Welcome to MATH1151 Calculus

Lecturer: Associate Professor Jan Zika

j.zika@unsw.edu.au
 Chapter 1: Reals, exponential, and hyperbolic
functions
Key ideas:
• Fundamental properties of the real numbers
• Supremum and infimum of sets
• Fixing standard notation
• Some standard functions you already know
• Some new functions like cosh and sinh.
References:
• Purple MATH 1131/1141 notes: Chapter 1 (mainly
revision), §6.1–6.5, §9.2-3, Chapter 10
• Salas, Hille & Etgen: §11.1, Chapter 7.
 A fundamental question

Calculus concerns properties of functions defined on the real

numbers
Question: Just what are real numbers?
. . . How can we represent them?
. . . Why do I want to know?

Potential answers:
1. points on the number line
2. all possible decimal expansions
0.333 · · · + 0.666 · · · = 0.999 . . . ?
 A fundamental question
Why? We want to be able to say
1. If I walk across the lecture theatre, at some moment I am
half way across.
2. If Tesla shares were at USD705.67 at the end of 2020 and
were USD839.81 at the beginning of February 2021, then
at some point in January 2021, they hit USD800.00???
3. If I drive 180 km in 2 hours then at some moment I was
doing exactly 90 km per hour.
The truth of these statements depends on knowing that
• there are no ‘holes’ in the real numbers
• the ‘function values’ vary continuously with the input.
To make these precise (and to understand where they may be
problems in applying these ideas in Finance), we need some
careful definitions!
 An example
Consider the  sequence
 of rational numbers
1 n
xn = 1 + , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
n
The first 6 terms of the sequence are
9 64 625 7776 117649
2, , , , , , ...
4 27 256 3125 46656
or
2, 2.25, 2.3703703, 2.4414062, 2.48832, 2.5216263, . . .
(xn is the value after 1 year of $1 invested at 100% p.a., with
interest compounded n times a year.)
Question: (Bernoulli, circa 1680)
What happens to xn as n → ∞?
Does it grow without bound?
Does it converge to some limit?
Is the limit another rational?
 The reals
The reason that I know that the sequence xn converges to
something is that the sequence is
• increasing (ie x1 < x2 < x3 . . . ), and
• bounded above (eg xn < 3 for every n).
Challenge: Prove these facts.

A fundamental property of the real numbers is contained in the

following theorem which we will prove later:

Theorem
Every increasing sequence of real numbers which is bounded
above converges to a real limit.

This result is false if you replace ‘real’ with ‘rational’!

To make sense of all this we’ll need to start with set theory!
 Sets and elements

• A set is a collection of distinct objects.

• The objects in a set are called the elements (or members)
of the set.

Example
• 123982739821859 is an element of the set of all prime
numbers
• The colour blue is not an element of the set of academic
staff at UNSW
• Paradox: A hairdresser cuts the hair of every person in
Broken Hill who doesn’t cut their own hair. Is the
hairdresser an element of the set of people who has their
hair cut by the hairdresser?
 Set notation

For small sets, you can list the elements inside curly brackets
(or braces), eg

Usually we use capital letters for sets, eg

The symbol ∈ means is an element of, eg

The symbol 6∈ means is not an element of, eg

 Notation for standard sets
• N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} (set of all natural numbers)

• Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} (set of all integers)

• Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . .} (set of all positive integers)

• Q = { qp : p, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0} (set of all rational numbers)

• R (set of all real numbers).

• C (set of all complex numbers)

• ∅={} (the empty set).

B = {x ∈ A : x 3 < 10} means that

B is the set of all elements x of A such that x 3 < 10.
 Subsets

Definition
Suppose that A and B are two sets. If every element of A is also
an element of B then A is called a subset of B. We write A ⊆ B.

Example: N ⊆ Z (as N is a subset of Z).

If A isn’t all of B then we call it a proper subset.
Example: R is a subset of R, but Q is a proper subset of R.
Warning: Some people use ⊂ meaning ⊆
. . . and others use it meaning $.
 Intervals (open and closed)

Suppose that a and b are two real numbers satisfying a < b.

Then
• (a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}

• [a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}

• [a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}

• (a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}

• (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : a < x}

• (−∞, b] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ b}
 The real numbers

Question: Just what are the real numbers?

That question is harder than it looks, and even now there is
some debate as to what the best way of answering it is.
The properties of R that we shall need are:
1. R is a ‘field’. That is, you can add, subtract, multiply and
divide the elements as long as you don’t divide by zero.
2. R is ordered. That is, if x 6= y then either x < y or y < x.
3. R is complete. Roughly speaking this means that it has no
‘holes’. This ‘no holes’ property will be encoded in the
Least Upper Bound Property.
Q is an ordered field, but it is not complete.
C is a complete field, but it is not ordered.
 The Least Upper Bound Property
Definition
A set S of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there
exists M ∈ R such that

x ≤M for all x ∈ S.

S M
M is called an upper bound of S.

eg. The set of ages of MATH1151 students is bounded above

(by M = 100 or M = 1023 ).
The set of prime numbers is not bounded above.

Let A = {x ∈ Q : x 2 < 2}. The set A is bounded above.

 The Least Upper Bound Property
This makes sense in any setting where you have some concept
of one element of a set F being ‘bigger’ than another.
Example
Let F = {(m, n) : m, n ∈ Z}. Define the order 4 on F by
(m, n) 4 (s, t) means m < s, or (m = s and n < t).
(Basically, lexicographic or dictionary ordering!)
So (2, 11) 4 (3, 1) and (1, 1) 4 (1, 5) .

Definition
A set S in an ordered set (F , 4) is said to be bounded above if
there exists M ∈ F such that

x 4M for all x ∈ S.
 The real numbers

The least upper bound property

An ordered field F satisfies the least upper bound property if
every non-empty subset of F that has an upper bound has a
least upper bound in F .

The least upper bound of a set S, if it exists, is also called the

supremum of S and is denoted by sup S.
The greatest lower bound of a set S, if it exists, is also called
the infimum of S and is denoted by inf S.

Example
Let F = Q. Let S = {3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, . . . } ⊆ Q.
There are lots of upper bounds for S, eg 4, 3.2, 3.15,. . . , but
there is not a smallest one in Q. (In R, sup S = π)
 The real numbers
Theorem
There is an ordered field with the least upper bound property —
and it is unique. We call this field the real numbers, R.

 What that ‘unique’ means is that, if you claim to have invented a

new ordered field with the LUB property, then all you have really
done is given new names to the elements of R.

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . }
m
{I, II, III, IV , V , VI, . . . }
Modulo this translation, all the properties in the two fields would
match up.
Bottom line: When we prove things our starting point is the
fact that R is an ordered field with the LUBP.
 Examples
The concepts supremum and infimum are very important!
Sometimes explicitly finding sup S is easy. Sometimes it is hard!
Note: If S has a largest element, then sup S is that element.
Example
Find sup S for the following sets (in R).
1. S1 = [0, 1].
2. S2 = (2, 3).
3. S3 = set of primes less than 10100 .
4. S4 = {sin k : k ∈ Z}.
n o
5. S5 = 1, 1 + 12 , 1 + 12 + 14 , 1 + 21 + 14 + 18 , . . . .
n o
6. S6 = 1, 1 + 213 , 1 + 213 + 313 , 1 + 213 + 313 + 413 , . . . .
 Functions
A typical finance problem would be to calculate the expected
value of some portfolio of shares at some future time.
This involves a more complicated type of function than the ones
you usually met in high school. The inputs to this function are
1. A set H of shares and holdings (100 BHP shares, 200 ANZ
shares, . . . )
2. A time t
3. (possibly) economic data such as interest rates etc
and the function outputs a number.
For us, a function won’t be a formula (like x 2 − 2), but
• A set of allowable inputs
• A set of possible outputs
• Some rule for specifying what the output is for any given
input.
 Domains and codomains
Where it is important to avoid misunderstanding, you should
specify a function f by giving
• A domain, or set of allowable inputs,
• A codomain, or set of allowable outputs,
• A rule for saying which output comes from each input.
 Domains and codomains
Notation: If we write f : A → B, we mean that f is a function
with domain A and codomain B.
Example: Visualize f : A → B where:
Domain A = {1, 2, 3, 4},
Codomain B = {1, 2, . . . , 10},
Rule f (x) = 2x + 1.

The range of f is set of actual outputs. Here Ran(f ) =

 Domains and codomains
Example: Define f : R → [0, ∞) by the rule f (x) = x 4 + 1.
Domain: Codomain: Range:

Ran(f ) 3

2 f : R → [0, ∞)

codomain

domain

This is a different function to g : [0, ∞) → [1, ∞), g(x) = x 4 + 1,

as it has a different domain and codomain.
 Rules and conventions

People will still write: Let f (x) = x 4 + 1.

If you are just given a rule like this, the convention is to take:
• the default domain as the largest possible set of real x
values for which f (x) ∈ R;
√
eg. Let f (x) = 1 − x + 1. Dom(f ) = .
Default codomain? Usually we’ll just take this to be R.
 It would usually be more helpful to take the codomain
as the range of f , Ran(f ), but this can be hard to identify.

People will still talk about ‘the function f (x)’.

Formally, f (x) is the value of the function f when x is the input
(ie, usually a number).
You should really talk about the function f .
 Why bother?
The properties of a function depend not just on the rule,
but also on the domain and codomain!
1. Many of our theorems will have conditions such as
Suppose that f : (a, b) → R is differentiable.
The function f : (1, 2) → R, f (x) = |x| satisfies this,
while g : (−1, 1) → R, g(x) = |x| doesn’t.
2. We will define some of our functions by starting with
f : A → B, and defining g : B → A by g(y ) is the value of x
such that f (x) = y . (g is called the inverse function to f .)
To do this we’ll need to know that the equation f (x) = y
has exactly one solution for each y ∈ B. Again this
depends not just on the rule for f , but on the choice of
domain A and codomain B.
eg. f : R → (0, ∞), f (x) = ex is invertible,
but h : R → R, h(x) = ex isn’t.
 The elementary functions
Many of these you’ll be familiar with:
Polynomials, eg f (x) = 1 + x 2 − 4x 7 .
1 − x2
Rational functions, eg f (x) = .
1 + 5x 2
x
Exponentials: e , `n x.
Trigonometric functions: cos, sin, tan, sec, . . .
Inverse trig functions: cos−1 , sin−1 , . . .
Hyperbolic functions: cosh, sinh, tanh, sech, . . .
Inverse hyperbolic functions: cosh−1 , sinh−1 , . . .
. . . and still there are more: erf, sinc, . . .
What we would like to do is to define all these carefully, and
then use the definitions to prove some of the important
properties such as
d
• dx `n x = x1 , x > 0.
1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x, x ∈ R.
• Z
dx
• √ = sinh−1 x + C.
1 + x2
 Where to start?
Many properties follow from other properties. The challenge is
to avoid circular reasoning,
prove A ⇒ B; then prove B ⇒ C; then prove C ⇒ A.
Starting from scratch, we should properly define
• Inverse functions
• Limits
• Continuity
• Differentiation
• Riemann integration
and then use these to define the elementary functions: eg
• (Spivak) cos is the inverse function to
p Z 1p
π 2
f : [0, 1] → [0, 2 ], f (x) = x 1 − x + 2 1 − t 2 dt
x
Z x
1
• `n : (0, ∞) → R, `n x = dt.
1 t
 But first . . .
Knowing the elementary functions will let us illustrate the
abstract theory better. Let’s start by telling you what those last
few buttons on your calculator mean – hyperbolic sin, etc.
For the moment, we’ll assume that you know
• the main properties of exponentials, logarithms,
trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions.
sin x
eg `n x r = r `n x or lim = 1.
x→0 x
• the main results of calculus such as the Fundamental
Theorems of Calculus.

We’ll start with a quick reminder of some facts about inverse

functions.
Then we’ll give you our definition of `n x and ex — and then
sinh, cosh, tanh, etc.
 Invertibility

Typical question: Solve 3x + sin 2x = 4.

This concerns the function f : R → R, f (x) = 3x + sin 2x.
Two issues:
1. Does any solution exist? That is, is 4 ∈ Ran(f )?
2. If so, is it unique?

Definition
Suppose that f : A → B. If Ran(f ) = B then we shall say that f
in onto (or surjective).

Thus, if f : A → B is onto, the equation f (x) = y has at least

one solution for every y ∈ B.
 Invertibility

Definition
Suppose that f : A → B.
• If Ran(f ) = B then we shall say that f in onto (or surjective).
• If f (x) = y has at most one solution for every y ∈ B, then
we shall say that f is one-to-one (or injective).

For f : R → R, it is easy to identify these properties from the

graph of f using the horizontal line tests:
1. If each horizontal line cuts the graph y = f (x) at least once
then f is onto.
2. If each horizontal line cuts the graph y = f (x) at most once
then f is one-to-one.
Examples and graphs
 Invertibility

Note that
f : A → B is one-to-one
⇐⇒ f (x) = f (y ) implies x = y (∗)
⇐⇒ x 6= y implies f (x) 6= f (y )
Usually in proofs you use (∗).
Example
Prove that f : R → R, f (x) = x 3 + x is one-to-one.
Solution. Suppose that f (x) = f (y ).
 Invertibility

Definition
If f : A → B is both one-to-one and onto then we say that it is a
bijection.

If f is a bijection then there is a function g : B → A such that

1. g(f (x)) = x for all x ∈ A;
2. f (g(y )) = y for all y ∈ B.
That is, f is invertible. The usual notation for the inverse
function g is f −1 . This is of course different to 1f !
Example
f : [0, ∞) → [1, ∞), f (x) = x 2 + p
1 is invertible with
−1 −1
f : [1, ∞) → [0, ∞), f (y ) = y − 1.
The graph of f −1 is the reflection of the graph of f in the line
y = x.
 The Inverse Function Theorem

Theorem
Suppose that f : (a, b) → (c, d) is a continuous invertible
function, and suppose that f is differentiable at
x0 = f −1 (y0 ) ∈ (a, b) with f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0.
Then f −1 is differentiable at y0 and

0 1 1
f −1 (y0 ) = 0 −1 = 0 .
f (f (y0 )) f (x0 )

Geometrically this should be almost obvious — just flip the

graph over!
Proving this properly is actually pretty hard, and we’ll come
back to thinking about this after we have carefully defined
continuity and differentiability.
 The hard thing is to show f −1 is differentiable.
The formula in red then follows from the chain rule!
 The hyperbolic functions I

The hyperbolic functions sinh and cosh are defined in terms of

the exponential function ex , so that is where we’ll start.
Taking powers:
In primary school you define things like 34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3.
In high school you probably progressed to things like
3 3
or 41/2 or π −1 .


4
You got told that e ≈ 2.71828182846.
But what exactly does eπ mean?
What is e, and how do you multiply it by itself π times?
 The Exponential Function
From school you know . . .
The exponential function: exp : R → (0, ∞)
exp(x) = ex .

Properties:
• exp is continuous and
differentiable on R.
d x
• e = ex > 0
dx
for all x ∈ R.
• Hence exp is increasing.
• exp : R → (0, ∞) is
one-to-one and onto, and
hence is invertible.
 The Exponential Function
To justify these statements you need to define precisely what
ex means!
Possible definitions:
• Function s.t. f 0 (x) = f (x) and f (0) = 1? Does this exist??
• Use the Least Upper Bound Property to show that if x ≥ 0,

n
then 1 + xn is an increasing bounded sequence, and
hence has a limit, which we’ll call exp(x).
• Show that
2 3
1 + x + x2! + x3! + . . .
converges for every x ∈ R and call this exp(x).
• Use some sort of rational approximation definition???
The problem is that proving the properties from these
definitions is not very pleasant.
A much better way is to define the logarithm function first, and
then define exp as its inverse function!
 The Logarithm function

Definition
The (natural) logarithm
Z x is the function `n : (0, ∞) → R
1
`n x = dt, x ∈ (0, ∞).
1 t

Many of the properties of `n are now easy consequences of the

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Challenge: Prove, from the above definition, that
1. Ran(`n) = R.
d 1
2. `n x = > 0.
dx x
3. `n(xy ) = `n x + `n y .
4. `n is invertible.
 The Exponential Function II

Definition
The exponential function exp : R → (0, ∞) is the inverse
function to `n.

Example
Use this definition, the properties of `n, and the Inverse
Function Theorem to show that exp is differentiable and that
d
exp(x) = exp(x), x ∈ R.
dx
 The Exponential Function II

Example
Let e = exp(1). Prove that 2 < e < 4. (Can you do better?)

One can prove that en = exp(n) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , so it makes

sense to write ex for exp(x) for x ∈ R. This gives a formal
meaning to things like eπ .
 What is eπ ?

Area = π

1
y= t

1 T = eπ t
Z T
1
eπ is the number T on the t axis so that `n T = dt = π.
1 t
 Hyperbolic functions
Please watch the youtube video on hyperbolic functions.
This video explains basic definitions and properties, which will
be skipped over in lectures to allow more time for new
concepts.

Question: What shape does a hanging chain make?

Z
dx
Question: What is √ ?
x2 + 25
The answers to both these questions involve a family of
functions known as the hyperbolic functions.
 Hyperbolic functions

The hyperbolic cosine function cosh : R → R is defined by

ex + e−x
cosh x := .
2
The hyperbolic sine function sinh : R → R (pronounced ‘shine’)
is defined by
ex − e−x
sinh x := .
2
Questions:
1. These are just simple combinations of the exponential
function, so why bother with giving them names?
2. What have they got to do with cos and sin?
3. Why ‘hyperbolic’?
 Hyperbolic functions
Although the graphs of these functions are nothing like those of
cos and sin, they have a fantastic range of identities that mimic
those of the standard trig functions. We’ll be able to use these
to find antiderivatives for a whole range of new functions.

Properties
1) Obviously cosh and sinh are differentiable.

d
cosh x = .
dx

d
sinh x = .
dx

2) Symmetry
cosh(−x) = cosh x, sinh(−x) = − sinh x.
 Hyperbolic functions
One of the most important differential equations in physics is
that for simple harmonic motion:
d 2y
+ y = 0.
dx 2
The general solution to this is
y = α1 cos x + α2 sin x.

There are other physical situations where the solution satisfies

instead
d 2y
−y =0
dx 2
and these have general solution
y = α1 cosh x + α2 sinh x,
again as a sum of a nice odd function and a nice even function.

[Aside: every function can be written uniquely as a sum of an

odd function and an even function — why?]
 sinh
Note that for large x, sinh x ∼ 12 ex → ∞.
As x → −∞, sinh x ∼ − 21 e−x → −∞.
Clearly cosh x > 0 for all x, so sinh is increasing (and hence
invertible).
The graph of sinh therefore looks like:
y
3

y = sinh x

y = 12 ex

−2
y = − 12 e−x
2 x

−3
 ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
As x → ∞, cosh x ∼ 12 ex → ∞.
As x → −∞, cosh x ∼ 12 e−x → ∞.
d
cosh 0 = 1 and sinh x = dx cosh x > 0 for x > 0, so cosh x > 1 for
x > 0.
Remember cosh(−x) = cosh x. Thus the graph of cosh looks
like:
y
3 y = cosh x

y = 12 ex y = 12 e−x

−2 2 x
 The Catenary Curve
The graph of the cosh function is a curve known as a catenary.
This is the shape that a chain assumes when it it hangs under
its own weight:

Inverted catenaries are used in various structures,

such as the Gateway Arch in St Louis.

This has equation (in feet) 

x 
y = 698 − 68 cosh , x ∈ [−300, 300].
100
 Hyperbolic functions
So why the name ‘hyperbolic’?
The parametrized curve
γ(t) = (cos t, sin t), t ∈R
traces out the unit circle.
What shape is the curve
γ(t) = (cosh t, sinh t), t ∈ R?
y y =x

γ(t) = (cosh t, sinh t)

1 x

y = −x
 Hyperbolic identities

All the trig identities have hyperbolic variants, often with a

change of sign.
cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
becomes
cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1.
The proof of this just requires you to know the definition:
cosh2 t − sinh2 t =

Thus: if x = cosh t and y = sinh t then

x2 − y2 = 1
which gives the Cartesian equation of the hyperbola on the last
slide.
 Other connections
Consider first the trigonometric picture with
γ(t) = (cos(t), sin(t)):
γ(t)
A(t) The shaded area A(t) is just
a proportion of the circle.

t t
A(t) = π · = .
2π 2
Remarkably the same thing happens for the hyperbolic
functions:
y
t
γ(t) = (cosh t, sinh t) Shaded area = A(t) =
2
1 x
 Hyperbolic identities

Example. Prove that sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x.

Solution. From the definition,
sinh 2x =

Try a few of these for yourself:

1. sinh(x + y ) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y .
(Compare this to sin(x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y .)

2. cosh(4x) = 8 cosh4 x − 8 cosh2 x + 1.

(Compare this to cos(4x) = 8 cos4 x − 8 cos2 x + 1.)

3. sinh2 x = 1
2 (cosh(2x) − 1).
(Compare this to sin2 x = 1
2 (1 − cos(2x)).)
 Hyperbolic functions
To keep with the analogy we define the other hyperbolic
functions:
sinh x ex − e−x
tanh x := = x
cosh x e + e−x
cosh x
coth x := , (x 6= 0)
sinh x
1
sech x :=
cosh x
1
cosech x := , (x 6= 0).
sinh x
Of course, from cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 we get

1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x,
coth2 x − 1 = cosech2 x.
 Hyperbolic functions

sinh x ex − e−x
Example. Sketch y = tanh x = = x .
cosh x e + e−x
Note that as x → ∞,
As x → −∞,
 
d d sinh x
tanh x =
dx dx cosh x
cosh x · cosh x − sinh x · sinh x
=
cosh2 x
1
= 2
= sech2 x.
cosh x
Note that cosh x ≥ 1 so 0 < sech2 x ≤ 1.
In particular, tanh x is increasing.
Finally, tanh x = 0 ⇐⇒ x = 0.
 Hyperbolic functions

y
1
y = tanh x

−3 3 x
−1

1
What about y = cosechx = ?
sinh x
 Hyperbolic functions

d
We saw above that tanh x = sech2 x.
dx
Similar calculations give the derivatives of the remaining
hyperbolic functions:
d
sech x = −sech x tanh x
dx
d
cosech x = −cosech x coth x
dx
d
coth x = −cosech2 x .
dx
You don’t particularly need to remember all these are they are
easy to work out using the derivatives of cosh and sinh.
 Inverse hyperbolic functions

Recall the graphs of sinh and tanh are increasing functions and
hence are one-to-one.
cosh however is not one-to-one and so we need to restrict the
domain to [0, ∞).
For inverses then we are dealing with
cosh : [0, ∞) → [1, ∞), cosh−1 : [1, ∞) → [0, ∞)
sinh : R → R, sinh−1 : R → R
tanh : R → (−1, 1), tanh−1 : (−1, 1) → R.
Of course we can get the graphs of these functions by just
reflecting the graphs of cosh, sinh and tanh.
 Inverse hyperbolic sine
y
y sinh−1 x
1 sinh x 1

1 x 1 x

ex − e−x
y = sinh x ⇐⇒ y =
2
⇐⇒ ex − 2y − e−x = 0

2
⇐⇒ ex − 2yex − 1 = 0
√
x 2y ± 4y 2 +4 p
⇐⇒ e = 2 = y ± y2 + 1
p
⇐⇒ x
e =y+ p y2 + 1

⇐⇒ x = `n y + y 2 + 1 = sinh−1 y .
 Inverse hyperbolic cosine

y y

cosh−1 x
1 cosh x

x 1 x

As on the last slide, you canpshow that

cosh−1 x = `n x + x 2 − 1 ,


x ∈ [1, ∞).
 Inverse hyperbolic tangent

tanh−1 x
y
1

tanh x −1

x 1 x
−1

 
−1 1 1+x
Here we have: tanh x = `n , x ∈ (−1, 1).
2 1−x
 Hyperbolic functions

The main interest in these inverse hyperbolic functions however

is in their derivatives:

d 1
sinh−1 x = √
dx 2
x +1
d 1
cosh−1 x = √
dx x2 − 1
d 1
tanh−1 x =
dx 1 − x2
Thus, the inverse hyperbolic functions provide antiderivatives
for some relatively simple functions which we otherwise can’t
integrate.
 Hyperbolic functions
There are two ways to prove these:
1. use the formulae in terms of `n on the previous slide, and a
bit of algebra.
2. use the Inverse Function Theorem:
Suppose that y = sinh−1 x and so sinh y = x.
Differentiating gives
dy
cosh y =1
dx
and so
dy 1 1
= = .
dx cosh y cosh(sinh−1 x)
To complete the calculation
p you need to know that
2
cosh t = sinh t + 1
and so p
cosh(sinh−1 x) = x 2 + 1.
 Hyperbolic functions
Z
dx
Example. Find I = √ .
x2 + 4
Option 1. (Using
Z standard integral tables)
dx
I= p
2 (x/2)2 + 1
Z (put u = x/2, so dx = 2du)
du
= √
u2 + 1
.
Option 2. (By more direct substitution)
Write p
x = 2 sinh u, so
p dx = 2 cosh u du.
Then x + 4 = 2 sinh2 u + 1 = 2 cosh u
2

and so
 Hyperbolic functions
Z
dx
Example. Find I = .
4x − 3 − x 2
 Chapter summary

• Adapt to the new notation!

• Get your head around supremum and infimum.
• Know that you sometimes need to be more formal in
defining functions. What is the domain and codomain?
• 1–1, onto, bijective functions. Inverse functions.
• You need to know all the properties of polynomials, trig
functions, inverse trig functions, exponentials, etc that you
studied at high school.
• New functions: hyperbolic functions and inverse hyperbolic
functions, defined via ex .
• Sketching the graphs.
• Antiderivatives and integration.