BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

PRIYA.M
ASST.PROFESSOR
BIHER
 UNIT-1

FROM ATOMS TO
ORGANISMS
The cell: The basic unit of life
 What are cells?
• Cells are the fundamental structural and
functional unit of all living beings.
• Every cell has its own life.
• Old and week cells in the body continually die
and are replaced by new cells.
• All organisms including ourselves, start life as
a single cell.
• Cells are so small (microscopic)
 CELL THEORY
• Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1838
• Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
• Cell theory has become the foundation of biology
and is the most widely accepted explanation of
the function of cells.
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and
organization in organisms.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
CLASSIFICATION
 PROKARYOTES
• Pro-false Karyotes – cell
• lack nucleus and other membrane bound
organelles.
• Prokaryotic cells are placed in two taxonomic
domains.
• Bacteria
• Archea bacteria – live in extreme habitats
• Most prokaryotes vary in size from 0.2 μm to 750
μm
 PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
Capsule: Additional outer covering
• Protects the cell when it is engulfed by
phagocytes and by viruses
• Retaining moisture
Cell wall: outermost layer, gives shape
• Bacterial cell walls are made of peptidoglycan
layer.
• Archaea, which do not contain peptidoglycan
Cell membrane: Semipermeable membrane
• regulates the flow of substances in and out of
the cell.
Cytoplasm: fluid in nature that fills the cell
• 80% water that also contains enzymes, salts,
cell organelles
Ribosomes:
• Protein synthesis.
Nucleiod Region:
• contains the bacterial DNA molecule.
Plasmids: Extra piece of chromosomal DNA
• They are double-stranded and circular.
Plasmids are responsible for
1. Virulence factor
2. Antibiotic resistance
3. Conjugation: The process of transferring genetic
material from one bacterial cell to another
bacterial cell
Pili: hair-like structures on the surface of the cell
• help attach to other bacterial cells.
Flagella: long, whip-like organelle
• cellular locomotion.
• functions as a sensory organelle, being
sensitive to chemicals and temperatures
outside the cell.
• Protein flagellin
 EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
• Eu – True Karyotes – cell
• Well defined nucleus and membrane bound
organelles
• They belong to the taxa Eukaryota.
Cell Wall: Extracellular structure surrounding
plasma membrane
• composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin
• it controls turgidity.
Cell membrane : Semipermeable membrane.
Plasmodesmata: Pores in the primary cell wall
Chloroplast/Plastids
• contain chlorophyll
• Responsible for photosynthesis.
Mitochondria: spherical to rod-shaped
organelles
• The mitochondrion converts the energy stored
in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
 Nucleus
• Controls protein synthesis
• Contains DNA in chromosomes.
Nucleolus:
• Protein synthesis is initiated
 Endoplasmic reticulum
RER – Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
• convoluted sacks
• Contains ribosomes – Protein synthesis
SER - Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum
• convoluted tubes, no ribosomes
• Moves the newly-made proteins to the Golgi
body
 Golgi apparatus
• flattened, layered,
sac-like organelle
• packaging proteins
and transport.
Lysosome: stomach of the cell.
• hydrolase enzymes
Peroxisome: breaks down toxic substances like
hydrogen peroxide
• Oxidase enzymes
• major site of oxygen utilization
Centrosome: small body located near the nucleus .
• It divides and the two parts move to opposite
sides of the dividing cell.
Vacuoles : storage areas
Plant cell vs Animal cell
Molecular Components of cells
THE MOLECULAR COMPONENTS OF
CELL
 WATER
• Water is the most abundant molecule in cells,
accounting for 70% or more of total cell mass.
• Water is a polar molecule
• Hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge and
Oxygen atoms has a slight negative charge.
• Because of this polar nature, water molecules can
form hydrogen bonds with each other or with
other polar molecules.
• Interact with positively or negatively charged
ions.
 Inorganic molecules
• Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+)
• Magnesium, Calcium, Phosphate
• Chloride, bicarbonate
• Constitute 1% of the cell mass.
• These ions are involved in a number of aspects
of cell metabolism and function.
 Organic molecules
• Unique constituents of cells
• Carbohydrates.
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids
 CARBOHYDRATES
• Carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms,
usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1
(as in water)
• empirical formula Cm(H2O)n.
• Their breakdown provides cellular energy.
• Carbohydrates consist of saccharide, a group that
includes sugars, starch, and cellulose.
• The saccharides are divided into four chemical
groups: Monosaccharides, disaccharides,
oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
 Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller
carbohydrates.
• They are aldehydes or ketones with two or more
hydroxyl groups.
• Classification
• Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are
called trioses, those with four are called tetroses,
five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so
on.
• Eg: Glucose, Fructose
 Disaccharides
• Two joined monosaccharides are called a
disaccharide .
• two monosaccharide units bound together by
a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage.
• formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting
in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one
monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from
the other
• Examples include sucrose and lactose
Oligosaccharides
• Three to six units of monosaccharides are
joined together to form a oligosaccharide
• Eg: Raffinose
Polysaccharides
• A polysaccharide is a large molecule made of
many monosaccharides
Ex. Starch, cellulose.
 LIPIDS
• Insoluble organic compounds that consist of
fat and oil
• The roles of lipids in cells
1. Energy storage
2. Major component of cell membrane
3. Cell signaling
Classification
Simple Lipids or Homolipids
• Simple lipids are esters of fatty acid linked with various
alcohols.
• Fats and oils (triglycerides, triacylglycerols)
Compound Lipids or Heterolipids
• Heterolipids are fatty acid esters with alcohol and
additional groups.
• Phospholipids
Derived Lipids
• derived by hydrolysis from compound and simple lipids.
• Steroids
Phospholipids
 Nucleic acids
• Biopolymers, essential for all known forms of
life.
• DNA -Deoxyribonucleic acid
• RNA -Ribonucleic acid
• Each nucleotide has three components:
• a 5- carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base
 Difference between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
Found in Nucleus of the cell Nucleolus
Function Genetic information Protein synthesis
Structure Double stranded Single stranded
Sugar group Deoxyribose Ribose
Phosphate group Present Present
Nitrogenous bases Adenine (A) Adenine (A)
Guanine (G) Guanine (G)
Cytosine (C) Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T) Uracil (U)
 PROTEINS
• While nucleic acids carry the genetic
information of the cell, the primary
responsibility of proteins is to execute the
tasks directed by that information.
• Each cell contains different proteins.
• They perform a wide variety of functions
• Proteins direct virtually all activities of the cell
• Greek word proteios means “of the first rank”.
 Functions of proteins
• Serve as structural components of cells and
tissues.
• Transport and storage of small molecules
• Transmitting information between cells.
• Providing a defense against infection
• They act as enzymes.
• Catalyze nearly all the chemical reactions in
biological systems.