BIOLOGY

NEET NCERT
NOTES
CLASS 12 QUICK REVISION

Biology Simplified Tamil

Sl. No: Chapters Page No:

1. Reproduction in Organisms 01 - 08

2. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 09 - 22

3. Human Reproduction 23 - 32

4. Reproductive Health 33 - 37

5. Principles of Inheritance and Variation 38 - 52

6. Molecular Basis of Inheritance 53 - 68

7. Evolution 69 - 79

8. Human Health and Diseases 80 - 90

9. Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production 91 - 96

10. Microbes in Human Welfare 97 - 102

11. Biotechnology: Principles and Processes 103 - 109

12. Biotechnology and its Applications 110 - 113

13. Organisms and Populations 114 - 122

14. Ecosystem 123 - 131

15. Biodiversity and Conservation 132 - 136

16. Environmental Issues 137 - 144

Reproduction in Organisms
Life span: Period from birth to natural death of an organism.
• It doesn't depend on size. Eg: Sizes of crow and parrot are similar but life span show wide
difference, also mango tree has much shorter life span than Peepal tree.
• No individual is immortal except single celled.

Organism Life Span

Elephant 60 – 70 Years
Crocodile 60 Years
Horse 50 – 60 Years
Crow 15 Years
Banana Tree 25 – 30 Years
Cow 20 – 25 Years
Tortoise 100 – 150 Years
Fruit fly 2 weeks
Rice Plant 3 – 4 Months
Butterfly 1 – 2 Weeks
Rose 5 – 7 Years
Dog 10 – 12 Years
Parrot 140 Years
Banyan 200 Years

Reproduction: Biological process in which organism gives rise to young ones similar to
itself.
• It enables continuity of species, generation after generation.
• Its of 2 types – asexual and sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction: Offsprings are produced by single parent with or without

involvement of gamete formation.
• Offsprings are identical and exact copies of their parent.
• Clone: Morphologically and genetically similar individuals.
• Common among single celled, plants and animals with simple organisation.

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Reproduction in Organisms

1. Cell Division: Parent cell divides into 2 and give rise to new individuals.
Eg: Protists and Monerans
2. Binary fission: Cell divides into 2 halves and grow into an adult.
Eg: Amoeba, Paramecium.
3. Budding: Unequal division, bud remains attached to parent cell initially and then gets
separated and mature to new organism.
Eg: Yeast and Hydra.
4. Multiple fission:
• Encystation: Under unfavourable condition. Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia and
secretes 3 layered hard covering (cyst) around itself.
• Sporulation: Under unfavourable condition, it divides by multiple fission and produce
minute spores (Pseudopodiospores), cyst wall bursts out and spores are liberated.
5. Special reproductive structures: In algae and members of kingdom fungi.
a) Zoospores: Eg – Chlamydomonas
b) Conidia: Eg – Penicillium
c) Buds: Eg – Hydra
d) Gemmules: Eg – Sponges

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Reproduction in Organisms

6. Vegetative Propagation: In plants.

• Vegetative Propagules: Runner, sucker, rhizome, tuber, offset, bulb give rise to new
offspring.
Eg: Rhizome of ginger, offset of hyacinth, bulbil of Agave.
7. Fragmentation: Body breaks into fragment which give rise to new offspring.
Eg: Hydra.
8. From nodes: Nodes come in contact with damp soil and produce roots and new plants,
for commercial purpose also.
Eg: Rhizome in banana, ginger and buds (eyes) in potato.
9. From leaf: Adventitious buds arise from notches at leaf margin.
Eg: Bryophyllum.
• Simple organisms like algae and fungi shift to sexual reproduction before onset of
adverse condition.
• Higher plants exhibit both sexual and asexual (vegetative) mode of reproduction while
most of the animals exhibit sexual reproduction.

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Reproduction in Organisms

Terror of Bengal: Scourge of water bodies.

• Water hyacinth: Most invasive weed growing in standing water.
• It drains oxygen from water and lead to death of fishes.
• It spreads over the water body in short period of time so its difficult to get rid of them.
• It was introduced to India because of beautiful flowers and leaf shape.

Sexual Reproduction: Involve fusion of male and female gamete.

• 2 parents involved.
• Offspring aren't indentical to parents.
• Fusion of male and female gametes result in zygote.
1. Juvenile phase: Period of growth, also called vegetative phase (in plants).
2. Reproductive phase: At end of juvenile phase, followed by morphological and
physiological changes.
3. Senescence phase: End of reproductive phase, slowing of metabolism, lead to death.
• Annual and biennial plants show clear cut vegetative, reproductive and senescent phases
but perennial species don't due to inter-flowering period.
• Bamboo: Flower once in 50-100 years, produce fruits and die. It is monocarpic.
• Strobilanthus kunthiana (Neelakuranji): Flower once in 12 years, last in Sep - Oct 2018,
found in hilly areas of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu forming blue stretches.

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Reproduction in Organisms
• Birds living in nature lay eggs seasonally wheareas in captivity lay eggs throughout the
year (commercial exploitation).
• Oestrous cycle: In non-primates like cow, sheep, rat, deer, dog, tiger.
• Menstrual cycle: In primates like monkeys, apes, human.
• Seasonal breeders: Reproductively active during favourable season in reproductive phase.
• Continuous breeders: Reproductively active throughout reproductive phase.
• Interaction between hormones and environment regulate reproductive process and
expression.
Events in Sexual Reproduction:
1. Pre-fertilisation: Gametogenesis + gamete transfer.
a) Gametogenesis: Formation of male and female gametes.
• Gametes are haploid cells.
• Homogametes: 2 gametes are similar in appearance. Eg: Algae also called isogametes.
• Heterogametes: 2 gametes are morphologically distinct, in majority of organism, male
gamete – antherozoid/sperm and female gamete – egg/ovum.

• Bisexual: Both male and female flowers in same plant, also called
monoecious/homothallic. Eg: Cucurbits, coconut, sponges, earthworm, tapeworm,
leech, chara, sweet potato.
• Unisexual: Male and female flowers on different plants, also called
dioecious/heterothallic. Eg: Papaya, datepalm, cockroach.
• Staminate: Unisexual male flower. i.e. Bearing stamens.
• Pistillate: Unisexual female flower. i.e.Bearing pistils.
• Haploid plant produces gamete by mitotic division.
Eg: Monera, Fungi, Algae, Bryophyte
• Diploid body produce haploid gamete by meiosis.
Eg: Pteridophyte, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms.

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Reproduction in Organisms

They have specialised cells – meiocytes (gamete mother cell) and only one set of
chromosomes get incorporated into each gamete.

Organism Chromosome no. (meiocyte) Chromosome no.(gamete)

Fruit fly 8 4
House fly 12 6
Onion 16 8
Maize 20 10
Rice 24 12
Apple 34 17
Cat 38 19
Rat 42 21
Human being 46 23
Potato 48 24
Dog 78 39
Butterfly 380 190
Ophioglossum (a fern) 1260 630

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Reproduction in Organisms
b) Gamete Transfer: Meeting of gametes for fusion.
• In majority, male gamete is motile whereas female gamete is stationary.
• In few fungi and algae, both gametes are motile.
• Medium is water in algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes. A large no. of male gametes
fail to reach females. So, they are transported in huge amount to compensate the
loss.
• In seed plants, male gametes are carried by pollen grain to stigma.
• In bisexual plants, its easier as anther and stigma are located close to each other.
Eg: Peas.
• In cross pollinating or unisexual plants, pollination facilitates transfer of pollen grains,
which germinate on stigma and pollen tubes carry male gamete to ovule.

2. Fertilisation: Fusion of gametes (syngamy) results in diploid zygote.

• Parthenogenesis: Female gamete undergoes development to form new organisms
without fertilisation. Eg: Rotifers, honeybee, some lizards, turkey.
a) External fertilisation: Syngamy occurs in external medium. i.e. Outside the body of
organism.
• Release large no. of gametes in surrounding medium to enhance chances of fertilisation.
• These offspring are vulnerable to predator.

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Reproduction in Organisms

• Eg: Most aquatic organism, majority of algae and fish and amphibians, bony fish,
Frogs.
b) Internal fertilisation: Syngamy occurs inside body of organism.
• Egg is formed inside female where they fuse with male gamete (motile).
• No. of sperms are large but eggs produced are less.
• In seed plants, non – motile male gamete are carried by pollen tubes.
• Eg: Terrestrial organisms - fungi, higher animals like reptiles, birds, mammals, majority
of plants – bryophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
3. Post-Fertilisation:
a) Zygote: Occurs in all sexually reproducing organisms, single – celled.
• Its formed in external medium in external fertilisation whereas inside the body in
internal medium.
• Its a vital link that ensures continuity of species between organisms of one generation
and next.
• In haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis to form haploid spores.
• In fungi and algae it develops a thick wall resistant to dessication and damage. It
undergoes period of rest before germination.
b) Embryogenesis: Development of embryo from zygote.
• Zygote undergoes cell division (increase in no. of cells in embryo) and cell
differentiation (cells undergo modification to form specialised tissues and organs).
• Oviparous: Fertilised eggs are covered by hard calcareous shell and laid in safe
place, after incubation young ones hatch out. Eg: Reptiles and birds.

• Viviparous: Zygote develops inside female body and after certain time young ones are
delivered out of female body. Eg: Majority of mammals, human being.
• Because of proper embryonic care and protection, chances of survival are more in
viviparous.
• In flowering plants, zygote is formed inside ovule. After fertilisation, sepals, petals and
stamen of flower wither and fall off. Pistil remain attached to plant.
• Zygote develops to embryo and ovules into seed.
• Ovary develops to fruit which develops thick wall pericarp (protective). After dispersal,
Seed germinate under favourable condition to produce new plants.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Flower – A fascinating Organ
• They are of aesthetic, ornamental, social, religious and cultural value.
• They also convey emotions like love, affection, happiness, grief, mourning etc.

Pre – fertilisation
• Hormonal and structural changes lead to differentiation and development of floral
primordium and inflorescence are formed bearing floral buds.
• Androecium: Whorl of stamen (male reproductive organ)
• Gynoecium: Female reproductive organ.
1. Stamen: Has filament (long, slender stalk) and anther (terminal, bilobed).
• Proximal end of filament is attached to thalamus.
• Anther: Bilobed and dithecous (each lobe having 2 theca), longitudinal groove separates
theca, 4 sided structure with 4 microsporangia (2 in each lobe).

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

2. Microsporangium: Packed with pollen grains and become pollen sacs.

• Circular in transverse section.
• Surrounded by 4 walls - epidermis, endothecium, middle layer, tapetum.
• Innermost tapetum: Nourishes developing pollen grains and possess dense cytoplasm and
more than 1 nucleus.
• Outer three help in protection and dehiscence of anther to release pollen.
• Sporogenous tissue: Compactly arranged homogenous cells in centre of each
microsporangium when anther is young.
Microsporogenesis: Formation of microspore from pollen mother cell (PMC) through meiosis.
• As anther develops, cells of sporogenous tissue undergo meiotic division to form
microspore tetrads.
• Microspore are arranged in cluster of 4 – microspore tetrad.
• As anthers mature and dehydrate, microspore dissociate and develop pollen grains.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

3. Pollen Grain: Male gametophyte, spherical.

• Hibiscus has yellowish powdery pollen grains in anthers.
• 25-50 micrometer in diameter.
• Has 2 layers – exine and intine.
• Exine: Hard outer layer made of sporopollenin (most resistant organic material, withstand
high temperature, strong acids, alkali, can't be degraded by any enzyme), has apertures –
germ pores (sporopollenin absent), exhibits array of patterns and designs.
• Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils due to sporopollenin.
• Intine: Inner wall, thin and continuous layer made of cellulose and pectin.
• Cytoplasm is surrounded by plasma membrane.
• When they mature, it has 2 cells – vegetative and generative cell.
• Vegetative cell: Bigger, has food reserve and irregularly shaped nucleus.
• Generative cell: Small, floats in cytoplasm of vegetative cell, spindle shaped, dense
cytoplasm and nucleus.
• In 60% angiosperms, pollen grains shed at 2 celled stage whereas in remaining, generative
cell divides mitotically to give rise to 2 male gametes before pollen grains shed ( 3 celled
stage).

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• They also cause allergies and bronchial affliction leading to chronic respiratory disorder –
asthma, bronchitis.
Eg: Parthenium/carrot grass came with imported wheat cause pollen allergy.
• They are rich in nutrients, so used as food supplements.

• They are available as syrups and in form of tablets.

• They increase performance of athletes and race horses.
• They have to land on stigma before losing viability for fertilisation. Its highly variable and
depends an temperature and humidity.
Eg: For cereals (rice, wheat) – 30 minutes
For Rosaceae, Leguminoseae, Solanaceae – months.
• Cryopreservation: Pollen grains are preserved in liquid nitrogen at - 196°C, which can be
used as pollen banks and crop breeding programmes.
4. Pistil:
• Gynoecium may have single pistil (monocarpellary) or more than 1 pistil (multicarpellary).
When there are more than 1 pistil, pistil may be fused (syncarpous) or may be free
(apocarpous).
• It has 3 parts:
Stigma: Landing platform for pollen grains.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Style: Elongated slender part beneath stigma.
Ovary: Basal bulged part. It has ovarian locule which has placenta.
• Placenta gives rise to megasporangia/ovules.
• No. of ovules in ovary may be one (wheat, paddy, mango) to many (papaya, orchids,
watermelon).
• Multicarpellary - Syncarpous (Papaver) and apocarpous pistil (Michelia).
5. Megasporangium (Ovule):
• Its attached to placenta by funicle and its body fuses with funicle in hilum.
• It has 2 protective envelopes - integuments which encircle nucellus except micropyle.
• Opposite to micropylar end is chalaza (basal part of ovule).
• Mass of cells enclosed within integuments - nucellus which have food reserves and
embryo sac/female gametophyte.
• Generally has 1 embryo sac formed from 1 megaspore.

Megasporogenesis: Formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell.

• MMC differentiate in micropylar region and undergoes meiotic division to form 4
megaspore.
6. Embryo sac (female gametophyte): 7 celled 8 nucleate.
• In majority, only 1 megaspore is functional while other 3 degenerate.
• Monosporic development: Embryo sac formation from single megaspore.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form 2 nuclei which move to
opposite poles – 2 nucleate embryo sac.
• Two more divisions occur resulting in 4 - nucleate and 8 - nucleate stages.
• At 8 - nucleate stage, cell walls are laid. 6 of 8 are surrounded by cell walls and organised
into cell, remaining 2 form polar nuclei in large central cell (1).
• 3 cells group at micropylar end - egg apparatus (2 synergids+ 1 egg cell).
• Synergids have cellular thickenings – filiform apparatus which guide pollen tubes into
synergids.
• 3 cells are at chalazal - antipodals.
• So, its 8 nucleate 7 celled.

7. Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains to stigma of pistil.

• Both gametes are non-motile.
a) Autogamy: Pollination within same flower.
• Rare in flowers which open and expose anthers and stigma, as they require synchrony in

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
pollen release and stigma receptivity and should lie close to each other.
• Eg: Viola (common pansy), Oxalis and Commelina.
b) Geitonogamy: Transfer of pollens from anther to stigma of another flower of same plant.
• Functionally cross pollination, genetically similar to autogamy.

c) Xenogamy: Transfer of pollens from anther to stigma of different plant, brings genetically
different pollen grains to stigma.
Types of flowers:
Chasmogamous: Flowers with exposed anthers and stigma.
Cleistogamous: Flowers which do not open at all. Anthers and stigma lie close to each
other, autogamy occur, no chances of cross pollination, produce seed set
even in absence of pollinators.
8. Agents of Pollination: Abiotic (wind and water) and biotic (animals).
• Majority use biotic agents.
a) Wind: Eg: Corn cob, grasses (tassels are stigma and style).
• Light, non - sticky pollen grains with well exposed stamens .
• Feathery stigma to trap air borne pollen grain.
• Flowers have single ovule in each ovary and numerous flowers packed into inflorescence.
• Not very colourful, don't produce nectar.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

b) Water: 30 genera of monocots.

Eg: Fresh water - Vallisneria and Hydrilla, Marine – zostera.
• Some aquatic plants like water hyacinth and water lily are pollinated by insects as they
are present at water surface.
• Vallisneria: Female flower reach water surface by long stalk and pollen grains are
released on surface which are carried passively by water currents.
• Seagrasses: Female flowers remain submerged in water and pollen grains are released
inside water.
• Pollen grains can be long, ribbon like and carried passively inside water, some reach
stigma.
• Pollen grains are protected by mucilagenous covering.
• Flowers aren't colourful and don't produce nectar.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

c) Insect: By bees, butterflies, flies, bettles, wasps, ants, moths, bats, birds
(sunbird and humming birds).
• By large animals - primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko
lizard and garden lizard).
• Large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar flowers to attract insects.
• Clustered inflorescence in small flowers.
• Flowers secrete foul odours to attract and provide floral rewards like nectar and pollen
grains.
• When animal comes in contact with flower, pollens stick to its body and when animal
comes in contact with stigma of another flower, pollination occur.
• Amorphophallus (6 feet height): Provides safe place to lay eggs as floral reward.
• Moth and Yucca plant: Moth deposit its egg in locule of ovary and flower in turn, gets
pollinated by moth.
As seeds start developing, larvae of moth comes out of eggs.
• Pollen/nectar robbers: Many insects consume pollen/nectar without bringing out
pollination.
Outbreeding devices: Discourage self pollination and encourage cross pollination.
• Inbreeding depression: Continued self pollination.
• To prevent self pollination:
a) Pollen release and stigma receptivity are not synchronised. Either pollen release
before stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive before pollen release.
b) Both are at different positions so pollens can’t come in contact with stigma of same
flower.
c) Self incompatibility: Genetic, prevents self pollen from fertilising ovules by inhibiting
pollen germination in pistil.
d) Production of unisexual flowers in 1 plant (i.e. Either male or female flowers)
prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy.
Eg: Papaya (Either male or female flowers – dioecy) whereas if both male and
female flowers are present on same plant it prevents autogamy but not
geitonogamy.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Pollen-Pistil Interaction: From pollens deposited on stigma to pollen tubes entering ovule.
• Pistil has ability to recognise the right pollen (compatible) and promote post-fertilisation
events.
• Ability of pistil to accept or reject pollen is a result of continuous dialogue between
pollen grains and pistil – chemical dialogue.
• Pollens germinate on stigma to produce pollen tube through one of germ pores.
• Pollen move into pollen tube which grows through stigma tissues and style to reach
ovary.
• In 2 - celled condition, generative cell divides to form 2 male gametes during pollen tube
growth in stigma.
• In 3 - celled condition, pollen tube carry 2 male gametes from beginning and enter ovule
through micropyle and enters one of the synergids through filiform apparatus.

Artificial Hybridisation: In crop improvement programmes.

a) Emasculation: Removal of anthers from floral bud before anther dehisces
(in bisexual flowers), no need in unisexual flowers.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
b) Bagging: Emasculated flowers are covered with bag made of butter paper to prevent
contamination of stigma with unwanted pollens. When stigma attain receptivity,
pollens are dusted on it and rebagged.
Double fertilisation: Syngamy + triple fusion.
• After entering synergids, pollen tube releases 2 male gametes.
𝑆𝑦𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑦
1st male gamete + Egg cell → Zygote → (2n) → Embryo,
𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
2nd male gamete + 2 polar nuclei → primary endosperm nucleus (3n)
• Central cell after triple fusion becomes primary endosperm cell (PEC) and develops into
endosperm.
Post – fertilisation
1. Endosperm: Its development precedes embryo development.
• PEC divides rapidly to form endosperm time filled with reserve food material for developing
embryo.
• Free nuclear endosperm: PEN undergo successive nuclear divisions to give rise to free
nuclei, then cell wall forms and endosperm becomes cellular.

• Free nuclear endosperm: Coconut water from tender coconut.

Cellular endosperm: White kernel of coconut.

2. Embryo: Develops at micropylar end of embryo sac.

• Zygote divides when certain amount of endosperm is formed.
• Early stages of its development are similar in monocot and dicot.
• Zygote → proembryo globular → heart shape → mature embryo.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

a) Dicot embryo: 1 embryonal axis + 2 cotyledons.

• Epicotyl: Portion of embryonal axis above cotyledons, terminates with plumule or stem tip.
• Hypocotyl: Cylindrical portion below cotyledons, terminates in radicle or root tip covered
with root cap.
b) Monocot embryo: 1 cotyledon.
• In grass family, cotyledon is scutellum (towards one side of embryonal axis).
• At lower end, embryonal axis has radicle and root cap enclosed by undifferentiated sheath
- coleorrhiza.
• Above it is epicotyl which has shoot apex and few leaf primordia enclosed in hollow foliar
structure - coleoptile.
3. Seed: Fertilised ovule, final product of sexual reproduction.
• Has seed coat, embryo axis and cotyledon (simple structure and thick, swollen due to food
reserves as in legumes).
a) Non - albuminous: Eg: Pea, groundnut, beans.
• No residual endosperm, completely consumed in embryo development.
b) Ex-albuminous: Eg: Wheat, maize, barley, castor, coconut.
• Endosperm retained and not completely consumed in development.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Perisperm: Nucellus persists.Eg: Black pepper and beet.
• Micropyle remains as pore in seed coat which facilitates entry of oxygen and water into
seed during germination.
• As seed matures, water content reduce and seeds become dry (10-15% moisture), general
metabolism slows and they enter state of inactivity - dormancy.
• In favourable condition, they germinate.
• Ovules mature to seeds and ovary develops to fruit.
• Wall of ovary develops to wall of fruit – pericarp.
• Fruits may be:
Fleshy - guava, orange, mango
Dry - groundnut, mustard.
• False fruits: Fruits developing from part other than ovary.
Eg: Strawberry cashew, apple.
• True Fruits: Fruits developing from ovary.
• Parthenocarpic fruits: Fruits developing without fertilisation. Eg: Banana. They are
seedless and induced through application of growth hormones.

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Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Advantages of seed:
• Pollination and fertilisation are independent of water but seed formation is more
dependable.
• Help species to colonise in other areas.
• Nourishes young seedling by photosynthesis.
• Hard seed coat provides protection to young embryo.
• Generate new genetic combination due to sexual reproduction.
• Have better adaptive strategies.
• Basis of agriculture.
• Dehydration and dormancy are important for seed storage.
Dormancy period:
1. Lupinus arcticus: Excavated from Arctic Tundra.
seed germinate and flower after 10,000 years.
2. Phoenix dactylifera: (Date palm) excavated from king Herod's palace.
seed viable period is 2000 years
Note: Orchid fruits, Orobanche and Striga contain thousands of tiny seeds.
Apomixis: Seeds produced without fertilisation. Eg: Asteraceae and grasses.
• Asexual reproduction mimics sexual reproduction.
• Diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division and develops into embryo without
fertilisation in some species.
Polyembryony: Occurence of more than 1 embryo in a seed. Eg: Citrus and Mango.
• Nucellar cells surrounding embryo sac divide and protrude into embryo sac and develop
into embryo. So, each ovule has many embryos.
Hybrid Varieties:
Disadvantages
• They have to be produced every year as when seeds from hybrids are sown, progeny don't
maintain hybrid characters.
• Costly, too expensive for farmers.
How to overcome disadvantages?
• Hybrids are made into apomicts and no segregation of character occur in progeny, so
farmers can keep on using these seeds to raise new crop every year and doesn't have to
buy hybrid seeds.

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Human Reproduction
Male Reproductive System: In pelvic region.
Testes + Accessory ducts + Glands + External genitalia.
1.Testes: Outside abdominal cavity within scrotum.
• Scrotum: Maintain low temperature of testes (2-2.5°C lower than internal body
temperature) required for spermatogenesis.
• Oval in shape, length 4-5 cm, width 2-3 cm.
• Has 250 testicular lobules (each has 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules).
• Seminiferous tubules: Production of sperms occur, lined by spermatogonia and
Sertolicells.
• Spermatogonia (male germ cell) - undergo meiotic division for sperm formation.
• Sertoli cells: Provide nutrition to germ cells.
• Interstitial space: Region outside seminiferous tubules, contain small blood vessel and
interstitial cells/Leydig cell. (synthesise and secrete androgens).

2. Accessory Ducts:
• Seminiferous tubules open into vasa efferentia through rete testis.
• Vasa efferentia leave testis and open into epididymes on posterior of each testes,
which leads to vas deferens that ascends to abdomen.
• Urinary bladder receives duct from seminal vesicle and open into urethra as
ejaculatory duct (stores and transport sperms from testis to outside urethra).
• Urethra extends through penis to its external opening - urethral meatus.
3. Glands: Paired seminal vesicle, prostate and bulbourethral.
• Secretion of all 3 - seminal plasma (rich in fructose, calcium, certain enzymes).
• Secretion of bulbourethral helps in lubrication of penis.

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Human Reproduction

Female Reproductive System: In pelvic region.

Pair of ovaries + Oviducts + Uterus + Cervix + Vagina + External genitalia.
• These parts alongwith mammary gland play structural and functional role in ovulation,
fertilisation, birth, pregnancy.
1. Ovaries: Primary female sex organs, produce ovum and hormones.
• Located on each side of lower abdomen.
• 2-4 cm length, covered by epithelium enclosing ovarian stroma.
• Stroma is divided to peripheral cortex and inner medulla.
2. Female Accessory Ducts: Oviduct + Uterus + Vagina.
a) Oviducts (fallopian tube) – 10 - 12cm long .
Isthmus: Narrow lumen, joins uterus.
Ampulla: Middle wider part.
Infundibulum: Close to ovary, funnel shaped, its edges possess finger like projections –
fimbrae (collect ovum after ovulation).
b) Uterus: (womb), single, inverted pear like.
• Has 3 tissue layers –
Perimetrium: External thin membranous.
Myometrium: Middle thick layer of smooth muscle, contract during delivery.
Endometrium: Inner glandular layer, undergo cyclical changes during menstrual cycle.

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Human Reproduction
• Opens into vagina through narrow cervix.
• Cavity of cervix (cervical canal) + vagina = Birth canal.
3. External Genitalia: Mons pubis +Labia majora + Labia minora + Clitoris + Hymen.
• Mons pubis: Cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and pubic hairs.
• Labia majora: Fleshy folds of tissue surrounding vaginal opening.
• Labia minora: Paired tissue folds under labia majora.
• Clitoris: Tiny finger like structure at upper junction of 2 labia minora.
• Hymen: Partial covering of membrane over vaginal opening.
Is hymen sign of virginity?
• No, its not a reliable indicator of virginity.
• Its often broken during first coitus but may persist even after coitus in some women.
• It can also be broken by sudden fall, insertion of tampon, cycling, horseback riding.

4. Mammary Glands: Characteristic of female mammals, paired.

• Have glandular tissue and fat.
• Glandular tissue is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells -
alveoli (secrete milk which is stored in lumen of alveoli).

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Human Reproduction

• Alveoli → mammary tubules → mammary duct → mammary ampulla → lactiferous

ducts (through which milk is sucked out).

Gametogenesis: Production of male and female gametes.

1. Spermatogenesis: In males at puberty.
• Immature male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce sperms.
• Spermatogonia (diploid, 46 chromosomes) on inner wall of seminiferous tubules
multiply by mitotic division and some are called primary spermatocytes, which
completes 1st meiotic division (reduction division) to form 2 equal secondary
spermatocytes (haploid), which undergo 2nd meiotic division to produce 4 equal
spermatids (haploid).
• Spermiogenesis: Spermatids are transformed to spermatozoa (sperms).
• Spermiation: After spermatogenesis, sperm head remains embedded in Sertoli cells
and then released by seminiferous tubules.

Hormonal Influence: By hypothalmic hormone (gonadotropin releasing hormone)

• Act at anterior pituitary and stimulate Luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).

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Human Reproduction
• LH: Act at Leydig cells, stimulate synthesis and secretion of androgens, which stimulate
spermatogenesis.
• FSH: Act at Sertoli cells, help in spermiogenisis.
Structure of Sperm: Head + Neck + Middle piece + Tail.
• Plasma membrane envelops it.
• Head: Has elongated haploid nucleus, anterior portion is covered by cap like acrosome
(filled with enzyme helping in fertilisation of ovum).
• Middle piece: Has numerous mitochondria possessing energy for tail movement
facilitating sperm motility.
• Male ejaculates 200-300 million sperms during coitus.
• For normal fertility, 60% of it must have normal shape and size and 40% of them must
show vigorous motility.
• Seminal Plasma: Secretion of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate,
essential for maturation and sperm motility.
• Semen: Seminal plasma + sperms.

2.Oogenesis: In females.
• Initiated during embryonic development stage.
• Million of oogonia are formed in each ovary and no more oogonia are formed after birth.
• They divide and enter prophase I and get arrested at that stage – primary oocyte.
• It gets surrounded by granulosa cells – primary follicle.
• A large no. of follicles get degenerate and only 60,000 – 80,000 follicles are left in each
ovary .
• Primary follicles get surrounded by more layers - secondary follicle.
• Fluid filled cavity (antrum) is formed – tertiary follicle. Theca layer is organised to inner
theca and outer theca .

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Human Reproduction
• Primary oocyte within tertiary follicle completes 1st meiotic division forming large
secondary oocyte (n) and tiny first polar body as secondary oocyte retains bulk of
nutrient rich cytoplasm.
• Tertiary follicle changes to graffian follicle. Secondary oocyte forms new membrane
- zona pellucida.
• Ovulation: Graffian follicle ruptures to release secondary oocyte.

Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis:

Menstrual Cycle: Reproductive cycle in female primates.

• Menarche: First menstruation at puberty.
• Its repeated at average interval of 28/29 days

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Human Reproduction
1. Menstrual Phase: 3 - 5 days.
• Menstrual flow occurs due to breakdown of endometrial lining of uterus and blood
vessels which come out through vagina as liquid.
• Only occurs if released ovum isn’t fertilised.
• Lack of it is indicative of pregnancy but it may also be due to stress, poor health etc.
2. Follicular Phase or proliferative Phase:
• Primary follicles grow to become fully mature Graffian follicle.
• Endometrium layer regenerates.
• Secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases, stimulates secretion of estrogen and
follicular development.
3. Ovulatory Phase: 14th day of cycle.
• LH and FSH attain peak level, leading to LH Surge.
• Graffian follicle ruptures and ovum releases: Ovulation.
4. Luteal Phase:
• Remaining graffian follicle transform as corpus luteum, which secretes large amount of
progestrone for maintaining endometrium.
• In absence of fertilisation, corpus luteum degenerates, endometrium disintegrate
leading to menstruation.
• During pregnancy, all events stop.
• Menopause: Menstrual cycle ceases around 50 years of age.
• These all events are result of pituitary and ovarian hormones.

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Human Reproduction
Fertilisation and Implantation:
• Insemination: Release of semen into vagina by penis (during coitus).
• Sperm pass through cervix to uterus to ampullary region of fallopian tube.
• Ovum is also transported there and fertilisation occur only if both are transported
simultaneously.
• Fertilisation: Fusion of sperm and ovum.

• Sperm comes in contact with zona pellucida and induce changes in membrane which
block entry of additional sperms. So, 1 sperm can fertilise ovum.
• Secretion of acrosome help sperm to enter cytoplasm of ovum.
• Secondary oocyte complete meiotic division forming haploid ovum (n) and second polar
body.
• Haploid nucleus of sperm fuse with ovum to form zygote (2n).
• Sex determination: Female (XX) and male (XY)-chromosome pattern.
• Haploid gamete of female have ʽX’ whereas males can have ʽX’or ʽY’(50%)
• After fusion, zygote can carry either XX or XY depending on sperm.
• Zygote carrying XX is female whereas XY is male.
• Sex of the baby is determined by father and not mother.
• Zygote moves through isthmus – cleavage and form 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells
- blastomeres, embryo with 8 - 16 blastomeres - morula which divides and transforms to
blastocyst .
• Blatomeres in blastocyst are arranged into outer layer - trophoblast (which gets
attached to endometrium) and inner group of cells - inner cell mass (get differentiated
as embryo), acts as stem cells.
• Uterine cells divide and cover blastocyst.
• Implantation: Embedding of blastocyst in endometrium which leads to pregnancy.

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Human Reproduction

Pregnancy and Embryonic development:

• Finger like projections - chorionic villi appear on trophoblast, surrounded by uterine
tissue and maternal blood.
• Placenta: Structural and functional unit between embryo and maternal blood, formed by
chorionic villi and uterine tissue. It facilitate O2 and nutrient supply, removes CO2 and
excretory waste of embryo, acts as endocrine tissue and produce hormones - human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogen, progestrone
etc.
• hCG, hPL, relaxin (later pregnancy) are produced only during pregnancy.
• Others like estrogen, progestrone, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine are in increased amount
to support fetal growth, bring changes in mother and maintain pregnancy.
• Placenta is connected to embryo through umbilical cord which transports substances to
and from embryo.
• Inner cell mass differentiate to outer ectoderm, inner endoderm and mesoderm in
between which differentiate to tissues as they contain Stem cells which can give rise to
all tissues and organs.
• Pregnancy last for 9 months in human.
1st month - embryo's heart sound can be heard.
End of 2nd month - foetus develops limbs and digits.
First trimester (12 weeks) - organ system formed (limbs and external genital organs
develop)
5th month - first movement of foetus, appearance of hair on head.
End of second trimester - body is covered by fine hair, eye lids separate, eye lashes
formed.
End of 9th month - fully developed foetus.

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Human Reproduction

Parturition and Lactation:

• Gestation period: Duration of human pregnancy (9 months)
• Parturition: Delivery of foetus vigorous contraction of uterus causing expulsion of foetus.
• Signals for it originate from fully developed foetus and placenta which induce mild uterine
contraction – foetal ejection reflex. It triggers oxytocin from maternal pituitary, which
induces strong uterine contraction.
• Soon, after parturition, placenta is expelled out of uterus.
• Lactation: Mammary glands undergo differentiation during pregnancy and produce milk
towards its end which helps in feeding new born.
• Colostrum: Milk produced during intitial few days of lactation, has several antibodies
(mainly IgA) and necessary for healthy baby.

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Reproductive Health
• WHO (World Health Organisation): Reproductive health means total well being i.e.
physical, emotional, behavioural and social.
• Reproductively healthy: People having physically and functionally normal reproductive
organs and normal emotional and behavioural interaction among them in all aspects.
Reproductive Health:
• India is amongst first countries to initiate action plans and programmes to attain total
reproductive health as social goal - Family planning (1951).
• Other programmes: Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH).
• Amniocentesis: Amniotic fluid of developing foetus is taken to analyse fetal cells to test
presence of genetic disorder - down syndrome, haemophilia, sickle cell anemia etc. But
its used for sex-determination which is increasing female foeticides.
• Improved reproductive society: Increased no. of medically assisted deliveries, better
post natal care, decreased infant and maternal mortality rate, increased no. of couples
with small families, better detection and cure for STD's.
Population Stabilisation and Birth Control:
• World population: 2 billion in 1900 to 6 billion in 2000 to 7.2 billion in 2011.
• India population: 350 million in 1947 to 1 billion in 2000 to 1.2 billion in May 2011.
• Its due to decline in death rate, maternal mortality rate and infant mortality rate.
• According to 2011 census, population growth rate was less than 2% i.e. alarming growth
rate which would lead to scarcity of even basic requirements.
• Steps to overcome: Raising of marriageable age of female to 18 years and male to 21
years and advertisement of ʽHum Do Humare Do’.
Contraceptives:
• Should be user friendly, easily available, effective, reversible, no or least side effects.

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Reproductive Health
1. Natural Method: Avoid chances of ovum and sperm meeting.
a) Periodic Abstinence: Couples avoid coitus from day 10 to 17 of menstrual cycle (when
ovulation is expected). This period is fertile period.
b) Withdrawal/Coitus interrupts: Male partner withdraws penis from vagina before
ejaculation to avoid insemination.
c) Lactational amenorrhea: Menstrual cycle don't occur during intense lactation, so
chances of conception are almost nil but its effective upto 6 months following parturition.
• Nil side effects but high chances of failure.

2. Barrier Method: Ovum and sperm are prevented from meeting by help of barriers,
available for both male and female.
a) Condoms: Made of thin rubber later sheath, protects user from STIS and AIDS.
• Cover penis in males or vagina and cervix in females just before coitus to prevent
conception.
• ʽ Nirodh’: Popular brand of condom for males.
• These are disposable and can be self inserted so gives privacy to user.

b) Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults: Made of rubber, reusable.

• Inserted in female reproductive tract to cover cervix during coitus.
• Block entry of sperm through cervix.
c) Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams

3. Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs): Most widely accepted method.

• Inserted by doctors in uterus through vagina.
a) Non-medicated IUDs: Eg - Lippes loop.
b) Copper releasing IUDs: Eg - CuT, Cu 7, Multiload 375
Increase phagocytosis of sperm within uterus, suppress sperm motility
and fertilising capacity of sperms.

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Reproductive Health

c) Hormone releasing IUDs: Eg - Progestasert, LNG-20

Make uterus unsuitable for implantation and cervix hostile to sperms.
• They are ideal contraceptives to delay pregnancy.

4. Oral Contraceptives: Used in form of tablets so, also called pills.

• Small doses of either progestrone or progesterone - estrogen combination.
• Inhibit ovulation, implantation and alter quality of cervical mucus.
• Very effective with less side effects.
• Taken daily for 21 days starting within first five days of menstrual cycle.
After 7 days of menstruation, its repeated till female desires to prevent conception.
Saheli: Oral contraceptive, non-steroidal preparation, few side effects.
• Also called ʽOnce a week’ pill.
• Developed at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI), Lucknow.

5. Injectables and Implants: Similar to pills but longer effective period.

• Have only progestrone or combination of progestrone and estrogen.
• Very effective as emergency contraceptives to avoid pregnancies due to rape or
unprotected intercourse by administration of progestrons or progestrone – estrogen
within 72 hours of coitus.

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Reproductive Health
6. Surgical Methods: Also Sterilisation, terminal method.
• Block gamete transport to prevent pregnancy.
• Highly effective but poor reversibility.
a) Vasectomy: In males.
Small part of vas deferens is removed or tied up through small incision on scrotum.
b) Tubectomy: In females.
Small part of fallopian tube is removed or tied up through small incision in abdomen.

III effects of contraceptives:

• Nausea, abdominal pain, breakthrough bleeding, irregular menstrual bleeding, breast
cancer.
• They are not regular requirements.
Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP): Induced abortion.
• 45-50 million MTP in a year all over world are performed which is 1/5th of total
conceived pregnancies.
• Legalised in 1971 in India.
• It is performed to get rid of unwanted pregnancies due to casual unprotected
intercourse, rape, when continuation of pregnancy is fatal for mother or foetus.
• Safe during first trimester but risky in second trimester.
• Sometimes its performed by unqualified quacks and also misuse of amniocentesis occur
(female foeticide).
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs): Infections transmitted through sexual
intercourse, also venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract infections (RTI).
• Eg: Gonorrhoea, syphilis, genital herpes, chlamydiasis, genital warts, trichomoniasis,
hepatitis-B, HIV (most dangerous).
• Except for hepatitis B, genital herpes and HIV all are completely curable in early stage.
• Hepatitis B and HIV can be transmitted by sharing needles, surgical instruments etc. with
affected person.
• Early symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain, swelling etc. in genital region.

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Reproductive Health
• Infected female may often be asymptomatic and remain undetected for long. It can lead
to complications like pelvic Inflammatory diseases (PID), abortion, still birth, ectopic
pregnancies, infertility or cancer.
• High among age group 15-24 years.
• To avoid STIS: Avoid sex with unknown partners, use condoms during coitus, in case of
doubt contact qualified doctor for early detection and treatment.
Infertility: Unable to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual co-habitation.
• Can be due to physical, congenital diseases, drugs, immunological etc.
• Mostly in males.
• They are assisted to have children through special technique - assisted reproductive
techniques (ART).
1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF) followed by embryo transfer:
• Test tube baby programme: Ova from wife/donor and sperm from husband/donor are
collected and induced to form zygote, under suitable conditions.
• Zygote/early embryo upto 8 blastomeres is transferred into fallopian tube - Zygote intra
fallopian transfer (ZIFT)
• Embryo with more than 8 blastomeres is transferred into uterus-intra uterine transfer
(IUT).
• They assist females who can't conceive.
2. Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT): Transfer of ovum from donor into fallopian tube
of another female who can't produce ovum but can provide suitable condition for
fertilisation and further development.
3. Intra Cytoplasm Sperm injection (ICSI): Sperm is directly injected into ovum.
4. Artificial insemination: Semen collected either from husband or donor is introduced in
vagina/uterus artificially - Intra uterine Insemination (IUI), due to inability of male
partner to inseminate or due to very low sperm counts in ejaculates.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation
Genetics: Deals with inheritance and variation of characters from parents to offspring.
Inheritance: Process by which characters are passed on from parent to progeny, basis of
heredity.
Variation: Degree by which progeny differ from parents.
• Sahiwal cows of Punjab: Indian breed from artificial selection and domestication from wild
cows.
Mendel's law of inheritance: By Gregor Mendel.
• Conducted experiments on garden peas for 7 years (1856 - 1863) and proposed laws of
inheritance.
• Had large sampling size and greater credibility, his results pointed to general rules of
inheritance.
• It was first time when statistical analysis and mathematical logic were applied to biology.
• Used opposite traits. Eg: Tall - dwarf, yellow-green.
• Used 14 true breeding pea lines – undergo continuous self pollination, show stable trait
inheritance and expression for several generation.

Character Dominant Character Recessive Character

Seed shape Round Wrinkled
Seed colour Yellow Green
Flower colour Violet White
Pod shape Full Constricted
Pod colour Green Yellow
Flower position Axial Terminal
Stem height Tall Dwarf

Inheritance of One gene:

• Mendel crossed tall and dwarf pea plants.
• He crossed these seeds to obtain Filial progeny (F1), that were all tall and none dwarf.
• F1 always resembled either one of parents and trait of other isn’t seen.
• On selfing F1, character not seen in F1 was now expressed. i.e. 1/4th were dwarf, 3/4th were
tall, none in between tall and dwarf.
• Contrasting traits didn't show any blending at either F1 or F2 stage.
• Mendel proposed factors passed stably unchanged from parent to offspring through
gametes over successive generations, later called genes (unit of inheritance).
• Genes: Contain information required to express particular trait.
• Alleles: Genes coding for pair of contrasting traits.
• Capital letter in used for trait expressed in F1 and small letter for other.
Eg: ʽ T ʼ for tall and ʽ t ʼ for dwarf. These are allele of each other.
• Allelic pair can be identical/homozygous – TT or tt or heterozygous –Tt.
• ln dissimilar pair, one dominates (dominant) the other (recessive).
Eg: ʽ T ʼ is dominant and ʽ t ʼ is recessive.
• Monohybrid Cross: Cross between genes controlling one character.
• Recessive parental trait is expressed without blending in F2 generation.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation
• Alleles of parental pair segregate by meiosis and only 1 allele is transmitted to gamete.
Its a random process. So, there are 50% chance of gamete containing either allele.

Punnett Square: By British geneticist, Reginald C. Punnett.

• Graphical representation to calculate probability of all possible genotypes.
• Production of gamete and formation of zygote can be understood.
• Possible gametes are written on 2 sides (top row and left column) and possible combination
in square boxes below.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation
• When fertilisation occur, pollen with genotype ʽ T ʼ have 50% chance to pollinate eggs of
genotype ʽ T ʼ and ʽ t ʼ, similarly pollens with ʽ t ʼ have 50% chance to pollinate eggs of ʽ T ʼ
and ʽ t ʼ. Zygote can be TT, tt, Tt.
Mathematically: (ax + by)2 binomial expression.

(1/2T + 1/2t) 2 = (1/2T + 1/2t) x (1/2T + 1/2t) = 1/4 TT + 1/2Tt + 1/4tt

Test Cross: To determine genotype of tall plant. ( TT or Tt ).

• Tall plant from F2 is crossed with dwarf plant (recessive parent).
• Recessive parent is always homozygous.

Law of Dominance:
• Character are controlled by units - factors (occur in pair) and in dissimilar pair of factors one
member dominates other.
• Explains expression of only 1 parental character in monohybrid cross and proportion of 3:1
at F2.
Incomplete dominance: Eg: Flower colour in dog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum).
• F1 doesn't resemble either of 2 parents and was in between two.
• Diploid organism has 2 copies of each gene where 2 alleles may be different (heterozygote),
one of them may be different due to changes it has undergone which modifies information
that particular allele has.
• Another example - Starch synthesis in pea seeds.
• It has 2 alleles - B and b.
• Starch is synthesised effectively by BB and with less efficiency by bb. BB produce round
seeds whereas bb produce wrinkled seeds.
• If BB and bb are crossed, resulting genotype is Bb - intermediate size instead round seed.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

• Another example is of producing enzyme. Normal allele produce normal enzyme that forms
product but modified allele can produce normal/less efficient enzyme or non-functional
enzyme or no enzyme at all.
• Phenotype depends on functioning of unmodified allele i.e. Dominant allele.
• As in above, if modified allele produce normal enzyme, phenotype remains same but if it
produces less efficient or no enzyme then phenotype is affected.
Co-dominance: Eg: ABO blood grouping in humans.
• F1 generation resembles both parents.
• ABO blood group is controlled by gene I. Plasma membrane of RBC have sugar polymers on
surface, controlled by gene I.
• It has 3 alleles - IA, IB, i. IA and IB produce slightly different sugar while i has no sugar at all.
• Each person possess 2 of 3 alleles.
• IA and IB are completely dominant over i.
• When IA and IB are present together they express their own type of sugar called
co – dominance.
• It has 4 phenotypes - A, B, O, AB and 6 genotypes.
IA IA – A IA IB – AB IB IB – AB
IA i – A ii – O IB i – B

(6 Genotypes)

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Multiple Alleles: More than 2 alleles govern same character.

Eg: ABO blood grouping which has 3 alleles- IA, IB, i

Law of segregation:
• Alleles don't show any blending and both characters are recovered in F 2 generation.
• Though parent has 2 alleles but they segregate and only 1 factor is passed to gamete.
• Homozygous parent has similar gametes whereas heterozygous has 2 kind of gametes
Inheritance of Two Genes:
• Dihybrid cross: Cross between plants differing in 2 traits.
• Mendel cross yellow seed colour, round shape plants with green seed colour, wrinkled
shape plants.
• Yellow seed colour were dominant over green whereas round shape seeds were dominant
over wrinkled seeds.
• Yellow and green segregate in ratio 3:1 and similarly round and wrinkled.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Law of Independent Assortment:

• When 2 pair of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair of character is
independent of other pair of character .

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance: By Watter Sutton and Theodore Boveri.

• Mendel published his work in 1865 but remain unrecognised till 1900.
1. Communication wasn't easy and his work couldn't be published.
2. His concept of genes as stable and discrete units controlling expression of traits and
pair of alleles which don't blend with each other wasn't accepted.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation
3. Used mathematics to explain biological phenomena was new and unacceptable by
biologists.
4. He couldn't provide physical proof of existence of factors.
• In 1900, de Vries, Correns and von Tshermak rediscovered Mendel's result.
• Scientist were able to observe cell division leading to discovery of nucleus which appeared
double before cell division – chromosomes.
Chromosome behaviour parallel to genes: By Sutton and Boveri.
• Chromosome and genes occur in pairs and 2 allele of a gene pair are located on
homologous site on homologous chromosomes.
• Segregate at gamete formation and only 1 of each pair is transmitted to gamete.
• One pair segregates independently of another pair.
* Sutton united chromosomal segregation and Mendelian principles and called
chromosomal theory of inheritance.
Drosophila Melanogaster: Studied by Thomas Hunt Morgan.
• Complete their life cycle in 2 weeks.

• Single mating produce large no. of progenies.

• Easily differentiable male and female flies.
• Has many hereditary variations.
Linkage and Recombination:
• Morgan hybridised yellow bodied, white eyed females to brown bodied, red-eyed males
and intercrossed F1 progeny.
• 2 genes didn't segregate independently of each other and F2 ratio deviated from 9:3:3:1.
• 2 genes were located on same chromosome and parental gene combination were more
than non - parental type.
• Linkage: Physical association of genes on chromosome.
• Recombination: Generation of non - parental gene combination.
• Some genes were tightly linked (Eg: white and yellow, 1.3% recombination) which show
low recombination while some were loosely linked (Eg: white and miniature wing, 37.2%
recombination) which show high recombination.
• Alfred Sturtevant: Used frequency of recombination between gene pairs on same
chromosomes to measure distance between genes and mapped their position on
chromosome. They are used in Human Genome Sequencing Project.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Polygenic Inheritance: Traits controlled by 3 or more genes.

• Eg: Human height and human skin colour.
• Human skin colour: A, B, C gene control skin colour.
A, B, C are dominant forms for dark skin colour while a, b, c are recessive forms for light skin
colour.
• Darkest skin colour – AABBCC, lightest skin colour - aabbcc.
• Intermediate skin colour - AaBbCc.
Pleiotropy: Single gene exhibiting multiple phenotype.
Eg: Phenylketonuria: Caused by mutation in gene coding for enzyme phenyl alanine
hydroxylase, characterised by mental retardation, reduction in hair and skin pigmentation.
Sex Determination: By experiments on insects, by Henking (1891).
1. Insects: Eg: Grasshopper (Male heterogamety).
• Henking observed 50% sperm received x-body but 50% don't.
• Eggs bear additional X-chromosome besides autosomes.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation
• Eggs fertilised by sperm with X-chromosome - females (XX).
• Eggs fertilised by sperm that don't have X-chromosome - males (XO)
• X-chromosome is designated sex chromosome whereas rest of chromosomes –
autosomes.
• In some insects, male have x - chromosome and small counter part Y - chromosome,
i.e. Male and female have equal chromosomes.
2. Birds: Female heterogamety.
• Total no. of chromosomes are same in both male and females.
• Female bird has Z & W chromosomes whereas male has pair of Z chromosomes besides
autosomes.
3. Humans: Male heterogamety.
• Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs are same in males and females (autosomes).
• Pair of X-chromosomes are present in females whereas X and Y chromosomes in males.
• Male produce 2 type of gametes, 50% carry X - chromosome whereas 50% carry
Y – chromosome. Females have only X - chromosome.
• There is 50% probability of sperm carrying X or Y chromosome.
• If ovum fertilises with sperm carrying X - chromosome, zygote is female and it with sperm
carrying Y - chromosome, zygote is male.
• There are equal probability of male and female child.
• This is same for Drosophila also.
4. Honey Bee: Haplo diploid sex determination.
• Based on no. of sets of chromosome individual receives.

• Union of sperm and egg forms queen/worker while unfertilised egg develops to drone by
parthenogenesis.
Mutation: Alteration of DNA sequence and change in genotype and phenotype of organisms.
• Loss or gain of DNA segment resulting in alteration of chromosomes - Chromosomal
aberrations. Eg: In cancer cells.
• Point mutation: Change in single base pair of DNA. Eg: Sickle cell anemia.
• Frame shift mutation: Deletion and insertion of base pairs of DNA.
• Mutagens: Chemical or physical factors inducing mutation. Eg: UV radiation.
Genetic Disorders:
Pedigree Analysis: Analysis of trait in several generation of family.
• Controlled crosses like in pea plant aren’t possible in humans.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation
• Inheritance of trait is represented in family tree over generations.
• It helps to study inheritance, abnormality or disease.
• DNA is transmitted from 1 generation to other without change.
Symbols Used in Pedigree Analysis

Mendelian Disorder: Alteration in single gene.

• Transmitted to offspring on same line.
• Eg: Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell anaemia, Colour blindness, Phenylketonuria,
Thalassemia etc.
• To know if trait is dominant of recessive pedigree analysis is used.
• Trait may be sex linked or X linked recessive (from carrier female to male progeny).

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

1. Colour blindness: Sex linked recessive.

• Due to defect in either red or green cone of eye.
• Fail to discriminate red and green colour.
• In 8% males and 0.4% females as genes are present on X-chromosome.
• Mother mayn't be colour blind but may carry gene for the same as gene is recessive.
• Daughter willn't normally be colour blind until her mother is carrier and father colour blind.
2. Haemophilia: Sex linked recessive.
• Single protein which is a part of cascade of protein involved in blood clotting is affected.
So, single cut leads to non stop bleeding .
• Unaffected female carrier can pass it to male progeny.
• Possibility of haemophilic female is rare as for this mother has to be atleast carrier and
father should be haemophilic .
• Queen Victoria's family pedigree shows haemophilic descendents as she was the carrier of
the disease.
3. Sickle cell anaemia: Autosomal recessive qualitative problem.
• Transmitted when both parents are carrier for gene (heterozygous).
• Controlled by pair of allele – HbA and HbS
• 3 genotypes are possible -
HbS HbS - Homozygous, diseased phenotype.
HbA HbS - Heterozygous, unaffected but carrier for the disease, sickle cell anaemia trait,
50% chances of transmission.
HbA HbA - Homozygous, unaffected.
• Substitution of Glutamic acid by valine at 6th position of β chain of haemoglobin. It is
single base substitution from GAG to GUG.
• Mutant haemoglobin undergo polymerisation under low O2 causing change in shape of RBC
from binocave to elongated sickle like.

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Principles of Inheritance and Variation

4. Phenylketonuria: Autosomal recessive, inborn metabolism error.

• Lacks enzyme for conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine.
• Phenylalanine accumulates and converts to phenylpyruvic acid.
• Accumulates in brain and cause mental retardation and excreted through urine due to
poor absorption by kidney.
5.Thalassemia: Autosomal recessive, quantitative problem.
• Both parents are unaffected carrier for gene (heterozygous).
• Due to mutation resulting in reduced rate of globin chain synthesis.
• Characteristic of disease - anaemia due to abnormal haemoglobin.
• α Thalassemia: Production of α globin chain affected, controlled by 2 linked genes HBA 1
and HBA 2 on chromosome 16, more genes affected less globin molecules will be
produced.
• β Thalassemia: Production of β globin chain affected, controlled by single gene HBB on
chromosome 11
Chromosomal Disorders: Due to absence or excess of one or more chromosome.
• Aneuploidy: Failure of segregation of chromatids during cell division.
Eg: Down's syndrome (extra copy of chromosome 21) and Turner's syndrome (loss of
X-chromosome).
• Polyploidy: Failure of cytokinesis after telophase resulting in increased set of
chromosomes, often seen in plants.
• Trisomy: Additional copy of chromosome included.
• Monosomy: Lack one of any one pair of chromosomes.
1. Down's syndrome: Trisomy of chromosome 21.
• First described by Langdon Down (1866)

50
Principles of Inheritance and Variation
• Individual is short statured with small round head, furrowed tongue, partially open mouth,
broad palm with palm crease, physical, mental and psychomotor development retarded.

2. Klinefelter's Syndrome: Additional copy of X-chromosome (XXY = 47chromosomes)

• Overall masculine development, sterile, tall stature.
• Feminine development is also expressed – Gynaecomastia. Eg: Development of breast.
3. Turner's Syndrome: Absence of 1 X-chromosome (XO-45 chromosome)
• Rudimentary ovaries, sterile, lack of secondary sexual character, short stature.

51
Principles of Inheritance and Variation

52
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
DNA: Long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides.
• Length of DNA = no. of nucleotides (pair of nucleotides = base pairs)
• Characteristic of organism.
Bacteriophage ɸ X 174 – 5386 nucleotides
Bacteriophage Lambda – 48502 base pairs
Escherichia coli – 4.6 X 106 base pairs
Haploid human DNA – 3.3 X 106 base pairs
Structure of Polynucleotide Chain: Backbone is sugar + phosphate.
• Nucleotide: Nitrogenous base + pentose sugar + phosphate group.
• 2 types of nitrogenous base - Purine (adenine and Guanine) and pyrimidine (Cytosine,
Uracil, Thymine). Uracil is present in RNA only whereas Thymine is present in DNA only.
(Thymine = 5 methyl uracil).
• N – Glycosidic linkage: Nitrogenous base is linked to OH of 1'C Pentose sugar and forms
nucleoside (Eg: Adenosine or deoxyadenosine, guanosine or deoxyguanosine, cytidine
or deoxycytidine and uridine or deoxythymidine).
• Phosphoester linkage: Phosphate group is linked to OH of 5'C of nucleoside to form
nucleotide. 2 nucleotides link through 3' – 5' phosphodiester linkage to form
dinucleotide. Many nucleotides are joined to form polynucleotide.
• One end of polymer has 5' end of sugar whereas other has free OH of 3'C group.
• In RNA, every nucleotide has additional OH at 2' position in ribose.
• Frederich Meischer: Identified DNA as acidic substance and called it Nuclein in 1869.

Double Helix Structure of DNA:

• James Watson and Francis Crick based on X-ray diffraction produced by
Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin proposed double helix in 1953.
• Base pairing occurs between 2 strands of polynucleotide chains.
• Erwin Chargaff: Ratio between Adenine and Thymine and Guanine and Cytosine are
constant and equal to 1 in double stranded DNA.
• The 2 strands are complementary, anti parallel polarity (one from 5' → 3' and other
from 3' → 5')
• Bases are paired through H - bonds i.e. Adenine forms 2 H bonds with Thymine from
opposite strand and Guanine forms 3 H bonds with Cytosine. Purine comes opposite to
pyrimidine always.

53
Molecular Basis of Inheritance

• 2 chains are coiled in right handed fashion and there are 10 base pairs
Pitch of helix = 3.4 nm; Distance between consecutive base pair = 0.34 nm.
• Plane of 1 base pair stacks over other. This along with H - bond provide stability.
Central Dogma: By Francis Crick.
• Genetic information flows from DNA → RNA → Protein.
• In some viruses, flow of information is reverse from RNA → DNA.

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Packaging of DNA Helix:

• Distance between 2 base pairs = 0.34 nm = 0.34 x 10-9 m.
• Total base Pairs = 6.6 x 109 bp.
• Length of DNA = 6.6 x 109 x 0.34 x 10-9 = 2.2 metres.
1. Prokaryotes: Eg: E. Coli.
• They don't have defined nucleus but DNA isn't scattered.
• DNA being negatively charged is held with positively charged proteins in a
region - nucleoid.
• DNA is organised as large loops held by proteins.
2.Eukaryotes:
• Positively charged basic protein - histones, rich in basic amino acids like lysine and
arginine are organised to form unit of 8 molecules called histone octamer.
• Protein acquires charge depending on abundance of amino acids residues.
• DNA is wrapped around histone to form nucleosome. It contains 200 bp of DNA helix.
It constitute repeating units of chromatin (thread like stained body in nucleus).
• Nucleosome appears ʽ beads on string' on chromatin under microscope.
This structure is packaged to form chromatin fibres that coil and condense at
metaphase stage to form chromosomes.
• Non - Histone chromosomal protein (NHC): Packaging of chromatin at higher level
require additional set of proteins.
• Euchromatin: Loosely packed region of chromatin, transcriptionally active.
• Heterochromatin: Densely packed region of chromatin, transcriptionally inactive.

55
Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Search for Genetic Material:

Transforming Principle: By Frederick Griffith in 1928.
• Conducted experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae (bacteria).
• When they are grown on culture plate, some produced shiny colonies (S) due to
mucous coat while some produced rough colonies (R).
• Mice infected with virulent S - strain die from pneumonia while those infected by
R - strain don't develop pneumonia.
S strain → inject into mice → die
R strain → inject into mice → mice alive.
• He killed bacteria by heating.
S - strain (heat killed) → inject into mice → mice alive.
S - strain (heat killed) + R-strain (live) → inject into mice → mice die.
• So, R - Strain was somehow transformed by heat killed S - Strain, that enabled it to
synthesise smooth colonies and become virulent.
• Biochemical nature of genetic material wasn't defined.
Biochemical Characterisation of Transforming Principle:
• By Oswald Avery, Colin Mac Leod, Maclyn MC Carty (1933-44)
• Prior genetic material was thought to be protein.
• They purified biochemicals (DNA, RNA, Protein) from heat killed S to see which one
transformed live R cells to S cells. It was DNA.
• Protease (protein digesting) and RNase didn't affect transformation while DNase
inhibited transformation. So, DNA caused transformation.
• So, DNA is a hereditary material.
DNA as genetic material: By Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in 1952.
• Worked with virus infecting bacteria - bacteriophage (attach to bacteria and its genetic
material enters bacterial cell).
• They grew some virus on medium having radioactive phosphorus (had radioactive DNA)
whereas some virus in radioactive sulphur (had radioactive protein as DNA contains
phosphorus but protein doesn't.)
• They worked to discover whether it was protein or DNA from virus that entered
bacteria.
• Radioactive phages were allowed to attach to E .Coli. As infection proceeded, viral coats
were removed from bacteria by blending and separated from bacteria by
centrifugation.

56
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• Bacteria infected with virus having radioactive DNA were radioactive, whereas bacteria
infected with virus having radioactive protein were not radioactive. So, DNA passed
from virus to bacteria whereas protein didn't enter bacteria from virus. So, DNA is
genetic material.

Properties of genetic material:

a) Genetic Material: Eg: RNA and DNA
• Should be able to generate its replica. (Protein fails this criteria)
• Should be stable chemically and structurally. (heat didn't killed genetic material)
• Should provide scope for slow changes (mutation).
• Should be able to express in ʽMendelian characters’.
b) DNA and RNA:
• RNA is also a genetic material in Tobacco Mosaic Virus, QB bacteriophage.
• In DNA, 2 strands being complementary if separated by heating come together.
• 2' OH in RNA in every nucleotide makes it reactive, labile (unstable) and easily
degradable. Its also known to be catalytic. It can directly code for protein synthesis and
can express characters.
• DNA is less reactive, structurally more stable and hence better genetic material.
Presence of thymine confers additional stability. It is dependent on RNA for protein
synthesis.
• Both mutate but RNA being unstable mutate at faster rate. Virus having RNA genome
have short life span and evolve faster.

57
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• DNA is preferred for storage of genetic information while RNA is preferred for
transmission of genetic information.
RNA World:
• RNA was the first genetic material. Essential life processes like splicing, translation,
metabolism evolved around RNA.
• It works as genetic material and catalyst, hence reactive and unstable.
• So, DNA evolved from RNA with modifications like double and complementary strands
which make it more stable.

Replication:
ʽ Specific pairing suggests possible copying mechanism for genetic material ’ by Watson
and Crick (1953).
• It suggests that 2 strands separate and act as template for synthesis of new
complementary strands. After replication, each DNA molecule has 1 parental and one
newly synthesised strand – Semiconservative DNA replication.
The Experimental Proof: By Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl (1958).
• Showed that DNA replicates semiconservatively, first in E. coli.
• They grew E. coli in medium containing 15NH4Cl (15N - heavy isotope). 15N was
incorporated in newly synthesised DNA. This heavy DNA can be distinguished from
normal DNA by centrifugation in Cscl.
• Then they transferred these in 14Nh4CI medium and took samples at definite interval.
DNA remained as double stranded helix.

58
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• DNA extracted after 1 generation (i.e. 20 minutes for E. coli) had hybrid or
intermediate density while DNA extracted after another generation had equal amount
of hybrid and light DNA.

Similar Experiment:
• By Taylor and colleagues in 1958.
• They used radioactive thymidine to detect distribution of newly synthesised DNA on
Vicia faba (faba beans).
The Machinery and Enzymes:
• Main enzyme for replication – DNA dependent DNA polymerase (use DNA template to
catalyse polymerisation of deoxynucleotides).
• These enzymes are highly efficient as they catalyse large no. of nucleotides in short
time. Eg: E.coli completes replication in 18 minutes.i.e. 2000 bp per second.
• They have to catalyse fast with high accuracy (to avoid mutation).
• Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate - serve dual purpose, act as substrate and provide
energy for polymerisation (due to 2 terminal phosphates which provide high energy).
• 2 strands can't be separated in entire length so, replication occur in small opening of
DNA helix – replication fork . There is definite region where replication originates called
origin of replication.
• DNA polymerase can’t initiate replication on their own. They catalyse polymerisation
only in one direction (5' → 3'). So, on one strand (template with polarity 5' → 3')
replication is continuous whereas in other (polarity 3' → 5') its discontinuous.
• The discontinuously synthesised fragments are joined by DNA Ligase.
• In eukaryotes, DNA replication occurs in S – phase of cell cycle. Replication of DNA and
cell division cycle should be highly cordinated to avoid polyploidy (failure of cell
division after DNA replication).

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Transcription: Copying of genetic information from one DNA strand into RNA.
• Adenosine now pairs with uracil instead thymine.
• Only a segment of DNA or only one DNA strand is copied to RNA.
Why both strands aren’t copied?
a) If both strands act as template, they would code for RNA molecule with different
sequence and if they code for protein, amino acid sequence would be different. Hence
one DNA segment would code for 2 different proteins.
b) If 2 RNA molecules are produced simultaneously, they would be complementary to
each other and would form ds RNA which will prevent translation.
Transcription Unit: Promoter + Structural gene + terminator.
• DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyse polymerisation in one direction 5' → 3'.
• Template strand – polarity 3' → 5'; coding strand - polarity 5' → 3'.
• Coding strand doesn’t code for anything but defines all reference points.

• Promoter: At 5' end of structural gene (upstream). It provides binding site for DNA
polymerase. It defines template and coding strands. By reversing its position with
terminator, coding and template strands get reversed.
• Terminator: At 3' end of coding strand (downstream), defines end of transcription.

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Transcription Unit and Gene:

• DNA sequence coding for tRNA or rRNA defines gene.
• Cistron: Segment of DNA coding for polypeptide.
Monocistronic: Structural gene in eukaryotes, have interrupted coding sequences
appearing in processed RNA - exons (interrupted by introns which don't appear in
processed RNA).
Polycistronic: Structural gene in prokaryotes.
Transcription in Prokaryotes:
• 3 major types of RNAs needed for protein synthesis
mRNA (messenger RNA): Provides template.
tRNA (transfer RNA): Brings amino acid and reads genetic code.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Structural and catalytic role in translation.
• Single DNA dependent RNA polymerase catalyse transcription of all 3 RNA.

• Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to promoter, uses nucleoside triphosphate as

substrate. σ (sigma) factor (initiation factor) recognise promoter and polymerase to
intitiate transcription.

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• Elongation: RNA polymerase is only capable of catalysing elongation, opening of helix,
lose factor and short stretch of RNA remains bound to enzyme.
• Termination: Nascent RNA falls off alongwith RNA polymerase due to ρ (rho) factor
(termination factor).
• mRNA doesn't require any processing to become active.
• Transcription and translation occur in same compartment but translation occur much
before mRNA is fully transcribed.
Transcription in eukaryotes: Split gene arrangement occur.
• 3 RNA polymerase are required –
RNA polymerase I - Transcribe rRNAs (28 S, 18 S, 5.8 S)
RNA polymerase II - Transcribe mRNA, heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
RNA polymerase III - Transcribe tRNA, 5sr RNA, small nuclear RNAs (sn RNAS).

• Primary transcript is non - functional & has both exons and intron. Hence, subjected to
splicing where introns are removed and exons are joined.
• hn RNA undergo additional process - capping and tailing.
• Capping: Methyl guanosine triphosphate is added at 5' end of hn RNA.
• Tailing: Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3' end.
• Now its fully processed hnRNA, called mRNA that is transported out of nucleus.
Genetic Code: Direct amino acid sequence during protein synthesis.
• Translation require transfer of genetic information from polymer of nucleotide to
polymer of amino acids.
• By George Gamow (physicist), suggested that in order to code for 20 amino acid, code
should be made of 3 nucleotide which would generate 64 codons.

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• Har Gobind Khorana: Developed chemical methods in synthesising RNA molecules with
defined combination of bases.
• Severo Ochoa enzyme: polymerise RNA in template independent manner.
• Marshall Nirenberg: Cell free system for protein synthesis, helped code to be
deciphered.

Salient features of genetic code:

• Codon is triplet 61 codons code for amino acids and 3 are stop codons that don't code
for any amino acids.
• Code is degenerate (same amino acids are coded by more than 1 codon).
• No punctuation (codon are read in contiguous fashion).
• Code is Universal (Eg: From bacteria to human UUU code for phenylalanine) some
exceptions are mitochondrial codons and protozoans.
• Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA.
• AUG has dual functions, i.e. Code for Methionine and act as initiator codon.
Mutation and Genetic Code:
• Point mutation: Change in single base pair.
Eg: Change from glutamine to valine in sickle cell anaemia.
• Frame shift mutation: Insertion or deletion of one or 2 bases changing reading frame
from that point, also called deletion mutation. Insertion/deletion of 3 or its multiple
bases doesn't alter reading frame.
tRNA- Adapter Molecule: Read codons and bind to specific amino acids.
• Also called sRNA (soluble RNA).
• It has anticodon loop at 5' end that has complementary bases to code and has amino
acid acceptor end at 3' end which binds to amino acids.
• It is specific for each amino acid, no tRNA for stop codons.
• Initiator tRNA: Specific tRNA for initiation.
• Secondary structure of it is clover leaf like whereas actual structure is inverted L like.

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Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Translation: Polymerisation of amino acids to form polypeptide.

• Order and sequence of amino acid is defined by base sequence in mRNA.
• Amino acids are joined by peptide bond by utilisation of energy.
• Charging of tRNA/aminoacylation of tRNA: Amino acids are activated in presence of
ATP and linked to tRNA. If 2 such tRNA are brought, formation of peptide bond occurs.
• Ribosome exist as 2 subunits in inactive state - large and small subunit.
• mRNA binds with small ribosomal subunit at start codon (AUG), recognised by
initiator tRNA. Amino acid linked to tRNA bind to appropriate codon in mRNA forming
complementary base pairs. Large subunits bind which has 2 sites for binding of amino
acid.
• Ribosome move from codon to codon along mRNA and amino acids are added one by
one and translated to polypeptide. At end, release factor binds to stop codon
terminating translation and releasing polypeptide from ribosome.
• Cellular factory for protein synthesis - ribosome. It has structural RNAs and
80 different proteins. It also acts as catalyst (23 S mRNA in bacteria - ribozyme) for
peptide bond formation.
• Untranslated region (UTR): Non - translated region in mRNA, at both 5' end and at 3'
end for efficient translation process.

64
Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Regulation of Gene Expression:

• In eukaryotes it may be at - transcriptional level (formation of primary transcript),
processing level (regulation of splicing), translational level and transport of mRNA
from nucleus to cytoplasm.
• Genes are expressed to perform particular function. Metabolic, physiological and
environmental conditions regulate gene expression.
Eg: β galactosidase in E. coli catalyse hydrolysis of disaccharide - lactose into glucose
and galactose. But if there is no lactose, they would not require any enzyme.
• Tanscriptional initiation controls gene expression in prokaryotes. Activity of RNA
polymerase is regulated by accessory proteins or regulatory proteins which may act
positively (activator) or negatively (repressor).
• Promoter regions are regulated by interation of protein with operator (adjacent to
promoter, mostly binds to repressor protein).
• Each operon has specific operator and specific repressor.
Lac Operon: By geneticist Francois Jacob and biochemist Jacque Monod.
• It has Lac operator and lac repressor.

• Operon: Polycistronic structural gene is regulated by common promoter and

regulatory genes. Eg: Lac operon, trp operon, ara operon, his operon etc.
• Its transcriptionally regulated system.
• It has 1 regulatory gene (i gene) and 3 structural genes (z, y and a).
• ʽi’ code for repressor, ʽz’ code for β - galactosidase, ʽy’ codes for permease (increase
cell permeability to β - galactosidase) and ʽa’ codes for transacetylase.
• Lactose is substrate for β - galactosidase and regulates switching on and off the
operon – inducer. In absence of carbon source, it provides medium for bacterial
growth. Its transported into the cell through permease.

65
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• Repressor from i gene binds to operator and prevents RNA polymerase from
transcribing.
• But in presence of inducer (lactose), repressor is inactivated which allows RNA
polymerase to access promoter and transcription occur.
• Glucose and galactose can't act as inducer in lac operon.
• Negative regulation: Regulation of lac operon by repressor.
• Lac operon is under positive regulation also.
Human Genome Project: Mega project, 13 year project launched in 1990.
• If 2 individuals differ, DNA sequence should be different atleast at some places.
• Human Genome has 3 x 109 bp, cost of sequencing is US $ 3 per bp i.e. Total cost of 9
billion US dollars.
• If sequence is stored in typed form in books and each page has 1000 letters and each
book has 1000 pages then 3300 such books would be required.
• HGP is closely related to Bioinformatics.
• This project is cordinated by U.S. department of Energy and National Institute of
Health. In early years, Wellcome trust (U.K.) was the major partner with additional
contribution from Japan, France, Germany, China.
• It was completed in 2003.
• It can lead to new ways to diagnose and treat disorders, challenges in health care,
agriculture, energy production etc.
• Many non - human model organism - bacteria, yeast, caenorhabditis elegans (free
living non - pathogenic nematode), drosophila, plants (rice and Arabidopsis) have been
sequenced.

Goals:
• Identify 20,000 - 25,000 genes in human DNA.
• Determine sequence of 3 billion base pairs.
• Store information in database.
• Improve tools for data analysis.
• Transfer related technologies to other sectors.
• Address ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI).

66
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
Methodologies:
• 2 major approach –
a) Identifying all gene expressed as RNA - Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs).
b) Sequencing whole set of genome containing all coding and non-coding sequence and
assigning different regions in sequence with functions - Sequence Annotation.
• For sequencing, DNA is isolated and converted to fragments and cloned in suitable host
using vectors, which result in amplification of each piece.
• These fragments were sequenced using automated DNA sequence by Frederick Sanger
(also determined amino acid sequence in proteins). They were arranged on the basis of
overlapping regions which required overlapping fragments.
• Specialised computer based programs were developed for their allignment (humanly
not possible) and were annotated and assigned to each chromosome.
• Commonly used hosts - bacteria and yeast and vectors - BAC (Bacterial Artificial
chromosomes) and YAC (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes).
• Sequence of chromosome 1 was completed in May 2016.
Salient features:
• Human genome - 3164.7 million bp.
• Average gene has 3000 bases (largest human gene - dystrophin 2.4 million bases).
• Total no of genes - 30,000, much less than previous estimate of 80,000 to 1, 40, 000
genes.99.9% nucleotide bases are exactly same in all people.
• Functions of 50% genes are unknown.
• Less than 2% of genome codes for protein.
• Repeated sequence make large portion of human genome.
• Repetitive sequence - Stretches of DNA sequence, repeated 100 - 1000 times, no direct
coding function.
• Chromosome 1: Most genes (2968), chromosome Y - least genes (231)
• 1.4 million locations have single base DNA difference (SNPs - Single Nucleotide
polymorphism). These are required for disease associated sequence and tracing human
history.
Applications and Future Challenges:
• Earlier researchers could study 1 or few genes at a time but now they can study all
genes in a genome.
Eg: All transcripts in a tissue, how tens of 1000s of genes and protein work together etc.
DNA fingerprinting: By Alec Jeffreys.
• Its difficult to compare 2 sets of 3x109 base pairs.
• It involves identifying differences in some specific regions in DNA sequence – repetitive
DNA (as small DNA stretch is repeated many times). This is separated from genomic
DNA during density gradient centrifugation in which bulk DNA forms major peak and
other small peaks - satellite DNA.
• Satellite DNA can be further classified as micro satellite and mini satellites etc.
• They show high degree of polymorphism, so highly useful in forensic applications. They
are inheritable from parents, so basis of parternity testing in disputes. It also helps in
genetic mapping of genome.
• DNA Polymorphism: Arise due to mutation (either in somatic germ cells), inheritable
mutation at high frequency or if more than 1 allele at a locus occurs in human with
frequency greater than 0.01.
• Germ cell mutation can spread to other members also.

67
Molecular Basis of Inheritance
• DNA from very tissue show same degree of polymerphism.
• Probability of inheritable mutation is high in non coding DNA sequence as these
mutation mayn't have immediate effect in reproductive ability and keep on
accumulating and form basis of polymorphism.
• Alec used satellite DNA as probe showing high degree of polymorphism called Variable
Number of Tandem Repeats (VNTR). (mini satellite)
• Earlier technique - Southern Blot hybridisation involved radiolabelled VNTR as probe. It
include –
i) Isolation of DNA
ii) Digestion of DNA by restriction endonuclease
iii) Separation of DNA fragments by electrophoresis
iv) Transferring fragments to synthetic membrane (nitrocellulose/nylon)
v) Hybridisation using VNTR probe
vi) Detection of fragments by autoradiography
• Small DNA sequence is arranged in many copy numbers which vary from chromosome
to chromosome.
• Size of VNTR varies from 0.1 - 20 Kb.
• Autoradiogram gives different bands of different sizes which give characteristic pattern
of individual DNA. It differs in all except monozygotic twins.
• Sensitivity of technique is increased by using polymerase chain reaction.
• It also helps in determining population and genetic diversities.

68
Evolution
Evolutionary Biology: Study of history of life forms.
Origin of Life:
• Stellar distance is measured in light years.
• Universe is 20 billion years old.
• Universe = Cluster of galaxies (stars + clouds of gas + dust).
Big Bang Theory: Explains origin of universe (single huge explosion).
• Universe expanded, temperature lowered, hydrogen and helium were formed.
• Gases condensed under gravitation to form galaxies.
Milky way galaxy: Earth was formed 4.5 billion years back.
• Earlier there was no atmosphere on earth.
• Water vapour, methane, carbon dioxide and ammonia were released from molten
mass.
• UV rays broke water into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen being lighter escaped
whereas oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 etc.
• Ozone formed and as it cooled water vapour fell as rain filling depressions to form
oceans.
• Life appeared 4 billion years back.
Theory of Panspermia: By Greek thinkers.
• Units of life - spores are transferred to different planets including earth.
Theory of Spontaneous Generation:
• Life came from decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud etc.
Pre - existing Life: By Louis Pasteur (dismissed spontaneous generation theory).
• Life didn’t come from killed yeast in pre – sterilised flask while new organisms arose in
flask open to air.
How first life form came on earth?
• Oparin of Russia and Haldane of England proposed that first life form come from pre
existing non living organic molecules (RNA, protein) and chemical evolution preceded
formation of life.
Miller's experiment: By American Scientist S.L. Miller in 1953.
• He created similar conditions like high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing
atmosphere having CH4, NH3 in laboratory scale and created electric discharge in close
flask having CH4, H2, NH3 and water vapour at 800°C.
• He observed formation of amino acids.
• Other similar experiments revealed formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, fats and
pigments.
• Analysis of meteorite content revealed similar compounds.
• First non-cellular life forms – 3 billion years back (RNA, protein etc.)
• Cellular life forms – 2 billion years back. (Single celled)
• All life forms were in water only.
• Biogenesis: Life forms arose from non living molecules was widely accepted.

69
Evolution

Theory of Special Creation:

• All living organisms that we see were created as such.
• Diversity is same since creation and will remain same.
• Earth is 4000 years old.
Darwin's Conclusions: By Charles Darwin during sea voyage in ship H.M.S. Beagle.
• Existing life forms share similarities to varying degree not only among themselves but
also with life forms that existed millions of years ago.
• Many life forms don't exist any more and there has been gradual evolution of life
forms.
• Those who are better fit in an environment would outbreed others that are less
endowed to survive in such conditions and would leave more progeny and will survive
more hence selected by nature – natural selection.
• Fitness of individual refers only to reproductive fitness.
Wallace's Conclusions: By Alfred Wallace in Malay Archipelago.
• All existing life forms share similarities and share common ancestors, which were
present in different period in earth’s history.
• Geological history of earth closely corelates biological history of earth.
Evidences for Evolution:
• Fossils: Remains of hard parts of life forms found in rocks.
• Paleontological evidence: Study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicate
geological period in which they existed. Life forms varied over time and certain life
forms are restricted to certain geological time. So, new life forms have arisen at
different times in earth’s history.

70
Evolution
Embryological support: By Ernst Heckel.
• Certain features are common to all vertebrate embryos but absent in adult.
Eg: Embryos of all vertebrates develop row of vestigial gill slits behind head but
functional organ only in fish and not found in other adult vertebrates.
• This was disapproved by Karl Ernst Von Baer who noted embryos never pass through
adult stages of other animals.

Divergent Evolution:
• Same structure developed along different directions due to adaptations to different
needs called homologous structures.
• It indicates common ancestry.
Examples:
i) Forelimb of whales, bats, cheetah, human which perform different functions but have
same anatomical structure (has humerus, radius, ulna, carpal etc.)
ii) Vertebrate heart or brain.
iii) Thorn of Bougainvillea and tendril of Cucurbita.

71
Evolution

Convergent Evolution: Different structure evolving for the same function.

• They aren't anatomically same but perform similar functions.
Examples:
i) Wings of butterfly and birds.
ii) Eye of octopus and mammals
iii) Flippers of Penguins and Dolphins.
iv) Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (Stem modification), both store food.
* Protein and genes performing given function shows common ancestry.
• Intensive breeding programmes: Created breeds different from other breeds (Eg:Dogs)
but still of the same group.
Industrialisation in England: Predators spot moth against contrasting background.
• Before Industrialisation: In 1850s, there were more white winged moths on tree than
dark winged/melanised moths as thick growth of white coloured lichens covered the
trees which let white winged moths to camouflage (hide) whereas dark winged moths
were picked by predators.

72
Evolution
• After Industrialisation: In 1920, there were more dark winged moths as tree trunks
became dark due to smoke and soots. So, white winged moths didn't survive due to
predators but melanised moths survived.
• So, in mixed population, those who can better adapt, survive and increase in population
size. No variant is completely wiped out.
• Lichens are pollution indicator as they don't grow in polluted areas.

Anthropogenic Action:
• Evolution isn't a directed process in determinism but a stochastic process based on
chance events and chance mutation.
Examples:
i) Excess use of herbicide, pesticide has resulted in selection of resistant varieties in less
time scale (not centuries).
ii) Antibiotics against microbes in eukaryotic organism.
Adaptive Radiation:
• Evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and
radiating to other areas of geography.
Examples:
i) Darwin observed small black birds - Darwin's Finches evolving from original seed
eating to insectivorous and vegetarian finches in Galapagos island.
ii) No. of marsupials evolved from ancestral stock within Australia.

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Evolution

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Evolution
• When more than 1 adaptive radiation occur in isolated geographical area - convergent
evolution.
Eg: Placental mammals in Australia resembled marsupials. Eg: Placental wolf and
Tasmanian wolf.
Biological Evolution:
• Some organisms are better adapted to survive in hostile environment and adaptive
ability is inherited. It has genetic basis.
• 2 key concepts of Darwinian Theory - Branching descent and Natural selection.
• Let a colony of bacteria growing on a given medium builts in variation in terms of ability
to utilise feed component. A change in medium will bring out part of population that
would survive under new condition. So, variant population outgrows other and form
new species.
• For same thing to happen in fish/fowl will take million of years.
• Fitness in the end result of ability to get adapt and get selected by nature.
• When we describe story of world we describe evolution as process whereas when we
describe story of life on earth, we treat evolution as consequence of process - natural
selection.
Lamarck's Theory: By French naturalist Lamarck.
• Evolution is driven by use and disuse of organs, but nobody believes this.
Eg: Giraffe in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of
their neck. This acquired trait passed on to succeeding generations.
Malthus concepts: By Thomas Malthus (influenced by Darwin).
• Natural selection is based on certain facts like resources are limited and population size
is stable except for seasonal variation.
• Theoretically, population size will grow exponentially if everybody reproduced
maximally and population size is limited so, there is competition for resources.
So, only some survive.
• Darwin asserted that variations that are heritable make resource utilisation better for
few and enable only those to reproduce and leave progeny.
Mechanism of Evolution:
• Hugo de Vries worked on evening primrose and believed that mutation (large
differences arising suddenly in population) caused evolution and not minor variation
that Darwin believed.
• Mutations are random and directionless while variations are small and directional.
• Evolution for Darwin was gradual while de Vries believed mutation caused speciation
hence called saltation (single step large mutation).
Hardy Weinberg Principle:
• Allelic frequencies in a population are stable and constant from generation to
generation.
• Gene pool (total genes and their allele in a population) remain constant - genetic
equilibrium.
• Sum total of all allelic frequencies = 1.
• Suppose in a diploid, p and q represent frequency of allele A and a. Frequency of AA
individuals in a population = p2, Similarly of aa = q2 and of Aa = 2 pq.
p² + 2pq + q² = 1 [(p+q)2 = 1]

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Evolution
• When frequency is measured its slightly different from expected value due to
evolutionary change.
• Natural selection can lead to –
Stabilisation - More individuals acquire mean character value.
Directional - More individuals acquire value other than mean value.
Disruption - More individuals acquire peripheral character value (at ends).

• Factors affecting equilibrium: Gene migration/gene flow, genetic drift, mutation,

genetic recombination and natural selection.
• When migration of section of population occur, gene frequencies change. New genes
are added to new population and lost from old population.
• If gene migration occur multiple times its called gene flow and if it occurs by chance its
called genetic drift.
• Sometimes change in allele frequency is so different that new population becomes
different species. The original drifted population becomes founder and its called
founder effect.
• Mutations lead to new phenotypes and result in speciation.

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Evolution
Brief Account of Evolution:
• Slowly single celled organisms became multicellular life forms.

• 320 mya - sea weeds and few plants existed.

• 350 mya - jawless fish, fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back
to water (lobefins – first amphibians).
• First organisms to invade land were plants.
• 500 mya - invertebrates were formed.
• In 1938, Coelacanth fish, a lobefin was caught in South Africa which was thought to be
extinct.
• Lobefins were ancestors of frogs and salamanders.
• Amphibians evolved to reptiles (lay thick shelled egg which don't dry in sun). Turtles,
tortoise and crocodiles are their descendents.
• In next 200 million years reptiles of different shape and size arrived.
• Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but fell to form coal deposits.
• 200 mya - Some land reptiles (dinosaurs) went back to water to evolve to fish like
reptiles. Eg: Ichthyosaurs.
• Biggest land reptile - Tyrannosaurus rex (20 feet height, huge fearsome dagger like
teeth).
• 65 mya - Dinosaurs disappeared, small sized reptiles still exist.

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Evolution

• First mammals were like shrews (small sized fossils).

• Mammals - Viviparous, protect young one inside body, intelligent in sensing and
avoiding danger. Some mammals lived wholly in water.
Eg: Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows.
• South America mammals resembled horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit.
• Due to continental drift, South America joined North America, animals of South
America were overridden by North America. So, pouched mammals of Australia
survived because of lack of competition.
Origin and Evolution of Man:
• 15 mya - Dryopithecus (ape like) and Ramapithecus (man like). They were hairy and
walked like gorillas and chimpanzee.
• Few fossils of man - like bones were found in Ethiopia and Tanzania. It revealed
homonid features and that man like primates not taller than 4 feet and walked upright
walked in eastern Africa about 3 - 4 mya.

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Evolution
• 2 mya - Australopithecines lived in East African Grasslands. They hunted with stone
weapons and ate fruit.
• Homo Habilis -first human like being homonid, brain capacity between 650 - 800 cc,
didn't eat meat.
• 1.5 mya - Homo erectus (fossils were discovered in Jawa in 1891), ate meat, brain
capacity 900 cc .
• Neanderthal - brain capacity 1400 cc, lived in near east and Central Asia between
1,00,000 - 40,000 years back, used hide to protect body, buried dead.
• Homo Sapiens - arose in Africa, modern homo sapiens arose during ice age between
75,000 - 10,000 years ago.
• Pre historic cave art - 18,000 years ago, one such is Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen
district of Madhya Pradesh.
• Agriculture came 10,000 years back and human settlement started.

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Human Health And Diseases
• Early Greeks like Hippocrates and Indian Ayurveda system of medicine asserted that
health is a state of body and mind where there was a balance of certain humors. This
ʽgood humorʼ hypothesis was disproved by William Harvey who discovered blood
circulation.
• It was believed that person with ʽblackbileʼ belonged to hot personality and have
fevers.
• Health: State of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely
absence of disease. It increases productivity and brings economic prosperity. It
increases longevity and reduces infant and maternal mortality.
• It is affected by
i) Mind and mental state.
ii) Genetic disorders - defects inherited from parents.
iii) Infections.
iv) Life style (food, water, rest, exercise, habits etc.)
• For achieving good health - balanced diet, personal hygiene, regular exercise,
awareness about diseases, immunisation, proper disposal of wastes, hygienic food and
water resources.
• Disease: When functioning of 1 or more organs of body is affected.
Infectious: Easily transmit from 1 person to another. Eg: AIDS (fatal).
Non-Infectious: Don't transmit easily. Eg: Cancer.
Common Diseases in Humans:
• Pathogens: Disease causing organism. Eg: Bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoans, helminths
etc.
• They enter our body, multiply and interfere with normal vital activities causing
morphological and functional damage.
• They have to adapt to host's environment. Eg: Pathogen entering gut adapt to low pH.
1. Bacterial Diseases: Eg: Dysentery, plague, diphtheria, typhoid, pnuemonia etc.
a) Typhoid: By Salmonella typhi.
• They enter small intestine through contaminated food and water.
• Symptoms: Sustained high fever (39° to 40° C), weakness, stomach pain, constipation,
headache, loss of appetite, intestinal perforations.
• Its confirmed by Widal Test.
• Mary Mallon (nicknamed Typhoid Mary) was a typhoid carrier who continued to spread
typhoid for many years through food she prepared.
b) Pneumonia: By Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae.
• Droplet infection (by sharing glasses and utensils with infected person). It infects alveoli
of lungs (alveoli get filled with fluid leading to respiratory problems).
• Symptoms: Fever, cough, headache, chills, lips and finger nails turn gray to blue.
2. Viral Diseases:
Common cold: By Rhino viruses, lasts for 3-7 days.
• Droplet infection (by sneezing or cough of infected person) or transmitted through
contaminated objects (book, pen, cups etc.)
• Infect nose and respiratory passage but not lungs.
• Symptoms: Cough, headache, tiredness, nasal congestion and discharge, hoarseness,
sore throat.

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Human Health And Diseases
3. Protozoan Diseases:
a) Malaria: By Plasmodium (P. vivax, P. malariae and P. falciparum).
• P. falciparum cause malignant malaria (serious or fatal).
• It enters human body as sporozoites (infectious form) through bite of infected female
Anopheles mosquito. They multiply within liver cells and enter RBC resulting in their
rupture which releases toxin haemozoin responsible for chill and high fever recurring
every 3 - 4 days. When Anopheles bites infected person, parasite enters mosquito's
body and multiply form sporozoites which are stored in salivary gland. On mosquito
bite, sporozoites enter human body.
• Malarial parasite require hosts - human and mosquito to complete its life cycle.
• Fertilisation of male and female gamete of parasite occur in mosquito's gut.

b) Amoebiasis (Amoebic dysentry): By Entamoeba histolytica.

• It enters large intestine through faeces. Housefly are mechanical carriers of the
parasite, transmitted by drinking water and food contaminated by faecal matter.
• Symptoms: Constipation, abdominal pain, cramps and stools with excess mucous and
blood clots.

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Human Health And Diseases
4. By helminths:
a) Ascariasis: By Ascaris (common round worm).
• Through contaminated water and food.
• Eggs of parasite are excreted along with faeces of infected person.
• Symptoms: Fever, muscular pain, internal bleeding, anemia and blockage of intestinal
passage.
b) Elephantiasis/filariasis: By Wuchereria (filarial worm) - W. bancrofti and W. Malayi.
• Through bite of female mosquito vectors.
• Symptoms: Chronic inflammation of lymphatic vessels/lower limbs, genital organs are
also affected resulting in gross deformities.

5. Fungal Diseases:
Ringworm: By Microsporum, Trichophyton and Epidermophyton.

• Acquired from soil or by using towels, clothes or comb of infected person.

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Human Health And Diseases
• Symptoms: Dry, scaly lesions on skin, nails and scalp, heat and moisture help fungi to
thrive in skin folds like groin or toes.
Prevention and Control of Diseases:
• Maintaining personal hygiene (keeping body clean, consuming clean drinking water,
food, vegetables, fruits) and public hygiene (proper disposal of waste and excreta,
cleaning and disinfecting water reservoirs, tanks).
• Close contact with infected person should be avoided.
• Avoid stagnation of water in and around residential areas, use mosquito net, clean
coolers, spraying insecticides in ditches, doors and windows should be provided
with wire mesh to prevent mosquito entry, introducing fish like Gambusia in ponds
that feed on mosquito larvae.
• Use of vaccines and immunisation programmes enabled to eradicate small pox and
control polio, diphtheria, pneumonia, tetanus.
• Antibiotics and other drugs enable treatment of diseases.
Disease transmitted through food and water: Typhoid, amoebiasis, ascariasis.
Air borne diseases: Pneumonia and common cold.
Insect vector diseases: Dengue and chikungunya.
Immunity: Ability of host to fight against disease causing organisms.
1. Innate Immunity: Non specific type of defence present at birth.
• Provide barriers to foreign agents.
Physical barrier: Skin, mucus coating of respiratory, urogenital and gastrointestinal
tracts traps microbes.
Physiological barrier: Acid in stomach, saliva in mouth, tears from eyes.
Cellular barrier: leucocytes like polymorpho - nuclear leucocyte (PMNL), monocyte,
natural killer in blood and macrophage phagocytose and destroy microbes.
Cytokinine barrier: Virus infected cell secrete protein - interferons.
2. Acquired Immunity: Pathogen specific, characterised by memory.
Primary response: Body encounters pathogen for first time, low intensity.
Secondary/Anamnestic response: Subsequent encounter with same pathogen, high
intensity as body has memory of first encounter.
• These are carried out by 2 lymphocytes M-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
• B lymphocyte: Produce army of proteins (antibodies) in response to pathogen into
our blood .
• T lymphocyte: Don't produce antibodies but help B lymphocyte to produce them.
a) Antibody mediated immunity: Also called humoral immune response as antibodies are
found in blood.
• Each antibody molecule has 4 peptide chains – 2 small (light chains) and 2 longer
(heavy chains). So its represented as H2 L2. Eg: IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG.
b) Cell mediated immunity: By T – lymphocytes.
• Responsible for graft rejection - organs to be transplanted can't be taken from just
anybody. Tissue matching, blood group matching are essential and person has to
take immuno suppresants all his life.
• Body is able to differentiate self from non-self.

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Human Health And Diseases

3. Active Immunity: Host is exposed to antigens (may be in form of living or dead

microbes or other proteins) which produce antibodies in the host.
• Slow and takes time to give full effective response.
• When microbes gain access to body during infection, active immunity is induced.
This is how immunisation (deliberately injecting microbes) works.
4. Passive Immunity: When readymade antibodies are given against foreign agents
directly into the body.
Eg:
i) Foetus receives antibodies (IgG) from mother through placenta during pregnancy.
ii) Yellowish fluid colostrum secreted during lactation has antibodies Ig A to protect
infant.
Vaccination and Immunisation:
• Based on property of memory of immune system.
• In vaccines, preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogens or inactivated/weakened
pathogen are introduced in body. Antibodies produced in body against these antigens
neutralise pathogenic agents during infection. Vaccines generate memory and B and T
cells recognise pathogen quickly and produce antibodies in response.
• Passive immunisation: Preformed antibodies are injected or antitoxin (preparation
containing antibodies to the toxin ) are injected in response to deadly microbes to
which quick immune response is required.
Eg: In tetanus and snake bite.
• Recombinant DNA technology has allowed production of antigenic polypeptides of
pathogen in bacteria or yeast. Eg: Hepatitis B vaccine from yeast.
Allergies: Exaggerated response of immune system to certain antigens.
• Allergens: Substance to which immune response is produced. Eg: Dust, pollens, animal
dander etc. Antibodies produced to these are lg E type.
• Symptoms: Sneezing, watery eyes, running nose, difficulty in breathing.
• Its due to chemicals like histamine and serotonin from mast cells.

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Human Health And Diseases
• Treatment: Use of drugs like anti - histamine, adrenalin and steroids.
• To determine the cause of allergy, patient is exposed to small dose of allergens to
study reactions.
• Modern day protected environment has led to lowering immunity and more
sensitivity to allergens.
Auto Immunity: Eg: Rheumatoid arthritis is a auto - immune disease.
• Higher vertebrates have evolved memory based acquired immunity based on ability to
differentiate foreign organisms from self cells.
• Due to genetic reason, body attacks self cells resulting in auto immune disease.
Immune system: Lymphoid organs + tissue + cells + antibodies (soluble molecules).
• It recognises foreign antigens, plays important role in allergic reactions, auto immune
disease and organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs: Origin, maturation and proliferation of lymphocyte occur.
a) Primary Lymphoid Organs: Eg: Bone marrow and thymus.
• Immature lymphocyte differentiate to antigen sensitive lymphocytes.
• Provide micro - environment for development and maturation of T - lymphocytes.
Bone marrow: Main lymphoid organ, all blood cells are produced here.
Thymus: Lobed organ near heart beneath breast bone, size reduces with age and
becomes very small size at puberty.
b) Secondary Lymphoid Organs: Eg: Spleen, Lymph nodes, Tonsils, Peyer's patches of
small intestine, Appendix.
• Provides sites for interaction of lymphocytes with antigens which proliferate to
become effector cells.
Spleen: Large bean shaped organ consisting of lymphocytes and phagocytes, acts as
filter of blood by trapping blood borne micro - organisms. Its a large reservoir of
RBC.
Lymph nodes: Small solid structures at different points on lymphatic system which trap
microbes which get into lymph and tissue fluid, antigens in it activate lymphocytes and
cause immune response.

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Human Health And Diseases
Mucosal - associated lymphoid tissue (MALT): Lymphoid tissue lining major tracts
(respiratory, digestive and urinogenital tracts), 50% of lymphoid tissue.
AIDS: Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (not congenital - acquired during lifetime).
• Syndrome - group of symptoms.
• First in 1981, it has killed more than 25 million persons in last 25 years.
Cause: Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), member of retrovirus having envelope
enclosing RNA genome.
Transmission: Sexual contact with infected person, transfusion of contaminated blood,
sharing infected needles, from infected mother to her child by placenta.

• It doesn't spread merely by physical contact.

Incubation period: Few months to (5 - 10) years.
• After entering body, virus enters macrophages where RNA genome replicates to form
viral DNA by enzyme reverse transcriptase.
• Viral DNA incorporates into host's cell DNA and direct infected cells to produce virus
particles. Macrophages produce more virus, so called HIV factory.
• HIV enters helper T lymphocytes (TH), replicates and produce virus, which attack other
helper T cells. This leads to decrease in T - helper cells.

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Human Health And Diseases
Symptoms: Fever, diarrhoea, weight loss, immuno deficient, decrease in T - cells cause
infections from Tozoplasma (parasite), Mycobacterium, virus, fungi.
Diagnosis: Enzyme linked immuno sorbent assay (ELISA).
Treatment: Anti retroviral drugs, prolong life but can't prevent death.
• National AIDS Control Organisation (NACO), WHO, other Non-Governmental
Organisation (NGOs) has started programmes to prevent spreading of HIV infection.
Cancer:
• One of the most dreaded disease.
Contact Inhibition: Cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled, contact with
other cells inhibit uncontrolled growth, absent in cancer cells.
• Cancerous cells just divide to give rise to masses of cells - tumors.
Benign tumors: Remain confined to original location, don't spread, cause little
damage.
Malignant tumors: Mass of proliferating cells (neoplastic/tumor cells) grow rapidly,
invade and damage other cells, starve normal cells by competing for vital nutrients,
most feared property - metastasis (cells sloughed from such tumors reach distant sites,
lodge and start new tumor).
Causes: Agents are carcinogens (may be physical, chemical or biological).
• Ionising radiation: X - rays and gamma X – rays; non- ionising - UV cause DNA damage
leading to neoplastic transformation.
• Chemical carcinogens: Tobacco smoke cause lung cancer.
• Oncogenic viruses: Cancer causing virus have genes - viral oncogenes. Cellular
oncogenes/proto oncogenes are present in normal cells which when activated lead to
oncogenic transformation of cells.
Detection and diagnosis:
• Bone Marrow Test: Increased cell count (Eg: leukemia).
• Biopsy: Piece of suspected tissue cut into thin sections is stained and examined
(histopathological study).
• Radiography: Use of X-rays.
• Computed Tomography (CT): Use X-rays to generate 3 D image of internal objects.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Use strong magnetic fields and non - ionising
radiation to detect changes in tissue.
• Antibodies against cancer specific antigens detect cancers.
• Techniques of molecular biology detect genes susceptible to cancers.
Treatment: Surgery, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, chemotherapy.
• Radiotherapy: Tumor cells are irradiated lethally.
• α - interferon: Biological response modifiers which activates immune system and
destroys tumor.
• Some drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
Drugs and Alcohol Abuse:
1. Opioids: Bind to opioid receptors in CNS and gastrointestinal tract.
• Heroin: Commonly called smack, chemically diacetylmorphine, white, bitter
Crystalline, odourless compound, by acetylation of morphine (extracted from latex of
poppy plant papaver somniferum), depressant.
• Taken by snorting and injection.

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Human Health And Diseases

2. Cannabinoids: Interact with receptors in brain.

• From inflorescences of plant Cannabis sativa, used to produce marijuana, hashish,
charas and ganja.
• Effects cardiovascular system.
• Taken by inhalation and oral ingestion.

3. Coca alkaloids: (Cocaine) stimulating action on CNS.

• From coca plant Erythroxylem coca (native to South America).
• Interferes with transport of neuro transmitter dopamine.
• Produce sense of euphoria, increased energy, hallucination in excessive dosage.
• Cocaine/coke/crack is snorted, abused by sportspersons.
• Other plants Atropa belladona and Datura.

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Human Health And Diseases
Medicinal drugs: Barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines.
• Help to cope up mental illness like depression and insomnia.
• Morphine: Effective sedative and painkiller.
• When they are taken for other purpose - drug abuse.
Smoking:
• Increases carbon monoxide (CO) in blood and reduces concentration of haembound
oxygen, cause oxygen deficiency.
• Increases chances of cancers of lung, urinary bladder and throat, bronchitis,
emphysema, coronary heart diseases, gastric ulcers etc.
Tobacco: Contains nicotine (alkaloid which stimulate adrenal gland to release
adrenaline and nor - adrenaline into blood increasing BP and heart rate). It increases
risk of cancer of oral cavity. It is smoked, chewed or used as snuff.
Adolescence and Drug Abuse:
• Adolescence: Period during which child becomes mature in attitudes and belief; its a
bridge linking childhood and adulthood (12-18 years of age). Its a vulnerable phase of
mental and psychological development.
• First use may be out of curiosity and experimentation but becomes a way to escape
problems.
• Causes: Pressure to excel in academics, unstable family structure, internet, TV etc.
Addiction and Dependence:
• Addiction: Psychological attachment to certain effects - euphoria and temporary
feeling well being.
• It drives people to intake them even when not needed - self destructive. So, tolerance
level of receptors increase, leading to greater intake.
• Dependence: Tendency of body to manifest a characteristic and unpleasant
withdrawal syndrome if regular dose is disrupted. It leads to anxiety, nausea,
shakiness, sweating and social adjustment problems.
Effect of Drug/Alcohol Abuse:
• It leads to reckless behaviour, vandalism, violence, respiratory failure, heart failure or
cerebral hemorrhage, damage CNS, liver (cirrhosis).
• Warning signs: Drop in academic performance, isolation, depression, aggression, loss
of interest in hobbies, fluctuation in weight, appetite, change in sleeping pattern etc.
• Intravenous drugs may cause AIDS and Hepatitis B.
• Sportsperson misuse narcotic analgesics, anabolic steroids, diuretics to increase
muscle strength, promote aggressiveness, hence increase athletic performance.
Effects on female:
• Masculisation, aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, abnormal menses, hair
growth on face, enlargement of clitoris, deepening of voice.
Effects on male:
• Acne, aggressiveness, mood swings, depression, reduction of size of testicles,
decreased sperm production, kidney and liver dysfunction, premature baldness, breast
enlargement, enlargement of prostate gland.
Prevention and Control:
• Avoid undue peer pressure.
• Educate and counsell them to accept disappointments and failures.
• Seek help from parents and peers.

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Human Health And Diseases
• Look for danger signs to initiate remedial steps.
• Seeking professional and medical help.

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Strategies For Enhancement in Food Production
Animal Husbandry:
• Agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock, deals with care and breeding of
livestock (buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camel, goat), includes poultry
farming and fisheries.
• More than 70% of world livestock - India and China but they contibute to 25% of
world farm produce.
Management of Farm and Farm animals:
1. Dairy Farm Management:
• Management of animals for milk and its products for human consumption.
• Milk yield depends on quality of breed (high yielding potential, resistant to diseases).
• For better yield: Housed well, adequate water, disease free environment, good
quantity and quality of fodder (cleanliness and hygiene are of paramount importance),
regular visits of veterinary doctor.
2. Poultry Farm Management:
• Poultry: Class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or for eggs (mainly meat).
Eg: Chicken, ducks, turkey, geese.
• For better yield: Disease free breed, safe farm conditions, proper feed and water,
hygiene and health care. Bird flu virus – H5 N1 (avian influenza).

Animal breeding:
• Increasing yield of animals and improving desirable qualities of produce.
• Breed: Group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like
appearance, features, size etc.

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Strategies For Enhancement in Food Production
1. Inbreeding:
• Mating of more closely related individuals within same breed for 4 – 6 generations.
• Superior male (bull in case of cattles gives rise to superior progeny) and superior
female (cow/buffalo in case of cattle which produce more milk per lactation) are
identified and mated in pairs.
• It increases homozygosity, evolve a pureline in any animal, expose recessive genes that
are eliminated by selection, accumulate superior genes and eliminate less desirable
genes.
• Continued inbreeding → Reduces fertility and productivity → Inbreeding depression.
2. Outbreeding: Breeding of unrelated animals.
a) Outcrossing: Mating of animals within same breed having no common ancestor for 4-6
generations.
• Helps to overcome inbreeding depression.
• Its best for animals that are below average in milk productivity or growth rate in beef
cattle.
b) Cross breeding: Mating of animals from different breeds.
• Allows combination of desirable qualities, used for commercial production.
• They are subjected to inbreeding and selection to develop new stable breeds.
Eg: Hisardale (breed of sheep in Punjab) - crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams.
c) Inter specific hybridisation: Animals of different species are mated.
Eg: Mule (female horse X male donkey) and hinny (male horse X female donkey).

Controlled breeding experiment:

Artificial insemination: Semen from male is injected into the reproductive tract of female
to carry out desirable mating.
• Semen can be frozen and used.
• low success rate.
Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET): Herd improvement.
• Cow is given FSH hormone to induce follicular maturation and super ovulation
(6 - 8 eggs) and mated with elite bull/artificially inseminated.
• Fertilised egg at 8 - 32 cell stage are recovered non - surgically and transferred to
surrogate mother. Genetic mother is now available for another super ovulation.
Eg: Cattle, sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares etc. (milk yielding female and meat yielding
bulls).
Bee keeping: (Apiculture) maintenance of hives of honeybee for honey production.
• Old age cottage industry, income generating industry, not labour intensive.
• Common species - Apis indica.

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Strategies For Enhancement in Food Production
• Honey: High nutritive value, present in indigenous system of medicine.
• Honeybee also produce beewax (used in cosmetics and polishes).
• It can be practiced in area with sufficient bee pastures of wild shrubs, fruit orchards and
cultivated crops, one's courtyard, verandah, roof.
Important points:
• Knowledge of nature and habits of bees.
• Selection of suitable location for keeping beehives.
• Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees).
• Management of beehives during different seasons.
• Handling and collection of honey and beewax.
→ Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering period increase pollination efficiency
(increase crop yield and honey yield) as bees are pollinators of Brassica, apple, pear
and sunflower.
Fisheries:
• Catching processing or selling of fish, shellfish or other aquatic animals, only source of
livelihood for many (coastal area).
• Edible: Prawn, Crab, Lobster, Edible Oyster.
• Freshwater: Catla, Rohu and Common carp.
• Marine: Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel and Pomfrets.
• We have increased production of aquatic plants and animals through aquaculture and
both fresh water and marine fish through pisciculture.
• Blue Revolution: Enhancement of fish production.
Plant Breeding:
• (Green Revolution - food production) purposeful manipulation of plant species to
create desired plant types better suited for cultivation, give better yield and are
disease resistant.
• All major crops are derived from domesticated varieties.
• Conventional plant breeding was used 9000 - 11000 years ago.
• Classical plant breeding: Hybridisation of pure lines, artificial selection to produce
plants with desired traits & resistant to diseases.
• Improved variety: Tolerance to stress (salinity, extreme temperature, drought),
resistant to pathogens, insect pests.
Main steps in breeding new genetic variety of crop (conventional breeding) –
a) Collection of variability:
• Genetic variability is root of breeding programme.
• Collection and preservation of wild varieties, species is pre - requisite for exploitation of
natural genes.
• Germplasm collection: Entire collection of plants/seeds having diverse alleles for all
genes in a given crop.
b) Evaluation and selection of parents:
• Germplasm is evaluated to identify plants with desirable combination of characters.
Plants are multiplied and used in hybridisation.
• Purelines are created wherever desirable.
c) Cross hybridisation among selected parents:
• Hybridising 2 parents to produce hybrids having desired characters.
• One in hundred to a thousand crosses show desirable combinations.

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Strategies For Enhancement in Food Production
• Tedious and time consuming as pollen grains from male parent have to be placed on
stigma of female parent.
d) Selection and testing of superior recombinants crucial step:
• Selecting among the progeny of hybirds, requires scientific evaluation.
• Yields plants superior to both parents, which are self pollinated till uniformity
(homozygosity), so characters willn't segregate in progeny.
e) Testing, release and commercialisation of new cultivars:
• Evaluation of newly selected lines for yield, quality, disease resistance by growing in
research fields and recording performance.
• Testing material in farmers fields for atleast 3 growing seasons representing
agroclimatic zones.
Green Revolution: Mid 1960s.
• India is a agricultural country. Its agriculture employs 62% population, 33% India's
GDP.
a) Wheat and Rice:
• During 1960 - 2000, wheat production increased from 11 million tonnes to 75 million
tonnes while rice production from 35 million tonnes to 89.5 million tonnes.
• Nobel laureate Norman E. Borlaug at International Centre for Wheat and Maize
improvement in Mexico developed semi-dwarf wheat.
• Wheat varieties: Sonalika and Kalyan Sona (1963) were high yielding and disease
resistant.
• Rice varieties: Derived from IR - 8 (at International Rice Research Institute, Philippines)
and Taichung Native 1 (from Taiwan) in 1966. Later Jaya and Ratna were developed.
b) Sugarcane:
• Saccharum barberi: North India, poor sugar content and yield.
• Saccharum officinarum: South India, thicker stems, higher sugar content.
• They were crossed to get species with high yield, thick stem and grow in North India.
c) Millets: Hybrid maize, Jowar and bajra (resistant to water stress).
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance:
• It reduces dependence on fungicides and bacteriocides.
• Upto 20 - 30% loss in tropical climates.
• Disease caused by fungi – rusts.
Eg: Brown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane, late blight of potato; by bacteria - black
rot of crucifers; by virus - tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic etc.
• Breeding is done by conventional breeding technique/mutation breeding, but there are
limited no. of disease resistance genes. Plants having desirable characters can be
multiplied directly.
• Other breeding methods - somaclonal variants and genetic engineering.
• Mutation: Genetic variation are created through changes in base sequences, can be
induced artificially through chemicals or radiations and selecting plant with desirable
traits for breeding called mutation breeding.
Eg: Resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew in mung bean.
• Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus) was transfered
from wild variety and resulting into new variety of A. Esculentus called Parbhani Kranti.
• Transfer of resistance genes is done by sexual hybridisation between target and source
plant followed by selection.

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Strategies For Enhancement in Food Production

Plant Breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests:

• Hairy leaves in some plants. Eg: Resistance to jassids in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in
wheat provide resistance.
• In wheat, solid stem provide resistance to stem sawfly and smooth and nectar less
cotton varieties don't attract bollworms.
• High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize provide resistance to stem
borers.

Plant Breeding for improved Food Quality:

• More than 840 million people don't have adequate food.
• 3 billion people suffer from micronutrient, protein and vitamin deficiency.
• Diet lacking essential micronutrients - iron, vitamin A, iodine, zinc increase risk of
disease, reduce lifespan and mental abilities.
Biofortification:
• Breeding crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals/protein or fats.
• Maize hybrids: 2 x amino acids (lysine and tryptophan) in 2000.
• Wheat variety: Atlas 66 (high protein content).
• Rice variety: 5 x Iron.
• Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi released crops rich in vitamins and
minerals.
Eg: Vitamin A - Carrot, spinach, pumpkin.
Vitamin C - Bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato.

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Strategies For Enhancement in Food Production
Iron and Calcium - Spinach and bathua.
Protein - Broad, lablab, french, garden peas.
Single Cell Protein:
• Alternate sources of proteins for animal and human nutrition.
• More than 25% suffer from hunger and malnutrition.
a) Spirulina: Blue green algae, grow on waste water from potato processing plant,
straw, molasses, animal manure, sewage and serves as food rich in proteins, fats,
minerals, carbohydrate and vitamins.
b) Methylophilus Methylotrophus: Produce biomass, 25 tonnes of protein.
c) Fungi: Edible mushrooms.
Tissue Culture:
• Whole plant can be regenerated from explants. i.e. part of plant taken out and grown
in a test tube under sterile condition. Capacity to generate whole plant from explant
- totipotency.
• Nutrient medium must be a carbon source - sucrose, inorganic salts, vitamins, amino
acids, growth regulators - auxin, cytokinin etc.
• Producing large no. of plants in short duration through tissue culture –
micropropagation. Each plant will be genetically identical to original plant.
i.e. Somaclones. Eg: Tomato, banana, apple etc.
• If plant is infected with virus, meristem (apical and axillary) is free of virus. So, one can
remove meristem and grow it in vitro to obtain virus free plants. Eg: Banana,
sugarcane, potato etc.
• Single cells have been isolated from plants and after digesting cells walls, naked
protoplasts have been isolated. Isolated protoplast from 2 different varieties (with
desirable characters) can be fused to get hybrid protoplast, to grow new plant. These
hybrids are called somatic hybrids and process is called somatic hybridisation.
Eg: Tomato + potato → pomato but didn't had desirable characters for commercial
utilisation.

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Microbes In Human Welfare

• Microbes are also present deep inside geysers, soil, acidic environment.
• Some microbes are harmful whereas some are useful.
Microbes in Household Products:
1. Lactobacillus: Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB).
• Grow in milk and convert it to curd, by producing acids that coagulate and partially
digest milk proteins.
• Small amount of curd is added to fresh milk as inoculum (starter) containing millions of
LAB, which multiply at suitable temperature and convert milk to curd having more
vitamin B12.
• Checks disease causing microbes in stomach.
2. Fermentation: Puffed appearance in some food items is due to CO₂ production.
• Dough in dosa and idli is fermented by bacteria.
• Dough in bread is fermented by baker's yeast - saccharomyces cerevisiae.
• Toddy (traditional drink of South India) is made by fermenting sap from palms.
• Microbes also ferment fish, soyabean and bamboo - shoots to make food.
• Cheese - oldest food item in which microbes were used.
• Large holes in Swiss cheese are due to bacterium Propionibacterium sharmanii.
• Roquefort cheese: Ripened by growing fungi on them.

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Microbes In Human Welfare

Microbes in industrial Products: Eg: In Beverages and antibiotics.

• Microbes are grown in large vessels - fermentors.
1. Fermented Beverages:
• Brewer's yeast is used in fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices to produce
ethanol.
• Wine and beer - produced without distillation, whisky, brandy, rum - produced by
distillation.

2. Antibiotics:
• In Greek, Anti means against and bio means life - against life (in context to pathogens);
pro life (in context to human being).
• Antibiotic: Chemical substances produced by microbes which can kill or retard growth
of other microbes.
• Penicillin: First antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming while working on
Staphylococci bacteria. He observed mould growing on unwashed culture plate around
which bacteria couldn't grow as mould secreted chemical – penicillin. Mould
was Penicillin notatum. Its full potential was established by Ernest Chain and Howard
Florey. It was used to treat American soldiers in World War II.

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Microbes In Human Welfare

• Fleming, Chain and Florey were awarded nobel prize in 1945.

• Antibiotics treated diseases like plague, whooping cough (kali khansi), diphtheria (gal
ghotu) and leprosy (kusht rog).
3. Chemicals Enzymes and other Bioactive Molecules:
• Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) - ethanol.
• Aspergillus niger (fungus) - citric acid.
• Acetobacter aceti (bacterium) - acetic acid.
• Clostridium butylicum (bacterium) - butyric acid.
• lactobacillus (bacterium) - lactic acid.
• Lipase - detergent formulation (removing oily stains from laundry).
• Pectinase and protease - clear bottled fruit juices in market.
• Streptococcus - streptokinase (clot buster - remove clots from blood vessels in
myocardial infarction).
• Trichoderma polysporum (fungus) - cyclosporin A (immunosuppressive in organ
transplant).
• Monascus purpureus (yeast) - statins (blood cholestrol lowering agent, acts as
competitively inhibiting enzyme responsible for cholestrol synthesis).
Microbes in Sewage Treatment:
• Major component of waste water - human excreta. This municipal waste water is called
sewage, which contains organic matter and microbes (pathogenic).
• This is treated by sewage treatment plant to make it less polluting, which is mainly
done by heterotrophic microbes naturally present in sewage.
1. Primary treatment: Physical removal of particles (filtration and sedimentation).
• Floating debris is removed by sequential filtration and grit (soil and pebbles) by
sedimentation.
• Primary Sludge: All solid that settles.
• Supernatant forms effluent which is taken for secondary treatment.
2. Secondary treatment/Biological treatment:

• Effluents are passed into large aeration tank where its constantly agitated mechanically
and air is pumped into it it. It allows rapid growth of aerobic microbes as flocs (mass of
bacteria with fungal filaments to form mesh like structure).

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Microbes In Human Welfare

• They reduce BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) of effluent.

BOD: Amount of O2 that would be consumed if all organic matter in 1l water were
oxidised by bacteria. It measures rate of O2 uptake by microbes, organic matter
present in water. Greater BOD, more is its polluting potential.
• Once BOD is reduced, effluent is passed to settling tank where bacterial flocs are
allowed to sediment and called activated sludge.
• Some amount of activated sludge is pumped to aeration tank to serve as inoculum
whereas remaining sludge in pumped to large tank - anaerobic sludge digestor.
• Here anaerobic bacteria digest bacteria and fungi and produce mixture of gases like
methane, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide forming biogas (source of energy as
inflammable). Now efffluent is released into water bodies.
• The Ministry of Environment and Forests has initiated Ganga Action Plan and Yamuna
Action Plan under which its proposed to build sewage treatment plants so that only
treated sewage may be discharged into rivers.

Microbes in production of Biogas:

• Biogas: Mixture of gases produced by microbial activity which may be used as fuel.
• Type of gas produced depends on microbes and organic substrates they utilise.
Eg: Anaerobic bacteria growing on cellulosic material produce methane + CO₂ + H₂.
• These are called methanogens (one such is Methanobacterium). They are found in
rumen of cattles where they help in breakdown of cellulose and play important role in
nutrition of cattle. Thus excreta of cattle (gobar) is rich in these bacteria. So, dung can
be used for generation of biogas → gobar gas.
Biogas plant:
• It has concrete tank (10 - 15 feet deep) in which bio waste is collected and slurry of
dung is fed.
• Floating cover is placed over slurry which keeps on rising as gas is produced. It has an
outlet connected to a pipe to supply biogas to nearby houses.
• Spent slurry is removed through another outlet and used as fertiliser.
• Its build more often in rural areas due to availability of cattle dung.
• This biogas is used for cooking and lightning.
• This technology was developed by Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) and
Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC).

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Microbes In Human Welfare

Microbes as Biocontrol Agents: Reduce dependence on toxic chemicals.

• Biocontrol: Use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests.
• Today, these are tackled by insecticides, pesticides which are toxic and pollute
environment.
• Organic farmer believes biodiversity furthers health (more variety a land has, more
sustainable it is). So, he works to create system in which pests aren't eradicated but
kept at manageable level by system of checks and balance.
• Conventional farming method often kills both useful and harmful life forms by use of
chemicals.
1. Ladybird (beetle with red and black markings) and Dragonflies are used to get rid of
aphids and mosquitoes respectively.
2. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt): Control butterfly caterpillars (Bt Cotton)
• They are available in sachets as dried spores mixed with water and sprayed on plants
(brassicas and fruit trees) where they are eaten by insect larvae.
• Toxin is released in gut of larvae and kills it.
• By genetic engineering Bt gene is introduced into plants which become resistant to
attack by insect pests. Eg: Bt cotton.
3. Trichoderma: Free living fungus in root ecosystem.
4. Baculovirus: Pathogen attacking insect and arthropods. Majority of them belong to
genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus.
• They have narrow spectrum insecticidal application and have no negative impacts on
plants, mammals, bird etc.
• Its desirable when beneficial insects are being preserved in integrated pest
management (IPM) programme.

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Microbes In Human Welfare

Microbes as Biofertilisers: Eg: Bacteria, fungi, cyanobacteria.

• Biofertilisers: Organisms that enrich nutrient quality of soil.
1. Bacteria:
• Rhizobium in symbiotic association with nodules on roots of leguminous plants, fix
atmospheric N2 into organic forms.
• Other bacteria fixing N2 - Azospirillum and Azotobacter (free living in soil), thus
enriching soil with N2.
2. Fungi: Form symbiotic association with plant (mycorrhiza).
• Mainly members of genus Glomus.
• Fungal symbiont - absorb phosphorus from soil and pass to plant.
• Increase plant growth and development - tolerance to salinity and drought, resistance
to root - borne pathogen.
3. Cyanobacteria: Autotrophic microbes in aquatic and terrestrial environments.
• Fix atmospheric nitrogen. Eg: Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria.
• Add organic matter to soil and increase its fertility.
• Serve as important biofertiliser in paddy fields.

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes
Biotechnology:
• Technique of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce products and
processes useful to humans.
Eg: Invitro fertilisation, synthesising gene and using it, developing DNA vaccine.
• According to European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB), biotechnology is – ʽThe
integration of natural science and organisms, cells and molecular analogues for
products and servicesʼ.
Principles of Biotechnology:
i) Genetic engineering: Alter chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) to introduce
them into host organisms and change host's phenotype.
ii) Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile condition for growth of desired cell in
large quantities.
Development of principles of genetic engineering:
• Traditional hybridisation often led to inclusion of undesired genes alongwith desired
genes, whereas genetic engineering allows to isolate desirable genes without
introducing undesirable genes.
First construction of artificial recombinant DNA:
• By Stanley Cohen and Hebert Boyer.
• In 1972, they isolated antibiotic resistance gene by cutting out DNA piece from plasmid
(autonomously replicating circular extra chromosomal DNA) of Salmonella
typhimurium.
• The cut piece is then linked to plasmid DNA which act as vector and transfers alien
piece of DNA to host. Now, its replicates using new host's DNA polymerase and make
multiple copies.
• This combination of circular autonomously replicating DNA created invitro by linking cut
DNA with plasmid - recombinant DNA.
Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology:
1. Restriction enzymes: Cuts DNA at specific locations (molecular scissors).
• In 1963, 2 enzymes for restricting growth of bacteriophage in Escherichia coli were
isolated. 1 of them added methyl group to DNA and other cut DNA.
• Hind II: First restriction endonuclease which cut DNA by recognising specific sequence
of 6 base pairs (recognition sequence).
• There are more than 900 restriction enzymes isolated from over 230 strains.
• In Eco RI from Escherichia coli RY 13,ʽEʼ comes from genus (Escherichia), ʽcoʼ from
species (coli), ʽRʼ is strain while ʽIʼ is roman numeral in order in which enzyme were
isolated from that strain of bacteria.
• They belong to larger class – nucleases.
→ Exonuclease: Remove nucleotides from ends of DNA.
→ Endonuclease: Cuts at specific positions within DNA.
• It functions by inspecting DNA length, recognises specific palindromic nucleotide
sequence in DNA (sequence that reads same on 2 strands of DNA when orientation of
reading is kept same).
Eg: 5' → GAATTC → 3' 3' → CTTAAG → 5'
• It cuts DNA little away from centre but between 2 same bases on opposite strands,
which leave single stranded portions. Each strand has overhanging stretches – sticky
ends (form H bonds with complementary cut part).

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes

• These sticky ends are joined by DNA ligase, forming recombinant DNA molecule.
• Unless vector and source DNA arenʼt cut by same restriction enzyme, recombinant
molecule canʼt be created.

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes
Separation and Isolation of DNA fragments:
• Cutting of DNA by restriction endonuclease results in fragments of DNA which can be
separated by gel electrophoresis.
• DNA are negatively charged molecule, so move to anode under electric field, through
matrix agarose (natural polymer extracted from sea weeds).
• Fragments get separated according to size. Smaller the fragment, farther it moves.
• These are visualised by staining in ethidium bromide followed by UV exposure. Bright
orange bands are visible.
• The separated bands are cut out from gel and extracted called elution.

2. Cloning Vectors: For many copies, vector should have high copy number.
• Help in easy linking of foreign DNA and selection of recombinants from non –
recombinants.
• Bacteriophage (high no./cell) have high copy numbers whereas some plasmids have 1 -
2 copies/cell and some have 15 -100 copies/cell. They both have ability to replicate
within bacterial cell independent of control of chromosomal DNA.
Features facilitating cloning into vector –
i. Origin of replication: Sequence where replication starts.
• Controls copy no. of linked DNA so if many copies of target DNA are required, it should
be cloned in vector whose origin support high copy number.
ii. Selectable marker:
• Help in identifying and eliminating non transformants and selectively permitting
growth of transformants.
• Eg: Genes encoding resistance to antibiotics - Ampicillin, chloramphenicol,
tetracycline or kanamycin for E. coli (Normal E coli doesn't carry resistance to any).
• Transformation - Process by which DNA piece is introduced in host.
iii. Cloning sites:
• Ligation of foreign DNA needs single recognition site present in 1 out of 2 antibiotic
resistance genes.
Eg: Ligating foreign DNA at Bam H I site of tetracycline resistance gene in vector pBR
322 results in loss of tetracycline resistance in recombinant plasmid, but still can
be selected from non - recombinant by placing transformants on tetracycline
medium.

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes

• Recombinants will grow on ampicillin medium but not on tetracycline medium. Non –
recombinants grow on medium containing both antibiotics.
• One antibiotic resistance gene helps in selecting transformants whereas other gets
inactivated due to alien DNA.
Drawback: Cumbersome process as it requires simultaneous placing on 2 plates
having different antibiotics.
Another selectable marker: Differentiate recombinants from non - recombinants on
basis of ability to produce colour in presence of chromogenic substrate.
• r. DNA is inserted within coding sequence of β galactosidase which results in
inactivation of gene for enzyme synthesis - insertional inactivation.
• If plasmid doesn't have insert, chromogenic substrate gives blue colour colonies.
• Presence of insert results in insertional inactivation and colonies don't produce any
colour, these are transformants/recombinants.
iv. Vectors for cloning genes in plants and animals:
• Agrobacterium tumifaciens: Its a pathogen of dicot plants that delivers DNA piece – T
- DNA to transform normal plant cells to tumor and direct them to produce chemicals
required by pathogen.
• Retrovirus: In animals they have ability to transform normal cells to cancerous cells.
• But, now these are modified into cloning vectors which is not more pathogenic or
harmful and helps to deliver desirable genes into host.
3. Competent Host: For transformation with r. DNA.
• DNA is hydrophillic, so can't pass through membrane.
• To make bacterial cell competent to take up DNA, we treat it with specific
concentration of divalent cation (Ca+2) which increases efficiency with which DNA
enters bacterium through pores in wall.
• rDNA is then forced into such cells by incubating cells with rDNA on ice, followed by
heat shock (42°C) and then putting them back on ice. This enables bacteria to take
rDNA.
Other methods:
• Micro - injection: r. DNA is directly injected into nucleus of animal cell.

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes
• Biolistics/gene gun: Cells are bombarded with high velocity micro particles of gold or
tungsten coated with DNA, suitable for plants.
• Disarmed pathogen: Which when allowed to infect cell transfers rDNA into host.
Process of recombinant DNA technology:
1. Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA):
• Nucleic acid is genetic material without exception.
• In order to cut DNA, it needs to be in pure form, free from macro - molecules, cell has
to break open to release DNA alongwith RNA, proteins, polysaccharides and lipids.
• This is done by treating cells with enzymes - lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase (plant cells),
chitinase (fungus) and purified DNA precipitates out after adding chilled ethanol (as
fine threads in suspension).
• RNA is removed by ribonuclease, protein by protease etc.

2. Cutting of DNA at specific locations:

• Restriction endonuclease cut source DNA and vector DNA at specific position at optimal
conditions. Gel electrophoresis is employed to check progression of restriction enzyme
digestion.
• Cut out gene of interest from source and vector DNA is mixed and ligase is added which
results in recombinant DNA.
3. Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR: Polymerase Chain Reaction.
• Multiple copies of ʽ gene of interest ʼ is synthesised in vitro using 2 sets of primers
(small chemically synthesised oligonucleotides complementary to DNA region) and
enzyme DNA polymerase.
• Enzyme extends primers using nucleotides in reaction and genomic DNA as template. If
replication of DNA is repeated, a billion copies of DNA segment can be made, by the use
of thermostable DNA polymerase (isolated from bacterium, Thermus aquaticus) which
is active at high temperature and denatures ds DNA.

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes
• This fragment can be ligated with vector for further cloning.

4. Insertion of Recombinant DNA into Host cell/organism:

• Recipient cell should be made competent to receive DNA.
• If r. DNA bearing gene for ampicillin resistance is transferred to E. coli, host cell become
resistant to ampicillin.
• If transformed cells are spread on agar plates having ampicillin, only transformants
grow. So, due to ampicillin resistance gene, one is able to select transformed cell hence
this gene is selectable marker.
5. Obtaining the foreign gene product:
• Recombinant protein: Protein encoding gene expressed in heterologous host.
• Cells harbouring cloned genes of interest may be grown on small scale in laboratory.
• They can also be multiplied in continuous culture system where used medium is
drained from one side while fresh one is added from other side to maintain cells in
active log/exponential phase. It yields higher amount of desired protein.
• Bioreactors: Vessels in which raw material are biologically converted into specific
products using microbial plant, human cells etc. and large volumes (100 - 1000 litres) of
culture can be processed by providing optimal conditions (pH, temperature, substrate,
salts, vitamins, oxygen). Most common is stirring type.
• Stirred tank: Usually cylindrical/ curved base to facilitate even mixing of contents,
facilitates oxygen availability (air can be bubbled through reactor), it has agitator
system, oxygen delivery system, foam control system, temperature and pH control
system and sampling port to withdraw small volumes periodically.

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Biotechnology: Principles And Processes

6. Downstream Processing:
• Product is subjected to processes like separation and purification.
• It has to be preserved in suitable solution and undergoes clinical trials (in case of drugs).
• Quality control testing is also required.

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Biotechnology And Its Applications

Three critical research areas of biotechnology:

i) Providing best catalyst in form of improved organism.
ii) Creating optimal conditions for catalyst to act.
iii) Downstream processing to purify protein/organic compound.
Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture:
• Increase food production – agro - chemical based agriculture, organic agriculture and
genetically engineered crop based agriculture.
• Green Revolution tripled food production.
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes
have been altered by manipulation.
• Advantages of genetic modifications:
→ Made crops tolerant to abiotic stresses, reduced reliance on chemical pesticides.
→ Reduced post harvest loss, increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants.
→ Enhanced food's nutritional value. Eg: Golden rice (vitamin A enriched).
1. By toxin: By bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
• Its a biopesticide. Eg: Bt cotton, Bt corn, rice, tomato, soyabean etc.
• Some strains of bacterium produce proteins to kill insects like coleopterans (beetles),
lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm) and dipterans (flies, mosquito).
• Bt forms toxic insecticidal protein during growth phase which exist as inactive protoxins in
bacterium but once insect ingests it, it gets converted into active form due to alkaline pH
of gut which solubilise crystals.
• This toxin binds to midgut epithelial cells and create pores causing cell lysis and death.
• Choice of gene depends on crop and targeted pest as most toxin are insect - specific.
• Toxin coded by gene cry IAc - cry.
Eg: Protein encoded by genes cry IAc and cry IIAb control bollworms and by genes cry IAb
control corn borer.

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Biotechnology And Its Applications

2. Pest Resistant Plants:

• A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infect roots of tobacco plants.
• To tackle this, RNA interference (RNAi) is adopted which is a cellular defense in all
eukaryotic organisms. It involves silencing of specific mRNA due to complementary ds RNA
that binds to it and prevent its translation.
• Source of complementary RNA may be infection by virus having RNA genomes or mobile
genetic elements (transposons) that replicate via RNA intermediate.
• Using Agrobacterium vectors, genes were introduced into plant such that it produce both
sense and anti - sense RNA in host which are complementary to each other and form ds
RNA which initiate RNAi. Parasite couldn't survive in transgenic host.

Biotechnological Applications in Medicine:

• 30 recombinant therapeutics have been approved. 12 of them are marketed in India.
1. Genetically Engineered Insulin:
• Insulin was extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs.
• It has 2 short polypeptide chains: Chain A and chain B linked by disulphide bridge. Its
synthesised as prohormone (which needs to be processed to become fully mature) which
has an extra stretch – C – peptide (removed in maturation of insulin, so absent in mature
insulin).
• In 1983, Eli Lily (American company) prepared 2 DNA sequences and introduced them in
plasmid of E. coli to produce chains. Both chains produced separately were extracted and
combined by disulphide bonds.

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Biotechnology And Its Applications

2. Gene Therapy: Collection of methods that allow correction of gene defect.

• First gene therapy (1990) was done on a 4 year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA)
deficiency, which is caused due to deletion of gene for adenosine deaminase. This enzyme
is essential for immune system.
• It can be cured by bone marrow transplantation or enzyme replacement therapy in which
functional ADA is given by injection, however its not completely curative. However, if gene
isolated from marrow cells producing ADA is introduced at early embryonic stage, its a
permanent cure.
• In gene therapy, lymphocyte from blood of patient are grown on culture plate outside
body and functional ADA cDNA (using retroviral vector) is introduced into it and returned
to patient. Patient requires periodic infusion as these cells aren't immortal.
3. Molecular Diagnosis: Early detection by r.DNA technology, PCR or ELISA.
• Presence of pathogen is normally detected when there is a symptom till which pathogen's
concentration becomes very high in body. Eg: Urine and serum analysis.
• However, low concentration of bacteria or virus can be detected by amplification of
nucleic acid by PCR (now used to detect HIV in AIDS, mutation in cancer patients, genetic
disorders).
• ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay) is based on antigen - antibody interaction.
Infection is detected by presence of antigens (protein, glycoprotein) or detecting
antibodies synthesised against pathogens.
• ssDNA or ssRNA with radioactive probe hybridise its complementary DNA in clone of cells
followed by detection using autoradiography. So, clone having mutated gene willn't appear
on photographic film as probe willn't have complementarity with mutated gene.
Transgenic animals: Animals whose genome is modified to possess extra (foreign) gene.
• 95% transgenic animals – Mice; other animals - Rat, pigs, rabbit, sheep, cow, fish.
i) Normal physiology and development: Transgenic animals allow study of how genes are
regulated, how they affect normal functions of body and biological effects.
ii) Study of disease: How genes help in development of disease, so that new treatments for
these diseases can be made possible.

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Biotechnology And Its Applications

iii) Biological products: By introduction of gene which codes for particular product such as
human protein (α – 1 antitrypsin) to treat emphysema, similarly different genes for
treatment of phenylketonuria and cystic fibrosis. In 1997, first transgenic cow, Rosie
produced human protein enriched milk (2.4 g/L) which has α - lactalbumin and more
balanced product for human babies than natural cow milk.
iv) Vaccine safety: Transgenic mice and monkeys are used to test safety of vaccine.
v) Chemical safety testing: (Toxicity/safety testing) transgenic animals carry genes which make
them more sensitive to toxic substances than non - transgenic animals, so results are
obtained in less time in transgenic animals.
Ethical Issues:
• GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee) makes decisions regarding validity of
GM research and safety of introducing GM organisms.
• Some companies are granted patents for products that make use of genetic materials that
have been identified and developed by farmers and indigenous people.
• India alone has 2,00,000 varieties of rice. Basmati rice is distinct for unique aroma and
flavour and 27 varieties of it are grown in India. In 1997, American company got patent
rights through US Patent and Trademark Office, which allowed it to sell new variety of
Basmati derived from Indian farmer's variety.
• Indian Basmati was crossed with semi - dwarf variety and was claimed as invention.
• Another product on which several attempts have been made to patent uses, products and
processes – turmeric neem.
Biopiracy: Use of bio - resources by multinational companies without proper authorisation
from countries and people concerned without compensatory payment.
• Developing and underdeveloped world is rich in biodiversity and traditional knowledge
related to bio - resources which can be exploited to develop modern application, save time,
effort and expenditure during commercialisation whereas industrialised nation lack
traditional knowledge but are financially sound.
• There is growing injustice and benefit sharing between developed and developing
countries.
• Indian Parliament cleared second amendment of Indian Patents Bill that consider issues
of patent terms emergency provisions and research and development initiative.

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Organisms And Populations
Ecology:
• Study of interaction among organisms and between organisms and abiotic
environment.
• 4 levels of biological organisation – Organism, Population, Communities and Biomes.
Organisms and its Environment:
• All places on earth experience different temperature or seasons due to tilt axis of earth
and revolution of earth around sun.

• Annual variation in precipitation and temperature results in biomes like deserts,

rainforest and tundra.

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Organisms And Populations
• Life is also found in harsh habitats - Rajasthan desert, Meghalaya forest, ocean
trenches, polar regions, mountain tops, torrential streams, thermal springs, compost
pits etc.
• Difference in physical and chemical conditions is due to abiotic and biotic factors
(pathogen, parasite, predators, competitors), with which they interact constantly.
• Each organism has defined range of conditions that it can tolerate, resources it utilises
and functional role it plays in ecological system, all these comprise niche.
Major Abiotic Factors:
1. Temperature: Varies seasonally and affects kinetics of enzyme.
• Decreases from equator to poles and plain to mountains.
• Ranges from subzero (polar areas and high altitude) to more than 50°C (deserts),
however it exceeds 100°C in thermal springs and deep sea hydrothermal vents.
• Mango trees can't grow in temperate countries like Canada and Germany, snow
leopards aren't found in Kerala forest and tuna fish isn't found beyond tropical in
ocean.
Eurythermal: Organisms that can survive in wide range of temperature.
Stenothermal: Organisms that are restricted to narrow range of temperature.
2. Water: Limited availability, life originated in water.
• For aquatic animals, quality (pH, chemical composition) of water is important, many
freshwater animals can't live in sea water for long and vice-versa.
• Salt concentration (salinity in parts per 1000) - Less than 5 in inland water, 30 - 35
in sea, more than 100 in hypersaline lagoons.
Euryhaline: Organisms tolerant to wide range of salinities.
Stenohaline: Organisms restricted to narrow range of salinities.
3. Light: Linked to temperature as sun is source for both temperature and light.
• Many small herbs and shrubs overshadowed by canopied trees receive low light
intensity but still able to survive as they adapt to synthesing food in low light.
• Diurnal and seasonal light variation and photoperiod signals animal to forage, migrate
or reproduce whereas for plants its important for photosynthesis and photoperiod.
• UV component of spectrum is harmful whereas all other are available for marine plants.
Organisms in deep oceans make use of different spectrum of light.
• Blue and green rays are absorbed by brown and red algae in deep waters.
4. Soil: Varies in different place.
• Nature and properties depend on climate, weathering process, parent rock and soil
formation.
• Characteristic of soil like composition, grain size determine percolation and water
holding capacity of soil whereas pH, topography, mineral composition determine
vegetation.
Responses to Abiotic Factors:
• Organisms have evolved to maintain constant internal environment (within body)
irrespective of outside environment (homeostasis) that permits all biochemical and
physiological functions to proceed with maximum efficiency. Eg: If person works best at
25°C, he could do same in hot or cold environment by switching on A.C. or heater in
respective climates, but it doesn't work for animals.

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Organisms And Populations

1. Regulate:
• Organisms which maintain homeostasis by physiological and behavioral means.
(Thermoregulation - constant body temperature, osmoregulation - constant osmotic
concentration).
• Eg: Birds, mammals, few lower vertebrate and invertebrate (not in plants).
• To maintain constant temperature of 37°C, humans sweat profusely in summer
resulting in evaporative cooling to lower down body temperature whereas shiver in
winters which produce heat and raise body temperature.
• Success of mammals is due to homeostasis which enable them to survive in Antarctica
and Sahara desert.
2. Conform:
• 99% of animals can't maintain homeostatis.
• Body temperature changes with external temperature, similarly osmotic concentration
of body changes with concentration of water.
• Thermoregulation is expensive for these animals especially small animals which have
large surface area relative to volume, so lose body heat quickly when outside
temperature is low. They have to expend much energy to generate heat. That's why
small animals are rarely found in polar areas.
• Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area.
• If stressful conditions are for short time they migrate or suspend.
3. Migrate:
• Some organisms move from stressful to favourable area temporarily.
• Many birds from Siberia during winter undertake long distance migration to reach
Keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan.
4. Suspend:
• Organisms who aren't able to migrate, avoid stress by escaping time.
• Hibernation: During winter. Eg: Bears; Aestivation - During summer. Eg: Snails and fish
(avoid dessication).
• Zooplankton species in lakes and ponds enter diapause (suspended development).
• In bacteria and fungi, thick walled spores are formed whereas plants reduce metabolic
activity and enter dormancy in unfavourable conditions.
Adaptations:
• Attribute of organism that enable it to survive and reproduce in its habitat.
1. Morphological adaptations:
• Kangaroo rat in North American desert meets water requirement by metabolic water

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produced as byproduct during oxidation of fat. It can also concentrate its urine.
• Desert plants have thick cuticle on leaf with sunken stomata to minimise water loss.
They have adopted special photosynthetic pathway (CAM) which keep stomata closed
in day.
• Opuntia has no leaves as they are reduced to spines and photosynthesis occur by
flattened stems (phylloclade).
• Allens' Rule: Mammals in colder climate have short ears and limbs to prevent heat loss.
Seals have thick layer of fat (blubber) below skin that acts as insulator and reduce loss
of heat.
2. Physiological adaptations:
• At high altitude, person experience altitude sickness (nausea, fatigue and palpitations)
due to low atmospheric pressure, but in some days it becomes normal as body
increases RBC, reduces binding affinity of haemoglobin and increases breathing rate.
Thats why tribe in Himalaya have high RBC content than people in plains.
• Archaebacteria survive in hot spring and deep sea hydrothermal vents where
temperature is more than 100°C whereas many fish survive in Antarctic waters where
temperature is below 0°C. Some fish live at great depths where pressure is 100 times
more than atmospheric pressure.
3. Behavioural adaptations:
• Desert lizard maintains temperature by absorbing heat in sun when temperature is
below normal whereas move into shade when temperature is high.
• Some species burrow in soil to escape above ground heat.
Populations:
Population attributes:
• Eg: Birth and death rates, sex ratio, age distribution, population density.
• Population: Individuals living in a group in a well defined geographical area, share or
compete for similar resources, potentially interbreed. Eg: Bacteria in culture plate,
lotus plants in ponds, teakwood trees in forest.
• Population attributes can't be calculated for individuals.
a) Birth and death rates:
• Change in no. (increase or decrease) with respect to members of populations.
• Eg: If in a pond of 20 lotus plants, 8 more are added, birthrate = 8/20 = 0.4 individual
per lotus plant/year.
In a week, if 4 out of 40 fruitfly die, death rate = 4/40 = 0.1 individual per fruitfly per
week.
b) Sex ratio: Percentage of male or female in a population.
c) Age distribution: Pre - reproductive, reproductive and post – reproductive.
• Age pyramid: Graphical representation of different age groups.

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Organisms And Populations
i) Expanding: Growing population, more natality less mortality.
ii) Stable: No increase no decrease, natality = mortality.
iii) Declining: Decreasing population, more mortality less natality.
d) Population density:
• Refers to population size but not necessary in number (which is sometimes
meaningless).
• If single huge banyan tree grows among 200 parthenium plants it would be incorrect
that population density of banyan tree is low. In such cases, percent cover/biomass is
meaningful.
• Sometimes, counting is impossible or time consuming so relative densities are
considered. Eg: Fish caught per trap gives measure of population density in lake.
• Sometimes, its calculated indirectly. Eg: Tiger census in parks is based on pug marks
and fecal pellets.
Population growth:
• Size of population isn't static and keeps on changing.
• Natality (B): No. of births in the population that are added to the initial density in given
period.
• Mortality (D): No. of deaths during given period.
• Immigration (I): No. of individuals of some species that come from elsewhere in given
period.
• Emigration (E): No. of individuals of a population that go elsewhere during a given
period.
• Natality and Immigration increase population but mortality and emigration decrease
population.
• Births and deaths are important under normal conditions.
• Let ʽNʼ be population density at time ʽtʼ, then density at time ʽt+1ʼ -
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B+I) - (D+E)]

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Organisms And Populations
Growth Models:
1. Exponential growth:
• Population grows exponentially/geometrically (J - shaped) if resources are unlimited
and species have ability to realise fully its innate potential to grow in number –
DARWIN.
• Population size = N, birth rates = b, death rates = d
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase, increase/decrease in ʽNʼ during time period ʽtʼ
dN/dt = (b - d) X N; [Let r = (b - d)]
dN/dt = rN
• Integral form: Nt = N0ert ;
Where Nt = population density at ʽtʼ; N0 = initial population density; e = base of natural
logarithms; r = intrinsic rate of natural increase.
• Norway rat: r = 0.015; flour beetle: r = 0.12; human (in 1981): 0.0205.

2. Logistic growth or Verhulst - Pearl Logistic Growth: More realistic.

• Resources are limited which leads to competition between individuals and fittest one
survive and reproduce.
• Population initially shows lag phase, then acceleration and deacceleration and finally
asymptote, when density reaches carrying capacity (k) - sigmoid curve.
𝑲−𝑵
dN/dt = rN ( 𝑲 )
K = Carrying capacity (given habitat has enough resources to support maximum
possible number, beyond which no growth is possible).
• ʽrʼ is important for studying impacts of biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.
Life History Variation:
• Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime - Pacific salmon fish, bamboo.
• Some produce large no. of small size offspring - oysters, pelagic fish while some
produce small no. of large size offspring- birds, mammals.
Population Interactions:
• Animals, plants and microbes can't live in isolation but interact in various ways to form
biological community.

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• Interspecific interaction: Interaction between population of different species. It can be
beneficial, detrimental or neutral to both species or one of them.
• In predation, parasitism and commensalism, interacting species live together closely.
• (+) → beneficial interaction; (-) → detrimental; → 0 neutral.

1. Amensalism: One species is harmed whereas other is unaffected.

• Eg: a) Walnut tree exerts a substance juglone which prevents other plant to grow as it
damages their roots.
b) Penicillin secreted by Penicillium kills or stops growth of bacteria.
2. Predation:
• One species benefits (predator) and interaction is detrimental to other (prey).
• Predators transfer energy to higher trophic levels and keep prey population under
control, as prey would achieve high population density and cause ecosystem instability.
They reduce competitions among prey species and maintain species diversity.
• Predators are prudent as it can overexploit its prey and prey might extinct, eventually
predators will extinct due to lack of food.
• Eg: a) Prickly pear cactus when introduced in Australia caused havoc by spreading
rapidly and was brought under control when cactus feeding moth was
introduced.
b) When starfish Pisaster in American Pacific Coast was removed, more than 10
species of invertebrates became extinct due to interspecific competition, in just
1 year.
• Prey species have evolved defenses. Eg: Some insects and frogs camouflage to avoid
being detected. Some are poisonous. Eg: Monarch butterfly acquires a chemical during
caterpillar stage by feeding on poisonous weed which is highly distasteful to bird.
• 25% insects are phytophagous (feed on plant sap and other parts of plant).
• Plants have morphological and chemical defences against herbivores.
Eg: Thorns in Acacia, Cactus; Calotropis produce highly poisonous cardiac glycosides to
prevent browsing of cattle or goats near it.
• Some plants produce nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium against grazers and
browsers.
3. Competition: Fitness of one species is lower in presence of another species.
• Darwin: Interspecific competition is a potent force in evolution.
• Unrelated species also compete for resources. Eg: Flamingoes and resident fish of
South America compete for zooplankton in the lake.
• Sometimes limited resources don't lead to competition as feeding efficiency of one
species reduce due to presence of another species.

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• Gause: In limited resources, superior species eliminate the other species.
Eg: Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos became extinct after introduction of goats as goats
had greater browsing efficiency.
• Gause's ʽCompetitive Exclusion Principle': 2 closely related species competing for same
resource can't co - exist and competitively inferior one gets eliminated, if resources are
limited but not otherwise.
• Competitive release: Species whose distribution is restricted to a particular area due to
presence of superior species and would expand its range when competing species is
removed.
• Connell's elegant field experiment: Superior barnacle Balanus on rocky sea coasts of
Scotland excludes small barnacle Chathamalus.
• Resource partitioning: Mechanism to promate co - existence rather than exclusion, by
choosing different times for feeding or foraging patterns. Mac Arthur showed 5 species
of warblers on same tree co - existed due to differences in foraging activities.
4. Parasitism: Parasite is benefitted but detrimental for host.
• Many parasite have become host specific which lead to co - evolution of both parasite
and host, i.e. If host develops special mechanism for resisting parasite, parasite also
evolves mechanism to neutralise it.
• Parasites have evolved special adaptations - loss of digestive system and other sense
organs, high reproduction ability, presence of adhesive suckers to cling on to host.
• Some parasites make host more susceptible to predation by making them physically
weak, reduce growth, survival and reproduction and reduce population size.
• Some parasites have complex life as they depend on intermediate hosts. Eg: Human
liver fluke (nematode parasite) depends on 2 hosts (snail and fish) to complete its life
cycle.
• Ectoparasite: Parasite that feed on surface of host. Eg: Ticks on dogs, lice on human,
Cuscuta on hedge plants (lost its chlorophyll)
• Endoparasite: Parasite that live inside host body, have complex life cycles.
Eg: Tapeworm.
• Female mosquito isn't a parasite although it needs blood for reproduction.
• Brood parasitism: Parasitic bird lays eggs in nest of host so that host can incubate
them. During course of evolution, eggs of parasitic bird resembles host's egg in size and
colour to reduce chances of being identified and ejected.
5. Commensalism: One species benefits while other is neither harmed nor benefited.
• Eg: a) Orchid as epiphyte on mango tree (neutral - mango tree),
b) Barnacles on back of whale (neutral - whale),
c) Egrets and cattle - Egrets forage close to cattle as cattle moves and flushes out
insects from vegetation, which are difficult for egrets to catch.
d) Sea anemore and clown fish - Clown fish live among the stinging tentacles of sea
anemore and hence get protected.
6. Mutualism: Benefits to both the species interacting.
• Eg: a) Lichens: Algae and fungi, algae provides food and fungi provide shelter.
b) Mycorrhizae: Fungi and plant roots, fungi absorb nutrients from soil and plant
provides food in form of carbohydrates.
c) Plants take help from insects and animals for pollination and seed dispersal and
in return provide juicy nectars, nutritious fruits, pollen. But some animals try to
steal nectar without aiding in pollination.

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d) Fig species can only be pollinated by wasp species. Wasp serves as pollinator
while fruit serves as oviposition (egg laying site). Developing seeds inside fruit
provide nutrition to growing larvae.
e) Mediterranean orchid ophrys (sexual deceit): Pollinated by bee species. One of
the petal of the flower resembles female bee in size, colour and markings, so
male bee gets attracted and pseudocopulates the flower and during this pollens
from flower get dusted on it. When same bee pseudocopulates other flower, it
transfers pollen, hence co-evolution occur. Not all orchids offer rewards. If
female bee's colour pattern changes, chances of pollination reduce.

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Ecosystem

Ecosystem:
• Functional unit of nature where living organisms interact among themselves and with
surrounding environment.
• Its divided into terrestrial (forest, grassland and desert) and aquatic (pond, lake,
wetland, river, estuary).
• Man - made ecosystem: Crop fields and aquarium.
Ecosystem - Structure and Function:
• Basic requirement is constant solar input.
• Stratification: Vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels.
Eg: Trees occupy top strata, shrubs second and herbs and grasses lowest level.
• Basic functions of ecosystem: Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, nutrient
cycling.
• Structure of ecosystem involves composition of community in terms of biomass,
population and availability and distribution of non living factors - nutrient, water.
• Ecosystem has 2 components - Abiotic (non living) and biotic (living).
• 2 main processes occur in ecosystem - continuous flow of nutrients, continuous input
and flow of energy.
• Aquatic ecosystem- a pond: Self sustaining system.
• Abiotic components - Water, soil.
• Autotrophs (phytoplankton, algae, some plants) prepare their own food. These are
consumed by heterotrophs (zooplankton).
• When algae and fish die, decomposers (fungi and bacteria) decay them and release
them back to water.
• So, there is unidirectional energy flow towards higher trophic level and dissipation of
heat occurs.
Productivity:
• Rate of biomass production, in terms of gm-2 yr-1 or (Kcalm-2) yr-1.
1. Primary production:
• Amount of biomass/organic matter produced per unit area over a time period during
photosynthesis.
a. Gross primary productivity: Rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis.
Some of it is utilised in respiration.
b. Net primary productivity (NPP): Biomass available for heterotroph consumption.
i.e. Gross primary productivity - respiration loss (R)= NPP.
• Primary productivity depends on environmental factors, nutrients available and
photosynthetic capacity.
• Annual NPP of whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons of organic matter.
Oceans occupy 70% surface but productivity is 55 billion tons.
2. Secondary productivity:
• Rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.
Decomposition:
• Breakdown of complex organic matter to inorganic substances (CO2, nutrients, water)
by decomposers.
• Detritus: Dead plant remains (leaves, flower) and animal remains, raw material for
decomposition.

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Ecosystem

Important steps are:

i) Fragmentation:
• Breakdown of detritus into small particles by detrivores (Earthworm).
ii) Leaching:
• Water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into soil and get precipitated as salts.
iii) Catabolism:
• Bacterial and fungal enzyme degrade detritus to simple inorganic substances.
These three processes operate simultaneously.
iv) Humification:
• Accumulation of dark coloured amorphous substance - humus that is resistant to
microbes, undergo decomposition at slow rate and reservoir of nutrients as it is
colloidal.
v) Mineralisation:
• Degradation of humus by microbes and release of inorganic nutrients.
• Its an oxygen requiring process and depends on composition of detritus and climatic
factors.
• Rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin or if temperature is low and O2 isn't
available whereas faster if detritus is rich in nitrogen and sugars or if temperature is
high and O2 is available.

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Ecosystem

Energy flow:
• Sun is the only source of energy on Earth except deep sea hydro - thermal ecosystem.
• Only 50% of sun's radiation is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Plants capture
only 2 - 10% PAR.
• There is unidirectional energy flow from sun to producer and to consumer.
• Ecosystem don't follow second law of thermodynamics, as they need constant energy
supply to synthesise molecules.
• Producers: Green plants, terrestrial ecosystem - herbaceous and woody plants, aquatic
ecosystem – phytoplankton, algae.
• Consumers: Animals depending directly or indirectly on plants for food.
→ Primary Consumers (heterotrophs): Feed on producers. Eg: Insect, birds and mammal
in terrestrial ecosystem; molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.
→ Secondary Consumers: Feed on animals which eat plants.
• Primary carnivores: Consumers that feed on herbivores, also secondary consumers.
• Secondary carnivores: Depend on primary carnivores for food.
Food Chain: Interdependency of organisms.
1. Grazing Food Chain (GFC): Main channel for energy flow in aquatic ecosystem.
Eg: Grass --------→ Deer --------------------→ Jackal---------------------→ Lion
(Producer) (Primary Consumer) (Secondary Consumer) (Tertiary Consumer)
2. Detritus Food Chain (DFC): Main channel for energy flow in terrestrial ecosystem.
• Primary energy source - dead organic matter.
• Decomposers (heterotrophic) or saprophyte meet their energy requirement by
degrading detritus into simple, inorganic matter by digestive enzymes.
• GFC and DFC are connected, as when organism of GFC die, it enters DFC and also some
animals of DFC are prey to GFC. This interconnection of food chains make food web.
Trophic level:
• Organism occupy specific place in ecosystem depending upon the source of food and
nutrition. Producers belong to first trophic level.

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Ecosystem

• Amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. Organisms fulfill their energy
requirement from organisms at lower trophic level.
• Standing crop: Mass of living material each trophic level has (biomass in a unit area),
expressed either as fresh or dry weight.
• 10% energy law: Only 10% of energy is transferred from 1 level to another. So, no. of
levels in GFC are restricted.

Ecological pyramid:
• Graphical representation of no. of individuals/amount of biomass/amount of energy at
different trophic levels in ecosystem.
• Base: Producer (1st trophic level); top - tertiary/top level consumers.
• All organisms have to be considered to calculate energy.
• A given organism can simultaneously occupy more than 1 trophic level in same
ecosystem. Eg: Bird is primary consumer when eats seeds, fruits but secondary
consumer when eats insects and worms.
• In most ecosystem, pyramid of number, energy and biomass are upright i.e. producers
are more in no. and biomass than herbivores and herbivores are more in no. and
biomass than carnivores, pyramid of energy is always upright as some energy is lost at
each step.
• Pyramid of biomass in sea -ʽinvertedʼ as biomass of fish exceeds that of phytoplankton.
• Pyramid of energy: Amount of energy at each level in given time per unit area.
Limitations:
i) Considers simple food chain (which never exists in nature) and doesn't take into
account those species which occur at more than 1 trophic level.
ii) Doesn't take into account decomposers or saprophytes, which play an important role.

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Ecosystem

Ecological Succession:
• Gradual and fairly predictable change in species composition in a given area. Some
species may increase while some may decline or disappear.
• Composition and structure of communities orderly and sequencially change with
change in environment. This leads to community which is near equilibrium with
environment - climax community. Eg: In succession from pond to forest, climax
community is forest.

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Ecosystem

• Sere: Sequence of communities that replace one another in a given area. Each
transitional community is seral community/seral stage.
• In successive seral stage, there is increase in diversity of plant and animal species along
with increase in species and biomass.
• Primary succession: In area where no life ever existed. Takes a long time as soil is
required for creation of new communities and soil formation takes 100 to 1000 years.
Eg: Bare rock, new lava, new pond.
• Secondary succession: In area where life ever existed but wiped out due to some
reasons, takes less time as some soil is present. Eg: Abandoned farm land, cut forests,
flooded land.
• During succession, man made or natural disturbance can convert a seral stage to earlier
one.
Succession of plants:
• Pioneer species: Species that invade a bare area.
1. Hydrarch succession:
• In wet areas, from hydric (too wet) to mesic (moderate water) condition.
2. Xerarch succession:
• In dry area, from xeric (too dry) to mesic (moderate water) condition.
• Primary succession on rocks: Pioneer species is lichen which secrete acids to dissolve
rocks and help in weathering and soil formation, which paves way to small bryophytes
(take hold in small amount of soil), then to higher plants. So, habitat changed from
xerophytic to mesophytic. This climax community remains stable as long as
environment remains unchanged.
• Primary succession on water: Phytoplanktons are pioneer, which are replaced by root
submerged plants, then floating angiosperms, then free floating plants, reed swamp,
marsh meadow, scrub and then trees. Hence, water body converts to land, climax is
again forest.
• In secondary succession, species invading depends on soil condition, water and
environment.

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Ecosystem

Nutrient Cycling/Biogeochemical cycles:

• Movement of nutrients through various components of ecosystem.
• Its of 2 types – Gaseous and sedimentary.
• Standing state: Amount of nutrients present in the soil at any given time.
• Factors like soil, moisture, pH, temperature regulate rate of release of nutrients.
1. Gaseous: Eg: Nitrogen and carbon cycle, main reservoir is atmosphere.
Carbon Cycle:
• 71% carbon is found dissolved in oceans, 49% dry weight in organisms is carbon and
fossil fuels are its reservoir. Oceans regulate CO2 in atmosphere.
• Occurs through atmosphere, ocean, living and dead organisms.
• 4 x 1013 Kg carbon is fixed by photosynthesis annually, same returns to atmosphere as
CO2 through respiration.
• Decomposers release CO2 by degrading dead organic matter, also burning wood, forest
fire, combustion of fossil fuel, volcanic activity, deforestation and transport increase of
CO2 in atmosphere. Some amount of fixed carbon is lost to sediments.

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Ecosystem

2. Sedimentary: Eg: Sulphur and phosphorus, main reservoir is in Earth's crust.

Phosphorus Cycle:
• Constituent of membrane, nucleic acid, teeth, bones, energy transfer system.

• Natural reservoir – rocks (in form of phosphates).

• Small amount of phosphates dissolve in soil and absorbed by plants which pass on to
animals when they consume plants. When animals die, phosphate solubilising bacteria
act and release phosphorus in soil.

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Ecosystem

Major difference in Carbon and phosphorus cycle:

i) Atmospheric input of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon.
ii) Gaseous exchange of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.
Ecosystem Services:
• Products and services provided by healthy and functioning ecosystem. Eg: Fruits, pure
drinking water, spices, fibres, medicinal plants, generate fertile soils, help in nutrient
cycling, pollination, mitigating flood and drought etc.
• Robert Constanza tried to assess value of different ecosystem which are taken for
granted as available freely.
• Researchers have found that average value of ecosystem - $ 33 trillion a year which is
twice global gross national product i.e. $ 18 trillion.
• Out of this cost, 50% account for soil formation, less than 10% each by recreation and
nutrient cycling and 6% each for climate regulation and wildlife habitat.

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Biodiversity And Conservation

Biodiversity:
• Coined by sociobiologist Edward Wilson, variation of life at all levels of biological
organisation.
1. Genetic diversity:
• Genetic variation in single species or distinct species. Single species might show high
diversity.
Eg: Genetic variation by Rauwolfia vomitoria in Himalayan ranges which determine
potency and concentration of active chemical – reserpine.
2. Species diversity: Diversity at species level.
• Eg: Western Ghats have richer amphibian diversity than Eastern Ghats.
3. Ecological diversity: Diversity of habitats within each ecosystem.
• Eg: India has greater diversity than Scandinavian country like Norway due to deserts,
rainforest, coral reefs, mangroves, estuaries, alpine meadows, wetlands.
Species on Earth and India:
• According to IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) (2004), total
species are more than 1.5 million.
• Some taxonomic groups believed that there are more complete species inventories in
temperate countries than tropical countries, as many species are yet to be discovered
in tropical.

• According to Robert May, global species diversity is 7 million.

• More than 70% of recorded species are animals whereas only 22% are plants. Among
animals, 70% are insects.

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Biodiversity And Conservation

• No. of fungi > combined total no. of fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals.
• Biologists weren't sure about prokaryotic species as many couldn't be cultured in
laboratory and conventional methods didn't allow them.
• India is one of 12 mega diversity country in world as it covers only 2.4% world's land
but shares 8.1% global species diversity. It has 45,000 plant species and 90,000 animal
species.
• According to May's estimates, only 22% of species have been discovered, then
approximately 1,00,000 plant species and 3,00,000 animal species are yet to be
discovered.
• There are more than 20,000 ants species; 3,00,000 beetle species; 28,000 fish species
and 20,000 orchid species on this planet.
Patterns of Biodiversity:
1. Longitudinal gradients:
• Distribution of species isn't uniform but uneven.
• Species diversity increase from poles to tropics or equator, with some exceptions like
deserts. Tropics have more species than temperates/polar areas. Columbia (near
equator) has 1400 bird species, New York (41°N) has 105 species, Greenland (71°N) has
56 species while India has 1200 bird species.
• Eqaudor (in tropical) has 10 times more vascular plants species than Midwest in US
(temperate).
• Amazonian rainforest (South America) is home to million of species and has largest
biodiversity.
Why tropics has more biodiversity than temperate?
Some hypothesis:
a) Speciation is function of time, temperate regions are subjected to frequent glaciations
whereas tropical latitudes remain undisturbed for long.
b) Tropical climates are less seasonal, more constant and predictable that promotes
greater species diversity.
c) More solar energy is available in tropics so more productivity and greater diversity.
2. Species Area relationship:
• By German naturalist and geographer Alexander Von Humboldt.

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Biodiversity And Conservation

• Species richness increased with increased explored area but upto certain limit. Graph
between species richness and area is rectangular hyperbola.
• log S = log C + Z log A where S = species richness; A = area; Z = slope; C = intercept.
• ʽzʼ is regression coefficient varying in range 0.1 - 0.2 regardless of region.
• Slope becomes steeper while analysing large areas. Eg: For frugivorous birds (fruit
eating) slope is 1.15. Z lies between 0.6 - 1.2 in large areas.
Importance of Species Diversity:
• Stable community don't show too much variation.
• David Tilman: Performed long term ecosystem experiments using outdoor plots,
showed plots with more species showed less year to year variation in total biomass and
increased diversity leads to higher productivity.
• Rivet popper hypothesis by Stanford ecologist Paul Ehrlich: All part of airplane
(ecosystem) are joined using 1000s of rivets (species), if a passenger travelling in it
popps a rivet to take home (species to extinct), it mayn't affect safety of flight
(functioning of ecosystem) initially but gradually it becomes dangerous. Loss of rivets
from wings (key species) is more serious threat than rivets on seats, etc.
Features of Stable Community:
• Wide spread diversity with balanced productivity.
• Tolerant to environmental conditions.
• Resistant to invasions by exotic species.
Loss of Biodiversity:
• The IUCN Red List (2004) stated extinction of 784 species in last 500 years.
Eg: Dodo (Mauritius), Quagga (Africa), Thylacine (Australia), Stellar's sea cow (Russia)
and 3 subspecies of tiger (Bali, Javan, Caspian).
• 27 species have disappeared in last 20 years, amphibians being most vulnerable.
• 15,500 species are at verge of extinction, 12% being bird species, 23% mammal
species, 32% amphibian species and 31% gymnosperms.
• 5 mass extinctions have occurred in 3 billion years. If present rate continues, we will
lose half of the species in next 100 years.
• ʽThe Evil Quartetʼ or 4 major cause of biodiversity loss –
i) Habitat loss and fragmentation:
• Degradation of habitats by pollution, breakdown of large habitats to small habitats due
to human activities.
• Tropical rain forests are being destroyed. They once covered 14% earth's land but now
its not more than 6%.
• Amazon rainforest is being cut and cleared to cultivate soyabeans and for conversion
to grasslands for raising beef cattle.
ii) Over – exploitation: Human needs have become greeds leading to exploitation of
resources.
Eg: Extinction of Stellar's sea cow and passenger pigeon in last 500 years.
iii) Alien species invasions: Some alien species turn invasive and cause extinction of
indigenous species.
Eg:
a) Nile perch in Lake Victoria (East Africa) led to extinction of more than 200 species of
cichlid fish in lake.

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Biodiversity And Conservation

b) Threat to native species by invasive weeds - carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana,

water hyacinth (Eicchornia).
c) African catfish Clarias gariepinus for aquaculture posed threat to indigenous
catfishes in rivers.
iv) Co - extinction: When species extinct, organisms associated with it extinct.
Eg: a) Host - parasite
b) Plant - pollinator.
Loss of Biodiversity leads to:
• Decreased plant production.
• Lower resistance in plants due to environmental disturbances.
• Increased variability in certain ecosystem.
Biodiversity Conservation:
Why to conserve?
1. Narrowly utilitarian:
• Provides economic benefits like food, firewood, fibre, industrial products, construction
material etc.
• More than 25% drugs in market are derived from plants and 25,000 plant species have
medicinal importance.
• Most nations are using bioprospecting (human resources are used to explore
molecular, genetic and species level diversity for products of economic importance). So,
nations with more resources endow rich biodiversity.
2. Broadly utilitarian:
• Provides major services like photosynthesis and pollination.
• Photosynthesis initiates energy flow in ecosystem.
• Amazon rainforest (lungs of the planet) produce more than 20% world's oxygen.
• Without pollinators (like bees, birds), we can't get fruits or food.
• Intangible benefits: Walking through woods, spring flower blooming, bulbul's song.
3. Ethical:
• Every species has intrinsic value even in absence of price tag.
• Its our moral responsibility to take care, protect and preserve our earth's rich
biodiversity.
How to conserve?
1. In - Situ conservation:
• Conservation and protection of entire ecosystem.
• Some nations believe this is unrealistic and uneconomical.
• So, ecologists identified ʽbiodiversity hotspotsʼ (high species richness and high degree
of endemism – species confined to that region aren't found anywhere else).
• There were 25 biodiversity hotspots but now there are 34, which cover less than 2%
earth's land and strict protection of these can reduce extinction by 30%. These
hotspots are regions of accelerated habitat loss.
• 3 hotspots in India - Indo-Burma, Himalaya and Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
• Biodiversity rich regions are protected as biosphere reserves, national parks and
sanctuaries (14 biosphere reserves, 90 national parks and 448 sanctuaries are in India).

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Biodiversity And Conservation

• In many cultures, trees and wildlife within tracts of forest (sacred groves) are
protected.
Eg: Sacred groves in Khasi and Jaintia Hills (Meghalaya), Aravali Hills (Rajasthan),
Western Ghats (Karnataka, Maharashtra) and Sarguja, Chanda and Bastar (M.P.)
• Sacred groves are last refuges to rare and threatened plants in Meghalaya.
2. Ex - situ conservation:
• Threatened species are taken out from natural habitat and placed in special care
centre.
• Eg: Zoological parks, Botanical gardens, wildlife safari parks, seed bank, gene bank.
• Now, plants can be propagated using tissue culture method and gametes of threatened
species are preserved in viable and fertile condition using cryopreservation techniques.
• Seed banks preserve seed of genetic strains of commercially important plants.
Conservation of Biodiversity: Collective responsibility of all nations.
a) The Earth Summit (1992): Convention on biological diversity, held in Rio de Janeiro in
which all nations were asked to take appropriate measures to conserve biodiversity and
sustainable utilisation of its benefits.
b) World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002): In Johannesburg, South Africa in
which 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve significant reduction in
current rate of biodiversity loss at global, regional and local level by 2010.

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Environmental Issues
• Pollution: Undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of air,
land, water or soil.
• Pollutants: Agents that bring undesirable change.
• Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: To protect and improve quality of
environment.
Air Pollution and its Control:
• Natural particulate matter: Automobile exhaust, chemicals, pollen, dust, ash etc.
• Effect on Plants: Premature ageing, reduced growth and crop yield, plant death.
• Effect on Animals: Nasal irritation, eye irritation, respiratory diseases, headache.
• Harmful effect depends on concentration of pollutants and duration of exposure.
• Environment act made industries, thermal power plants and smelters to adopt methods
to filter particulate matter released from smokestacks into atmosphere.
• Electrostatic precipitator: Removes 99% particulate matter in exhaust from thermal
power plant. It has electrode wires at 1000 volts which produce corona that releases
electrons which attach to dust particles giving them negative charge. These are
attracted by grounded collecting plates. Velocity of air between plates must be low to
allow dust to fall.

• Scrubber: Exhaust is passed through spray of water or lime and it can remove gases like
sulphur dioxide but not very small particulate matter.
• According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), particulate size 2.5 micrometers
or less in diameter can cause harm to human, as they can be inhaled deep in lungs and
can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms, irritation, damage to lungs and
premature death.
• Automobiles with catalytic converter (having platinum, palladium and rhodium as
catalyst to reduced emission of poisonous gases by converting unburnt hydrocarbons
to CO2 and water; carbon monoxide and nitric oxide to CO2 and nitrogen gas) should
use unleaded petrol as lead inactivates catalyst.

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Environmental Issues
• Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) act (1981) was amended in 1987 to
include noise as pollutant as it can cause sleeplessness, increased heart rate and
breathing problem.
• 150 dB generated by take off of a jet plane may damage ear drums and chronic
exposure to lower noise level may permanently damage hearing.
• Sound absorbing materials, permissible sound level of crackers and loud speakers,
delimitation of horn free zones around hospitals and schools should be enforced to
reduce noise pollution.
• Delhi ranked 4th among 41 most polluted cities in world in 1990s. But, fall in CO2 and
SO2 level has been found in Delhi between 1997 and 2005. Goal was to reduce
sulphur to 50 ppm in diesel and petrol and bring down to 35% .
• CNG was used over diesel as it burns more efficiently, cheaper, can't be siphoned by
thieves and can't be adulterated. Only problem was to lay CNG pipelines to deliver CNG
and ensure uninterrupted supply.

Water Pollution and its Control:

• By domestic sewage and Industrial effluents.
• Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 was passed to safeguard water
resources.
• Domestic sewage: Waste water from home to town and cities. It has 0.1% impurities
which make it unfit for human use. It has primarily biodegradable organic matter
which is decomposed by microbes.
• 0.1% impurities include suspended solids (sand, slit, clay), colloidal material (fecal
matter, bacteria, cloth, paper fibres), dissolved materials (nitrate, ammonia, sodium,
calcium, phosphate).

• Solids are easy to remove compared to salts and toxic metal ions.

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Environmental Issues

• Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): Gives estimate of amount of biodegradable

organic matter in sewage water. Microbes consume oxygen in degrading organic
matter, so decreases dissolved oxygen and hence causes mortality of fish as BOD is high
in sewage discharge.
• Algal bloom: Excessive growth of planktonic algae in presence of large amounts of
nutrients. It imparts distinct colour and causes deterioration of water quality and fish
mortality.

• Eichhornia crassipes: Problematic aquatic weed, introduced due to mauve coloured

flowers but caused havoc in Bengal by rapidly multiplying, also called ʽTerror of Bengalʼ.
• Waste water from industries contain heavy toxic metals (density more than 5g/cm3)
like Hg, Cu, Cd etc.
• Biomagnification: Increase in concentration of toxicant at successive trophic levels, as it
gets accumulated in organism and can't be metabolised or excreted. Its well known for
mercury and DDT.

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Environmental Issues

• High concentration of DDT - Disturbs calcium metabolism in birds (thinning of eggshell

and premature breaking).
• Eutrophication: Natural ageing of lake by nutrient enrichment of water. Streams
draining in lake increase nutrient (phosphorus, nitrogen), increasing growth of aquatic
organisms. As fertility increase, organic remains start depositing at bottom and make
lake shallower and warmer. It leads to growth of warm water organisms like marsh
plants and floating plants and finally converts to land.
• Cultural/Accelerated Eutrophication: Some pollutants accelerate ageing process.
• Nitrates and phosphates overstimulate algae growth, impart unpleasant odours and
decrease oxygen.
• Heated waste water flowing out of electricity generating units reduce organisms
sensitive to high temperature and enhance growth of plant & fish in extremely cold
areas but damages indigenous species.
Integrated Waste Water Treatment in Arcata (California):
• Waste water is treated in 2 stages:
→ Sedimentation, filtering and chlorine treatments.
→ Treatment of heavy metals: Appropriate plants were planted in series of 6
connected marshes over 60 hectares of marshland which neutralise and absorb
pollutants.
• Group responsible for its safeguard - Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM).

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Environmental Issues
Ecological sanitation:
• Sustainable system for handling human excreta, cost effective, hygienic, practical
solution.
• Human excreta can be recycled into natural fertiliser.
• ʽEcosanʼ toilets are present in Kerala and Sri Lanka.
Solid Wastes:
• Everything that goes out in trash.
• Municipal solid waste: Waste collected from homes, offices, stores, schools and
disposed by municipality. Burning this waste reduces volume of waste but they aren't
completely burnt and open dumps serve as breeding ground for rats and flies.
• Sanitary landfills: Waste is dumped in depression after compaction and covered with
dirt everyday. But there are chances of seepage of chemicals from these landfills.
• All waste is categorised as - recyclable (separated by ragpickers), bio-degradable (can
be put in deep pits for natural breakdown) and non-biodegadable (can't be degraded
so use should be minimised).
• Incinerators should be used for waste disposal in hospitals as they contain harmful
chemicals.
• Electronic wastes: Buried in landfill or incinerated. Over half of e-waste in developed
countries is exported to developing countries (China, India, Pakistan) where copper,
iron, silicon, nickel, gold are recovered manually. Recycling is the only solution for
e-waste treatment.
Remedy for plastic wastes:
• Ahmed Khan, plastic sack manufacturer (Bangalore) realised plastic was a big
problem. His company developed polyblend (fine powder of recycled modified plastic)
and mixed it with bitumen to lay roads.
• It enhanced water repellant properties of bitumen and increased road life by a factor
of 3. By 2002, more than 40 km road in Bangalore was laid by this technique.
• Khan offered Rs. 6 instead of earlier Rs. 0.40 per kg for plastic to ragpickers.
Agro - chemicals and their Effects:
• Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides are toxic to non - target organisms.
Organic Farming:
• Cyclical, zero waste procedure, waste products of one process are used as nutrients in
other process which allows maximum utilisation of resources and increase productivity.
• Ramesh Chandra Dagar (Sonipat) includes bee keeping, dairy management, water
harvesting, composting and agriculture which support each other. Eg: Cattle dung is
used as manure for crops, crop waste creates compost which can be used as fertiliser or
natural gas.
• He created Haryana Kisan Welfare Club with 5000 farmers.
Radioactive Wastes:
• Initially, nuclear energy was a non - polluting way for generating electricity.
• But it has 2 limitations: Accidental leakage as in Three Mile Island and Chernobyl
incidents and difficulty in safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
• Radiation can cause mutation at high rates and is lethal but at low doses it can cause
disorders (cancer).
• So, nuclear waste is pre-treated in shielded containers buried within rocks (500 m
deep).

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Environmental Issues
Green house effect and Global warming:
• Responsible for heating earth's surface and atmosphere.

• Without greenhouse effect, earth's temperature would be - 18°C instead present 15°C.
• One fourth of incoming solar radiations are reflected from clouds and gases, some of it
is absorbed but half of radiations reach earth's surface. It re - emits radiation in form
of infrared radiations but part of it doesn't escape as absorbed by atmospheric gases,
which radiate heat energy and heat up earth's surface.
• Greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide and methane absorb long wave radiations
(infrared) from earth and emit it again towards earth. It continues till no infrared
radiations are left on earth's surface.

• It has increased Earth's temperature by 0.6°C during past century. Its leading to odd
climatic changes (Eg: El Nino effect) resulting in melting of polar ice caps and snow caps
which increases sea level and submerge coastal areas.
• To control global warming: Reduce fossil fuel use and deforestation, improve efficiency
of energy usage and plant trees.
Ozone Depletion:
• Eg: Ozone hole (purple colour) formed by thin ozone layer in Antarctica region,
between late August and early October.

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Environmental Issues
• Dobson Unit (DU): Measures ozone thickness from ground to top atmosphere.
• Bad Ozone: Harms organisms, in lower atmosphere (troposphere).
• Good Ozone: Shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation which is highly dangerous, as its
high energy breaks chemical bonds in DNA and proteins, in upper atmosphere
(stratosphere).
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from A.C. or refrigerators move to stratosphere and
degrade ozone. In stratosphere, UV rays act on cl atoms which degrades ozone
releasing O2 but chlorine atoms aren't consumed in reaction.
• Ozone is formed by action of UV rays on O2 and degraded into O2 in stratosphere.
• UV radiation of wavelength shorter than UV - B are completely absorbed by
atmosphere. UV - B causes aging of skin, damage skin cells, cause skin cancers and its
high dose can cause inflammation of cornea - snow blindness, cataract etc.
• Montreal Protocol: International treaty signed at Montreal (Canada) in 1987 to control
emission of ozone depleting substances.

Degradation by Improper Resources Utilisation and Maintenance:

1. Soil erosion and desertification: Due to over cultivation, unrestricted grazing,
deforestation, poor irrigation resulting in arid patches of land.
2. Waterlogging and soil salinity: Due to irrigation without proper drainage of water. It
draws salt to soil surface which is deposited as thin crust on land surface. This increased
salt content affects crop growth.
Deforestation:
• Conversion of forested areas to non - forested ones.
• 40% forests have been lost in tropics and 1% in temperate region.
• Initially, forests covered 30% land in forest, but shrunk to 19.4% at the end of century.
National Forest policy (1998) of India has recommended 33% forest cover for plains
and 67% for hills.

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Environmental Issues
• Major causes: Growing timber, firewood, cattle ranching, feeding human etc.
• Slash and burn agriculture (Jhum cultivation): In north - eastern states, farmers cut
down trees and burnt plant remains. Ash was used as fertiliser and land for farming or
cattle grazing. The area is then left for several years to allow its recovery.
• Effects: Increase CO2 concentration, destruction of habitat causing biodiversity loss,
disturbs hydrologic cycle, cause soil erosion.
• Reforestation: Restoring forest that once existed but removed in past, may occur
naturally also.
People's participation in Forest conservation:
1. Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award: For rural communities who are
protecting wildlife. In 1731, Jodhpur's king asked his minister to arrange wood.
Minister went to forest inhabited by Bishnoi to cut trees. Amrita Devi hugged a tree
and dared king's men to cut her first before cutting tree but the men cut down the tree
with Amrita Devi. Her three daughters followed her and lost lives.
2. Chipko Movement: In 1974, local women of Garhwal Himalaya protected trees from
axe of contractors by hugging them.
Joint Forest Management (JFM):
• Introduced by Indian Government so as to work with local communities for protecting
and managing forests and in turn communities get benefit of products like fruits, gum,
rubber, medicine etc.

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