What is a signal ?

• A function of one or more independent variables which

contain some information.
• Voltage, Current ,temperature are all different signals.
• Thus signal is a mathematical representation of any
physical energy .
• What is signal , its types
• What is modulation
• Why is modulation done
• Sampling theorem
• Detailing about sampling theorem
• Communication sys
• Types of modulation
 What is modulation ?
• It is a process in which some characteristics of a signal called
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the value of the
message signal.
• The message signal is also known as modulating or
baseband signal and the resultant signal after modulation is
known as modulated or bandpass signal.

Carrier Wave
Modulating Signal
 Why use modulation ?
1)To achieve practicality of antenna
The dimensions of transmitting antenna is
limited by the wavelength of the signal it can
transmit.
2)To remove interefence
Modulation Index
 Types of modulation
• A carrier wave can be described by 3 parameters:
amplitude, frequency and phase.

v(t) = A sin (ωt + φ)

A=amplitude
ω=frequency
φ=phase

Thus we can have :-

Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
 Amplitude Modulation
• It is a process in which amplitude of the carrier wave is varied
according to message (modulating) signal.
• In the process of amplitude modulation the frequency and phase of
the carrier wave remains constant.

Carrier wave Sinusoidal modulating signal

Amplitude modulated signal

Suppose carrier wave ,c(t)= Ac cos ωct
Modulating signal , x(t)= V cos ωmt

Amplitude Modulated wave is given by :-

s(t)=AC cos (2π fCt) {1 + m cos (2π fmt)}

where AC= unmodulated peak carrier amplitude

fm = modulating frequency
fC = carrier freaquency
m= modulation index ( degree of modulation)
the value of m must be between ‘0’ and ‘1’ .
• amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at
the carrier frequency and in two adjacent sidebands.
• 2/3 rd of the total power is concentrated in the carrier signal,which
carries no useful information.

So as to increase the efficiency of the transmitter

various alternatives are used :-
• Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)
• Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC)
– Single-sideband modulation (SSB, or SSB-AM),
• SSB with carrier (SSB-WC)
• SSB suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)
– Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM)
 Modulation Index
• Indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its
'original' level.
• In terms of AM it can be defined as the measure of extent of
amplitude variation about an unmodulated maximum carrier.
• also known as modulation depth
• For AM ,
• m= peak value of modulated signal V
------------------------------------------ = ------
amplitude of carrier signal Ac
 Frequency Modulation
• It is a process in which frequency of the carrier wave is varied
according to message (modulating) signal.
• In the process of frequency modulation , the amplitude and phase
of the carrier wave remains constant.

Carrier wave Sinusoidal modulating signal

Frequency modulated
signal
 Suppose carrier wave , c(t)= Ac cos ωct
Modulating signal ,x(t)= V cos ωmt

Frequency modulated wave is given by :-

v(t) = AC cos {2π fCt - m sin(2π fmt)}

where AC = unmodulated peak carrier amnplitude

fC = carrier frequency
fm = modulation frequency
m = modulation index (“degree” of modulation)

In case of FM ,modulating index describes variations in the frequency

of the carrier signal.
m = ▲f
------ where ▲f is the peak frequency variation
fm
Digital
Modulation

In digital modulation we have analog carrier

signal whereas digital modulating signal.
It can also be considered as digital to analog
signal.
 Amplitude Shift Keying
• The amplitude of an analog carrier signal varies in accordance with
the digital (modulating signal), keeping frequency and phase
constant.
• The level of amplitude can be used to represent binary logic 0s and
1s. We can think of a carrier signal as an ON or OFF switch.
• In the modulated signal, logic 0 is represented by the absence of a
carrier and logic 1 is represented by the presence of a carrier , thus
giving OFF/ON keying operation and hence the name given.
• The ASK technique is also commonly used to
transmit digital data over optical fiber
 On-Off Keying (OOK)
Carrier OOK output
Cos(2fct) Acm(t)Cos(2fct)
Message
m(t)
Modulating
Signal ,
m(t)
Modulated
Signal

 The complex envelope is

g  t   Ac m t 
 The OOK signal is represented by
s t   Ac m t  cos  c t
 Phase-shift keying (PSK)
• A digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or
modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
• PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern
of binary digits.
• Two common examples of phase shift keying are :-
Binary shift keying which uses 2 different phases
Quadrature phase shift keying which uses 4 diferent phases.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
Generation:
Message: m(t)
Carrier:Cos(2fct)
BPSK output
AcCos(2fct+Dpm(t))
180
Phase shift
1
Tb 
R
Message 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
Unipolar m(t)
Modulation
Bipolar m(t)
Modulation

s(t)
BPSK output
Transmitter Receiver
 Frequency Shift Keying
• A frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is
transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave.
• The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). BFSK literally implies using a
pair of discrete frequencies to transmit binary (0s and 1s)
information.
• With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark frequency and the "0"
is called the space frequency.
 Message: m(t)
Cos(2f1t)
Osc. f1 FSK output
AcCos(2f1t+1) or
Cos(2f2t) AcCos(2f2t+2)
Osc. f2
 Quadrature amplitude
modulation
• (QAM) is both an analog and a digital modulation scheme.
• It conveys two analog message signals, or two digital bit streams,
by changing (modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves,
using the amplitude-shift keying (ASK) digital modulation scheme or
amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation scheme. These two
waves, usually sinusoids, are out of phase with each other by 90°
and are thus called quadrature carriers or quadrature components
— hence the name of the scheme. The modulated waves are
summed, and the resulting waveform is a combination of both
phase-shift keying (PSK) and amplitude-shift keying (ASK), or in the
analog case of phase modulation (PM) and amplitude modulation.
In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at least two phases, and
at least two amplitudes are used.
• QAM is used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital
telecommunication systems.
 Sampling
• A mechanism for converting continuous signal to discrete time
signal.
• Acc. to sampling theorem :-
A continuous time signal may be completely represented in its
samples and recovered back if the sampling frequency is fs≥2fm
,where fs is the sampling frequency and fm is the maximum
frequency present in the signal.
 Pulse Modulation
• In this case the carrier wave is no longer a
continuous signal but consists of a pulse
train whereas
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
• In PAM, the amplitude of the carrier pulse train is varied in
accordance to the modulating signal.

Pulse Width Modulation

• In PWM , the width of the pulses is proportional to amplitude of
modulating signal.

Pulse Position Modulation

• In PPM , the position of the pulse with reference to the position of
reference pulse is changed according to the value of the modulating
signal.
 Pulse Code Modulation
• It is a digital pulse modulation system.
• The output of PCM is in the coded digital
pulses of constant amplitude ,width and
position .
• The basic operations in PCM are :-
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
 Sampling Quantization Encoding

• Quantization – It is a process of dividing

the total amplitude range into number of
standard levels.
• Encoder – It basically converts the
quantized input signal to binary words.
 Phase-shift keying (PSK)
• A digital modulation scheme that conveys data by changing, or
modulating, the phase of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
• PSK uses a finite number of phases, each assigned a unique pattern
of binary digits.
• Two common examples of phase shift keying are :-
Binary shift keying which uses 2 different phases
Quadrature phase shift keying which uses 4 diferent phases.