DIGESTIVE SYSTEM PROCESS OF DIGESTION

 Provides nutrients to our body which  The food is taken to the digestive
are essential for health. Every cell in system through our mouth or oral cavity
our body needs nourishment, and yet  The food that is taken into the body is
most of the cells cannot leave their then broken down during the process of
position, and cannot travel to a food digestion, from the complex molecules
source, hence the food must be to simpler molecules that can be
delivered to them. absorbed
 The digestive system, with the help of  These small molecules that result from
the circulatory system is like a gigantic the digestion, are absorbed through the
“meals on wheels”, serving more than walls of the intestine for used in the
300 trillion customers, the nutrients that body.
they need, and these customers are the  The processes of digestion and
cells. It also has its own quality control absorption provide the body with water,
and waste disposal system. electrolytes, and other nutrients like
 Ingest, digest and absorb food and vitamins and minerals.
eliminate undigested remains.  And finally, the undigested material like
the fiber from our food, plus the waste
Digestion - Breakdown of ingested food. It products are excreted into the digestive
can be physical or mechanical, and tract which are eliminated in the form of
chemical. feces or stool.

Physical or Mechanical - Involves the

chewing and mixing of the food in our ORGANS IN THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
mouth by our tongue, the churning of the
food in our stomach, and the segmentation TWO MAIN GROUPS:
in the small intestine.
Alimentary Canal or Gastrointestinal
Chemical - Involves the enzymatic tracts:
hydrolysis (the chemical breakdown of a  mouth
compound due to a reaction with water). In  pharynx
chemical digestion, the enzyme breaks  esophagus
down food molecules into their building  stomach
blocks like carbohydrates into simple  small and large intestine
sugars, proteins into amino acids, and fats  anus
into fatty acids. Each major group uses
different enzymes. Accessory Digestive Organs
 teeth
 Pancreas
Absorption: passage of nutrients into the  tongue
blood.  salivary glands
Metabolism: production of cellular energy  gallbladder
(ATP)  liver
MOUTH - The food enters the digestive Food is propelled to the esophagus by two
tract via our mouth or oral cavity. muscle layers:
 Longitudinal inner layer
 Lips (labia) - Protect the anterior  Circular outer layer
opening.
 Cheeks - Form the lateral walls Note:
 Hard palate - Forms the anterior roof  These muscles initiate wave-like
 Soft palate - forms the posterior roof contractions that propelled the food
 Uvula - Fleshy projection of the soft inferiorly to the esophagus.
palate.
 Vestibule - Space between the lips  Food movement is by alternating
externally; teeth and gums internally. contractions of the muscle layers
 Oral cavity - Area contained by the (peristalsis).
teeth
 Tongue - Attached at hyoid and styloid 3 PARTS OF THE PHARYNX:
processes of the skull and the lingual Nasopharynx - Located behind the nasal
frenulum. The lingual frenulum secures cavity. Not part of the digestive system.
the tongue to the floor of the mouth.
And the surface of the tongue is Oropharynx - Posterior to oral cavity. It
covered with papillae, many of which extends from the soft palate to the epiglottis
contain taste buds.
 Tonsils: palatine and lingual. The Laryngopharynx - Below the oropharynx
tonsils along with the lymphoid tissue and connected to the esophagus.
are part of the body’s defense system.
The palatine tonsils are masses of
lymphoid tissue on every side of the ESOPHAGUS - After the pharynx, the food
mouth at its posterior end. While the will proceed to the esophagus which runs
lingual tonsils cover the base of the from the pharynx to the stomach through
tongue posterior to the oral cavity the diaphragm. It is also known as food
proper. pipe or gullet. It is 10 inch in length in
human. At its superior end, its walls contain
PROCESSES OF THE MOUTH skeletal muscles, and then replaced by
smooth muscles in the area nearing the
 Mastication (chewing) of food. stomach. The upper part has an upper
 Mixing masticated food with saliva to esophageal sphincter, and the lower part
form a bolus. has a lower esophageal sphincter or also
 Initiation of swallowing by the tongue known as cardiac sphincter, which is a thick
 Allowing for the sense of taste. muscle layer at the esophagus stomach
junction that controls food passage into the
stomach.
PHARYNX - From the mouth, the food
passes posteriorly into our pharynx which is  Conducts food by peristalsis (slow
the common passageway for the food, fluid, rhythmic squeezing)
and air.  Passageway for food only
BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE STOMACH
ALIMENTARY CANAL (Tunics; layers)  Located at the left side of the
abdominal cavity
Mucosa - The mucosa is the innermost  Food enters at the cardioesophageal
layer, a moist mucous membrane that lines sphincter, which regulates and prevents
the hollow cavity, or lumen, of the organ. It the back flow or regurgitation of the
consists primarily of surface epithelium plus stomach contents going to the
a small amount of connective tissue (lamina esophagus.
propria) and a scanty smooth muscle layer.  Food empties into the small intestine at
Beyond the esophagus, which has a the pyloric sphincter.
friction-resisting stratified squamous
epithelium, the epithelium is mostly simple REGIONS OF THE STOMACH
columnar.
 Cardia - The cardial region, or cardia
Submucosa - Is found just beneath the (named for its position near the heart),
mucosa. It is soft connective tissue surrounds the cardioesophageal
containing blood vessels, nerve endings, sphincter, through which food enters
mucosa associated lymphoid tissue the stomach from the esophagus.
(MALT), and lymphatic vessels.
 Fundus - Is the expanded part of the
Muscularis externa - Is a muscle layer stomach lateral to the cardial region.
typically made up of an inner circular layer The round area which lies to the left of
and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth the cardia and below the esophagus.
muscle cells.
 Body - Largest, and the main part of
Serosa - Is the outermost layer of the wall. the stomach where the food is mixed,
As half of a serous membrane pair, the and starch to be broken down. in the
visceral peritoneum consists of a single body, the convex lateral surface is the
layer of flat, serous fluid–producing cells. greater curvature, and its concave
medial surface is the lesser curvature.
*The visceral peritoneum is continuous with
the slippery parietal peritoneum, which lines  Antrum - Also called the pyloric
the abdominopelvic cavity by way of a antrum. It is the lower part of the
membrane extension, the mesentery. stomach which holds the broken-down
food until it is ready to be released into
the small intestine.

 Pylorus - Terminal part of the stomach

which is continuous with the small
intestine through the pyloric sphincter.
Pyloric sphincter is a thick ring of
muscle that acts as valve to control
the emptying of the stomach content
(chyme; creamy mass that is
 resembled in the stomach as the food  In humans it’s about 1mm thick, and its
is processed) into the duodenum. It surface is smooth, soft, and velvety.
also prevents the food from going back The mucosa consists of the epithelium,
to the stomach. an underlying loose connective tissue
called as lamina propria, and a thin
Rugae - Internal folds of the mucosa. layer of smooth muscle called the
muscularis mucosa. In certain regions,
LAYERS OF THE PERITONEUM the mucosa develops folds that
ATTACHED TO THE STOMACH: increase the surface area and certain
Lesser Omentum - a double layer of cells in the mucosa secrete digestive
peritoneum, extends from the liver to the enzymes and hormones.
lesser curvature of the stomach.
 Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa
Greater Omentum - Another extension of
the peritoneum, drapes downward and  Glands and specialized cells are in the
covers the abdominal organs like a lacy gastric gland region.
apron before attaching to the posterior
body wall greater omentum is riddled with
fat, which helps to insulate, cushion, and
protect the abdominal organs. It also has
large collections of lymphoid follicles
containing macrophages and defensive
cells of the immune system.

Specialized mucosa of the stomach:

 Simple columnar epithelium
 Mucous neck cells: produce silky
alkaline mucus. Mucin which functions SMALL INTESTINE - The small intestine is
for the lubrication of the food. convoluted (coiled)that is about 5m or 20ft.
 Gastric glands: secrete gastric juice long in a living person. The small intestine
 Chief cells: produce protein-digesting is a muscular tube extending from the
enzymes (pepsinogen; converted into pyloric sphincter to the large intestine.
pepsin by the hydrochloric acid and it
 The body’s major digestive organ
digest proteins into polypeptide chains)
 Site of nutrient absorption into the
 Parietal cells: produce hydrochloric
blood
acid
 Muscular tube extending from the
 Endocrine cells: produce gastrin
pyloric sphincter to Ileocecal valve.
 Suspended from the posterior
Structure of the stomach mucosa:
abdominal wall by the mesentery.
 The gastric mucosa is the mucous
membrane layer of the stomach which
contains the glands and also the gastric
pits.
Subdivisions of the small intestine:
 Duodenum: Attached to the stomach. Villi of the small intestine:
It extends from the pyloric sphincter  Finger-like structures formed by the
about 10 in. and curves around the mucosa.
head of the pancreas.  Provide the small intestine with more
surface area
 Jejunum: Attached anteriorly to the
duodenum. It extends for about 8ft. Microvilli of the small intestine:
 Small projections of the plasma
 Ileum: Extends from the jejunum to membrane
large intestine. It is the terminal portion  Found on absorptive cells
of the small intestine that is about 12 ft.
long and joins the large intestine at the
Ileocecal valve.

Chemical digestion in the small

intestine:
 Source or enzymes that are mixed
with chyme

 Intestinal cells
 Pancreas

 Bile enters from the gall bladder: Bile

is formed in the liver, and enters the
duodenum via the bile duct in the same Structures involved in absorption of
area. At the duodenum, the ducts nutrients:
joined to form the bulb-like  Absorption cells
hepatopancreatic ampulla and empty  Blood capillaries
their products into the duodenal lumen  Lacteals (specialized lymphatic
through an opening called as the capillaries)
duodenal papilla.
Folds of the small intestine
Note:  Called circular folds or plicae circulares
The brush border enzymes are enzymes  Deep folds of the mucosa and
bound to the microvilli of the columnar submucosa
epithelial cells, and more important  Do not disappear when filled with food
enzymes produced by the pancreas are  The submucosa has Peyer’s patches
ducted to the duodenum via the pancreatic (collection of lymphatic tissue; local
duct, complete the chemical breakdown collections of lymphoid and nodules
process in the small intestine. found in the submucosa that increase
along the length of the small intestine. )
 the anus. Its major functions are to dry out
Digestion in the small intestine: the indigestible food residue by absorbing
Enzymes from the brush border water and to eliminate these residues from
 Break double sugars into simple sugars the body as feces. It frames the small
 Complete some protein digestion intestine on three sides and has these
subdivisions: cecum, appendix, colon,
Pancreatic enzymes play the major rectum, and anal canal.
digestive function:
 Help complete digestion of starch FUNCTIONS:
(pancreatic amylase)  Absorption of water
 Carry out about half of all protein  Elimination of indigestible food from the
digestion (trypsin, etc.) body as feces
 Responsible for fat digestion  No participation ingestion of food
 Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)  Goblet cells produce mucus to act as
 Alkaline content neutralizes acidic lubricant
chyme
STRUCTURE OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
*In the small intestine, the environment is  Cecum: The sac-like first part of the
alkaline large intestine

Absorption and propulsion in the small Appendix: Accumulation of the lymphatic

intestine tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed;
 Water is absorbed along the length of hangs from the cecum. When an appendix
the small intestine is swollen, we call the term appendicitis.

End products of digestion  Colon: ascending, transverse,

 Most substances are absorbed by descending and sigmoidal
active transport through cell
membranes  Rectum
 Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
Anus: external body opening
Note:
 Substances are transported to the liver Food breakdown and absorption in the
by the hepatic portal vein or lymph large intestine:
 Peristalsis is the major means of  No digestive enzymes are produced
moving food
Resident bacteria digest remaining
Segmental movements nutrients
 Mix chyme with digestive juices  Produce some vitamin K and B
 Aid in propelling food  Release gases

 Water and vitamin K and B are

LARGE INTESTINE - About 1.5 m (5 feet) absorbed
long, it extends from the Ileocecal valve to
 Remaining materials are eliminated via  Contains salivary amylase to begun
feces. starch digestion
Propulsion in the larger intestine  Dissolves chemicals so they can be
 Sluggish peristalsis tasted

Mass movement
 Slow, powerful movements TEETH -The role teeth play in processing
 Occur three to four times a day food needs little introduction. We masticate,
or chew, by opening and closing our jaws
Presence of feces in the rectum causes and moving them from side to side while
a defecation reflex continuously using our tongue and cheek
 Internal sphincter is relaxed muscles to keep the food between our
 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the teeth. In the process, the teeth tear and
voluntary (external) and sphincter grind the food, breaking it down into smaller
fragments.

ACCESORY DIGESTIVE ORGANS - Ordinarily, by the age of 21, two sets of

teeth have been formed. The first set are
Salivary Glands - Saliva-producing glands. deciduous teeth, also called baby teeth or
They secrete saliva for lubrication of food in milk teeth. The deciduous teeth begin to
the oral cavity. erupt around 6 months; the first teeth to
 Parotid glands: located behind the appear are the lower central incisors. A
ears and secrete saliva with ptyalin to baby has a full set (20 teeth) by the age of
the oral cavity through the parotid duct 2 years.
or Stensen’s duct.
 Submandibular glands: secrete saliva - As the second set of teeth, the deeper
to the oral cavity through the Wharton’s permanent teeth, enlarge and develop, the
duct roots of the milk teeth are reabsorbed, and
 Sublingual: located beneath the between the ages of
tongue and they secrete saliva to the 6 and 12 years they loosen and fall out. All
oral cavity through the Bartholin’s and of the permanent teeth but the third molars
Rivinus duct. have erupted by the end of adolescence.

Note: REGIONS OF THE TOOTH

The submandibular and sublingual glands Crown: exposed part
empty their secretions into the floor of the
mouth through tiny ducts.  Outer enamel: hardest white outer part
 Mucous (adjective)e.g., mucous of our tooth and mostly made of
membrane calcium phosphate which is a rock-hard
 Mucus (noun)e.g., secretion mineral.
 Dentin: a layer underlying the enamel
Saliva and it is a hard tissue that contains
 Mixture of mucus and serous fluids microscopic tubes. When the enamel
 Helps to form a bolus is damaged, heat or cold can enter the
 tooth through these paths and may
cause sensitivity or pain.
 Pulp cavity: softer inner structure of
the teeth. Blood vessels and nerves run
through the pulp of the teeth.

Neck
 Region in contact with the gum
 Connects crown to root.

Root
 Periodontal membrane attached to the
bone PANCREAS - Is a soft, pink, triangular
 Root canal carrying blood vessels and gland that extends across the abdomen
nerves from the spleen to the duodenum. Most of
the pancreas lies posterior to the parietal
Cementum - A layer or connective tissue peritoneum; hence its location is referred to
that binds the root of the teeth firmly to the as retroperitoneal. Only the pancreas
gums and jaw bone. produces enzymes that break down all
categories of digestible
Periodontal ligament - Tissue that helps
hold the teeth tightly against the jaw.  Produce a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down categories of
Canine - Pointed teeth just outside the food
incisors. The fang-like canines(eyeteeth)  Enzymes are secreted into the
are for tearing or piercing. duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
Premolars (bicuspids) - Total of 8 neutralizes acidic chyme
Molars (cuspids) - Total of 8. Flat teeth in  Endocrine products of pancreas are the
the rear or back portion of our mouth which insulin and the glucagon.
is best for grinding food.
Note:
Wisdom teeth or third molars - Total of 4. The pancreatic juice is composed of
The third molars, also called wisdom teeth,  Pancreatic amylase: Digest starch and
emerge between the ages of 17 and 25. glycerol into maltose
Although there are 32 permanent teeth in a  Pancreatic lipase: Digests fat into fatty
full set, the wisdom teeth often fail to erupt; acids and glycerol
sometimes they are completely absent.  Trypsinogen: Converted into trypsin by
the enterokinase and digests protein
Note: into polypeptides, peptones, proteoses.
 4 incisors (top & bottom): middle most 4  Chemotrypsinogen: Activated to
teeth on the upper and lower jaws. chemotrypsin by trypsin, and digests
 32 teeth polypeptides to amino acids.
LIVER
 Located in the right upper quadrant of
the abdomen
 Divided into lobes separated by a
connective tissue septum, the falciform
ligament.
 Receives blood from 2 sources:
Hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein
 Blood exits the liver through the hepatic
veins which empty into IVC

Functions of the liver:

 Digestion
 Excretion
 Nutrient storage
 Nutrient conversion
 Detoxification of harmful chemical
 Synthesis of new molecules

GALL BLADDER
 Sac found in the hollow fossa of the
liver
 Stores bile from the liver by the way of
the cystic duct
 Bile is introduced into the duodenum in
the presence of fatty acid
 Gallstones can cause blockages