Monthly

excess scum, flush and clean walls and
pipe.
5.6 M & E Equipment and Valves

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5.6.1 Air Blower Carry out servicing, check compressor oil Monthly
level, general cleaning of casing.
5.6.2 Submersible Unscrew detachable socket and lift pump 3 Months /
Pump (Optional) out from tank, flush and clean pump. when necessary
Check and clear electrical system. Check
and top up hydraulic oil, grease all
relevant parts.
5.6.3 Valves Check all valves operation and leakages Monthly
5.7 Electrical Panels
5.7.1 Control Panel Check, clean contacts and tighten 3 months

connections of electrical starts.
Check linkages / relay of float control
Check system function and control,

inclusive of float switch mechanism
Check, clean contacts and tighten

connections of electrical starts.
Check all electrical relay circuit breakers

times, contactors, fuses and rectify
Record reading of all hour run meters,

volts meter & ammeters.
Check condition of all exposed cable

insulation
Test all start

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________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5.8 Performance
Note : The following tests apply to all IST PE (5 -150 PE)
5.8.1 Physical Check 1. colour of sewage in aeration tank. If Monthly
Colour rich brown – good.
2. Scum formation in sedimentation tank
3. Foaming in holding and aeration tank
4. Flow in piping system
5. Effluent at outlet.
5.8.2 Odour No offensive and earth smell – Normal. Monthly

Rotting smell / stale wastewater has
putrid odors due to hydrogen sulfide
indicates insufficient aeration.
5.8.3 Dissolved Oxygen Check DO in the aeration tank should be Monthly

(DO) in the range of 1 –2 mg/l.
5.8.4 pH Test pH value should be between 6-8. Monthly
5.8.5 Temperature Temperature range between 25°C to Monthly

35°C.
5.8.6 Indicative Check Check BOD and SS effluent (Turbidity). Monthly
5.8.7 Sampling & Sampling to be carried out by a licenced Quarterly

Effluent Analysis laboratory. Only the BOD and SS
parameters are required. Effluent quality
must comply to Std A of EQA.

FINAL REPORT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
6.0 PLANT RECORD INSTRUCTIONS
INSTRUCTION
OBJECTIVE
1. The aim of Plant Record Book is to provide:
1.1 Technical data to assist in the maintenance of the Plant
1.2 Technical data to assist rectification works.
1.3 Record of inspection and repair

FINAL REPORT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. This Book is to be kept together with:

2.1 The Maintenance Schedule
2.2 Any other relevant documents
Issue
3. A Record Book must be issued to every system during inception details of

equipment must be recorded on the Book cover whenever Testing & Commissioning
is carried out.
Entries
4. Details are specified at relevant parts.
5. Section 2 - Supervising Officer is to record any function

of the system that needs attention and to
record any defect.
6. General Entry - All entries are to be in ink and signed
7. Correction - Wrong entry should be ruled off and

amendment made immediately above it. No
erasement is allowed
Movement
8. This Plant Record Book shall be held by the respective Operation and Maintenance Contractor
Branches.

FINAL REPORT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
DETAILS OF ACCESSORIES
_________________________________________________________
Made of Equipment Air Blower : …………………………………………………
Register No. :
……………………………………………….
RECORD OF ISSUE
DATE ISSUED BY ISSUED TO

FINAL REPORT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
INSPECTION MAINTENANCE RECORD (TANK & PIPING)
DATE TYPE OF DEFECT RECTIFICATION INSPECTION
INSPECTION BY
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FINAL REPORT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
INSPECTION MAINTENANCE RECORD (AIR BLOWER & DIFFUSERS)
DATE TYPE OF DEFECT RECTIFICATION INSPECTION
INSPECTION MAINTENANCE
BY
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

FINAL REPORT
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
RECORD OF BREAKDOWN OF ASSESSORIES FITTED BY OTHER AGENCY
DATE OF NATURE OF ACTION TAKEN SIGNATURE OF
BREAKDOWN BREAKDOWN PERSON MAKING
ENTRY
(a) (b) (c) (d)

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JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN

OCTOBER 2022 FINAL REPORT

KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE

PERUNDING PINANG SDN. BHD.

JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN TOC-0

KAJIAN OPTIMIZING REMOVAL EFFICIENCY OF ON-SITE SEWAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

1.1 Individual Septic Tank (IST) 1-1

1.2 Problem Statement 1-3

1.3 Previous Government Strategies 1-7

1.4 Way Forward for IST 1-12

1.5 Study Objective 1-13

1.6 Scope of Work 1-13

1.7 Study Methodology 1-15

1.8 Work Programmes 1-17

1.9 Organisation Chart 1-20

1.10 Scope of Personnel Involvement 1-21

1.11 Prototype Design 1-23

1.12 Deliverables 1-24

1.13 References 1-25

JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN TOC-1

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Background 2-1

2.2 Characteristics of Rural Development Area 2-2

2.3 Domestic Wastewater 2-4

2.4 Sewerage in Malaysia 2-6

2.5 Septic Tank 2-9

2.6 Aerobic Treatment Units (ATUs) 2-10

2.7 ATUs Treatment Principle 2-13

2.8 Literature Review 2-14

2.8.1 Overview 2-14

2.8.2 Past Research 2-15

2.8.3 Summary of Treatment Systems 2-29

2.9 References 2-33

CHAPTER 3 MARKET AND PRODUCT REVIEW

3.1 Introduction 3-1

3.2 Product Review 3-1

3.3 Product Examples 3-3

3.4 Products Comparison 3-14

3.5 References 3-16

JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN TOC-2

CHAPTER 4 PROTOTYPE PROPOSAL

4.1 Introduction 4-1

4.2 The Proposed System 4-3

4.3 Submerged Aerobic Biofilter (SAB) 4-4

4.4 Proposed Prototype Plants 4-6

4.4.1. Introduction 4-6

4.4.2 Proposed Technical Specification 4-6

4.5 Design Calculations 4-8

4.6 Mass Balance Calculations 4-12

4.7 Engineering Drawings 4-18

4.8 Brochures 4-24

4.8.1 Biofilter Media 4-25

4.8.2 PE Brush Media 4-30

4.9 References 4-33

JABATAN PERKHIDMATAN PEMBETUNGAN TOC-3

CHAPTER 5 SUSTAINABLE RENEWAL ENERGY

5.1 Introduction 5-1

5.2 Renewable Energy 5-1