Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

1.2 ultrastructure of cells

Define the term resolution.
Distinguish the resolution of light and electron microscopes.

 Resolution is the smallest distance apart two objects can be in order for them to appear
distinct.
 The resolution of a light microscope is approximately 200 nm.
 The resolution of an electron microscope is 0.1-0.2 nm.
 Resolution in light microscopes is limited by the wavelength of visible light.
 Visible light wavelength is about 400-700 nm.
 Beams of electrons have a wavelength of less than 1 nm, so electron microscopes have a
much higher resolution than light microscopes (at least 200 times higher)

Types of electron microscope:

1. Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) are used to view ultra-thin sections.

2. Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) produce an image of the surfaces of structures.

Note: Magnification only increases the size the object appears.

 High magnification and low resolution will give a blurry image.
 High resolution allows for sharp images at high magnification.
 The invention of the electron microscope has led to great advancements in the understanding
of cell structure.

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Prokaryotes:

According to their structure, cells are either classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

 Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms.

 Electron micrographs have revealed the structure of prokaryotic cells al is simple with no
internal compartments surrounded by membranes.
 Two of the three major categories (or domains) of life are prokaryotes, these are:
1. bacteria
2. archaea

Draw and label a diagram of a prokaryotic cell based on the electron micrographs of
bacterium Escherichia coli.

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Outline the division of a prokaryotic cell by binary fission.

1. The chromosome is replicated and each identical copy is moved to either end of the cell. The
cell elongates.
2. New cell walls forms and plasma membrane pinches in.
3. Cross walls form two separate cells.
4. The two new cells separate.

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Note: in optimal conditions the bacterium E. coli can divide in as little as 20 minutes.

Eukaryotes:

 Include organisms in the kingdoms: protoctists,fungi, plants and animals.

 They have complex structures which are compartments surrounded by membranes
(membrane bound organelles)

Outline the advantages of compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells.

1. Different metabolic processes can be separated. For example, the reactions specific to
aerobic respiration in mitochondria.
 High concentrations of enzymes specific for each process can be achieved.
 Different metabolic processes may require different environments, such as pH. Therefore,
conditions can be optimized for each metabolic process, while allowing both process to occur
in the same cell.
2. Hydrolytic enzymes that can damage the cell can be separated. For example, in lysosomes.
3. Allows for a greater surface area for those processes that occur within the cell membrane. For
example, the production of ATP by chemiosmosis.

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Draw and label a diagram of a eukaryotic cell based on the electron.

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Outline the function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the

pancreas and within palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Identify the organelles in micrographs.

Nucleus  The nuclear membrane is

double and has pores through
it.
 The nucleus contains the
chromosomes, consisting of
DNA associated with histone
proteins.
 Uncoiled chromosomes are
spread through the nucleus
and are called chromatin.
There are often densely
staining areas of chromatin
around the edge of the
nucleus.
 The nucleus is where DNA is
replicated and transcribed to
form mRNA, which is exported
via the nuclear pores to the
cytoplasm.

Functions:
1. controls cell activities
2. mitosis / replication of DNA /
transcription of DNA (to RNA).
3. directs protein synthesis;

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

 The rER consists of fattened
membrane sacs, called
cisternae.
 Attached to the outside of
these cisternae are ribosomes.
 They are larger than in
prokaryotes and are classified
as 80S.
Fuctions:
1. The main function of the rER is
to synthesize protein for
secretion from the cell.
 Protein synthesized by the
ribosomes of the rER passes
into its cisternae and is then
carried by vesicles, which bud
of and are moved to the Golgi
apparatus.
Golgi apparatus
 This organelle consists of
fattened membrane sacs
called cisternae, like rER.
 However the cisternae are not
as long, are often curved, do
not have attached ribosomes
and have many vesicles
nearby.
Functions:
1. The Golgi apparatus processes
proteins brought in vesicles
from the rER. Most of these
proteins are then carried in
vesicles to the plasma
membrane for secretion.

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Lysosomes 1. These are approximately

spherical with a single
membrane.
2. They are formed from Golgi
vesicles.
3. They contain high
concentrations of protein,
which makes them densely
staining in
electronmicrographs.
Functions:
1. They contain digestive
enzymes, which can be used to
break down ingested food in
vesicles
2. break down organelles in the
cell or even the whole cell.
Mitochondria

 A double membrane
surrounds mitochondria, with
the inner of these membranes
invaginated to form structures
called cristae.
 The fluid inside is called the
matrix. The shape of
mitochondria is variable but is
usually spherical or ovoid.
 Function:
1. They produce ATP for the cell
by aerobic cell respiration.
2. Fat is digested in mitochondria
if it is being used as an energy
source in the cell.

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Free ribosomes  These appear as dark granules

in the cytoplasm and are not
surrounded by a membrane.
 They have the same size as
ribosomes attached to the rER
about 20nm in diameter, and
known as 80S.
Function:
1. Free ribosomes synthesize
protein, releasing it to work in
the cytoplasm, as enzymes or
in other ways.
 Ribosomes are constructed in
a region of the nucleus called
the nucleolus.
Chloroplasts:  A double membrane
surrounds the chloroplast.
 Inside are stacks of thylakoids,
which are fattened sacs of
membrane. The shape of
chloroplasts is variable but is
usually spherical or ovoid.
 Function:
1. They produce glucose and a
wide variety of other organic
compounds by photosynthesis.
 Starch grains may be present
inside chloroplasts if they have
been photosynthesizing rapidly.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Vacuoles and vesicles  These are organelles that

consist simply of a single
membrane with fluid inside.
 Many plant cells have large
vacuoles that occupy more than
half of the cell volume.
Functions:
1. Some animals absorb foods
from outside and digest them
inside vacuoles.
2. Some unicellular organisms use
vacuoles to expel excess water.
3. Central vacuoles in plant cells
store organic compounds such
as proteins and inorganic ions.it
can be used as disposal site for
cell’s metabolic by- products and
store pigments. Also it contains
digestive juices to breakdown
macromolecules.
4. Vesicles are very small vacuoles
used to transport materials
inside the cell.

Microtubules and centrioles

 In the cytoplasm of cells there
are small cylindrical fibres
called microtubules that have a
variety of roles.
 Functions:
1. moving chromosomes during
cell division.
 Animal cells have structures
called centrioles, which
consist of two groups of nine
triple microtubules.
1. Centrioles form an anchor point
for microtubules during cell
division and also for
microtubules inside cilia and
flagella.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Cilia and flagella  These are whip-like structures

projecting from the cell surface.
 They contain a ring of nine
double microtubules plus two
central ones.
 Flagella are larger and usually
only one is present, as in a
sperm.
 Cilia are smaller and many are
present.
Function:
1. Cilia and flagella can be used
for locomotion.
2. Cilia can be also be used to
create a current in the fluid
next to the cell.

Compare and contrast prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

 Small - less than 10µm  Larger cells – greater than 10 µm
 DNA free within the cytoplasm(in  DNA contained within the
nucleoid region not surrounded by any nucleus(surrounded by nuclear
membrane, no nucleus) membrane)
 DNA in a ring free of proteins (naked  DNA associated with proteins(histones)
DNA)
 No membrane bound organelles  Membrane bound organelles
 No mitochondria (have mesosomes  Mitochondria present
instead)
 70s ribosomes  80s ribosomes
 No internal compartmentalization to  Internal membranes that
form organelles compartmentalize their functions
 Cell walls made of peptidoglycans  Cell walls are not made of
peptidoglycans. Cellulose in plants and
chitin in fungi.
 Can have pili  They don’t have
 Can have plasmids  They don’t have
 They don’t have  Have centrioles
 Can have capsule  They don’t have
 both have cytoplasm
 both can have a flagellum / flagella

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

 both have ribosomes

 both have cell membrane

Compare and contrast plant cell and animal cell.

Plant cell Animal cell

have cell walls animal cells do not
have plastids / chloroplasts animal cells do not
have a large central vacuole animal cells do not(sometimes small temporary
vacuoles)
store starch animal cells store glycogen
have plasmodesomata animal cells do not
plant cells do not have centrioles
plant cells do not have cholesterol in the cell membrane
plant cells generally have a fixed shape / more animal cells are more rounded
regular whereas

[8]

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

1.2 Ultrastructure of cells (pp. 17-30)

Nature of science:
Developments in scientific research follow improvements in apparatus – the invention of electron microscopes led to
greater understanding of cell structure. ()
Understandings: International-mindedness:
Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without Microscopes were invented
compartmentalisation. simultaneously in different parts of the
world at a time when information
Eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure.
travelled slowly. Modern-day
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light communications have allowed for
microscopes. improvements in the ability to
collaborate, enriching scientific
Applications and skills: endeavour. (pp. 17-18)
Application: Structure and function of organelles within exocrine Theory of knowledge:
gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade mesophyll cells of
the leaf. (p.) The world that we inhabit is limited by
the world that we see. Is there any
Application: Prokaryotes divide by binary fission. (pp.) distinction to be drawn between
Skill: Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on knowledge claims dependent upon
electron micrographs. (pp.) observations made by sense perception
and knowledge claims dependent upon
Skill: Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on observations assisted by technology? (p.
electron micrographs. (pp.) 19)
Skills: Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles Utilisation:
and deduce the function of specialised cells. (p.)
Syllabus and cross-curricular links:
Guidance:
Drawings of prokaryotic cells should show the cell wall, pili and Physics
flagella, and plasma membrane enclosing cytoplasm that contains Sub-topic 4.4 Wave behaviour
70S ribosomes and a nucleoid with naked DNA. (pp.) Sub-topic C.1 Introduction to imaging
Sub-topic C.3 Imaging the very small
Drawings of eukaryotic cells should show a plasma membrane
enclosing cytoplasm that contains 80S ribosomes and a nucleus, Aims:
mitochondria and other membrane-bound organelles that are Aim 8: Developments in science, such
present in the cytoplasm. Some eukaryotic cells have a cell wall. as electron microscopy, can have
(pp.) economic benefits as they give
commercial companies opportunities to
make profits, but this can affect co-
operation between scientists.

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Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

1.2 Ultrastructure of cells

Essential idea: Eukaryotes have a much more complex cell Covered Revised Exam
structure than prokaryotes ready
Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without
compartmentalisation
Eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure
Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light
microscopes
Nature of science: Developments in scientific research follow
improvements in apparatus – electron microscopes led to greater
understanding of cell structure (i.e. the discovery of membrane-
bound organelles)
Application: The structure and function of organelles within
exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade mesophyll
cells of the leaf
Application: Understand that prokaryotes divide by binary fission
Skill: Drawing prokaryotic cell ultrastructure based on electron
micrographs, to include cell wall, pili and flagella, plasma
membrane enclosing cytoplasm, 70S ribosomes, and a nucleoid
(naked DNA)
Skill: Drawing eukaryotic cell ultrastructure based on electron
micrographs, to include plasma membrane, cytoplasm, 80S
ribosomes, mitochondria, other membrane-bound organelles; cell
wall in plants/fungi
Skill: Interpreting electron micrographs to identify organelles and
deduce the function of specialised cells

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Past papers questions (2009-2016):

1. [1 mark]
What distinguishes prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?

2. [1 mark]
Which substance is used for structure in plants?
A. Amylopectin
B. Cellulose
C. Collagen
D. Starch
3. [1 mark]
The image represents an Escherichia coli.

What is the function of structure X?

A. Active transport
B. Attachment

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

C. Binary fission
D. Cell respiration
4. [1 mark]
What is the structure labeled X in the electron micrograph of a rat liver cell?

[Source: “0315 Mitochondrion new” by OpenStax College - Anatomy & Physiology,

Connexions Web site.
http://cnx.org/content/col11496/1.6/, Jun 19, 2013.. Licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia
Commons -
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:0315_Mitochondrion_new.jpg#/media/File:0315_Mito
chondrion_new.jpg]
A. Ribosome
B. Lysosome
C. Mitochondrion
D. Nucleus

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

5. [1 mark]
What is a function of the plant cell wall?
A. Formation of vesicles for transport of large molecules
B. Prevention of excessive water uptake
C. Communication with other cells by means of glycoproteins
D. Active transport of ions
6. [1 mark]
What structures are part of an Escherichia coli cell?
A. Ribosomes, nucleoid and Golgi apparatus
B. Ribosomes, mitochondria and pili
C. Cell wall, plasma membrane and nuclear membrane
D. Pili, flagella and cytoplasm
7. [1 mark]
What is a function of the plant cell wall?
A. Formation of vesicles for transport of large molecules
B. Prevention of excessive water uptake
C. Communication with other cells by means of glycoproteins
D. Active transport of ions
8. [1 mark]
What distinguishes prokaryotic cells from eukaryotic cells?

9. [1 mark]
What is an example of binary fission?
A. Cell division in prokaryotes
B. Production of haploid gametes

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

C. Separation of chromatids in prokaryotic cells

D. Replication of prokaryotic DNA occurring simultaneously in two directions
10. [1 mark]
Where are proteins synthesized by free ribosomes used?
A. Outside the cell after secretion
B. Within the nucleus
C. Within the lysosomes
D. Within the cytoplasm
11. [1 mark]
What are characteristics of eukaryotic cells?

12. [1 mark]
Which structure is found in E. coli, but not in a eukaryotic cell?
A. Cell wall
B. Endoplasmic reticulum
C. Cytoplasm
D. Pili
13. [1 mark]
In the electron micrograph of a rat liver cell below, what are the structures labelled X and Y?

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

14. [1 mark]
In the electron photomicrographs which organelle is involved in vesicle formation?

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

15. [1 mark]
The following electron micrograph which shows part of two adjacent liver cells.

What is happening at the structure labelled X?

A. Synthesis of proteins
B. Transport of proteins to the nucleus
C. Modification of proteins prior to export
D. Secretion of proteins through the plasma membrane

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

16. [1 mark]
What is the structure labelled Y?
A. Nucleus
B. Starch grain
C. Lysosome
D. Mitochondrion
17. [1 mark]
Which is a difference between prokaryote and eukaryote cells?

18. [1 mark]
Which features are present in prokaryotic cells?
A. DNA, plasma membrane and mitochondria
B. DNA, cell wall and pili
C. ribosomes, chloroplasts and cell wall
D. cytoplasm, ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum
19. [1 mark]
Where in the cell do condensation reactions involving amino acids occur?
A. Nucleus
B. Golgi apparatus
C. Ribosomes
D. Lysosome
20. [1 mark]
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
A. Transport of lipids
B. Synthesis of polypeptides
C. Processing of proteins for secretion
D. Generation of most of the cell’s supply of ATP

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

21. [1 mark]
Which features are present in prokaryotic cells?
A. DNA, plasma membrane and mitochondria
B. DNA, cell wall and pili
C. ribosomes, chloroplasts and cell wall
D. cytoplasm, ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum
22. [1 mark]
The diagram shows the structure of a bacterium.

What is the structure labelled X?

A. Pilus
B. Cell wall
C. Cytoplasm
D. Cell membrane
23. [1 mark]
Where can 70S ribosomes be found?
A. On membranes of the Golgi apparatus
B. In prokaryotic cells
C. On membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum
D. In nuclei

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

24. [1 mark]
A cell has cytoplasm, a cell wall, naked DNA and ribosomes. Based on this information, what type of cell
could this be?
A. A cell from a pine tree
B. A grasshopper cell
C. A human red blood cell
D. A bacterium
25. [1 mark]
Which pair of features is correct for both a human liver cell and an Escherichia coli cell?

26. [1 mark]
If a mitochondrion has a length of 5 µm and a student’s drawing of the mitochondrion is 10 mm, what is
the magnification of the drawing?
A. × 0.0005
B. × 0.5
C. × 200
D. × 2000
27. [1 mark]
An unknown cell is observed using a microscope. A cell wall, ribosomes and DNA are identified. What can
be concluded from these observations?
A. It can only be a prokaryotic cell.
B. It can only be a eukaryotic cell.
C. It could be a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.
D. It can only be a plant cell.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

28. [1 mark]
Which of the following are features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

29. [1 mark]
The diagram below shows a bacterium.

What structure does the part labelled X identify?

A. Nucleus
B. Nucleoid
C. Nucleolus
D. Nuclear membrane
30. [1 mark]
What do prokaryotic cells have that eukaryotic cells do not?
A. Mitochondria
B. 70S ribosomes
C. Histones
D. Internal membranes

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

31. [1 mark]
What is the function of the cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane of this bacterium?

A. To produce ADP
B. To form the only protective layer preventing damage from outside
C. To control entry and exit of substances
D. To synthesize proteins
32. [1 mark]
Which of the following structures does Escherichia coli have?
I. Ribosomes
II. Pili
III. Nucleus
A. I only
B. I and II only
C. II and III only
D. I, II and III
33. [1 mark]
What feature do plant cells have but not animal cells?
A. Plasma membranes
B. Mitochondria
C. Cell walls
D. 80S ribosomes

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

34. [1 mark]
Which of the following structures are found in all cells?
A. Mitochondria
B. Cell walls
C. Chloroplasts
D. Ribosomes
35. [1 mark]
Questions 3 and 4 refer to the following micrograph of an E.coli bacterium undergoing reproduction.

In the diagram what does label X identify?

A. Nucleoid region
B. Chromatin
C. Histones
D. Endoplasmic reticulum

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

36. [2 marks]
The micrograph shows a section of an organ in the human body.

The actual length of the structure labelled Y is 0.8 mm between the two black lines. Calculate the
magnification of the micrograph. Working should be shown.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

37a. [2 marks]

Annotate the electron micrograph of the Escherichia coli cell with the function of the structures labelled I
and II.
37b. [1 mark]
Calculate the magnification of the electron micrograph.
38a. [3 marks]

The diagram shows some of the structures in an animal cell.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

(i) Label structures I, II, III and IV.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

(ii) State one function of structure III.

38b. [2 marks]

Explain how materials are transported within a cell between structures X and Y.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

39a. [1 mark]

The diagram shows how vesicles are used to transport materials in a cell.

State the name of organelle A.

39b. [1 mark]

State the process occurring at B.

40. [4 marks]

Draw a labelled diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli as an example of a prokaryote.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

41. [5 marks]

Draw a labelled diagram to show the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli.

42a. [2 marks]

The electron micrograph below showan E. coli cell.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Identify the structures labelled A and B in the electron micrograph above and state one function of each.

A: Name

Function

B: Name:

Function:

42b. [3 marks]

Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

43a. [1 mark]

The electron micrograph below shows a section of a liver cell.

Identify the structure labelled I and state one function of this structure.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

43b. [2 marks]

Explain the evidence from the electron micrograph that indicates that liver cells are very active.

44a. [4 marks]

Draw a labelled diagram of a eukaryotic plant cell as seen in an electron micrograph.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

44b. [8 marks]

In hot, dry conditions plants lose water rapidly due to transpiration. Explain how the structures and
processes of the plant allow this water to be replaced.

45a. [5 marks]

Draw a labelled diagram of a prokaryotic cell.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

45b. [6 marks]

Explain the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

46. [5 marks]

State the functions of the following organelles of a eukaryotic animal cell: lysosome, Golgi apparatus, free
ribosomes, plasma membrane, rough endoplasmic reticulum.

47a. [4 marks]

Draw a labelled diagram showing the ultra-structure of a liver cell.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

47b. [6 marks]

Distinguish between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

Markscheme:
1. B
2. B
3.B
4. C
5. B
6. D
7. B
8. D
9. A
10. D
11. A
12. D
13. A
14. C
15. A
16. D
17. D
18. B
19. C
20. C
21. B
22. B
23. B
24. D

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

25. A
26. D
27. C
28. A
29. B
30. B
31. C
32. B
33. C
34. D
35. A
36. [2 marks]
a. calculation shown with accurate measurement of length of villus
OR

or or «mm»
For the first marking point to be awarded, the measurement must be between 53 and 55 mm.
b. 67 or 68 or 68
Allow any value between 67 and 69 inclusive.
Accept decimals e.g. 68.75.
Allow ECF from first marking point.
37a. [2 marks]
a. I: locomotion;
b. II: attachment to surfaces / holds bacteria together / conjugation;
Do not accept “exchange material” on its own.
If more than one function is given, mark the first answer only.
37b. [1 mark]
×15 000 (accept answers in the range of × 14 000 to × 16 000)
38a. [3 marks]
(i) Award [1] for any two of the following correctly labeled.
I. ribosomes
II. nucleus (do not accept nuclear membrane)
III. mitochondrion
IV. plasma/cell membrane

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

(ii) ATP production/site of aerobic respiration (do not accept energy production)
38b. [2 marks]
(protein) material transported by vesicles;
from rER to Golgi apparatus/complex/body/membrane;
vesicles bud off from rER/fuse with Golgi membrane (due to membrane fluidity);
Do not accept vacuole(s).
39a. [1 mark]
Golgi apparatus/complex/body
Reject Golgi vesicle and Golgi unqualified.
39b. [1 mark]
endocytosis/phagocytosis/pinocytosis
Reject exocytosis.
40. [4 marks]
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
a. cell wall; (with some thickness)
b. plasma membrane; (shown as single line or very thin)
c. cytoplasm;
d. pilus/pili; (shown as single lines)
e. flagellum/flagella; (shown as thicker and longer structures than pili and embedded in cell wall)
f. 70S ribosomes;
g. nucleoid / naked DNA;
h. approximate width 0.5μm / approximate length 2.0μm;
Award [4 max] if the bacterium drawn does not have the shape of a bacillum (rounded-corner rectangle
with length approximately twice its width).
Award [4 max] if any eukaryotic structures included.
41. [5 marks]
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled.
cell wall – with some thickness;
plasma membrane – shown as single line or very thin;
cytoplasm; pilus/pili – shown as single lines;
flagellum/flagella – shown as thicker and longer structures than pili and embedded in cell wall;
70S ribosomes; nucleoid / naked DNA;
approximate width 0.5 μm / approximate length 2.0 μm;

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Award [4 max] if the bacterium drawn does not have the shape of a bacillum (rounded-corner rectangle
with length approximately twice its width).
Award [4 max] if any eukaryotic structures included.
42a. [2 marks]
Both name and function required to achieve [1].
A: name: flagella/flagellum
function: used for locomotion / beats in whip-like action to propel cell;
B: name: pili/pilus
function: used for adhesion (to another cell/surface) / transfer of genetic material (between cells);
ECF, for one mark, can be applied if both parts of the pair are reversed.
42b. [3 marks]
Award [1] for a similarity.
both have a plasma/cell membrane/ribosomes/cytoplasm/genetic material;
Award up to [2] for differences. Candidate must make a valid comparison, not simply describe each. Award
[2 max] if features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are not compared directly, item by item, although a
table is not necessary.

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

43a. [1 mark]
nucleus contains genetic information / is site of DNA replication / site of RNA transcription;
nuclear membrane/envelope (which has pores) allowing exchange of substances between nucleus and
cytoplasm;
43b. [2 marks]
large number of mitochondria;
to meet energy demand/ATP production (needed for high metabolic activity);
or
large amount of rER;
indicates high rate of protein synthesis;
44a. [4 marks]
Cell wall shown with two continuous lines to indicate the thickness
Plasma membrane/cell membrane shown as a single continuous line
Accept inner line of wall as membrane if clearly labelled.
Nuclear membrane/nucleus shown with double membrane and nuclear pores
Vacuole «membrane»/tonoplast shown as a single continuous line
Chloroplast/plastid shown with a double line to indicate the envelope and thylakoids/grana
Mitochondrion shown with double membrane/cristae
44b. [8 marks]
Evaporation of water «in leaf/mesophyll» creates tension/low pressure/negative pressure
«potential»/pulling force/transpiration pull
Water drawn through cell walls/out of xylem «in leaf» by capillary action/adhesion «to cellulose»
Low pressure/tension/suction/pulling force in xylem
Hydrogen bonds make water cohesive/allow water to be pulled up under tension/allow the transpiration
pull «to move water»
Xylem resists tension/low pressure/collapse with thickened/lignified walls
Water travels from the roots to the leaves in xylem
Water absorbed in roots by osmosis
Active transport of ions/solutes into roots «enabling osmosis»
Deep/wide ranging/extensive root systems/taproots/many root hairs
Thick/waxy cuticle reduces transpiration/water loss/evaporation
Small/no leaves/reduced surface area of leaves/thorns instead of leaves
Few stomata/stomata in pits/rolled leaves
Hairs on leaf surface «to reduce air flow near the leaf/reflect sunlight»

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

Stomata open at night/CAM physiology to reduce water loss

45a. [5 marks]
a. cell wall – uniformly thick and drawn outside the plasma membrane;
b. plasma membrane – a continuous single line;
c. cytoplasm/cytosol;
d. nucleoid/(naked) DNA – shown as a tangle of thread or irregular shape without a nuclear membrane;
e. (70S) ribosomes – drawn as a small circle or dark dot;
f. pili – hair like structures / flagellum – shown to be longer than any pili;
g. plasmid – circular ring of DNA;
h. capsule – drawn outside the cell wall;
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and labelled which conforms to the italicized guidelines given
above.
45b. [6 marks]
a. antibiotics (are chemicals) used to treat bacterial diseases;
b. within populations, bacteria vary in their (genetic) resistance to antibiotics/fitness;
c. resistance arises by (random) gene mutation;
d. when antibiotics are used antibiotic-sensitive bacteria are killed;
e. (natural) selection favours those with resistance;
f. resistant bacteria survive, reproduce and spread the gene / increase allele frequency of resistant
bacteria;
g. the more an antibiotic is used, the more bacterial resistance/the larger the population of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria;
h. genes can be transferred to other bacteria by plasmids;
i. doctors/vets use different antibiotics but resistance develops to these as well;
j. multiple-antibiotic resistant bacteria evolve/it becomes difficult to treat some infections;
(Plus up to [2] for quality)
46. [5 marks]
lysosome:
a. (from Golgi apparatus) with digestive enzymes / break down food/organelles/ cell;
Golgi apparatus:
b. site that processes/modifies/packages and releases proteins;
free ribosomes:
c. site of synthesis of proteins (released to cytoplasm);

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 Topic 1 Cell Biology Rana Al Liddawi

plasma membrane:
d. controls entry and exit of materials/substances in cell;
rough endoplasmic reticulum:
e. synthesis and transport of proteins; (both needed)
47a. [4 marks]
Award [1] for each structure clearly drawn and correctly labelled. Whole cells not necessary.
(plasma) membrane – single line surrounding cytoplasm;
nucleus – with a double membrane and pore(s) shown;
mitochondria(ion) – with a double membrane, the inner one folded into internal projections, shown no
larger than half the nucleus;
rough endoplasmic reticulum – multi-folded membrane with dots/small circles on surface;
Golgi apparatus – shown as a series of enclosed sacs with evidence of vesicle formation;
ribosomes – dots/small circles in cytoplasm/ribosomes on rER;
lysosome;
Award [0] if plant cell is drawn. Award [2 max] if any plant cell structure (e.g. cell wall) is present.
47b. [6 marks]

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