Chapter 1

Interference

1.1 Light:-
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation within the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having
wavelengths in the range of 400 - 700 nanometers (nm), between the infrared (with longer
wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths). This wavelength means a
frequency range of roughly 430 - 750 terahertz (THz).
1.2 What is a Wave:-
A wave is a disturbance that propagates, or moves from the place it was created. There
are four basic types of waves:

(i) Mechanical waves: Basic mechanical waves are governed by Newtons laws and require
a medium. A medium is the substance a mechanical waves propagates through, and
the medium produces an elastic restoring force when it is deformed. Mechanical
waves transfer energy and momentum, without transferring mass. Some examples of
mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.

(ii) Matter waves: These are a central part of the branch of physics known as quantum
mechanics. These waves are associated with protons, electrons, neutrons, and other
fundamental particles found in nature. The theory that all types of matter have wavelike
properties was first proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924.

(iii) Gravitational waves: Gravitational waves are disturbances in the curvature of space-
time, generated by accelerated masses (such as, galaxies, stars), that propagate as waves
outward from their source at the speed of light. They were proposed by Henri Poincaré
in 1905 and subsequently predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein on the basis of his general
theory of relativity.

(iv) Electromagnetic waves: EM waves are associated with oscillations in electric and
magnetic fields and do not require a medium. Examples include gamma rays, X-rays,
ultraviolet waves, visible light, infrared waves, microwaves, and radio waves. Since the
electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction in which the wave moves,
EM waves are called as transverse waves.

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1. I NTERFERENCE

Figure 1.1: EM wave

The strengths of the electric (E) and magnetic (B) parts of the wave are related by

E
=c (1.1)
B
which implies that the magnetic field B is very weak relative to the electric field E . The
speed, c, is given by
1
√ =c (1.2)
ε0 µ0
where µ0 is the permeability of free space and ε0 is the permitivity of free space.
Electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum at the speed of light, v = c =
2.99792458 × 108 m/s.

1.2.1 Mathematical Representation of Waves:

Figure 1.2: Wave Snapshot

Let us consider the case of a one dimensional wave moving along +X axis, as shown in
Fig. 1.2. Since the oscillations are sinusoidal, we can describe the displacment y in terms of
sin function that oscillating between +1 and −1, i.e.

y = sin(θ ) (1.3)
But by using the above sin function we can only construct a stationary wave i.e. a wave
strting from θ = 0 and ending at θ = 2π . To describe a travelling wave, we have to add
the arguents that describe the "repeating nature" of a wave. Therefore, using the wave as
periodic function, consider the ratio of the angle and the position as
θ 2π
= ,
x λ (1.4)
2π
θ= x
λ
2
 1.2. What is a Wave:-

2π
Using θ = x and multiplying the sine function by the amplitude A, we can write the
λ
wave equation as:
 
2π
y(x) = A sin x (1.5)
λ
The above equation provides the information of the wave position related to the distance
only. For getting the information about the position of wave for a specific time, we have to
introduce velocity of the wave in the function. If the wave travels in the positive x-direction
with a constant velocity "v", and moves a distance "vt" in a time "t". Then, the wave function
can be defined as
 
2π
y(x,t) = A sin (x − vt) (1.6)
λ
or
 
2π 2π
y(x,t) = A sin x − vt (1.7)
λ λ
2π
The value is defined as the wave number. The symbol for the wave number is k and
λ
has units of inverse meters, m−1 , i.e.

2π
k= (1.8)
λ
The wave number is the spatial frequency of a wave, measured in cycles per unit
distance or radians per unit distance.
The second term of the wave function becomes
 
2π 2π λ 2π
vt = t= t = ωt (1.9)
λ λ T T
2π
Where ω = is the angular frequency and T is the Time period (the time taken for
T
one complete cycle of vibration to pass a given point) of the wave. Therefore, the equation,
1.7 can be written as

y(x,t) = A sin (kx ± ω t) (1.10)

The minus sign (opposite signs of k and ω ) is for waves moving in the positive x-
direction,

and the plus sign (same signs of k and ω ) is for waves moving in the negative x-
direction.
The velocity of the wave is equal to
 
λ λ 2π ω ω
v= = = , ∴ v= (1.11)
T T 2π k k
The wave equation 1.10 is the specific form of wave equation that describe y = 0 when
x = 0, t = 0. Therefore, to write a generalized equation we have to introduce an initial phase
φ , so Eqn. 1.10 can be written as

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1. I NTERFERENCE

y(x,t) = A sin (kx ± ω t + φ ) (1.12)

1.3 Optics
The subject of Optics can be dedivided into three areas:

(i) Geometrical Optics: where light is described by rays which show the paths of energy
transfer. Geometrical optics provides a good understanding of the propagation of light
in transparent media and the operation of optical imaging systems such as cameras,
telescopes and microscopes.
(ii) Physical Optics: where the physical (wave) nature of light is taken into account.
Physical optics covers polarisation, interference and diffraction of light. The physical
optics approach is necessary for understanding the limits of resolution of optical imaging
systems.
(iii) Quantum Optics: where the particle nature of light is taken into account. This descrip-
tion, where light is considered to consist of massless particles called photons, is needed
to understand fully the interaction of light and matter. Topics which require the quantum
optics approach include the photoelectric effect, photodetectors and lasers.
This course is on Physical Optics or Wave Optics, it covers general principles, phe-
nomena which require physical optics for their explanation and applications.

1.4 Coherent source of light

Two or more sources of light are said to be coherent if they have the same frequency and
constant phase difference.

(i) Coherence time:- It is the average time during which the wave remains sinusoidal and
phase of the wave packet can be predictable reliably.
In ordinary sources of visible light, individual atoms are resposible for the emission
of light. An atom leaving an excited state gives up the excess energy in the form of a
burst of light (photon) and jumps to the lower normal state. The process of transition
of the atom from an upper state to a lower state lasts for a brief time of about 10−8
sec. Therefore, the light emitted by an atom is not a continuous harmonic wave of
infinite extension but is a wave train of finite length having a certain limited number
of oscillations. It is impossible to say exactly when an atom may emit light because
the emision is completely a random process. Consequently, the phase of the wave train
from an atom whould remain constant with respect to the phase of the wave train from
another atom only for about 10−8 sec.
(ii) Coherence length:- It is the length of the wave packet over which it may be assumed
to be sinusoidal and has predictable phase. Coherence length, lcoh , can be written as

lcoh = c4t
tcoh = 4t (1.13)
∴ lcoh = ctcoh

Where 4t is the average time during which the phase of the wave train does not change
randomly and tcoh is the coherence time.

4
 1.4. Coherent source of light

We can also write coherence length in terms of frequency bandwith, 4v, and wavelength
bandwith, 4λ , as:

c
4v =
lcoh
(1.14)
λ2
lcoh =
4λ
Where λ is the wavelength of the wave.
Light from a Sodium discahrge lamp has a coherence length of ≈ 2 to 3 cm while the
coherence length of white light is a fraction of a cm.

(iii) Bandwidth:- Figure 1.3 displays that how can we define the bandwith. Bandwith can
also be denoted as FWHM (full width at half maximum).

Figure 1.3: Bandwith

1.4.1 Temporal and Spatial Coherence

As we discussed earlier, coherence refers to the connection between the phase of light
waves at one point and time, and the phase of the light waves at another point and time.
Coherence effects are mainly divided into two categories: temporal and spatial. Temporal
coherence is directly related to the finite bandwith of the source, whereas the spatial coherence
is related to the finite size of the source.

(i) Temporal Coherence:- It is also known as Longitudinal coherence. Consider a light

wave traveling along +X axis. Consider two different points A and B along the same
wave train that is along +X axis.
If φ (A) is phase of point A at any time and φ (B) is phase of point B at any time, then
phase difference between these points is given by

φ = φ (A) − φ (B) (1.15)

If φ is independent of time then points A and B are said to exhibit temporal coherence
or longitudinal coherence. It is worth to note that if the distance between the points A
and B is less than the coherence length lcoh , Then, the waves are always in temporal
coherence.
In other words, a beam of laser is said to exhibit temporal coherence if the phase
difference of the waves crossing the two points lying on a plane parallel to the direction
of the propagation of beam is independent of time.

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1. I NTERFERENCE

Figure 1.4: (a) Wave with both spatial and temporal coherence
(b) Spatial coherence and no temporal coherence (c) temporal
coherence and no spatial coherence (d) no spatial coherence
and no temporal coherence.

(ii) Spatial coherence:- It refers to the continuity and uniformity of a wave in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. If the phase difference for any two fixed
points in a plane normal to the wave propagagtion does not vary with time , then the wave
is said to exhibit spatial coherence. An ideal point source exhibits spatial coherence, as
the waves produced by it are likely to have the same phase at points in space, which are
equidistant from the source. On the other hand, an extended source is bound to exhibit
lesser lateral spatial coherence.
To understant it, consider a light wave traveling along +X axis. Draw a line perpendicular
to the direction of the beam. Consider two different points C and D on this line.
If φ (C) is phase of point C at any time and φ (D) is phase of point D at any time, then
phase difference between these points is given by

φ = φ (C) − φ (D) (1.16)

If φ is independent of time then points C and D are said to exhibit spatial coherence or
transverse coherence or lateral coherence.
In other words, a beam of laser is said to exhibit spatial coherence if the phase difference
of the waves crossing the two points lying on a plane perpendicular to the direction of

6
 1.4. Coherent source of light

Figure 1.5: Finite and Infinite Coherence.

the propagation of beam is independent of time.

1.4.2 Geometricl path and Optical path:-

(i) Geometrical path length (GPL):- This is the distance travelled by Light in a medium
in a fixed time. If, v is the velocity of light by which it traversed a distance L in a
medium of refractive index µ in time t, then;

L
L = vt or, t = (1.17)
v
Here, L is the Geometrical path.

(ii) Optical path length (OPL):- This is the distance travelled by Light in a vacuum/air in
a fixed time. If 4 is the distance travelled by light in vacuum/air in the same time t, then

4 = ct (1.18)

Here, 4 is the optical path. Optical path length also indicates the number of cycles of a
light wave that fit into that path.

4 = Nλ (1.19)

Where, N is an integer or a mixed fraction and λ is the wavelength of light wave.

(iii) Relation between Geometrical and Optical path length:-

On substituting the value of t from Eqn. 1.17 to Eqn. 1.20, we find that

L
4 = ct = c. = µ L (1.20)
v

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1. I NTERFERENCE

Hence, the geometrical path length (GPL) is the equivalent distance in a vacuum that is
called optical path length (OPL), i.e.

O.P.L = µ × G.P.L.
(1.21)
4 = µL

Note:- In the study of physical optics (i.e. in study of interference, diffraction, pollariza-
tion), we always have to determine the optical paths travelled by light rays.

1.4.2.1 Effect of Optical path:-

Optical path determines the phase of a light wave arriving at a point. If a wave covers in
air a distance of one wavelength, i.e. 1λ , its phase changes by 2π radians. Therefore, when a
wave travels a distance L in air, then its phase change, δ , is given by

2π L
δ= (1.22)
λ
When the wave travels the distance L in a medium, then

2π 4 2π µ L
δ= = (1.23)
λ λ
Where 4 is the optical path or optical path difference.
Therefore, a light path (geometric length L) in a medium of refrective index µ produces
the same phase change as a light path of µ L produces in vacuum/air.

1.4.2.2 Effect of Reflection (Stoke’s Treatmen):

The process reflection can change the phase of a light wave. The reflection coefficient, R,
is given by
µ1 − µ2
R= (1.24)
µ1 + µ2
Therefore, R is "+Ve" when µ1 > µ2 , it implies that the incident and reflected waves occur
in the same phase. On the other hand, R is "−Ve" when µ2 > µ1 , it signifies that the incident
and reflected waves are in opposite phase.

Figure 1.6: Phase change due to Reflection

Hence, we can draw the following conclusions:

8
 1.5. Superposition of Waves

(i) A light wave travelling from a rarer medium (µ1 ) to denser medium (µ2 ) undergoes
phase change of π radians when it gets reflected of at the boundary of rarer-to-denser
medium, as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a).

(ii) A light wave travelling from a denser medium (µ2 ) to rarer medium (µ1 ) does not
undergo a phase change on reflection at the boundary of denser-to-rarer medium, as
shown in Fig. 1.6 (b).

1.5 Superposition of Waves

The principle of superposition states that, when two or more waves of the same type
meet at a point, the resultant wave has a displacement which is the algebraic sum of the
displacements of each wave.

• The displacements are added vectorially. However, usually the vibrations or oscillations
are in a single plane, so the displacements can be added algebraically (just including
the ± sign).

• The principle depends on the medium behaving linearly when the waves pass through;
i.e. when the parts of the medium have twice the displacement then it has twice
the restoring force. (For very large amplitudes this breaks down and harmonics are
obtained).

• The idea and the language transfers across to electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, even
though there is no mechanical displacement of the medium.

• When the waves pass beyond that point of intersection, they separate out again and the
waves are completely unchanged (unless the medium has been overstretched).

1.5.1 Interference
The reditribution of the light intensity due to the superposition of two or more coherent
sources is called Interference of light.

(i) Constructive Interference:- At certain points the resultant intensity is greater than the
sum of the intensities due to the individul waves. The interference produced at these
points is called constructive interference. If AR is the amplitude of resultant wave and
A is the amplitude of superimposing waves, then

AR = A + A = 2A (1.25)

Hence, the intensity of resultant wave is

IR ∝ (AR )2 = 22 A2 = 22 I (1.26)

Therefore, for constructive interference,

IR > I + I = 2I (1.27)

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1. I NTERFERENCE

(ii) Destructive Interference:- At certain other points the resultant intensity is less than
the sum of the intensities due to the individul waves. The interference produced at these
points is called destructive interference. The amplitude of resultant wave is

AR = A − A = 0 (1.28)

Hence, the intensity of resultant wave is

IR ∝ 02 = 0 (1.29)

Or
IR < 2I (1.30)

Figure 1.7: Interference

1.5.1.1 Theory of Interference (Analytical Method):-

Let us assume that the electric field components of two waves arriving at point p are given
as

EA = E1 sin(ω t) (1.31)
and
EA = E2 sin(ω t + δ ) (1.32)
Where δ is the phase difference between them.
The resultant electric field is given by

ER = EA + EB (1.33)
= E1 sin(ω t) + E2 sin(ω t + δ ) (1.34)
= E1 sin(ω t) + E2 [sin(ω t)cos(δ ) + cos(wt)sin(δ )] (1.35)
= [E1 + E2 cos(δ )]sin(ω t) + E2 sin(δ )cos(ω t) (1.36)
Thus the resultant wave is also a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency but with a different
amplitude E.
Let
[E1 + E2 cos(δ )] = Ecos(φ ) (1.37)
and
E2 sin(δ ) = Esin(φ ) (1.38)
Where E is the amplitude of the resultant wave and φ is the new initial phase angle. To solve
for E and φ , on squaring and adding of Eqn. 1.37 and Eqn. 1.38, we get

10
 1.5. Superposition of Waves

[E1 + E2 cos(δ )]2 + [E2 sin(δ )]2 = E 2 [cos[ φ ] + sin2 (φ )] (1.39)

Or
E 2 = E12 + E22 + 2E1 E2 cos(δ ) (1.40)
Thus, the amplitude of the resultant wave has an additional term, 2E1 E2 cos(δ ), which is
known as the Interference term.
1.5.1.2 Intensity Distribution:-
The intensity of light wave is given by

1
I = ε0 cE 2 ∝ E 2 (1.41)
2
Using Eqn. 1.40, we get
√
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos(δ ) (1.42)
√
The extra term 2 I1 I2 cos(δ ) is known as Interference term.
The resultant intensity is maximum when the cos(δ ) is maximum i.e. when cos(δ ) = +1.
Therefore, when the the phase difference is

δ = 2nπ , n = 0, 1, 2, ....etc i.e δ = Even multiple o f π (1.43)

Or the path difference is

λ λ
4= (δ ) = (2nπ ) (1.44)
2π 2π
Or
2nλ λ
4= = Even multiple o f (1.45)
2 2
So, the intesnity is maximum when phase difference is an even multiple of π or the
path difference is an even multiple of half wavelengh (λ /2).
Thus, the value of maximum intensity is given by
√
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 (1.46)

When I1 = I2 = I0

Imax = 4I0 (1.47)

It means the resultant intensity I will be more than the sum of the intensities due to the two
sources.
The reultant intensity is minimum when the cos(δ ) is minimum i.e. when cos(δ ) = −1.
It is for

δ = (2n − 1)π , n = 1, 2, 3....etc. or

(1.48)
δ = (2n + 1)π , n = 0, 1, 2, 3....etc.
i.e the δ is odd multiple of π Or the path difference is

λ λ (2n + 1)λ
4= (δ ) = × (2n + 1)π = (1.49)
2π 2π 2

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1. I NTERFERENCE

λ
i.e 4 = odd multiple of
2
That is, the intensity is minimum when phase difference is an odd multiple of π or the path
difference is an old multiple of half wavelength (λ /2).
The value of minimum intensity, Imin , is
√
Imin = I1 + I2 − 2 I1 I2 (1.50)

When I1 = I2 , resultant intesity is

Imin = 0 (1.51)
Thus, the resultant ntensity I will be less than the sum of the intesities due to the two sources.
At points that lie between the maxima and minima, when I1 = I2 = I0 , we get
p
I = I0 + I0 + 2 I0 I0 cos(δ ) (1.52)

I = I0 + I0 + 2I0 cos(δ ) (1.53)

 
2 1
We know that 1 + cos(δ ) = 2cos δ , so
2
 
2 1
I = 4I0 cos δ (1.54)
2

Figure 1.8: Intensity distribution

Therefore, intensity varies along the screen according to the law of cosine square.. It
is worth to note that in the interference pattern the energy is simply distributed between
minima and maxima. The intesnity at maxima increases at the cost of intensity of minima.
Therefore, the formation of fringes in the interference pattern is in accordance with the
law of conservation of energy.
1.5.1.3 Conditions for Interference
(A) Conditions for Sustained Interference:

(i) The waves from the two sources must be of the same frequency.
If the light waves differ in frequency, the phase difference fluctuates irregulary with
time. Consequently, the intensity at any point fluctuates with time and we will not
observe steady interference.
(ii) The two light waves must be coherent.
Coherent waves maintain a fixed phase difference over a time and space, hence a
stationary interference pattern will be observed.

12
 1.5. Superposition of Waves

(iii) The path difference between the overlapping waves must be less than the co-
herence length of the waves.
The interference pattern completely vanishes if the path difference is equal to the
coherence length. It is, hence, required that
4 < lcoh (1.55)

(iv) If the two sets of waves are plane polarized, their planes of polarization must
be the same. Waves polarized in perpendicular planes cannot produce interference
effects.
(B) Conditions for formation of distinct fringe pattern:
(i) The two coherent sources must lie close to each other in order to doscern the
fringe pattern. If the sources are far apart, the fringe width will be very small and
fringes are not seen separately.
(ii) The distance of the screen from the two sources must be large.
(iii) The vector sum of the overlapping electric field vectors should be zero in the
dark regions for obtaining distinct bright and dark fringes. The sum will be zero
only if the vectors are anti-parallel and have the same magnitude.

1.5.1.4 Types of Interference based on the Method of formation of Coherent

Sources
The Phenomenon of interference may be grouped into following two categories depending
on the method of the formation of coherent sources.

(i) Division of Wavefront: The coherent sources are obtained from a single source of light
by dividing the wavefront. The two split wavefronts act as if they are separated from
two sources having a fixed phase relationship. Fresenel biprism, Fresnel mirrors,
Lloyd’s mirrors , Laser etc. are the examples of the instruments by which we can
obtain the coherent sources of light and hence interference by division of wavefronts
can be formed.
(ii) Division of Amplitude: The amplitude of the incident beam is divided into two or
more parts either by partial reflection of refraction. In this way we have coherent
beams produced by division of amplitude. The interference in thin films, Newton’s
rings, Michelson’s interferometer, Fabry-Parot interferometer are the examples
of interference produced by division of amplitude.

1.5.2 Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE):-

YDSE is the example of the production of interference by dividion of wavefront. We
can describe it experiment quantitatively with the help of following figure.
Here, we are assuming that L >> d and d >> λ . The path difference, 4, between r2 and
r1 is

4 = r2 − r1 = d sin(θ ) (1.56)
We get constructive interference or bright fringes at point P if the path difference is an
Even multiple of half wavelength i.e
λ
4 = r2 − r1 = d sin(θbright ) = 2m ; (W hen m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3....) (1.57)
2

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1. I NTERFERENCE

Figure 1.9: Young Double Slit Experiment

The number m is called order number, such as Zero order maximum is when θ = 0 and 1st
order maximum is when θ = ±1.
The condition for dark fringes or destructive interference is when the path difference is
an old multiple of half wavelength

 
λ
4 = r2 − r1 = d sin(θdark ) = (2m + 1) ; (W hen m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3....) (1.58)
2
Since θ is very small we can use small angle approximation sin θ ≈ tan θ . Therefore, from
Fig. 1.9 we see that

y = L tan θ ≈ L sin θ . (1.59)

Therefore, by solving the Equ. 1.57 and 1.59 for sin θ we can get the positions of bright
fringes measuring from O are given by

λL
ybright = m (m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3...) (1.60)
d
Similarly, for dark fringes
 
1 λL
ydark = m + (m = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3...) (1.61)
2 d
1.5.2.1 Separation between Neighbouring Bright or Dark fringes:-
mλ L
The mth order fringe occurs when xm =
d
th (m + 1)λ L
and the (m + 1) order fringe occurs when xm+1 =
d
λL
Therefore, the fringe separation (width), β , is given by; β = xm+1 − xm =
d
The same result will be obtained for dark fringes. Thus, the distance between any two
consecutive brigh or dark fringes is known as fringe width and it is the same everywhere on
the screen.

14
 1.6. Fresnel Biprism:-

From above Eqn. we can say that

(i) The fringe width is independent of the order of the fringe.

(ii) Fringe width is directly proportional to the wavelength of the light used i.e. β ∝ λ .
Thus, fringes produced by red light are less closer as compared to those produced by
blue light.

(iii) The width is directly proportional to the distance of the screen from the two slits, β ∝ L,
i.e. further the screen, the wider is the fringe separation.

(iv) The fringe width is inversely proportional to the distance between the two slits, β ∝ 1/d.
The closer are the slits, the wider will be the fringes.

In some books, the distance between two sources are taken as 2d instead of d. There-
fore, in all the equations, mentioned here about YDSE, d must be considered as 2d.
1.6 Fresnel Biprism:-

Figure 1.10: Fresnel’s Biprisms

It is a device used to produce two virtual coherent sources of light from a single source
by division of wavefront technique. It consists of two prisms of very small refracting angles
joined base to base. For an ordinary prism (single prism), the emerging ray appears to have
emanated from a virtual source located at a smal distance above the real source. In the same
way, a biprism creates two virtual sources. These two sources act as Coherent sources. A
biprism ABC is shown in Fig 1.10. This biprism is placed in front of a narrow slit illuminated
by a monochromatic source with the two refracted edges parallel to the slit. After refraction
through ’AB’ and ’AC’ the light being appera to come of the slit ’S’ and behaved as ’Coherent
Source’. The S1 and S2 are closer together since ’A’ is an obtuse angle. The emergent beams
overlap in the regions S1 RT and S2 T R where interference pattern is produced. Dark and
Bright fringes are formed in the focal plane of eye piece which can be observed by eye-piece.

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1. I NTERFERENCE

1.6.1 Theory:-
A point ’O’ is equidistant from S1 and S2 . Therefore it has maximum intensity on both
sides of ’O’, alternately, bright and dark fringes are formed. The width of the bright fringes or
dark fringes (can be determined by the same method used in YDSE technique), is given as

λD
β= (1.62)
d
Moreover, any point on the screen will be at the centre of a bright fringe if it’s distance
from ’O’ is

nλ D
xbright = where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .........etc. (1.63)
d
The point will be at the centre of a dark fringe if it’s distance from ’O’ is

(2n + 1)λ D
xdark = where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, .........etc. (1.64)
2d

(i) Determination of Wavelength of Light:-

Fresen’s biprism can be used to determine the wavelength of the given source of
monochromatic light.

→ For this, a fine vertical slit ’S’ is adjusted just to close to a source of light and the
reflecting edge is also set parallel to the slit ’S’ such as bc is horizontal to. They all rae
adjusted on an optical banch. The fringes are at the focal plane of the prism.

→ Suppose the distance between the source and the eyepiece is ’D’ and the distance
between the two vertical sources A and B is ’d’.

→ The eyepiece is moved horizontally to determine the fringe width.

→ Suppose, for crossing 20 bright fringes from the field of views, the eyepiece has
moved through a distance ’l’. Then the fringe width is

l
β= (1.65)
20

But fringe width, β is

λD
β= (1.66)
d
Therefore,

βd
λ= (1.67)
D

In above equation 1.67, β and ’D’ are known. If ’d’ is known, λ can be calculated.

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 1.6. Fresnel Biprism:-

(ii) Determination of ’d’ (Displacement method):-

In this method, the distance (D) between the slit and the eye-piece or screen is kept more
than four times the focal length of a convex lens used in this experiment. A convex lens
of short focal length (f) is placed between the slit and the eyepiece without disturbing
their positions. The lens is moved back and forth in such a way that two positions L1
and L2 are obtained so that the real images of S1 and S2 are obtained in the eye-piece.
The distance between the images is to be measured.

Figure 1.11: Measurement of d

Figure 1.12: Figure

0 0
→ Let d1 be the distance between the images S1 and S2 of the virtual sources S1 and
S2 when lens is placed at L1 position; and d2 be the distance of images S1” and S2” of the
same two sources when the lens is shifted to the position L2 .

→ If u is the distance of the slit and v is the distance of the eyepiece from L1 then the
magnification, M, is given by

i h0 v d1
M= = i.e = (1.68)
o h u d

17
1. I NTERFERENCE

Where i = distance of the image from the lens, o = distance of the object from the lens,
h’ = height of the image, h = height of the object.
→ For L2 position, let v be the distance of the slit and u is the distance of the eyepiece
from L2 then the magnification is

u d2
= (1.69)
v d
Note: magnification for one position is the reciprocal/conjugate of the magnifica-
tion for other position.
On multiplying the Eqn. 1.68 and 1.69, we can obtain

u v d1 d2
× = × =1 (1.70)
v u d d

d2 d1 p
= 1 or d = d1 d2 (1.71)
d2
Using the value of β , ’d’ and ’D’ in the Eqn. 1.67, the wavelength λ can be calculated.

Deviation Method:- For a prism of very small refracting angle, the deviation δ produced
is given by

δ = (µ − 1)α (1.72)

Figure 1.13: Figure

Where α is the refracting angle and µ is the refractive index of the prism.
Therefore, total angle between S1 E and S2 E is

2δ = 2(µ − 1)α (1.73)

From Fig. 1.13
2d = 2δ .a (1.74)
Where a is the distance between the slit S and the biprism. Therefore, from Eqn. 1.73,
we have

2d = 2a(µ − 1)α (1.75)

Hence, 2d can be calculated.

18
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

(iii) Interference with white light:-

If we use white light instead of monochromatic light, the interference pattern consists
of a central white fringe with few coloured fringes (VIBGYOR) on its both sides and
general illumination beyond the fringes.

1.7 Interference in Thin Films

A film of thickness in the range 0.5 µ m to 10 µ m, about the order of 1 wavelength of
light in visible range, is considered as Thin Film. A thin film
1.7.1 Plane Parallel Thin Film:-
A transparent thin film of unifrom thickness bounded by two parallel surfaces is known as
a plane parallel thin film.

When the light is made to incident on this thin film partial reflection and partial refraction
occur from the top surface of the film. The refracted beam travels in the medium and again
suffers partial reflection and partial refraction at the bottom surface of the film. In this way
several reflected and refracted rays are produces by a single incident ray. As they move, they
are superimposed on each other and produce interference pattern. After two, reflections, the
intensities of reflected ray drop to negligible strength since thin films transmit incident light
strongly and reflect only weekly. Therefore, we consider the first two reflected rays only.
1.7.1.1 Interference in Parallel Film ( Reflected Rays):-

Figure 1.14: Interference due to reflected light

Consider a thin film of uniform thickness t and refractive index µ bounded between air.
Let us consider monochromatic ray AB is made incident on the film, at B part of ray is
reflected (Ray 1) and a part is refracted along BF. At F The beam BF again suffer partial
reflection and partial refraction, the reflected beam FD moves again suffer partial reflection
and partial refraction at D. The refracted beam (Ray 2) moves in air. These two reflected rays
Ray 1 and Ray 2 interfere to produce interference pattern.

The optical path difference between the two reflected rays is:

4 = µ (BF + FD) − 1(BH) (1.76)

19
1. I NTERFERENCE

In the 4le BFD, ∠BFG = ∠GFD = ∠r

∴ BF = FD

FG t
BF = = (1.77)
cos(r) cos(r)

2t
∴ BF + FD = (1.78)
cos(r)
Also, BG = GD
∴ BD = 2BG

BG = FG [tan(r)] = t [tan(r)] (1.79)

∴ BD = 2t [tan(r)]
In the 4le BHD, ∠HBD = (90 − i)
∠BHD = 90◦ ∴ ∠BDH = i
∴
BH = BDsin(i) = 2(t)(tanr)sin(i) (1.80)

From Snell’s law,

sin(i) = µ [sin(r)] (1.81)

2µ tsin2 (r)
BH = 2(t) tan(r)[µ sin(r)] = (1.82)
cos(r)
Using the Eqns. 1.78 and 1.82 into Eqn. 1.76, we get

2µ (t)sin2 (r)
   
2t
4=µ −
cos(r) cos(r)
2µ t 
1 − sin2 (r)

=
cos(r) (1.83)
2µ t
= cos2 (r)
cos(r)
4 = 2µ t cos(r)

Correction on account of phase change at reflection

Since the ray BC gets reflected at the boundary of a rarer to denser medium, a path
difference of λ /2 occurs.
While there is no path difference due to reflection at D and transmission at F. Therefore, true
path difference is

λ
4t = 2µ t cos(r) + (1.84)
2

20
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

Conditions foe Maxima (Brightness) and Minima (Darkness)

We know that for Constructive interference, 4 = mλ i.e.the optical path length between
the two rays is equal to an integral number of full waves. In this case, the crests of one wave
falls on the crests of the others and the waves interfere constructively.

λ
2µ t cos(r) + = mλ
2 (1.85)
λ
2µ t cos(r) = mλ − −
2
or

λ
2µ t cos(r) = (2m − 1) (1.86)
2
Eqn. 1.86 is the condition for the Brightness or Maxima .

λ
For Minima, 4 = (2m + 1) i.e. the optical path length between the two rays is equal to
2
an odd integral number of half waves. In this case, the crests of one wave falls on the troughs
of the others and the waves interfere destructively.

λ λ
2µ (t) cos(r) += (2m + 1)
2 2
λ λ λ (1.87)
2µ (t) cos(r) = (2m + 1) − = (2m + 1 − 1)
2 2 2
2µ (t) cos(r) = (m)λ
Note: The phase relationship of the interfering waves does not change if one full wave is
added to or subtracted from any og the interfering waves. Thus,

2µ (t) cos(r) = mλ (1.88)

is the condition for Darkness.
Some Important Facts
(a) For a given film of constant thickness µ , t and r are sonstant. Therefore, the interference
conditions solely depend on the wavelength λ .

(b) For a monochromatic light, whole film will appear uniformaly dark or bright. For
constructive interference the film will show intense colour corresponding to the incident
light.

(c) For a white light, those wavelength for which the path difference is mλ will be absent
from the reflected light. The other colours will be reflected. Therefore, the film will
appera uniformaly coloured with one colour being absent.

1.7.2 Interference in Wedge Shaped Film (Reflected Rays):-

The wedge shaped film has a thin film of varying thickness, having thickness zero at one
end and increases at the other. The angle of wedge is θ .
The geometrical path difference between R1 and R2 is

GPL = (PF + FE + E2) − (PK + K1) = PF + FE + E2 − PK − K1 (1.89)

21
1. I NTERFERENCE

Figure 1.15: Interference due to reflected light

But there is no path difference between R1 and R2 after K and E points, respectively. Therefore,
E2 = K1.
Thus, the optical path difference between the two reflected rays R1 and R2 is given by

4 = µ (PF + FE) − PK (∵ Path in air = µ . path in f ilm) (1.90)

As in 4le PKE;
PK
sin(i) = (1.91)
PE
And in 4le PNE
PN
sin(r) = (1.92)
PE
According Snells Law,
sin(i) PK/PE PK
µ= = = (1.93)
sin(r) PN/PE PN
Or

PK = µ PN (1.94)
Thus,

4 = µ (NF + FE), (1.95)

Now draw normal EM on OA from E. When PF and EM produce, they meet at L. Tringles
EFM and LFM are congruent.
∴ EM = ML = t and FE = FL.

Therefore,

4 = µ (NF + FL) = µ NL (1.96)

The angle between the inclined surfaces (OA and OB) is same as the angle between the
normals at points P and F i.e
∠BOA = ∠PRF = θ . But ∠FPR + ∠PRF = ext.∠PFT , i.e. (r + θ ) = ∠PFT

22
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

TR and EL are normals to the surface OA and PFL cuts the parallel lines TR and EL.

Therefore,

∠PFT = ∠ELF = (r + θ )
NL
As in 4le NEL, = cos(r + θ ) or NL = EL cos(r + θ ). But EL = 2EM = 2t. Therefore,
EL
NL = 2t cos(r + θ ) (1.97)
Thus, on substituting the value of NL from Eqn. 1.97 to Eqn. 1.96 we have path difference
as

4 = 2µ tcos(r + θ ) (1.98)
Correction on account of phase change at reflection:
When a beam is reflected from a denser medium (ray R1 at B), a path change of λ /2
occur for the ray.
Therefore, the true path difference is

λ
4 = 2µ tcos(r + θ ) + (1.99)
2
Condition of Maxima (Bright Fringe); Maxima occur when the path difference, 4, is
equal to Even multiple of λ /2

λ
4 = ±2n (1.100)
2
Therefore,

λ
2µ tcos(r + θ ) + = ±nλ (1.101)
2
or

λ (2n − 1)λ
=±
2µ tcos(r + θ ) + (1.102)
2 2
Condition for Minima (Dark Fringe): Minima occur when path difference, 4, is
equal to Odd multiple of λ /2

(2n + 1)λ
4=± (1.103)
2
Therefore,

λ (2n + 1)λ
2µ tcos(r + θ ) + =± (1.104)
2 2

2µ tcos(r + θ ) = ±nλ (1.105)

Here, θ is very small, therefore

2µ tcos(r) = ±nλ (1.106)

23
1. I NTERFERENCE

Figure 1.16: Fringe width

(a) Determination of Fringe width:-

Let us say a dark fringe occurs at A. Thus,

2µ tcos(r) = ±nλ (1.107)

For normal incidence, cos r = 1, and if the thickness of air film (µ = 1) at A is t1 then at
A

2µ t1 = nλ (1.108)
If next dark fringe is occured at point C such that CL = t2 ,then at C

2µ t2 = (n + 1)λ (1.109)
Subtracting Eqn. 1.108 from Eqn. 1.110, we get

2µ (t2 − t1 ) = λ (1.110)

But
(t2 − t1 ) = BC (1.111)

∴ 2µ (BC) = λ (1.112)

λ
BC = (1.113)
2µ
From 4le ABC, ∠CAB = θ and BC = ABtanθ

λ
(AB) tan θ = (1.114)
2µ

Here, AB is the distance between two successive drak or bright fringes, hence AB is the
fringe width, β , therefore

λ
β= (1.115)
2µ tan θ

24
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

For small value of θ , tanθ ≈ θ

Therefore,
λ
β= (1.116)
2µθ
Here, β is constant because for a given film θ , t and µ all are constant. Since β is inversly
proportional to θ , for increase in θ makes the fringes move closer. At an angle θ = 1◦ ,
the interference patter vanishes.
When θ is gradually decreased the fringe width gets increased and ultimately the fringes
disappear as the faces of the film become parallel.

(b) Determination of The Wedge Angle:-

Figure 1.17: Wedge angle

The dark fringe at Q is given by

2µ t = nλ (1.117)
But as θ is very samll, we can write

t1 = x1 tan θ u x1 θ (1.118)
∴

2µ x1 θ = nλ (1.119)
Similarly, foe dark fringe at R

2µ x2 θ = (n + N)λ (1.120)
Where N is the No of fringes lying between the position Q and R. Therefore,

2µ (x2 − x1 )θ = (n + N − n)λ (1.121)

Or
Nλ
θ= (1.122)
2µ (x2 − x1 )
In case of air µ = 1, therefore

25
1. I NTERFERENCE

Nλ
θ= (1.123)
2(x2 − x1 )

(c) Determination of the Thickness of the Spacer:-

If t is the thickness of the spacer (foil or wire) used, then

t = l tan θ u l θ (1.124)
Where l is the length of air wedge.

lN λ
∴ t= (1.125)
2(x2 − x1 )

(d) Silent features of the interference of Wedge shaped thin film:-

(i) Fringe at the Apex is dark.
(ii) Fringes are straight and parallel.
(iii) Fringes are equidistant.
(iV) Fringes are localized.
(V) Fringes are also equal thickness.

1.7.3 NEWTON’S RINGS

Figure 1.18: Newton’s ring formation

NEWTON’S RINGS are the circular interference pattern first discovered by Newton.
When a plano-convex lens with large radius of curvature is placed on a plane glass plate such
that its curved surface faces the glass plate, a wedge air film (of gradually increasing thickness)
is formed between the lens and the glass plate. The thickness of the air film is zero at the point
of contact and gradually increases away from the point of contact. If monochromatic light is
allowed to fall normally on the lens from a source ’S’, then two reflected rays R1 (reflected
from upper surface of the film) and R2 (reflected from lower surface of the air film) interfere
to produce circular interference pattern. This interference pattern has concentric alternate
bright and dark rings around the point of contact.
Experimental arrangement and Theory
The experimental arrangements for observing Newton’s rings is shown in Fig. 1.19. Light
from an extended monochromatic source ’S’ rendered parallel by lens ’L’ and then falls
on a 45◦ inclined thin transparent glass plate ’G’ which partially reflects the light in the
downward direction. These reflected beams fall normally on an air film formed between the
convex surface of the plano-convex lens and glass plate. The light transmitted through the

26
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

Figure 1.19: Newton’s ring formation

plano-convex lens on reflection from the surface of the air film in contact with glass plate
AB interferes with the light reflected from the surface of the air film in contact with the
lower surface of the plano-convex lens. These reflected beams proceed upwards and enter the
observer’s eye through a low power travelling microscope M. On focusing a large number of
Newton’s rings, alternatevly bright and dark rings can be seen.

The formation of Newton’s rings was satisfactorily explained by Young. According to

him, these circular rings are formed due to the interference of light rays reflected from the
upper and lower surfaces of the air film formed between the conves surface of plane-convex
lens and the glass plate. In Fig. 1.18, the incident ray ’S’ is divided into two coherent rays
R1 and R2 by reflection from upper and lower surfaces of the wedge shaped air film. The
reflected rays R1 and R2 interfere and produce bright and dark circular rings around the point
of contact
Conditions fro Bright and Dark Rings:-
As we determined in case of wedge shaped thin film, the effective path difference between
rays R1 and R2 is

λ
4 = 2µ tcos(r + θ ) + (1.126)
2
Where µ is the refractive index of the film, ’t’ is the thickness of the film at the point of
incidence, ’r’ is the angle of refraction and θ is the angle of wedge.
For normal incidence r = 0 and for a very small wedge angle, we can write cos(r + θ ) u
cos θ u 1. Therefore, effective path difference is

λ
4 = 2µ t + (1.127)
2
λ
At the point of contact, t = 0 i.e 4 . This is the condition for minimum intensity.
2
Hence the central spot of the rings system apears dark. We know that constructive
interference or for maximum occurs when the path difference, 4, is equal to Even multiple
of λ /2 i.e

λ
4 = 2n = nλ (1.128)
2
Therefore, a bright ring occurs when

27
1. I NTERFERENCE

λ
2µ t + = nλ (1.129)
2
λ λ
or 2 µ t = nλ −
= (2n − 1) (1.130)
2 2
A dark or destructive interference occurs when path difference, 4, is equal to odd
multiple of λ /2 i.e

λ
4 = (2n + 1) (1.131)
2
Therefore, a dark ring occusr when

λ λ
2µ t + = (2n + 1) (1.132)
2 2
λ λ
or 2µ t = (2n + 1) − = nλ (1.133)
2 2

2µ t = nλ (1.134)
For air, µ = 1, Therefore 2t = nλ is the condition for Dark ring.
Diameters of Bright and Dark Rings

Figure 1.20: Newton’s ring Diameter

Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens (Fig. 1.20). Let a fringe (dark or bright) be
located at Q. Let the thickness of the air film at Q be QL = t. Let the radius of the circular
fringe at Q be OQ = ML = rn . By the Pythagorus theorem,

(LO0 )2 = (LM)2 + (MO0 )2 (1.135)

But LO0 = R and MO0 = R − t, Therefore

(R)2 = (rn )2 + (R − t)2 (1.136)

or
(R)2 = (rn )2 + (R2 + t 2 − 2Rt) (1.137)

∴ (rn )2 = 2Rt − t 2 (1.138)

28
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

As R >> t, 2Rt >> t 2

(rn )2
∴ (rn )2 = 2Rt or t = (1.139)
2R
For Dark ring: We know that condtion for Dark ring is

2 µ t = nλ (1.140)

On substituting the values of t in Eqn. 1.140 from Eqn. 1.139 we get

rn2 nλ R
2µ = nλ (rn )2 = (1.141)
2R µ
For air µ = 1, therefore
√
(rn )2 = nλ R or rn = nλ R (1.142)
Therefore diameter of nth Dark ring is
√ √
Dn = 2rn or Dn = 2 nλ R = 4nλ R (1.143)
Since λ , 4 and R are constant, therefore
√ √
Dn (Dark) = k n ; where k = 4λ R, and n = 0, 1, 2, 3..... (1.144)
Thus, the Diameter of Dark ring is proportional to the square root of the natural num-
ber. For Bright ring:
Similary, we can get the diamter of the Bright ring by putting the value of t from Eqn.
1.139 in Eqn. 1.130, i.e.

λ λ
2t = (2n − 1) or t = (2n − 1) (1.145)
2 4
Therefore,

λ λ
(rn )2 = 2R × (2n − 1) or (rn )2 = R × (2n − 1) (1.146)
4 2
Or
r
λ
rn = R × (2n − 1) (1.147)
2
Therefore, Diameter of a Bright ring is

r r
λ λ p
Dn (Bright) = 2rn = 2 × R × (2n − 1) = 4R × (2n − 1) = 2R × (2n − 1)λ
2 2
(1.148)
Hence
√ √
Dn (Bright) = k0 2n − 1 where k0 = 2λ R and n = 1, 2, 3..... (1.149)

Thus, the diameters of the bright rings are proportional to the square roots of the odd
natural numbers.

29
1. I NTERFERENCE

Figure 1.21:

Determination of Wavelength of Light:-

The wavelength of the light used can in Newton’s rings can be determined by measuring
the diameters of dark Newton’s rings with a travelling microscope. Let Dm and Dm+p be the
diameters of the mth and (n + p)th dark rings, respectively. Then, we have

D2(m) = 4mλ R (1.150)

and for (m + p)th ring is

D2(m+p) = 4(m + p)λ R (1.151)

∴ D2(m+p) − D2(m) = 4(m + p − m)λ R = 4pλ R (1.152)

Therefore,
D2(m+p) − D2(m)
λ= (1.153)
4pR
The slope of the straight line (Fig. 1.21) gives the value of 4λ R, Thus,

Slope
λ= (1.154)
4R
The radius of curvature R of the lens may be determined (or given) using a spherometer
and λ is computed with the help of the above equation.
Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid:-
The liquid, whose refractive index is to be determined, is filled in the gap between the
plano-convex lens and glass plate. In this way the liquid fim substitutes the air film.
Therefore, the Diameter of mth dark ring (for liquid of refractive index µ ) can be expressed as
h
2
i 4mλ R
D(m) = (1.155)
liq µ
Similarly, the diameter of (m + p)th ring is given by
h i 4(m + p)λ R
D2(m+p) = (1.156)
liq µ
Subtracting Eqn. 1.156 from Eqn. 1.155, we get

30
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

h
2
i h
2
i 4(p)λ R
D(m+p) − D(m) = (1.157)
liq liq µ
But we know that the same relation for Air film is
h i h i
2 2
D(m+p) − D(m) = 4(p)λ R (1.158)
air air
Therefore, from Eqn. 1.158 and Eqn. 1.157, the refractive index (µ ) of the given liquid
can be determined as
h i h i
D2(m+p) − D2(m)
µ=h iair h iair (1.159)
2
D(m+p) 2
− D(m)
liq liq

Newton’s Rngs in Transmitted Light:-

Newton’s rings in transmitted light may be observed
with the arrangement made as in this figure. Here, the
ray 1’ is transmitted directly through the air film while
ray 2’ suffers two internal reflections i.e. a phase
change of 2π before coming out. Thus, two interfering
transmitted rayshave a phase change of 2π or no pahse
difference. Hence the effective path difference is

λ λ
4 = 2µ t cos(r) − + (1.160)
2 2
Therefore, The condition for maxima or bright rinngs is

2µ t cos(r) = mλ (1.161)

and for dark rings

λ
2µ t cos(r) = (2m + 1) (1.162)
2
r2 2 = mλ R and hence diameter of
As t = , the radius of the bright ring is given by rm
2R
bright ring is
√ √
Dm (Bright) = k0 m where k0 = 4λ R and m = 0, 1, 2, 3.... (1.163)
Thus, for transmitted light, the Diameters of Bright rings are proportional to the square
roots of natural numbers.

2 = (2m + 1) λ R and hence diameter of

Similarly the radius of dark rings is given by rm
2
Dark ring is
√ √
Dm (Dark) = k0 2m − 1 where k0 = 2λ R and m = 1, 2, 3.... (1.164)
Thus, for tranmitted light, the Diameters of the dark rings are proportional to the
square roots of the odd natural numbers and the central ring is Bright.

31
1. I NTERFERENCE

From the above two equations, it is clear that the system of the rings by transmitted light is
complementary to those seen in reflected light.
Important points:-
• Lifting up the Lens from the Flat Surface: As the distance between lens and the
plate is increased or the lens is lifted up slowly from the flat surface , the order of the
ring at a given point increases. The rings, therefore, come closer and closer until they
can no longer be separately observed.
• Effect of Placing the Lens on Silver Glass Plate Mirror: If the top surface of the
glass plate on which lens is kept is highly silvered, the ring on the reflected systems
would disappear and uniform illumination is observed. It is due to the fact that, there
would be no transmission of the rays, but transmitted rays will also be reflected at the
silvered surface and the two complementry systems of rings superimpose on each other
and gives a uniform illumination.
• Newton’s Rings are Circular but Air-wedge Fringes are Straight: In both Newton’s
rings and Air-wedge fringe arrangements, each fringe is the locus of points of equal
thickness of the film. In Newton’s rings arrangement, the locus of points of equal
thickness of a air film on a circle with the point of contct of the plane convex lens
and the glass plate as centre. Hence the fringes are circular and concentric.In case of
wedge-shaped air film, the loci of points of equal thickness are straight lines parallel to
the edge of the wedge. Hence, the fringes are straight and parallel
• The effect of Placing the Concave Surface of the Plano-canvex lens towards theP-
lane Glass Plate: In this situation, fringes are still circular. In this case the lens and the
plate will be in contact along the circumference of a circle where the thickness of the
air film is zero. The thickness of air film increases a we move from either side towards
the centre as shown in Fig. 1.22. Therefore, in this case, the order of the rings is

Figure 1.22:

reverse, i.e., order of the ring is Maximum at the centre and zero at the periphery
of the lens. Hence, the spacing between two consecutive rings go on decreasing as we
move towards the centre of lens.
• Effect of not Using Monochromatic Light: If the sources give polychromatic light
(light having mixture of wavelenghts), then the light of each wavelength gives its own
set of fringes, the fringe width (λ D/d) being different for each wavelength. Hence,
only zero order or central fringes of all wavelengths lie in the same position, the others
being at different positions for each wavelength. The fringes of different wavelengths
are intermixed. When the path difference is large, there is very much intermixing at any
point so a uniform illumination is obtained. Hence, to obtain interference pattern
the light should be monochromatic.
• Newton’s Ring with White Light: When we use a source of white light, a few mixed
coloured rings from violet to red colour around a black centre are observed and beyond it

32
 1.7. Interference in Thin Films

a uniform illumination is obtained. This is because the diameters of the ring is a function
of wavelength and white light is composed of a number of colours (wavelengths). Thus,
the diameter of rings of different colours will be different.

33
 Chapter 2

Diffraction

2.1 Diffraction of Light

The phenomenon of bending of light round the sharp cornerrs of an obstacle and
their spreading into the geometrical shadow (of an object) is called Diffraction. The
distribution of light intensity, due to diifraction, resulting in dark and bright fringes is called a
Diffraction pattern.

This phenomenon was first discovered in 1665 by Grimaldi and was studied by Newton.
Young was the first scientist who used the wave teory to explain the diffraction phenomenon.
He considered the diffraction as interference between the direct light waves (primary wavelets)
passes through the edge of the obstacle and the wave of light reflected from the edge (secondary
wavelets) of the obstacle. Thus, the diffraction phenomenon is caused by the interference
of innumerable secondary wavelets produced by the unobstructed portions of the same
wavefront.
Conditions required to occur diffraction of light are:-
(i) The diffraction effect depends upon the size of the obstacle. The size of the obstacle
shold be comparable to the wavelength of light.

(ii) The light waves are very small in wavelength, which is from 4 × 10−7 to 7 × 10−7 m.

(iii) If the size of the obstacle is near to this limit only then we can observe the diffraction
phenomena.

Fresnel (Nearfield) Diffraction:-

Figure 2.1: Fresnel Dfftaction

In Fresnel diffraction, the source of light and screen are effectively at finite distances from
the obstacle or diffracting element. Fresnel diffraction affects both the size and shape of the
observed aperture image.

35
2. D IFFRACTION

Figure 2.2: Fraunhoffer Diffraction

Fraunhoffer (Farfield) Diffraction:-

In Fraunhoffer diffraction, the source of light and the screen are effectively at infinite
distances from the obstacle. Fraunhoffer diffraction affects only the size of an observed
aperture image.
We will only investigate the farfield diffraction in this course using the Huygens Fresnel
principle with one approximation that When EM waves hit the edges of the aperture there is
oscillations of the electrons in the matter that cause a secondary field (edge effect).
2.1.1 Resultant of n Simple Harmonic Waves:
To derive the resultant amplitude (R) due to n secondary waves of amplitude (a) that reach
at point P on the screen. If the resultant amplitude (R) is known then we can find the intensity
at point P.

Figure 2.3:

To find the resultant amplitude (R) due to all the amplitudes (a) reaching at point P on the
screen, we construct a polygon of each arm a (amplitude). AB is the resultant amplitude (R).
From Fig. 2.3(Y)
 
nδ
AB = 2AD and AD = rsin (2.1)
2
Therefore,  
nδ
AB = 2r.sin (2.2)
2
Again from Fig. 2.3(Y)
na
nδ = (since angle = arc/radius and total is na) (2.3)
r
or
na
r= (2.4)
nδ

36
 2.2. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit or (Single Slit Diffraction):-

On substituting the value of r from Eqn. 2.4 to 2.2, we get

 
nδ
2na.sin
2
AB = (2.5)
nδ
 
nδ
na.sin
2
AB = (2.6)
nδ
2
nδ
Let na = A0 and =α
2
A0 sin (α )
AB = (2.7)
α
2.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit or (Single
Slit Diffraction):-

Figure 2.4:

Let a source S is producing monochromatic light of wavelength λ . The obligation of

the Fraunhofer- diffraction is that light must be coming from a source at infinity. Since the
light rays from a source at infinity are always parallel therefore the L1 lens is used to render
the light rays parallel at a single slit AB of width d. Here, the source is placed at the focal
point of the lens L1 as shown in Fig. 2.4). According to Huygen’s theory, every point within
the slit becomes the secondary source and as shown in Fig. 2.4, the light rays diffracted an
angle from each secondary source travel parallel with each other and these have certain path
difference between them therefore, these rays interfere in medium but their effect cannot be
experienced because parallel rays converges at infinity. Therefore, the L2 lens is installed
to converge these parallel rays at screen. Finally all the wavelets interfere to produce the
diffraction pattern at the screen. The intensity of the diffracted beams will be different in
different dirrections. The point O is equidistant from all points on either side of the centre
therefore, at the point O intensity is maximum.

37
2. D IFFRACTION

Figure 2.5:

In order to find the resultant intensity at point P, draw a normal from point A (Y0th ray) to
a point C (Ynth ray) (as shown in Fig. 2.5). The path difference between the rays emanating
from extreme points A and B of the slit AB is given by

4 = BC = ABsin(θ ) = dsin(θ ) (2.8)

where d is the width of the slit and the corresponding phase difference for 4, is

2π 2π
δ 0 = BC × = × dsin(θ ) (2.9)
λ λ
Now, we cam imagine that the width AB of the slit is divided into a large number of n
equal parts and each parts is acting as a source of secondary wavelets.Here, the amplitute
of the wave due to each part is equal to a but their phases will vary gradually from zero
2π
to timesdsin(θ ), as the path difference between the rays originating from points in AB is
λ
vary from 0 to d sin(θ ). Thus,the phase diffrence between any two successive waves would be
 
1 2π
× dsin(θ ) = δ (2.10)
n λ
The resultant amplitude at P is
   
1 2π
sin n × dsin(θ ) × 1/2
sin(nδ /2) n λ
R=a =a     (2.11)
sin(δ /2) 1 2π
sin × dsin(θ ) × 1/2
n λ
or

sin(α )
R=a (2.12)
sin(α /n)
π dsin(θ )
where α =
λ
For large value of n, sin(α /n) ≈ α /n

38
 2.2. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit or (Single Slit Diffraction):-

sin(α ) sin(α )
∴ R = na × or R = A × (2.13)
α α
where A = na.
Thus, resultant intensity at point P is
 2
2 sin(α )2
I=R =A × (2.14)
α
Eqn. 2.14 gives the variation of Intensity with θ (or α )
Positions of Maxima and Minima:-
Principal (central) Maximum:- We know that the resultant amplitude at a point is given
by

α3 α5 α7
 
sin(α ) A
R = A× = α− + − + ......... (2.15)
α α 3! 5! 7!
or

α2 α4 α6
 
R = A 1− + − + ......... (2.16)
3! 5! 7!
R will be mimimum when negative terms vanish. This is possible only when α =
π
× (dsinθ ) = 0 or θ = 0.
λ
Alternate method:  
sinα
Rmax = A lim (2.17)
α →0 α

Since
 
sinα
lim =1 (2.18)
α →0 α

∴ Rmax = A (2.19)
Thus, the maximum intensity is at O and is proportional to A2 .
Position of Minima:-
From Eqn. 2.14, we can see that the intensity is minimum when sin α = 0 and α 6= 0
i.e

α = ±π , ±2π , ±3π , ............. ± nπ , or α = ±nπ , where n = 1, 2, 3, ...... (2.20)

π dsinθ
∴ α= = ±nπ (2.21)
λ
or

dsinθ = ±nπ (2.22)

where n = 1, 2, 3 etc gives the directions of first, second, third ..... minima.
6 0, because n = 0 or θ = 0 gives principal maximum.
Here n =

39
2. D IFFRACTION

Secondary Maxima:- In addition to principal maximum, there are less intense secondary
maxima between equally spaced minima. To determine the position of secondary maxima, let
us differentiate Eqn. 2.14 w.r.t. α and equate it to zero i.e.
 2   
dI d 2 sin α 2 2sinα α cosα − sinα
= A =A =0 (2.23)
dα dα α2 α α2
either
sinα α cosα − sinα
= 0, or =0 (2.24)
α α2

∴ sinα = 0, or α cosα − sinα = 0 (2.25)

or

α = tanα (2.26)
We know that sin α = 0 gives the position of minima except when α = 0. Thus the position
of secondary maxima is given by

α = tanα (2.27)
We can solve the Eqn. 2.27 graphically according to the simultaneous equations

y=α and y = tanα (2.28)

Here, y = α is a equation of straight line passing through the straight line and making an
angle 45◦ with the axis as shown in Fig. 2.6.

Figure 2.6:

The Eqn. y = tan α represents a discontinuous curve having a number of branches with
asymptotes at an interval α = π . The point of intersection of these two curves give the values
of α satisfying the equation α = tanα .

40
 2.2. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit or (Single Slit Diffraction):-

α = 0 gives the value of principal maximum and the remaining values of α give the secondary
maximum are

3π 5π 7π 9π
α= , , , , ....... (2.29)
2 2 2 2
or
(2n + 1)π
α =± where n = 1, 2, 3, ...... (2.30)
2

(2n + 1)λ π
∴ dsinθ = ± , ∵ α = dsinθ (2.31)
2 λ

On substitutng the value of α from Eqn. 2.29 in Eqn. 2.14 we can get intensities of
various secondary maxima.

(i) For centarl maximum, α = 0

∴ I = I0 (2.32)

(ii) The intensity of first secondary maximum

3π 2
 
sin
2 2 2 4 A2 I0
I1 = A  2 = A 2
= = (2.33)
3π 9π 22 22
2

(iii) The intensity of the second secondary maximum is

5π 2
 
sin
2 2 2 4 A2 I0
I2 = A  2 = A 2
= = (2.34)
5π 25π 62 62
2

I0
Smilarly, the intensity of 3rd secondary maximum, I3 = and so on.
120
Therefore, from the above various expressions of Intensities it is clear that the most of
the light is concentrated at in the Pricipal/central maximum while the intensities
of secondary maxima decrease rapidly. The mimima are equally spaced and their
intensity is zero.

As shown in Fig. 2.7, the diffraction pattern due to single slit consists of a Bright
central maximum surrounded alternately by minima of zero intensity and less intense
secondary maxima of rapidly decreasing intensity.

41
2. D IFFRACTION

Figure 2.7:

Spread of Central Diffraction Maximum:

The central maximum is surrounded by two first minima, so to determine the spreading
of central maximum we have to determine the diractions of first minima. We know that
conditions for minima is

dsinθ = ±nλ n = 1 f or f irst minima (2.35)

∴ dsinθ = ±λ or sinθ = ±λ /d or θ = sin−1 (±λ /d) (2.36)

Therefore, central maximum is extended between θ = sin−1 (λ /d) and θ = sin−1 (−λ /d)
i.e θ is the angular half width of the Central maximum.

Figure 2.8:

If lens L2 is very near to slit AB and r be the linear distance from the center of the central
diffraction maximum to the first diffraction minimum (as shown in Fig. 2.8), then the angle θ
is related to this distance r and the distance to the screen, f (focal length of Lens L2 ), by the
equation:
r
tanθ = (2.37)
f
Since the angle θ is very small, cos θ ≈ 1. Thus, tan θ ≈ sinθ . Then, combining the above
equation with equation 2.36 , we have

42
 2.2. Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit or (Single Slit Diffraction):-

λ r λf
= or r = (2.38)
d f d
Hence width of the central maximum is

2λ f
2r = (2.39)
d
Here we can see that width of central maximum is directly proportional to wavelength
of the light.
Effect of Slit Width:
The condition for first minima is

dsinθ = ±λ (2.40)

If we reduce the value of d then value of θ will be increased to mantain left hand side
of the above equation as constant. So increament in θ means increament in the width of
Central/principal maximum.
When d = λ , then first minimum will be occured at θ (sinθ = λ /λ ) = 90◦ , it means the
central maximum occupies the whole space.
2.2.1 Diffraction Grating:-
An arrangement consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel narrow slits of equal
width separated by equal opaque portions is known as a diffraction grating. The plane
transmission grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on which opaque rulings are made
with a fine diamond pointer. The modern commercial form of grating contains about 15000
lines per inch.

Figure 2.9:

N-slits (Transmission Grating): From Fig. 2.9 the path difference between Y0 and Y1 is

4 = BC = (e + d)sinθ (2.41)
and the corresponding phase difference is

2π δ π
δ= (e + d)sinθ or = β = (e + d)sinθ (2.42)
λ 2 λ

43
2. D IFFRACTION

As we know the resultant amplitude reaching at P is given as

 
nδ
sin
2
R = na × (2.43)
nδ
2
Comparing it with above N-slits figure, we find that amplitude, (a) = A,
n(hypothetical secondary sources) = N (N physical sources) and δ /2= β . Therefore, the
resultant amplitude (R’) due to N slits at Point P is

Rsin(N β )
R0 = (2.44)
sin(β )
Principle maximum: For R’ to be maximum, sin β → 0. When β = 0 then we get an
indeterminate form. Therefore, we apply L-Hospital rule
 
d
0
 d β (sinN β ) 
Rmax = R lim   (2.45)
β →nπ  d 
(sinβ )
dβ
 
0 NcosN β
Rmax = R lim (2.46)
β →nπ cosβ
Therefore,

R0max = RN (2.47)
So, intensity of principle maximum is

2
R0max = R2 N 2 (2.48)

44