2

Why Do We Need Digital-to-Analog Conversion?!

1) The medium/channel is band pass, and/or

2) Multiple users need to share the medium.
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Modulation of Digital Data

Modulation – process of converting digital data or a low-pass

analog to band-pass (higher-frequency) analog signal

Digital-to-analog modulation.

Analog-to-analog modulation.

Carrier Signal – aka carrier freq. or modulated signal - high freq.

signal that acts as a basis for the information signal
• information signal is called modulating signal

bandpass channel

freq
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Modulation of Digital Data (cont.)

Digital-to-Analog – process of changing one of the characteristic

Modulation of an analog signal (typically a sinewave) based
on the information in a digital signal
• sinewave is defined by 3 characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, and phase) ⇒ digital data (binary 0 & 1)
can be represented by varying any of the three
• application: transmission of digital data over
telephone wire (modem)

Types of Digital-to-Analog
Modulation
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Modulation of Digital Data: ASK
ASK – strength of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
• both frequency & phase remain constant while amplitude changes
• commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero

⎧A 0cos(2πfc t), binary 0 ⎧0, binary 0

s(t) = ⎨ = ⎨
⎩A 1 cos(2πfc t), binary 1 ⎩Acos(2πfc t), binary 1

+A
Is this picture,
from the textbook,
entirely correct?! -A

• demodulation: only the presence or absence of a sinusoid in a

given time interval needs to be determined
• advantage: simplicity
• disadvantage: ASK is very susceptible to noise interference –
noise usually (only) affects the amplitude, therefore ASK is the
modulation technique most affected by noise
• application: ASK is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber
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Modulation of Digital Data: ASK (cont.)

Example [ ASK ]

vd(t)

vc(t)

vASK(t)

vd(f) vc(f) f

How does the frequency spectrum of vASK(t) look like!?

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Modulation of Digital Data: ASK (cont.)
ASK-Modulated Signal: Frequency Spectrum
1
cosA ⋅ cosB = (cos(A - B) + cos(A + B))
2

Carrier signal: v c (t) = cos(2πfc t) = cos(ωc t) , where 2πfc=ωc

⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤
Digital signal: v d (t) = A ⋅ ⎢ + cosω0 t − cos3ω0 t + cos5ω0 t − ...⎥
(unipolar!!!) ⎣2 π 3π 5π ⎦

Modulated signal: v ASK (t) = v c (t) ⋅ v d (t) =

⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤
= cosωc t ⋅ ⎢ + cosω0 t − cos3ω0 t + cos5ω0 t − ...⎥ =
⎣2 π 3π 5π ⎦
1 2 2
= cosωc t + cosωc t ⋅ cosω0 t - cosωc t ⋅ cos3ω0 t + ... =
2 π 3π
1 1
= cosωc t + [cos(ωc − ω0 )t + cos(ωc + ω0 )t ] -
2 π
1
− [cos(ωc − 3ω0 )t + cos(ωc + 3ω0 )t ] + ...
3π

ωd_max ωc ω ωc-ωd_max ωc ωc+ωd_max ω

 8
Modulation of Digital Data: FSK

FSK – frequency of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0

• peak amplitude & phase remain constant during each bit interval

⎧Acos(2 πf1t), binary 0

s(t) = ⎨
⎩Acos(2 πf2 t), binary 1

f1<f2
+A

-A

• demodulation: demodulator must be able to determine which of

two possible frequencies is present at a given time
• advantage: FSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK – receiver
looks for specific frequency changes over a number
of intervals, so voltage (noise) spikes can be ignored
• disadvantage: FSK spectrum is 2 x ASK spectrum
• application: over voice lines, in high-freq. radio transmission, etc.
 9
Modulation of Digital Data: FSK (cont.)

Example [ FSK ]

vd(t)

vc1(t)

vc2(t)

vFSK(t)

ωd_max ω1 ω2 ω ω1-ωd_maxω1 ω2 ω +ω
2 d_max
ω
 10
Modulation of Digital Data: FSK (cont.)
FSK-Modulated Signal: Frequency Spectrum
Digital signal: v d (t) - modulated with ω1 , and
v d ' (t) = 1- v d (t) - modulated with ω2

Modulated signal: v FSK (t) = cosω1t ⋅ v d (t) + cosω 2 t ⋅ (1 − v d (t)) =

⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤
= cosω1t ⋅ ⎢ + cosω0 t − cos3ω0 t + cos5ω0 t − ...⎥ +
⎣2 π 3π 5π ⎦
⎡1 2 2 2 ⎤
+ cosω2 t ⋅ ⎢ − cosω0 t + cos3ω0 t − cos5ω0 t − ...⎥ =
⎣2 π 3π 5π ⎦
= ...
1 1
= cosω1t + [cos(ω1 − ω0 )t + cos(ω1 + ω0 )t ] -
2 π
1
− [cos(ω1 − 3ω0 )t + cos(ω1 + 3ω0 )t ] + ... +
3π
1 1
cosω 2 t − [cos(ω2 − ω0 )t + cos(ω2 + ω0 )t ] -
2 π
1
+ [cos(ω2 − 3ω0 )t + cos(ω2 + 3ω0 )t ] + ... +
3π
 11
Modulation of Digital Data: PSK
PSK – phase of carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 or 0
• peak amplitude & freq. remain constant during each bit interval
• example: binary 1 = 0º phase, binary 0 = 180º (πrad) phase
⇒ PSK is equivalent to multiplying carrier signal by +1 when the
information is 1, and by -1 when the information is 0

2-PSK, or ⎧Acos(2 πfc t), binary 1

s(t) = ⎨ +A
Binary PSK, ⎩Acos(2 πfc t + π ), binary 0
since only 2
different phases
⎧Acos(2 πfc t), binary 1 -A
are used. s(t) = ⎨
⎩- Acos(2 πfc t), binary 0

• demodulation: demodulator must determine the phase of received

sinusoid with respect to some reference phase
• advantage: ƒ PSK is less susceptible to errors than ASK, while it
requires/occupies the same bandwidth as ASK
ƒ more efficient use of bandwidth (higher data-rate)
are possible, compared to FSK !!!
• disadvantage: more complex signal detection / recovery process,
than in ASK and FSK
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Modulation of Digital Data: PSK (cont.)

Example [ PSK ]

vd(t)

vc(t)

vPSK(t)

ωd_max ωc ω ωc-ωd_max ωc ωc+ωd_max ω

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Modulation of Digital Data: PSK (cont.)

PSK Detection – multiply the received / modulated signal

1
± Acos(2 πfc t) by 2*cos(2πfct)
cos 2 A = (1+ cos 2A )
2 • resulting signal
2Acos 2 (2πfc t) = A[1+ cos(4 πfc t)] , binary 1

- 2Acos 2 (2πfc t) = − A[1+ cos(4 πfc t)] , binary 0

• by removing the oscillatory part with a

low-pass filter, the original baseband signal
(i.e. the original binary sequence) can be
easily determined
 14
Modulation of Digital Data: PSK (cont.)
Information 1 0 1 1 0 1

+A
Baseband
Signal
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
-A
sender
+A
Modulated
Signal T 2T 4T 5T
0 3T 6T
x(t)
-A

A cos(2πft) -A cos(2πft)

A {1 + cos(4πft)} -A {1 + cos(4πft)} Signal shifted above / below zero level.

After multiplication
+A
at receiver
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
receiver x(t) cos(2πfct)
-A

+A
Baseband
signal discernable
after smoothing 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
-A
 15
Modulation of Digital Data: PSK (cont.)
Facts from Modulation Theory

If Wc/2 Data rate = 2*Wc/2 = B [bps]

Baseband signal x(t) with
bandwidth Wc/2
f
then B
Wc
Modulated signal
x(t)cos(2πfct) has
bandwidth Wc Hz f
fc-B fc fc+B

• If bandpass channel has bandwidth Wc [Hz],

ƒ then baseband channel has Wc/2 [Hz] available, so
ƒ modulation system supports 2*(Wc/2) = Wc [pulses/second]

ƒ recall Nyqyist Law: baseband transmission system of bandwidth Wc [Hz]

can theoretically support 2 Wc pulses/sec

How can we recover the factor 2 in supported data-rate !?

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Modulation of Digital Data: PSK (cont.)
QPSK = 4-PSK – PSK that uses phase shifts of 90º=π/2 rad ⇒ 4
different signals generated, each representing 2 bits
⎧Acos(2πfc t), binary 00
⎪
⎪Acos(2πfc t + π ), binary 01
⎪ 2
s(t) = ⎨
⎪Acos(2πfc t + π ), binary 10
⎪ 3π
⎪Acos(2πfc t + ), binary 11
⎩ 2

• advantage: higher data rate than in PSK (2 bits per bit

interval), while bandwidth occupancy remains the same
• 4-PSK can easily be extended to 8-PSK, i.e. n-PSK
• however, higher rate PSK schemes are limited by the
ability of equipment to distinguish small differences in
phase
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Modulation of Digital Data: QAM
Quadrature – uses “two-dimensional” signalling
Amplitude • original information stream is split into two sequences that
Modulation consist of odd and even symbols, e.g. Bk and Ak
(QAM) 1 0 1 1 0 1 …
1 -1 1 1 -1 1 …
B1 A1 B2 A2 B3 A3 …
• Ak sequence (in-phase comp.) is modulated by cos(2 πfc t)
Bk sequence (quadrature-phase comp.) is modulated by
sin(2πfc t)
• composite signal A cos(2 πf t) + B sin(2 πf t) is sent
k c k c
through the channel

Ak x Yi(t) = Ak cos(2πfct)

cos(2πfct) + Y(t) = Ak cos(2πfct) + Bk sin(2πfct)

Transmitted
Bk x Yq(t) = Bk sin(2πfct) Signal

sin(2πfct)

• advantage: data rate = 2 bits per bit-interval!

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Modulation of Digital Data: QAM (cont.)

Example [ QAM ]

vd(t)
Bk

sin(ωct)

Ak

cos(ωct)
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Modulation of Digital Data: QAM
QAM Demodulation • by multiplying Y(t) by 2 ⋅ cos(2 πfc t) and then low-
pass filtering the resultant signal, sequence Ak is
obtained
• by multiplying Y(t) by 2 ⋅ sin(2 πfc t) and then low-
pass filtering the resultant signal, sequence Bk is
obtained

Lowpass
A k cos(2 πfc t) + Bk sin(2 πfc t) = Y(t) x filter Ak
(smoother)
2cos(2πfct)
2Akcos2(2πfct)+2Bk cos(2πfct)sin(2πfct)
= Ak {1 + cos(4πfct)}+Bk {0 + sin(4πfct)}
smoothed to zero
Lowpass
x filter Bk
1 (smoother)
cos 2 (A) = (1+ cos(2A))
2 2sin(2πfct)
1 2Bk sin2(2πfct)+2Ak cos(2πfct)sin(2πfct)
sin2 (A) = (1− cos(2A)) = Bk {1 - cos(4πfct)}+Ak {0 + sin(4πfct)}
2
sin(2A) = 2sin(A)cos(A) smoothed to zero
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Signal Constellation
Constellation Diagram – used to represents possible symbols that may
be selected by a given modulation scheme as
points in 2-D plane
• X-axis is related to in-phase carrier: cos(ωct)
ƒ the projection of the point on the X-axis defines
the peak amplitude of the in-phase component
• Y-axis is related to quadrature carrier: sin(ωct)
ƒ the projection of the point on the Y-axis defines
the peak amplitude of the quadrature component
• the length of line that connects the point to
the origin is the peak amplitude of the signal
element (combination of X & Y components)
• the angle the line makes with the X-axis is the
phase of the signal element
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Modulation of Digital Data: QAM
QAM cont. – QAM can also be seen as a combination of ASK & PSK
( ) cos(2πf t + tan
1
2 2 2 Bk
Y(t) = A k cos(2πfc t) + Bk sin(2πfc t) = A k + Bk c
-1
)
Ak

Bk
(-A,A) (A, A)

4-level QAM Ak

(-A,-A) (A,-A)
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Modulation of Digital Data: QAM
16-level QAM – the number of bits transmitted per T [sec] interval
can be further increased by increasing the number
of levels used
• in case of 16-level QAM, Ak and Bk individually can
assume 4 different levels: -1, -1/3, 1/3, 1
• data rate: 4 bits/pulse ⇒ 4W bits/second

( ) cos(2πf t + tan
1
2 2 2 Bk
Y(t) = A k cos(2πfc t) + Bk sin(2πfc t) = A k + Bk c
-1
)
Ak
Bk

Ak and Bk individually
can take on 4 different values;
Ak the resultant signal can take
on (only) 3 different values!!!

In QAM various combinations of amplitude and phase are employed

to achieve higher digital data rates.

Amplitude changes are susceptible to noise ⇒ the number of phase shifts used
by a QAM system is always greater than the number of amplitude shifts.