BUDAPEST UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

AND ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY ENGINEERING

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Steam- and Gasturbines

Heat Engines and Boilers

Lecture note for the undergraduate BSc course

Dr. Antal Penninger, Ferenc Lezsovits

HEAT ENGINES -1- Steam- and Gasturbines

1. Power generation cycles

According to the 2nd law of Thermodynamics heat power can not be converted
totally to mechanical power. For power generation a cycle is needed. There are
different types of cycles available for power generation in theory and some of them
are realized in certain engines.

Carnot cycle:
Carnot cycle is a theoretical one. There is not any engine working according to this
cycle. But this cycle is very simple, and very good for comparison with another cycles
or cycle parts.

Fig.1.
Carnot cycle in T-S chart

Where: 1 – 2 process is isentropic compression needs work to be fed (win)

2 – 3 process is isothermal heat feeding (qin)
3 – 4 process is isentropic expansion work is generated (wout)
4 – 1 process is isothermal heat-removal (qout)

wout win qin qout q

Efficiency of carnot cycle: C = = = 1 out =
qin qin qin
T1 ( S 2 S1 ) T
=1 =1 1
T2 ( S 2 S1 ) T2

Efficiency is determined only by T1 and T2 temperature levels. In order to reach high

power generation efficiency, T1 shall be as low as it is possible and T2 shall be as high as
it is possible. Minimization of T1 is generally restricted by ambient conditions. In order to
reach high efficiency T2 shall be increased to the highest possible value.
HEAT ENGINES -2- Steam- and Gasturbines

Clausius – Rankine cycle:

The Rankine cycle has been used since the early 19th century for everything from
steamboats to nuclear powerplants. It continues to be the most commonly used for
generating stationary power. Designs have, of course, improved over the years and a
variety of devices are currently available. Typical Rankine cycles operate as follows:
a liquid is pumped under pressure into a boiler where heat is added, boiling the liquid into
a vapor in most of the applications the vapor is also superheated. The vapor is then
expanded over turbine blades or in a piston to produce mechanical energy. The low-
pressure vapor which emerges from this expansion process is condensed to a liquid and
pumped under pressure to the boiler where the cycle begins again. Water is the fluid most
commonly used in the cycle, but other liquids can offer advantages at lower temperatures.
There is no fundamental limit to the temperatures which can be used in the Rankine cycle,
but practical limits are imposed by the steel alloys used in boilers and other components.

Fig.2.
Rankine cycle with saturated steam

Rankine cycle with saturated steam generation is very similar to Carnot cycle. But
steam expansion in saturated (water-steam mixture) area cause several problems. In order
to avoid this region steam is generally superheated. It is also important that steam
superheat increase the efficiency of the cycle.
HEAT ENGINES -3- Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.3.
Rankine cycle with superheated steam

Where: 1 – 2 process is isentropic pumping needs work to be fed (win)

done by feed pump
2 – 3 process is isobar heat feeding (qin) done in the boiler
3 – 4 process is isentropic expansion work is generated (wout)
done by turbine
4 – 1 process is isothermal heat-removal (qout) done in condenser

Rankine cycle efficiency:

qin = h3 h2
qout = h4 h1
h4 h1
C =1
h3 h 2

As pressure is increased, in order to reach higher cycle efficiency, with one

superheat can not be avoid expansion in saturated region, because maximal temperature is
limited. Solution can be application of reheat of steam.
HEAT ENGINES -4- Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.4.
Rankine cycle with reheat

In sophisticated systems, efficiency can be increased 4 to 5 percent by preheating

the water returning to the boiler with hot vapor extracted from high-temperature stages of
the expansion process. Efficiency is increasing, because that part of the cycle, where the
temperature level difference is the smallest in between inlet and outlet is fed from the
cycle and not from outside.

Fig.5.
Rankine cycle with inner feedwater preheating
HEAT ENGINES -5- Steam- and Gasturbines

The highest possible efficiency of Rankine cycle can be reached with application
of supercritical pressure, two reheat and inner feedwater heating in several stages at a
determined maximal temperature limit.

Fig.6.
Rankine cycle with two reheat and inner feedwater heating

Joule - Brayton cycle:

The Joule - Brayton cycle is used for gas turbines only where both the
compression and expansion processes take place in rotating machinery. The two major
application areas of gas-turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and electric power
generation. Gas turbines are used as stationary power plants to generate electricity as
stand-alone units or in conjunction with steam power plants on the high-temperature side.
In these plants, the exhaust gases serve as a heat source for the steam. Steam power plants
are considered external-combustion engines, in which the combustion takes place outside
the engine. The thermal energy released during this process is then transferred to the
steam as heat. The gas turbine first successfully ran in 1939 at the Swiss National
Exhibition at Zurich. The early gas turbines built in the 1940s and even 1950s had
simple-cycle efficiencies of about 17%. This was because of low compressor and turbine
efficiencies and low turbine inlet temperature due to metallurgical limitations at the time.
The first gas turbine for an electric utility was installed in 1949 in Oklahoma as part of a
combined-cycle power plant.
HEAT ENGINES -6- Steam- and Gasturbines

Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle. Fresh air at ambient conditions is
drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised. The high-
pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant
pressure. The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand
to the atmospheric pressure through a row of nozzle vanes. This expansion causes the
turbine blade to spin, which then turns a shaft inside a magnetic coil. When the shaft is
rotating inside the magnetic coil, electrical current is produced. The exhaust gases leaving
the turbine in the open cycle are not re-circulated. The open gas-turbine cycle can be
modeled as a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard assumptions. Here the compression
and expansion process remain the same, but a constant-pressure heat-rejection process to
the ambient air replaces the combustion process. The ideal cycle that the working fluid
undergoes in this closed loop is the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four internally
reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

Fig.7.
Air-standard Joule Brayton cycle in P-V and in T-S chart
HEAT ENGINES -7- Steam- and Gasturbines

Processes in Joule Brayton gasturbine cycle: C – Compressor, T - Turbine

Useful power: PGT = PT – PC

Power supplied by the turbine:

. . . 1
PT= m h34 = m c p (T3 T4 ) = m c pT3 1
T3
T4

1 1

T3 p . 1
= 3 PT= m c p T3 1
T4 p4

P3 .
= PT= f m, T3 ,
P4

Power consumed by the compressor:

. . . T2
PC= m h21 = m c p (T2 T1 ) = m c pT1 1
T1

1 1
.
T2 P
= 2 PC= m c p T1 1
T1 P1

p2 .
= PC=f m, T1 ,
p1

Heat addition:
. . .
Q in = m h32 = m c p (T3 T2 )

Efficiency of the air-standard cycle:

1
PGT 1
GT = .
=1 =
Q in

GT = f( , )
HEAT ENGINES -8- Steam- and Gasturbines

Useful power calculation:

k 1
1 k k 1
PGT=cpT3 1 cpT1 k
1

There is no fundamental limit to the temperatures which can be used in the Joule Brayton
cycle, but practical limits are imposed by the steel alloys used in turbine and combustion
chamber. So T3 temperature level is limited. In this case there is an optimal pressure ratio
belonging to actual temperature limit.

Ph
=0 opt is searched.
k
1 T 2 ( k 1)
cpT3 2k 1
c p T1 = 0 0 pt = 3
k
T1

Fig.8.
Optimal pressure ratio determination in T-S chart
HEAT ENGINES -9- Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.9.
Joule Brayton cycle efficiency against pressure ratio
for different maximum cycle temperatures

Fig.10.
Specific power against pressure ratio for different maximum cycle temperatures
HEAT ENGINES - 10 - Steam- and Gasturbines

2. Differencies in between theoretical and real cycles

1 – compression and expansion is not isentropic

2 – there are some pressure drop at heat addition and removal caused by
friction
3 – mechanical losses
4 – variation of medium parameters (caused mainly by temperature variation)

1. Compression and expansion is not isentropic

Compression (Compressor or pump) Expansion (Turbine)

Fig.11.
Isentropic and real process of compression and expansion in T-S chart

h c pg (T3 T4 )
h c (T T1 ) = =
hiz c pg (T3 T40 )
adT
= iz = pair 20
c pair (T2 T1 )
adC
h

g 1
1
. 1 .
1 g
PC= m c pair T1 1 PT= mc pgT3 1 adT
adC
HEAT ENGINES - 11 - Steam- and Gasturbines

2. Pressure drop at heat addition and removal caused by friction

In case of gasturbines:
p1
in = - pressure drop at air inlet (filter, silencer)
p0
p3,
fc = - pressure drop in fire chamber
p3
p
out = 0 - pressure drop at outlet section (stack , silencer)
p4
in fc out =

3. Mechanical losses

- Bearing friction
- Drive power of auxiliary equipments
HEAT ENGINES - 12 - Steam- and Gasturbines

5. Real Rankine cycle

Fig.13.
Real simple Rankine cycle with real pumping and expansion
(neglecting pressure drop at heat addition and removal)
HEAT ENGINES - 13 - Steam- and Gasturbines

6. Real open gasturbine cycle

Main differences from air-standard cycle:

- Compessor compresses ambient air
- Heat is fed by combustion of fuel (not via heat exchanger)
- In turbine flue gas expansion happens (different medium)
- Flue-gas ges to ambient
- There is not connection in between exhaust and intake

Fig.14.
Real open gasturbine function built up

1 – Compressor
2 – Generator
3 – Fuel flow control
4 – Combustion chamber
5 – Fuel nozzle
6 – Mixing tube
7 - Electric starter
8 - Turbine
HEAT ENGINES - 14 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.15.
Real open gasturbine process in T-S chart

Gas turbines with inner heat-eaxchanger:

In case of comparatively low pressure rate outlet flue-gas temperature is higher than
compression end temperature. In this case fluegas can be used for preheating compressed
air. This solution can increase significantly efficiency of the gasturbine and reduce fuel
consumption for the same power generation.
HEAT ENGINES - 15 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.16.
Real open gasturbine process with inner heat exchange in T-S chart

Q in = m c p (T3 )
. . . .
Q in = m c p (T3 T4' ) instead of T2

m c p (T3 T4, ) < m c p (T3

. .
T2 ) at the same useful power PGT

PGT
Efficiency is increasing: GT = .
Q in

c p (T4, T2 )
Efficiency of the heat exchanger: =
c p (T4 T2 )
HE
HEAT ENGINES - 16 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Intercooling and reheat:

It is possible to increase power of a gasturbine at the same minimal and maximal

temperature with application of intercooling at compression and with reheat at expansion.
These solutions increase power but decrease efficiency, because these amended cycle
parts have smaller different in between inlet and outlet level comparing with original
cycle. (See Carnot cycle efficiency)

Fig.17.
Application of intercooling and reheat connections and in T-S chart
HEAT ENGINES - 17 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Application variations:

There are gasturbines where expansion is separated to compressor drive

(gasgenerator part) and useful power section.

Fig.18.
Two shaft gasturbine connection (a) and in T-S chart (b)

Aircrafts can be driven by airscrew powered by gasturbine, which is called turboprop.

engine:

Fig.19.
Turboprop engine connection (a) and in T-S chart (b)
HEAT ENGINES - 18 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Most of the aircraft nowadays driven by jet-engine:

Fig.19.
Jet-engine connection (a) and in T-S chart (b)

7. Combined cycle applications

The highest electricity generation efficiency can be reached nowadays by

combination of gasturbine with steam cycle. This means that Rankine cycle is heated by
axhaust gas of a gasturbine.

Fig.20.
Connection of combined cycle application
HEAT ENGINES - 19 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.21.
Combined cycle connections in T-S chart

PGT + Psteam
Efficiency of combined cycle: tot = .
Q in
PGT
Efficiency of gasturbine: GT = .
Q in
Psteam
Efficiency of steam cycle: steam = .
Q transfer
. .
Where input heat to the steam cycle: Q transfer = Q stea min let
. . .
Q transfer = Q in PGT = Q in (1 GT )
. . .
Q stea min let = Q transfer = Q in (1 GT )
. .
Psteam= steam Q stea min let = steam Q in (1 GT )
.

=
PGT + steam Q in (1 GT )
tot .
Q in

tot = GT 1+ steam
steam
GT
HEAT ENGINES - 20 - Steam- and Gasturbines

steam = 0 ,3 steam = 0 ,35

Examples: GT = 0 ,3 tot = 0 ,47 GT = 0 ,38 tot = 0.575
= 0 ,8 = 0 ,9

When additional firing is applied after gasturbine:

.
Input heat: Q in = QGTin + Qadd
Qadd
Fadd= Qin=QGT(1+fadd)
QGT
PGT + Psteam P + Psteam
tot = = GT
Qin QGTin (1 + f add )

Additional firing decrease efficiency, but increase operation flexibility of the system.

Cheng cycle:
There is a very special combined cycle, which is called Cheng cycle after its
inventor. In this system steam generated from the heat of exhaust gas is fed back to the
gasturbine. In this system there is not needed extra steamturbine. But the total steam
quantity feed back to the gasturbine can cause operational and Hydrogen diffusion
problems. That is why in this pure form it has not been applied. But a small amount of
steam injection into gasturbine can reduce peak temperature and reduce NOx emission
menwhile increase the power of the gasturbine. This solution is called partial Cheng
cycle.

Fig.22.
Connection of Cheng cycle
HEAT ENGINES - 21 - Steam- and Gasturbines

3. Energy transformation in turbines

Differential form of energy equation: dh + cdc – dq + dl = 0

cin2 2
cout
Energy equation for turbines: hin + = hout + +l q
2 2

Outlet velocity flowing out from a tank:

1
2 p
C1 = R T0 1
1 p0

Mass flow rate:

1
. A c 1 2 p
m= =A R T0 1
v 1 p0

p0 0

2
0 0
A
0

1
p
0
=
p0

1 1
. p p p0
m=A 1 2
p0 1 p0 v0

!
. p0
m= A! 2
v0
HEAT ENGINES - 22 - Steam- and Gasturbines

! in another form:
2 +1
p p
!=
1 p0 p0

Fig.23.
! variation against pressure ratio

p p
! = 0 , when = 0 or when =1
p0 p0

d! p 2 1
! max =0 Critical =
p p0 +1
d
p0
1
2 1
! max = at thecritical pressure ratio
+1 +1

Mass flow rate till critical pressure ratio increasing. When pressure ratio is less than
critical it remains constant.
. p
m= A! 2 0
v0
HEAT ENGINES - 23 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Critical pressure ratio depends only from specific heat ratio

Variation at different mediums:
p
Air H=1,4 = 0,528
p0 Kr

p
Superheated steam H=1,3 = 0,546
p0 Kr

p
Saturated steam H=1,135 = 0,577
p0 Kr
Wet steam H=1,035+0,1x
Critical velocity:
1 1
2 p p 2
cout = p0 v0 1 =
1 p0 p0 crit
+1

2
ccrit = p0 v0
+1

In convergent nozzle critical speed can not be exceeded, which is the

maximal speed at the smallest cross section. At smallest than critical pressure ratio speed
and mass flow rate remains the same. Pressure reduced to lower than critical values by
perpendicular shock waves.

Fig.23.
Pressure and mass flow variation at different back pressure in convergent nozzle
HEAT ENGINES - 24 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Laval nozzle:

A ! = Akrit ! max = const .

A ! max A c
= =
Akrit ! A B

In order to reach higher velocity than critical a convergent-divergent

nozzle is needed, which is called laval nozzle. As can be seen in following figure over
critical speed specific volume increase in larger scale than velocity.

Fig.24.
Distribution of flow parameters along the axis of a Laval nozzle
HEAT ENGINES - 25 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Maximal available speed expanding to vacuum:

1
2 p
c1 = p0 v0 1 c1 = c1 max
1 p0

p=0
2
c1 max = p0 v0
1
furthermore
2 c1max +1
ckrit = p0 v0 since = when p = 0
1 ckrit 1
c1 max
in case of air = 2 ,45
ccrit
c1max
in case of steam = 2 ,77
ccrit
So maximal speed after Laval nozzle maximum 2.5 times higher than critical speed.

Fig.25.
Pressure and velocity variation at different back pressure in a Laval nozzle
HEAT ENGINES - 26 - Steam- and Gasturbines

4. Turbine stage

Energy transformation in turbines is performed in stages. All of the stages has

fixed and moving (rotating) part. Steam or gas is streaming through these stages and
transforms a part of heat energy to mechanical one.

Fig.26.
Typical turbine stage design
HEAT ENGINES - 27 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.27.
Cross sections and velocity triangle of a turbine stage

Where: c – absolute velocity, w – relative velocity, u – peripherial speed

HEAT ENGINES - 28 - Steam- and Gasturbines

hmoving hmoving
Reaction degree: r= =
htotal h fixed + hmoving

There are two basic type of stages impulse and r=0.5 reaction type.

Fig.28.
Blade cross sections of impulse (a) and reaction (b) type stages
HEAT ENGINES - 29 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.29.
Typical blade cross section, pressure variation and velocity triangle of an impulse stage

Fig.30.
Typical blade cross section, pressure variation and velocity triangle
of a reaction stage with reaction degree r = 0.5
HEAT ENGINES - 30 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.31.
Typical blade cross section and velocity triangle of a radial (centripetal)turbine

Comparatively large power can be generated in one stage with Curtiss type stage.
This stage looks like as if it were two stages. But medium is accelerated only in the first
fixed blade, after it only velocity redirection happens. It is a special impulse stage. It can
generate 4 times higher power than an impulse stage and 8 times higher comparing with
r = 0.5 degree reaction stage.
HEAT ENGINES - 31 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.32.
Typical blade cross section and velocity triangle of a Curtiss type stage
HEAT ENGINES - 32 - Steam- and Gasturbines

c12
'= 2
Efficinecy of the nozzle fixed blade: c02
his' +
2
w22
'' = 2
Efficinecy of the moving blade: w1 + u22
2
u12
his +
''

2
Specific power can be determined with Euler turbine equation:

Pu = c1u u1 c2u u2 [kW / kg/s]

In case of axial turbines where u1 = u2: Pu = u cu = u wu [kW / kg/s]

Actual power can be generated with multiplication of specific power and mass flow rate.

PT = Pu msteam [kW]

Pu
Efficinecy of the stage: u =
c02 c22
his +
2
hreal
Adiabtic efficiency: ad =
his

When c0 = c2 these two type efficiemcy equal: u = ad

HEAT ENGINES - 33 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.33.
Change of state of turbine stage in H-S chart
HEAT ENGINES - 34 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Fig.34.
Three sectional steam turbine design cross sections
HEAT ENGINES - 35 - Steam- and Gasturbines

5. Compressors

hmoving hmoving
Reaction degree: r= =
htotal h fixed + hmoving

Specific driving power can be determined with Euler turbine equation:

Pu = c2u u2 c1u u1 [kW / kg/s]

In case of axial compressor where u1 = u2: Pu = u cu = u wu [kW / kg/s]

Actual power can be generated with multiplication of specific power and mass flow rate:

PC = Pu m& [kW]

his
Adiabatic efficiency: ad =
hreal
HEAT ENGINES - 36 - Steam- and Gasturbines

6. Combustion chamber construction

Task is to burn fuel properly under high pressure, at low pressure drop.
Further task is to save combustion chamber walls from extreme high temperature.

Fig.35.
Typical design of a fire chamber

Fig.36.
Cross section of a tubular fire chamber
HEAT ENGINES - 37 - Steam- and Gasturbines

7. Blade cooling solution

High gasturbine efficiency can be reached with high T3 turbine inlet

temperature. But turbine blades have to resist against this temperature. That is why these
turbine blades made of special alloys. Furthermore some cooling method is applied for
keeping blade temperature at acceptable level. This cooling is generally solved with air
gained from compressor. In some recent design steam is used for blade cooling.

Fig.37.
Blade cooling solution

Fig.38.
Air and steam cooled blades
HEAT ENGINES - 38 - Steam- and Gasturbines

8. Typical gasturbine constructions

Fig.39.
Typical industrial gasturbine construction

Fig.40.
Up to date aviation turbofan gasturbine
HEAT ENGINES - 39 - Steam- and Gasturbines

9. Problems

Steam turbine calculation

Calculate specific power and efficiency of an impulse stage (r=0) having following
parameters:
m
u := 280 peripherial speed
s
1 := 0.92 efficiency of fixed blade

2 := 0.85 efficiency of moving blade

p0 := 4.709 bar inlet pressure

" 1 := 18 " 1 := " 1 " 1 = 0.314 rad

180
kJ
hiz := 312.2 isentropic enthalpy drop at fixed blade
kg
hiz := 1000 hiz

c1iz := 2 hiz m
c1iz = 790.19
s
c1 := c1 = 757.923 m
1 c1iz
s
Relativ speed calculation with application of cosinus theorem for velocity triangle

w1 := u2 + c 1 2 2 u c1 cos " 1( ) w1 = 499.184 m

s

( )
c1 sin " 1
$ 1 := atan
c1 cos ( " 1) u
( )
c1a := c1 sin " 1 c1a = 234.211
m
s

( )
c1u := c1 cos " 1 c1u = 720.828
m
s
$ 1 = 27.982 angular degree

$ 1 := 28 angular degree $1 $2

w1u from velocity triangle

( )
w1u := cos $ 1 w1 w1u = 440.828
m
s
HEAT ENGINES - 40 - Steam- and Gasturbines

m
w2 := 2 w1 w2 = 460.225
s

( )
w2u := cos $ 1 w2 w2u = 406.423
m
s
c2u := w2u u
m
c2u = 126.423
s
w2a := w2 sin $ 1 ( ) c2a := w2a
c2a = 215.932
m
s
c2 := w2 2 + u2 ( )
2 w2 u cos $ 2 c2 = 250.219
m
s
c2a 360
" 2 := atan " 2 = 59.652
c2u 2
Euler turbine equation with absolut velocity components:

Pu := u ( c2u + c1u) kW
Pu = 237.23 specific power
kg
s
Pu
u := hiz u = 0.76 76% stage efficiency.

Euler turbine equation with relative velocity components:

Pu := u ( w2u + w1u)
kW
Pu = 237.23 specific power
kg
Pu
s
u := hiz u = 0.76 76% stage efficiency.
HEAT ENGINES - 41 - Steam- and Gasturbines

Gasturbine calculation

Ambient pressure: pk := 1 bar

Inlet temperature: t1 := 15 C T1 := t1 + 273.15 T1 = 288.15 K

Fire chamber pressure: pt := 20 bar

Compressor efficiency: c := 0.85
Turbine efficiency: t := 0.9
Mass flow rate of air: mair := 2 kg/s & air := 1.25 kg/m3

cp := 1.02 kJ/kgK mair 3600

Vl := Vl = 5.76 × 10 3 m3/h
& air
:= 1.39 1

pt ( T2iz T1)
T2iz := T1 T2 := + T1
pk c

Outlet temperature of compressor:

t2iz := T2iz 273.15 t2iz = 394.664 C

t2 := T2 273.15 t2 = 461.664 C

Driving power of compressor: Pc := mair cp ( T2 T1) Pc = 911.195 kW

Turbine inlet temperature: t3 := 1100 C T3 := t3 + 273.15

Qin := mair cp ( T3 T2)

Input power: 3
Qin = 1.302 × 10 kW

:= 1.33 T3
T4iz :=
1

pt
T4 := T3 ( T3 T4iz) t

pk t4iz := T4iz 273.15 t4iz = 379.839 C

Outlet temperature of the turbine: t4 := T4 273.15 t4 = 451.855 C

Pt := mair cp ( T3 T4)
3
Power of the turbine: Pt = 1.322 × 10 kW

Useful power of the gasturbine: PGT := Pt Pc PGT = 411.02 kW

PGT
Efficiency of the gasturbine: GT := GT = 0.316
Qin