Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems: Vikas D. Hajare

Introduction THE UNIT-STEP RESPONSE Denitions Derivations Types of system
Time domain analysis of control systems

Vikas D. Hajare
Cummins College of Engineering for Women Karvenagar, Pune
August 16, 2011
Outline
1
Introduction
Fundamentals
Typical Test Signals
2
THE UNIT-STEP RESPONSE
First order system
Second order system
3
Denitions
Transient-Response Specications
4
Derivations
Second Order System
5
Types of system
Denition
Fundamentals
Time Response of control system
The time response of a control system is usually divided
into two parts:
1
The transient response
2
The steady-state response
Let y(t ) denote the time response of a continuous data
system; then, in general, it can be written as
y(t ) = y
t
(t ) + y
ss
(t )
where y
t
(t ) denotes the transient response and y
ss
(t )
denotes the steady-state response.
In control systems, transient response is dened as the
part of the time response that goes to zero as time
becomes very large.
Fundamentals
Time Response of control system . . .
Thus, y
t
(t ) has the property:
lim
t
y
t
(t ) = 0
The steady-state response is simply the part of the total
response that remains after the transient has died out.
Thus, the steady-state response can still vary in a xed
pattern, such as a sine wave, or a ramp function that
increases with time.
All real, stable control systems exhibit transient
phenomena to some extent before the steady state is
reached.
Fundamentals
Because inertia, mass, and inductance are unavoidable
in physical systems, the response of a typical control
system cannot follow sudden changes in the input
instantaneously, and transients are usually observed.
Therefore, the control of the transient response is
necessarily important, because it is a signicant part of the
dynamic behavior of the system.
The deviation between the output response and the input
or the desired response, before the steady state is
reached, must be closely controlled.
The steady-state response of a control system is also very
important, because it indicates where the system output
ends up when time becomes large.
Fundamentals
The study of a control system in the time domain
essentially involves the evaluation of the transient and the
steady-state responses of the system.
In the design problem, specications are usually given in
terms of the transient and the steady-state performances.
Controllers are designed so that the specications are all
met by the designed system.
Introduction
Introduction
Unlike electric networks and communication systems, the
inputs to many practical control systems are not exactly
known ahead of time.
In many cases, the actual inputs of a control system may
vary in random fashion with respect to time.
This poses a problem for the designer, because it is
difcult to design a control system so that it will perform
satisfactorily to all possible forms of input signals.
For the purpose of analysis and design, it is necessary to
assume some basic types of test inputs so that the
performance of a system can be evaluated.
Introduction. . .
Introduction
By selecting these basic test signals properly, not only is
the mathematical treatment of the problem
systematized, but the response due to these inputs allows
the prediction of the systems performance to other more
complex inputs.
In the design problem, performance criteria may be
specied with respect to these test signals so that the
system may be designed to meet the criteria.
This approach is particularly useful for linear systems,
since the response to complex signals can be determined
by superposing those due to simple test signals.
Test Signals. . .
To facilitate the time-domain analysis, the following
deterministic test signals are used.
Step-Function Input:
The step-function input represents an instantaneous
change in the reference input.
The mathematical representation of a step function or
magnitude A is
r (t ) = Au
s
(t ) t 0
r (t ) = 0 t < 0
where A is real constant and u
s
(t ) is the unit step-function
Test Signals. . .
Ramp-Function Input:
The ramp function is a signal that changes constantly with
time.
The ramp function has the ability to test how the system
would respond to a signal that changes linearly with time
Mathematically, a ramp function is represented by
r (t ) = Atu
s
(t ) t 0
r (t ) = 0 t < 0
where A is real constant
Test Signals. . .
Parabolic-Function Input:
The parabolic function represents a signal that is one order
faster than the ramp function.
The ramp function has the ability to test how the system
would respond to a signal that changes linearly with time
Mathematically, a Parabolic function is represented by
r (t ) =
At
2
2
u
s
(t )
Test Signals. . .
Exponential function Input:
The exponential function is used to model a relationship in
which a constant change in the independent variable gives
the same proportional change (i.e. percentage increase or
decrease) in the dependent variable.
Mathematically, a exponential function is represented by
r (t ) = Ae
t
where A is real constant and t is independent variable.
Complex exponential function Input:
z = R cos 0 + jR sin0 (1)
Theorem
Eulers Theorem: The power series expansions of cos 0 and
sin0 are, respectively,
cos 0 = 1
0
2
2!
+
0
4
4!

0
6
6!
+
sin0 = 0
0
3
3!
+
0
5
5!

0
7
7!
+
cos 0 + j sin0 = 1 + (j 0) +
j 0
2
2!
+
j 0
3
3!
+
j 0
4
4!
+
cos 0 + j sin0 = e
j
Test Signals. . .
Pulse Function Input:
Consider the pulse function
r (t ) =
A
t
0
0 < t < t
0
r (t ) = 0 t < 0, t < t
0
where A and t
0
are constants.
The pulse function here may be considered a step function of
height A,t
0
that begins at t = 0 and that is superimposed by a
negative step function of height A,t
0
beginning at t = t
0
; that is,
r (t ) =
A
t
0
1(t )
A
t
0
1(t t
0
)
Test Signals. . .
impulse Function Input:
The impulse function is a special limiting case of the pulse
function
r (t ) = lim
t
0
0
A
t
0
0 < t < t
0
r (t ) = 0 t < 0, t < t
0
Since the height of the impulse function is A,t
0
and the duration
is t
0
, the area under the impulse is equal to A.
Note that the magnitude of the impulse is measured by its area.
r (t ) =
A
t
0
1(t )
A
t
0
1(t t
0
)
Test Signals. . .
impulse Function Input:
The impulse function whose area is equal to unity is called the
unit impulse function or the Dirac delta function.
c(t t
0
)dt = 1
It should be mentioned that an impulse that has an innite
magnitude and zero duration is mathematical ction and does
not occur in physical systems.
Test Signals. . .
Sinusoidal Input:
The input to a LTI system is sinusoidal with amplitude A
and frequency .
0
Mathematically, a sinusoidal function is represented by
r (t ) = Asin .
0
t
When we apply sinusoidal Input to the LTI system and analyze
it then the approach is called frequency response approach.
First order system
Step Input
First order system
Ramp Input
First order system
Impulse Input
Second order system
Mechanical systems
Second order system
Mechanical System
Write a differential Equation for the system and nd transfer
function.
Second order system
Second order system
C(s)
R(s)
=
.
2
n
s
2
+ 2.
n
s +.
2
n
This form is called the standard form of the second-order
system.
Second order system
Second order system
The dynamic behavior of the second-order system can then be
described in terms of two parameters and .
n
If 0 < < 1
The closed-loop poles are complex conjugates and lie in
the left-half s plane.
The system is then called under-damped, and the
transient response is oscillatory.
If = 0
The closed-loop poles are on the j . axis of s plane.
The transient response does not die out.
Second order system
Second order system
If = 1
The closed-loop poles are real and lie on the o (real axis)
of s plane.
The system is then called Critically damped, and the
transient response is not oscillatory.
If < 1
The closed-loop poles are on the o (real axis) of s plane.
The system is then called overdamped, and the transient
response becomes sluggish.
Second order system
Under-damped and Undamped system
Second order system
overdamped and Critically damped system
Second order system
Unstable
Second order system
Underdamped system
For 0 < < 1
C(s)
R(s)
=
.
2
n
(s +.
n
+ j .
d
)(s +.
n
j .
d
)
where .
d
=
1
2
.
The frequency .
d
, is called the damped natural frequency.
For a unit-step input,C(s) can be written
C(s) =
.
2
n
(s
2
+ 2.
n
s +.
2
n
)
1
s
(2)
The inverse Laplace transform of Equation (2) can be obtained
easily if C(s) is written in the following form:
Second order system
Underdamped system
C(s) =
1
s

s + 2.
n
s
2
+ 2.
n
s +.
2
n
C(s) =
1
s

s +.
n
(s +.
n
)
2
+.
2
d
.
n
(s +.
n
)
2
+.
2
d
L
1
[
s +.
n
(s +.
n
)
2
+.
2
d
]
= e
n
t
cos .
d
t
L
1
[
.
n
(s +.
n
)
2
+.
2
d
]
= e
n
t
sin.
d
t
L
1
[C(s)] = c(t ) = 1 e
n
t
(
cos .
d
t +

1
2
sin.
d
t
)
Second order system
Underdamped system
c(t ) = 1
e
n
t
1
2
sin
(
.
d
t + tan
1
1
2
)
, t 0 (3)
or
c(t ) = 1
e
n
t
1
2
sin
(
.
n
1
2
t + cos
1
)
(4)
It can be seen that the frequency of transient oscillation is the
damped natural frequency .
d
and thus varies with the damping
ratio .
Second order system
Undamped system
If the damping ratio is equal to zero, the response becomes
undamped and oscillations continue indenitely.
The response c(t ) for the zero damping case may be obtained
by substituting = 0 in Equation (3), yielding
c(t ) = 1 cos .
n
t
.
n
represents the undamped natural frequency of the
system.
.
n
is that frequency at which the system output would
oscillate if the damping were decreased to zero.
The frequency that may be observed is the damped natural
frequency .
d
, which is equal to .
n
1
2
Second order system
Critically damped system
For = 1
For a unit-step input,C(s) can be written
C(s) =
.
2
n
(s +.
n
)
2

1
s
(5)
The inverse Laplace transform of Equation (5) may be found as
C(t ) = 1 e
n
t
(1 +.
n
t ) , t 0 (6)
This result can also be obtained by letting approach unity in
Equation (3) and by using the following limit:
lim
1
sin.
d
t
1
2
= lim
1
sin.
n
1
2
t
1
2
= .
n
t
Introduction
In many practical cases, the desired performance
characteristics of control systems are specied in terms of
time-domain quantities.
Systems with energy storage cannot respond
instantaneously and will exhibit transient responses
whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances.
Frequently, the performance characteristics of a control
system are specied in terms of the transient response to
a unit-step input since it is easy to generate and is
sufciently drastic.
If the response to a step input is known, it is
mathematically possible to compute the response to any
input.
Introduction. . .
The transient response of a practical control system often
exhibits damped oscillations before reaching steady state. In
specifying the transient-response characteristics of a control
system to a unit-step input, it is common to specify the
following:
1
Delay time, t
d
2
Rise time, t
r
3
Peak time, t
p
4
Maximum overshoot, M
p
5
Settling time, t
s
Denitions
Delay time, t
d
The delay time is the time required for the response to reach
half the nal value (i.e. 50% of nal value)the very rst time
Rise time, t
r
The rise time is the time required for the response to rise
from 10% to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its nal
value.
For underdamped second order systems, the 0% to 100%
rise time is normally used.
For overdamped systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is
commonly used.
Denitions. . .
Peak time, t
p
The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the
rst peak of the overshoot.
Maximum (percent) overshoot, M
p
The maximum overshoot is the maximum peak value of the
response curve measured from unity.
If the nal steady-state value of the response differs from unity,
then it is common to use the maximum percent overshoot. It is
dened by
Maximum percent overshoot =
C(t
P
) C()
C()
100%
Denitions. . .
Settling time, t
s
The settling time is the time required for the response curve to
reach and stay within a range about the nal value of size
specied by absolute percentage of the nal value (usually 2%
or 5%).
The settling time is related to the largest time constant of the
control system.
Which percentage error criterion to use may be determined
from the objectives of the system design in question.
Second Order System
Characteristic Equation
Characteristic Equation
s
2
+ 2.
n
s +.
2
n
= 0
The two roots can be expressed as:
s
1
, s
2
= .
n
.
n
1
2
= c j .
where, c = .
n
and . = .
n
1
2
Second Order System
Characteristic Equation Roots
Second Order System
Maximum Overshoot
0 < < 1: s
1
, s
2
= .
n
j .
n
1
2
(underdamped)
= 1: s
1
, s
2
= .
n
(Critically damped)
1: s
1
, s
2
= .
n
.
n
2
1 (Overdamped)
= 0: s
1
, s
2
= j .
n
(undamped)
Maximum Overshoot
The exact relation between the damping ratio and the amount
of overshoot can be obtained by taking the derivative of Eq. (4)
w.r.t. t and setting the result to zero
dy(t )
dt
=
.
n
e
n
t
1
2
[
sin(.t +0)
1
2
cos(.t +0)
]
(7)
where, . = .
n
1
2
and 0 = cos
1

Second Order System
Maximum Overshoot
We can reduced quantity inside the square bracket in Eq. (7) to
sin.t . Thus, Eq. (7) is simplied to
dy(t )
dt
=
.
n
1
2
e
n
t
sin.
n
1
2
t (8)
Setting dy(t ),dt to zero, we have the solutions: t = and
.
n
1
2
t = n n = 0, 1, 2, (9)
from which we get
t =
n
.
n
1
2
n = 0, 1, 2, (10)
Second Order System
Maximum Overshoot
Thus, the time at which the maximum overshoot occurs is
t
max
=

.
n
1
2
(11)
The overshoots occur at odd values of n, that is, n= 1, 3,5, . . ,
and the undershoots occur at even values of n.
Whether the extremum is an overshoot or an undershoot, the
time at which it occurs is given by Eq.(10).
Second Order System
Maximum Overshoot
Second Order System
Maximum Overshoot
The magnitudes of the overshoots and the undershoots can be
determined by substituting Eq. (10) into Eq. (4). The result is
y(t )
minor max
= 1
e
n/
1
2
1
2
sin (n +0) n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(12)
or
y(t )
minor max
= 1 + (1)
n1
e
n/
1
2
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(13)
The maximum overshoot is obtained by letting n = 1 in Eq.
(13). Therefore,
maximum Overshoot = y
max
1 = e
/
1
2
(14)
Second Order System
Time domain specication formulas
Rise time t
r
t
r
=
a
.
d
where;
a = tan
1
.
d
o
Delay time t
d
t
d

=
1 + 0.7
.
n
t
d

=
1.1 + 0.125 + 0.469
2
.
n
Second Order System
Time domain specication formulas
Peak Time t
p
t
p
=
n
.
d
Settling Time t
s
t
s
=
4
.
n
for 2%
t
s
=
3
.
n
for 5%
Peak Overshoot M
p
M
p
= e
1
2
or e
(/
d
)
Denition
Type and Order of system
Control systems may be classied according to their ability
to follow step inputs, ramp inputs, parabolic inputs, and so
on.
The magnitudes of the steady-state errors due to these
individual inputs are indicative of the goodness of the
system.
Consider the unity-feedback control system with the
following open-loop transfer function G(s):
G(s) =
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1) (T
m
s + 1)
s
N
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1) (T
p
s + 1)
It involves the term s
N
in the denominator, representing a
pole of multiplicity N at the origin.
Denition
Type and Order of system
The present classication scheme is based on the number
of integrations indicated by the open-loop transfer
function.
A system is called type 0, type 1, type 2, ,if N = 0,
N = 1,N = 2, respectively.
Note that this classication is different from that of the
order of a system.
As the type number is increased, accuracy is improved;
however, increasing the type number aggravates the
stability problem.
A compromise between steady-state accuracy and relative
stability is always necessary.
Denition
Steady State Errors
Consider the unity feedback system having closed-loop transfer
function
C(s)
R(s)
=
G(s)
1 + G(s)
The transfer function between the error signal e(t ) and the
input signal r (t ) is
E(s)
R(s)
= 1
C(s)
R(s)
=
1
1 + G(s)
where the error e(t ) is the difference between the input signal
and the output signal.
The nal-value theorem provides a convenient way to nd the
steady-state performance of a stable system.
Denition
Steady State Errors
Since E(s) is:
E(s) =
1
1 + G(s)
R(s)
The steady-state error is:
e
ss
= lim
t
e(t ) = lim
s0
sE(s) = lim
s0
sR(s)
1 + G(s)
The static error constants dened in the following are
gures of merit of control systems.
The higher the constants, the smaller the steady-state
error.
Denition
Static Position Error Constant K
p
The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step input is
e
ss
= lim
s0
s
1 + G(s)
1
s
e
ss
=
1
1 + G(0)
The static position error constant K
p
is dened by
K
p
= lim
s0
G(s) = G(0)
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static position error
constant K
p
is given by
e
ss
=
1
1 + K
p
Denition
Static Position Error Constant K
p
For Type 0 , 1 and Higher
For a type 0 systems
K
p
= lim
s0
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= K
Therefore
e
ss
=
1
1 + K
For a type 1 or higher systems
K
p
= lim
s0
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
s
N
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= for N 1
Therefore
e
ss
=
1
1 +
= 0
Denition
Conclusion
The response of a feedback control system to a step input
involves a steady-state error if there is no integration in the
feedforward path.
If small errors for step inputs can be tolerated, then a type
0 system may be permissible, provided that the gain K is
sufciently large.
If the gain K is too large, however, it is difcult to obtain
reasonable relative stability.
If zero steady-state error for a step input is desired, the
type of the system must be one or higher.
Denition
Static Velocity Error Constant K
v
The steady-state error of the system with a unit-ramp input is
given by
e
ss
= lim
s0
s
1 + G(s)
1
s
2
e
ss
= lim
s0
1
sG(s)
The static velocity error constant K
v
is dened by
K
v
= lim
s0
sG(s)
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static velocity error
constant K
v
is given by
e
ss
=
1
K
v
Denition
v
For Type 0 , 1, 2 and Higher
K
v
= lim
s0
sK(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= 0
For a type 1
K
v
= lim
s0
sK(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
s(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= K
K
v
= lim
s0
sK(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
s
N
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= for N 2
Denition
v
For Type 0 , 1 ,2 and Higher
e
ss
=
1
K
v
=
For a type 1
e
ss
=
1
K
v
=
1
K
e
ss
=
1
K
v
= 0
Denition
Conclusion
A type 0 system is incapable of following a ramp input in
the steady state.
The type 1 system with unity feedback can follow the ramp
input with a nite error.
In steady-state operation, the output velocity is exactly the
same as the input velocity, but there is a positional error.
This error is proportional to the velocity of the input and is
inversely proportional to the gain K.
The type 2 or higher system can follow a ramp input with
zero error at steady state.
Denition
Static Acceleration Error Constant K
a
The steady-state error of the system with a unit-parabolic input
(acceleration input), which is dened by
e
ss
= lim
s0
s
1 + G(s)
1
s
3
e
ss
= lim
s0
1
s
2
G(s)
The static acceleration error constant K
a
is dened by the
equation
K
a
= lim
s0
s
2
G(s)
Thus, the steady-state error in terms of the static acceleration
error constant K
a
is given by
e
ss
=
1
K
a
Denition
a
For Type 0 , 1, 2 and Higher
K
a
= lim
s0
s
2
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= 0
For a type 1
K
a
= lim
s0
s
2
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
s(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= 0
For a type 2
K
a
= lim
s0
s
2
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
s
2
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= K
Denition
a
For Type 0 , 1 ,2, 3 and
Higher
For a type 3 and Higher
K
a
= lim
s0
s
2
K(T
a
s + 1)(T
b
s + 1)
s
N
(T
1
s + 1)(T
2
s + 1)
= for N 3
For a type 0 and 1 systems
e
ss
=
1
K
a
=
For a type 2
e
ss
=
1
K
a
=
1
K
e
ss
=
1
K
a
= 0
Denition
Conclusion
Note that both type 0 and type 1 systems are incapable of
following a parabolic input in the steady state.
The type 2 system with unity feedback can follow a
parabolic input with a nite error signal
The type 3 or higher system with unity feedback follows a
parabolic input with zero error at steady state.
Denition
Steady-State Error in Terms of Gain K
Table: Steady-State Error in Terms of Gain K
Type of system Step Input Ramp Input Acceleration Input
Type 0
1
1+K

Type 1 0
1
K

Type 2 0 0
1
K
The terms position error, velocity error, and
acceleration error mean steady-state deviations in the
output position.
A nite velocity error implies that after transients have died
out the input and output move at the same velocity but
have a nite position difference.
Denition
Steady-State Error in Terms of Gain K
The error constants K
p
, K
v
, and K
a
describe the ability of a
unity-feedback system to reduce or eliminate steady-state
error.
They are indicative of the steady-state performance.
It is generally desirable to increase the error constants,
while maintaining the transient response within an
acceptable range.
to improve the steady state performance we can increase
the type of the system by adding an integrator or
integrators to the feedforward path.
This introduces an additional stability problem.
The design of a satisfactory system with more than two
integrators in series in the feedforward path is generally not
easy.

Time Domain Analysis of Control Systems: Vikas D. Hajare

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Introduction THE UNIT-STEP RESPONSE Denitions Derivations Types of system

Time domain analysis of control systems

Introduction THE UNIT-STEP RESPONSE Denitions Derivations Types of system

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