Module 3

MOMENTUM TRANSFER
MODULE 3
CHE 2211
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
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MODULE 3: Mass, Energy and Momentum Balances
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. Demonstrate the relationship of mass, energy, and momentum in solving
momentum transfer problems
Introduction
 This chapter deals with three equations commonly used in fluid mechanics: the
mass, Bernoulli, and energy equations.
 We start this chapter with an overview of conservation principles and the
conservation of mass relation. This is followed by a discussion of various forms of
mechanical energy and the efficiency of mechanical work devices such as pumps
and turbines. Then we derive the Bernoulli equation by applying Newton’s second
law to a fluid element along a streamline and demonstrate its use in a variety of
applications. We continue with the development of the energy equation in a form
suitable for use in fluid mechanics and introduce the concept of head loss. Finally,
we apply the energy equation to various engineering systems.
UNIT 1 Basic Equations of Fluid Flow
Three Vital Equations:

1. The mass equation is an expression of the conservation of mass principle.
2. The energy equation is a statement of the conservation of energy principle. In fluid
mechanics, it is convenient to separate mechanical energy from thermal energy
and to consider the conversion of mechanical energy to thermal energy as a result
of frictional effects as mechanical energy loss. Then the energy equation becomes
the mechanical energy balance.
3. The Bernoulli equation is concerned with the conservation of kinetic, potential, and
flow energies of a fluid stream and their conversion to each other in regions of flow
where net viscous forces are negligible and where other restrictive conditions apply.
Conservation of Mass
 For closed systems, the conservation of mass principle is implicitly used by requiring
that the mass of the system remain constant during a process.
 For control volumes, however, mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control volume.
Relationship of mass flowrate and volumetric flowrate

 The amount of mass flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the mass
flow rate and is denoted by ṁ. The dot over a symbol is used to indicate time rate of
change.
 The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time is called the
volume flow rate, q.
 The mass and volume flow rates are related by:
ṁ = 𝒒𝝆
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 The density of the fluid is denoted by the Greek symbol, ρ.
Conservation of Mass Principle

■ In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a differential control
volume is usually called the continuity equation.
𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
ṁ𝑖𝑛 − ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
■ ṁ𝑖𝑛 and ṁ𝑜𝑢𝑡 are the total rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume
respectively
𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
■ is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries.
𝑑𝑡
■ The rate of mass entering the flow system equals that leaving, as mass can neither
be accumulated nor depleted within a flow system under steady conditions.
(Rate of mass flow in) – (Rate of mass flow out ) = (Rate of mass accumulation)
For steady-state one-dimensional flow:
Rate of mass flow in = Rate of mass flow out
ṁ = a ua Sa = b ub Sb =  u S
where: ṁ – mass flowrate
S – cross-sectional area
u – velocity
Basic Equations of Fluid Flow
 Density
v=u Velocity
A=S Area
𝑚̇ Mass flowrate
𝑉̇ = Q Volumetric flowrate
G Mass velocity
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example No. 1
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 10-gal bucket. The inner diameter of the hose
is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the nozzle exit. If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water,
determine:
(a) the volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose
(b) the average velocity of water at the nozzle exit.
(c) the average velocity of water in the hose.
Given: Refer to the problem statement
Required: a) 𝑉̇𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑚̇
b) 𝑉𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡
c) 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒
Solution:
Assumptions:
• Water is assumed to be incompressible.
• Flow through the hose is steady.
• There is no waste of water by splashing.
Properties:
• Use 1000 kg/m3 = 1 kg/L for the density of water
a) 10 gal of water are discharged in 50 seconds, the volume and mass flow rates of water are
𝑉 10 𝑔𝑎𝑙 3.7854 𝐿
𝑞= = ( ) = 0.757 𝐿/𝑠
𝑡 50 𝑠 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝐿 𝑘𝑔
ṁ = 𝑞𝜌 = (0.757 ) (1 ) = 0.757 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑠 𝐿
b) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is

𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋((0.4 𝑐𝑚)2 ) = 0. 5027 𝑐𝑚2 = 0.5027 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
The volume flow rate through the hose and the nozzle is constant. Then the average velocity of
water at the nozzle exit becomes
𝑞 0.757 𝐿/𝑠 1 𝑚3
𝑣= = ( ) = 15.1 𝑚/𝑠
𝑆 0.5027 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2 1000 𝐿
c) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is

𝑆 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋((1 𝑐𝑚)2 ) = 3.1416 𝑐𝑚2 = 3. 1416 𝑥 10−4 𝑚2
The volume flow rate through the hose and the nozzle is constant. Then the average velocity of
water at the nozzle exit becomes
𝑞 0.757 𝐿/𝑠 1 𝑚3
𝑣= = −4 2
( ) = 2.4 𝑚/𝑠
𝑆 3. 1416 𝑥 10 𝑚 1000 𝐿
It can be shown that the average velocity in the hose is 2.4 m/s and that for the nozzle exit is 15.2
m/s. Therefore, the nozzle increases the water velocity by over 6 times.
Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Many fluid systems are designed to transport a fluid from one location to another at a
specified flow rate, velocity, and elevation difference, and the system may generate
mechanical work in a turbine or it may consume mechanical work in a pump or fan during
this process.
These systems do not involve the conversion of nuclear, chemical, or thermal energy to
mechanical energy. Also, they do not involve heat transfer in any significant amount, and
they operate essentially at constant temperature.
Such systems can be analyzed conveniently by considering only the mechanical forms of
energy and the frictional effects that cause the mechanical energy to be lost (i.e., to be
converted to thermal energy that usually cannot be used for any useful purpose).
Mechanical Energy
 The mechanical energy is defined as the form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such as
an ideal turbine.
 Kinetic and potential energies are the familiar forms of mechanical energy.
 Thermal energy is not mechanical energy, however, since it cannot be converted to
work directly and completely (the second law of thermodynamics).
Pumps and Turbines

A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid A turbine extracts mechanical energy from a
by raising its pressure fluid by dropping its pressure.
Mechanical Energy Principles

 A pressure force acting on a fluid through a distance produces work, called flow
work, in the amount of P/ρ per unit mass.
 Flow work is expressed in terms of fluid properties, and it is convenient to view it as
part of the energy of a flowing fluid and call it flow energy. Therefore, the
mechanical energy of a flowing fluid can be expressed on a unit-mass basis as:
𝑃 𝑣2
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
𝑃 𝑣2
Where: is the flow energy, is the kinetic energy, and 𝑔𝑧 is the potential energy of
𝜌 2
the fluid, all per unit mass.
 If let sat we have point 1 as our reservoir and point 2 as our receiver, then the
mechanical energy change of a flowing incompressible fluid becomes:
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 𝑣22 − 𝑣12 𝑘𝐽
𝛥𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) ( )
𝜌 2 𝑘𝑔
 Therefore, the mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow if its
pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain constant.
 In the absence of any irreversible losses, the mechanical energy change represents
the mechanical work supplied to the fluid (if 𝛥𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ > 0) or extracted from the fluid (if
𝛥𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ < 0).
 The transfer of mechanical energy is usually accomplished by a rotating shaft, and
thus mechanical work is often referred to as shaft work.
 A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric motor) and transfers it
to the fluid as mechanical energy (less frictional losses).
 A turbine, on the other hand, converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to shaft
work. Because of irreversibilities such as friction, mechanical energy cannot be
converted entirely from one mechanical form to another, and the mechanical
efficiency of a device or process is defined as:
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = = =1−
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛
 A conversion efficiency of less than 100 percent indicates that conversion.
 For instance, a mechanical efficiency of 74 percent indicates that 26 percent of the
mechanical energy input is converted to thermal energy as a result of frictional
heating, and this manifests itself as a slight rise in the temperature of the fluid.
Transfer of Mechanical Energy

In fluid systems, we are usually interested in increasing the pressure, velocity, and/or
elevation of a fluid. This is done by supplying mechanical energy to the fluid by a pump, a
fan, or a compressor (we refer to all of them as pumps). Or we are interested in the reverse
process of extracting mechanical energy from a fluid by a turbine and producing
mechanical power in the form of a rotating shaft that can drive a generator or any other
rotary device.
Pump Efficiency and Turbine Efficiency

The degree of perfection of the conversion process between the mechanical work
supplied or extracted and the mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the pump
efficiency and turbine efficiency.
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝, 𝑢

𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ,𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑖𝑛 Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
Where:
𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 , 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛
that is equivalent to:
Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝, 𝑢 which is the useful pumping power supplied to the fluid.
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ,𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 |𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑒
Where:
|𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 |, 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 − Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡
that is equivalent to:
Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑒 which is the mechanical power extracted from the fluid.
The mechanical efficiency should not be confused with the motor efficiency and the
generator efficiency, which are defined as
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ,𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑖𝑛
and
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑖𝑛
A pump is usually packaged together with its motor, and a turbine with its generator.
Therefore, we are usually interested in the combined or overall efficiency of pump–motor
and turbine–generator combinations, which are defined as
𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝, 𝑢
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝−𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝜂𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
Ẇ,𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑖𝑛 Ẇ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑖𝑛
and
Ẇ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Ẇ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
|𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑒
All the efficiencies just defined range between 0 and 100 percent. The lower limit of 0
percent corresponds to the conversion of the entire mechanical or electric energy input to
thermal energy, and the device in this case functions like a resistance heater. The upper
limit of 100 percent corresponds to the case of perfect conversion with no friction or other
irreversibilities, and thus no conversion of mechanical or electric energy to thermal energy
(no losses).
Example No. 2
The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the installation of a hydraulic
turbine–generator. The elevation difference between the free surfaces upstream and downstream
of the dam is 50 m. Water is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the electric power generated is
measured to be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95 percent, determine:
(a) the overall efficiency of the turbine–generator
(b) the mechanical efficiency of the turbine
(c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator
Given:
Required: a) 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛
b) 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
c) Ẇ𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Solution:
Assumptions:
• The elevation of the lake and that of the discharge site remain constant
• Irreversible losses in the pipes are negligible
Properties:
• Use 1000 kg/m3 for the density of water
Analysis:
• We apply analysis from inlet (1) at the free surface of the lake to the outlet (2) at the free
surface of the downstream discharge site.
• At both free surfaces the pressure is atmospheric and the velocity is negligibly small.
a) Therefore the change in water’s mechanical energy per unit mass is:
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑣12 − 𝑣22
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = + + 𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
𝜌 2
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑔(𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )
𝑘𝐽
𝑚 1 𝑘𝑔
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (9.81 2 ) (50 𝑚) ( ) = 0.491 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑠 𝑚2
1000 2
𝑠
Then the rate at which mechanical energy is supplied to the turbine by the fluid and the
overall efficiency become
|𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | = ṁ(𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
|𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | = (5000 ) (0.491 ) = 2455 𝑘𝑊
𝑠 𝑘𝑔
Ẇ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 1862 𝑘𝑊
𝜂𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛 = = = 0.760
|𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | 2455 𝑘𝑊
b) Knowing the overall and generator efficiencies, the mechanical efficiency of the turbine is
determined from
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛 0.76
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑔𝑒𝑛 = 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 → 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = = = 0.800
𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 0.95
c) The shaft power output is determined from the definition of mechanical

efficiency,
Ẇ𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 |𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 | = (0.800)(2455 𝑘𝑊 ) = 1964 𝑘𝑊 ≈ 1960 𝑘𝑊
Note that the lake supplies 2455 kW of mechanical power to the turbine, which
converts 1964 kW of it to shaft power that drives the generator, which generates
1862 kW of electric power. There are irreversible losses through each component.
Bernoulli Equation
■ The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible.
■ The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of boundary
layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects of
pressure and gravity forces.
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
■ Consider the motion of a fluid particle in a flow field in steady flow. Applying
Newton’s second law (which is referred to as the linear momentum equation in fluid
mechanics) in the s-direction on a particle moving along a streamline gives
𝜮𝑭𝒔 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟏)
■ In regions of flow where net frictional forces are negligible, there is no pump or
turbine, and there is no heat transfer along the streamline, the significant forces
acting in the s-direction are the pressure (acting on both sides) and the component
of the weight of the particle in the s-direction in the figure. Therefore, eq. 1 becomes
𝑑𝑉
𝑃 𝑑𝐴 − (𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃)𝑑𝐴 − 𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚𝑉
𝑑𝑠
■ where θ is the angle between the normal of the streamline and the vertical z-axis at
that point, ṁ = qρ = ρ dA ds is the mass, W = mg = ρg dA ds is the weight of the fluid
particle, and sin θ = dz/ds. Substituting,
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑉
−𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠
= 𝜌 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑉
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
■ Canceling dA from each term and simplifying,
−𝑑𝑃 − 𝜌𝑔 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
■ Noting that V dV = ½ d(V2) and dividing each term by ρ gives
𝑑𝑃 1
+ 𝑑(𝑉 2 ) + 𝑔 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝜌 2
■ Integrating, for steady flow:
𝑑𝑃 𝑉 2
∫ + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)
𝜌 2
■ Since the last two terms are exact differentials. In the case of incompressible flow,
the first term also becomes an exact differential, and integration gives a steady,
incompressible flow (Bernoulli Equation):
𝑷 𝑽𝟐
+ + 𝒈𝒛 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆) (𝒆𝒒. 𝟐)
𝝆 𝟐
■ The Bernoulli equation, which is commonly used in fluid mechanics for steady,
incompressible flow along a streamline in inviscid regions of flow.
■ The Bernoulli equation was first stated in words by the Swiss mathematician Daniel
Bernoulli (1700–1782) in a text written in 1738 when he was working in St. Petersburg,
Russia. It was later derived in equation form by his associate Leonhard Euler (1707–
1783) in 1755.
■ The value of the constant in eq. 2 can be evaluated at any point on the streamline
where the pressure, density, velocity, and elevation are known. The Bernoulli
equation can also be written between any two points on the same streamline as
𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒈𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒈𝒛𝟐 (𝒆𝒒. 𝟑)
𝝆 𝟐 𝝆 𝟐
■ We recognize V2/2 as kinetic energy, gz as potential energy, and P/ρ as flow
energy, all per unit mass.
■ Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can be viewed as an expression of mechanical
energy balance and can be stated as follows
“The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant
along a streamline during steady flow when compressibility and frictional effects are
negligible.”
■ The kinetic, potential, and flow energies are the mechanical forms of energy, and
the Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the “conservation of mechanical energy
principle.”
LIMITATIONS ON THE USE OF THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

■ The Bernoulli equation is one of the most frequently used and misused equations in
fluid mechanics. Its versatility, simplicity, and ease of use make it a very valuable tool
for use in analysis, but the same attributes also make it very tempting to misuse.
Therefore, it is important to understand the restrictions on its applicability and
observe the limitations on its use, as explained here:
1. Steady flow
The first limitation on the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable to steady flow.
Therefore, it should not be used during the transient start-up and shut-down periods, or
during periods of change in the flow conditions. Note that there is an unsteady form of the
Bernoulli equation, discussion of which is beyond the scope of the present text (see Panton,
2005).
2. Negligible viscous effects

Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and frictional effects may or
may not be negligible. The situation is complicated even more by the amount of error that
can be tolerated. In general, frictional effects are negligible for short flow sections with
large cross sections, especially at low flow velocities. Frictional effects are usually significant
in long and narrow flow passages, in the wake region downstream of an object, and in
diverging flow sections such as diffusers because of the increased possibility of the fluid
separating from the walls in such geometries. Frictional effects are also significant near solid
surfaces, and thus the Bernoulli equation is usually applicable along a streamline in the
core region of the flow, but not along a streamline close to the surface.
A component that disturbs the streamlined structure of flow and thus causes
considerable mixing and backflow such as a sharp entrance of a tube or a partially closed
valve in a flow section can make the Bernoulli equation inapplicable.
3. No shaft work
The Bernoulli equation was derived from a force balance on a particle moving
along a streamline. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that
involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such devices disrupt
the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the fluid particles. When the flow
section considered involves any of these devices, the energy equation should be used
instead to account for the shaft work input or output. However, the Bernoulli equation can
still be applied to a flow section prior to or past a machine (assuming, of course, that the
other restrictions on its use are satisfied). In such cases, the Bernoulli constant changes from
upstream to downstream of the device.
4. Incompressible flow
One of the approximations used in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation is that ρ =
constant and thus the flow is incompressible. This condition is satisfied by liquids and also by
gases at Mach numbers less than about 0.3 since compressibility effects and thus density
variations of gases are negligible at such relatively low velocities. Note that there is a
compressible form of the Bernoulli equation.
5. Negligible heat transfer

The density of a gas is inversely proportional to temperature, and thus the Bernoulli
equation should not be used for flow sections that involve significant temperature change
such as heating or cooling sections.
6. Flow along a streamline

Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation P/ρ + V2/2 + gz = C is applicable along a
streamline, and the value of the constant C is generally different for different streamlines.
However, when a region of the flow is irrotational and there is no vorticity in the flow field,
the value of the constant C remains the same for all streamlines, and the Bernoulli equation
becomes applicable across streamlines as well. Therefore, we do not need to be
concerned about the streamlines when the flow is irrotational, and we can apply the
Bernoulli equation between any two points in the irrotational region of the flow
BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS

■ The steady-flow energy equation on a unit-mass basis can be written conveniently
as a mechanical energy balance,
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
or
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 + + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
■ Noting that 𝑤𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 − 𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 , the mechanical energy balance can be
written more explicitly as
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 + + + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 + 𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
■ Where 𝑤𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 is the mechanical work input (due to the presence of a pump, fan,
compressor, etc.) and 𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 is the mechanical work output (due to a turbine).
■ Multiplying the previous equation by the mass flowrate ṁ gives
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
ṁ( + + 𝑔𝑧1 ) + Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ṁ ( + + 𝑔𝑧2 ) + Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 + Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2
■ Where Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 is the shaft power input through the pump’s shaft, Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 is the shaft
power output through the turbine’s shaft, and Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 is the total mechanical
power loss, which consists of pump and turbine losses as well as the frictional losses in
the piping network. That is,
Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 + Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 + Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
■ By convention, irreversible pump and turbine losses are treated separately from
irreversible losses due to other components of the piping system. From the figure
below, A typical power plant has numerous pipes, elbows, valves, pumps, and
turbines, all of which have irreversible losses.
■ Thus, the simplified energy equation with pump work, work extracted by the turbine,
and irreversible loss due to components of the piping system is
𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑔 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝑔 𝑊𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + + 𝑧2 + + ℎ𝑓
𝜌1 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝜌2 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
■ head loss hf represents the frictional losses associated with fluid flow in piping.
■ The pump head is zero if the piping system does not involve a pump, a fan, or a
compressor, and the turbine head is zero if the system does not involve a turbine.
KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR, α

■ Gaspard Coriolis (1792–1843) showed, the kinetic energy of a fluid stream obtained
from V2/2gc is not the same as the actual kinetic energy of the fluid stream since the
square of a sum is not equal to the sum of the squares of its components. This error
can be corrected by replacing the kinetic energy terms V2/2gc in the energy
equation by α𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
2 /2gc, where α is the kinetic energy correction factor.
■ By using equations for the variation of velocity with the radial distance, it can be
shown that the correction factor is 2.0 for fully developed laminar pipe flow, and it
ranges between 1.04 and 1.11 for fully developed turbulent flow in a round pipe.
■ The kinetic energy correction factors are often ignored (i.e., a is set equal to 1) in an
elementary analysis since.
(1) most flows encountered in practice are turbulent, for which the correction factor is near
unity, and
(2) the kinetic energy terms are often small relative to the other terms in the energy
equation, and multiplying them by a factor less than 2.0 does not make much difference.
Bernoulli Equation
a) A rise in pressure in a flowing fluid must always be accompanied by a decrease in
speed
b) A fall in pressure in a flowing fluid must always be accompanied by an increase in its
speed
c) Important principle involving the movement of a fluid through a pressure difference
Bernoulli Equation with correction factor

a. Specific Energy Form
𝑷𝟏 𝜶𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒈 𝑷𝟐 𝜶𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝒈 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + + 𝒉𝒇
𝝆𝟏 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄 𝝆𝟐 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄 𝜼𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
b. Head Form
𝑷𝟏 𝜶𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑷𝟐 𝜶𝟐 𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒇
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + = + + 𝒛𝟐 + +
𝒈𝝆𝟏 𝟐𝒈 ṁ𝒈 𝒈𝝆𝟐 𝟐𝒈 ṁ𝒈𝜼𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 ṁ𝒈
Example No. 3
A 20 wt % sucrose solution having a density of 1074 kg/m 3 is flowing through the piping
system shown:
1– in.
1 ½ - in
3 – in.
The steel pipes are schedule 40 pipes. The flowrate entering pipe 1 is 1.892 m 3/hr. The
flow divides equally in each of pipes 3. Calculate the following using SI units:
(a) Required: the total mass flowrate in pipe 1 and pipes 3.
(b) The average velocity in pipes 2 and 3
(c) The mass velocity in pipes 2 and 3.
Given:
1– in. (pipe 1)
1 ½ - in (pipe 3)
3 – in. (pipe 2)
From Table 10-22 of Perry’s Handbook:

𝐷1−𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐ℎ 40 = 1.049 𝑖𝑛 = 0.0266 𝑚
𝐷3−𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐ℎ 40 = 3.068 𝑖𝑛 = 0.0779 𝑚
𝐷11−𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑐ℎ 40 = 1.610 𝑖𝑛 = 0.0409 𝑚
2
Required:
(a) the total mass flowrate in pipe 1 and pipes 3.
(b) The average velocity in pipes 2 and 3
(c) The mass velocity in pipes 2 and 3.
Solution:
(a)
𝑚3 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 1 = 𝑞𝜌 = 1.892 ( ) (1074 )
ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 1 = 𝑞𝜌 = 0.5644
𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 1 𝑚̇ 2 0.5622 𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ 3 = = = = 0.2822
2 2 2 𝑠
(b)
𝑚3 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑞 1.892 ( )
̅̅̅
𝑉2 = = 𝜋 ℎ𝑟 3600 𝑠
𝑆1 (0.0779)2
4
𝑚
̅̅̅
𝑉2 = 0.1103
𝑠
𝑚3 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑞⁄ (1.892 ℎ𝑟 )(3600 𝑠)⁄
̅̅̅
𝑉3 = 2
= 𝜋
2
𝑆1 (0.0409)2
4
𝑚
̅̅̅
𝑉2 = 0.2000
𝑠
(c)
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇2 0.5644 𝑠
𝐺2 = =𝜋
𝑆2 (0.0779)2
4
𝑘𝑔
𝐺2 = 118.4192 2
𝑚 −𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇3 0.2822 𝑠
𝐺3 = =𝜋
𝑆3 (0.0409)2
4
𝑘𝑔
𝐺2 = 214.7932 2
𝑚 −𝑠
Example No. 4
Water is being pumped from an open water reservoir at a rate of 2.0 kg/s at 10C to an open
storage tank 1500-m away. The pipe is 3 ½ - in. schedule 40 pipe and the frictional losses in the
system are 625 J/kg. The surface of the water reservoir is 20-m above the level of the storage tank.
The pump has an efficiency of 75%. What is the kW power required for the pump?
Given:
Required: Power requirement by the pump, kW

Solution:
Bernoulli Equation in Specific Energy Form
𝑷𝒂 𝜶𝒂 𝑽𝟐𝒂 𝒈 𝑷𝒃 𝜶𝒃 𝑽𝟐𝒃 𝒈 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
+ + 𝒛𝒂 + 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + + 𝒛𝒃 + + 𝒉𝒇
𝝆𝒂 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄 𝝆𝒃 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄 𝜼𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
Conditions
 Pa = Pb = 1 atm (atmospheric pressure)
 Va = Vb = 0 (negligible due to large cross-sectional area)
 Za = 20 m
 Zb = 0 m
 No turbine in the system
 Pump is installed to transport the fluid from reservoir to storage
Simplified Bernoulli Equation

𝑔
𝑧𝑎 + 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = ℎ𝑓
𝑔𝑐
𝑔
ℎ𝑓 − 𝑧𝑎 𝑔𝑐
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 =
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝐽 𝑁
625 𝑘𝑔 − (20 𝑚) (9.81 𝑘𝑔)
0.75
𝐽
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 571.7333
𝑘𝑔
𝑃 = 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑥𝑚̇
𝐽 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑘𝑊
𝑃 = (571.7333 ) (2 )( )
𝑘𝑔 𝑠 1000 𝑊
𝑃 = 1.1435 𝑘𝑊
Example No. 5
A pipeline laid cross country carries oil at a rate of 795 m3/d. The pressure of the oil is 1793 kPa gage
leaving pumping station 1. The pressure is 862 kPa gage at the inlet to the next pumping station 2.
The second station is 17.4 m higher than the fist station. Calculate the lost work (friction losses) in
J/kg mass oil. The oil density is 769 kg/m 3.
Given:
Required: hf
Solution:
Conditions
 Pa = 1,793,000 Pa + 101,325 Pa = 1,894,325 Pa
 Pb = 862,000 Pa + 101,325 Pa = 963,325 Pa
𝑞
 Va = Vb =
𝑆
 Za = 0 m
 Zb = 17.4 m
 No pump is installed between the reference points a and b

𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑔
= + 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ𝑓
𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝑐
𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑏 𝑔
ℎ𝑓 = − − 𝑧𝑏
𝜌𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝑔𝑐
𝑁 𝑁
1,894,325 963,325 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑚2 − 𝑚 − (17.4 𝑚) (9.81 𝑁 )
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
769 3 769 3
𝑚 𝑚
𝐽
ℎ𝑓 = 1039.9692
𝑘𝑔
Example No. 6
A pump delivers water from a holding tank at atmospheric pressure (100 kPa) to a process
equipment at 450 kPa at a flowrate of 6.2 L/s. The process equipment is located 100 m higher than
the holding tank. Calculate the power requirement for the pump if its efficiency is 70% and if fluid
friction and the changes in kinetic energy are negligible. Take the density of water to be 995 kg/m 3.
Given:
Required: Power requirement of the pump

Solution:
Conditions
 Pa = 100,000 Pa
 Pb = 450,000 Pa
 Va = Vb = 0 (Kinetic energy is negligible)
 Za = 0 m
 Zb = 100 m
 Pump is installed between the reference points a and b
 Fluid friction is negligible

𝑷𝒂 𝑷𝒃 𝒈
+ 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + 𝒛𝒃
𝝆𝒂 𝝆𝒃 𝒈𝒄
𝑃𝑏 𝑔 𝑃𝑎
𝜌𝑏 + 𝑧𝑏 𝑔𝑐 − 𝜌𝑎
450,000 𝑃𝑎 𝑁 100,000 𝑃𝑎
( )
𝑘𝑔 + 100 𝑚 (9.81 𝑘𝑔) − 𝑘𝑔
995 3 995 3
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑚
0.7
𝐽
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 1093.9411
𝑘𝑔
𝐽 𝐿 995 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑚3 1 𝑘𝑊
𝑃 = (1093.9411 ) (6.2 ) ( 3
)( )( )
𝑘𝑔 𝑠 1𝑚 1000 𝐿 1000 𝑊
𝑃 = 11.7454 𝑘𝑊
Example No. 7
Water at 20C is pumped at a constant rate 9 m 3/h from a large reservoir resting on the
floor to the open top of an experimental absorption tower. The point of discharge is 5 m
above the floor, and friction losses in the 50-mm pipe from the reservoir to the tower
amount to 2.5 J/kg. At what height in the reservoir must the water level be kept if the
pump can deliver only 0.1 kW?
Given:
Required: Za
Solution:
Conditions and assumptions

 Pa = atmospheric pressure
 Pb = atmospheric pressure
 Va = 0 (negligible due to large cross-sectional area)
 Vb = velocity of the fluid flowing out of the pipe
 Za = ?
 Zb = 5 m
 @ 10oC: ρ = 999.654 kg/m3 (from Table 2-32 of Perry’s ChE Handbook)
 @ 10oC: μ = 0.001302 Pa-s (from Table 2-139 of Perry’s ChE Handbook)
 Since efficiency is not given, assume 100%

𝑔 𝛼𝑏 𝑉𝑏2 𝑔
𝑧𝑎 + 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ𝑓
𝑔𝑐 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
𝛼𝑏 𝑉𝑏2 𝑔
2𝑔𝑐 + 𝑧𝑏 𝑔𝑐 + ℎ𝑓 − 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝
𝑧𝑎 = 𝑔
𝑔𝑐
𝑚3 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑞 (9 ℎ𝑟 ) (3600 𝑠) 𝑚
𝑉𝑏 = = 2 = 1.2732
𝑆𝑏 𝜋 50 𝑠
4 (1000 𝑚)
To determine the kinetic energy correction factor, 𝛼, check for the Reynolds number if laminar or
turbulent:
𝐷𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝜌
𝑅𝑒𝑏 =
𝜇
50 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
(1000 𝑚) (1.2732 𝑠 ) (999.654 3 )
𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑏 = = 48,877.0919 (𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝛼 = 1.0)
𝑘𝑔
0.001302 𝑚 − 𝑠
To determine the 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 :

𝑃
𝑚̇
1000 𝑊
0.1 𝑘𝑊 𝑥 1 𝑘𝑊 𝐽
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = 40.0138
𝑚3 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
(9 ) (3600 𝑠) (999.654 3 )
ℎ𝑟 𝑚
Calculation of Za
𝑚 2
(1.0) (1.2732 )
𝑠 + (5 𝑚) (9.81 𝑁 ) + 2.5 𝐽 − 40.0138 𝐽
𝑘𝑔 − 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
2 (1 )
𝑁 − 𝑠2
𝑧𝑎 =
𝑁
9.81 𝑘𝑔
𝑧𝑎 = 1.2586 𝑚
Example No. 8
A pump takes water at 60F from a large reservoir and delivers it to the bottom of an open elevated
tank 25 ft above the reservoir surface through a 3 – in. ID pipe. The inlet to the pump is located 10
ft below the water surface, and the water level in the tank is constant at 160 ft above the reservoir
surface. The pump delivers 15 gal/min. If the total loss of energy due to friction in the piping system
is 35 ft-lbf/lb, calculate the horsepower required to do the pumping. The pump motor set has an
overall efficiency of 55%. The flow is turbulent.
Given:
Required: Power requirement in Horsepower

Solution:

 Va = Vb = 0 (negligible due to large cross-sectional area)
 Za = 0 ft (datum line/reference point)
 Zb = 160 ft
 Efficiency of the pump is 55%
 @ 10oC (60oF): ρ = 998.9962 kg/m3 OR 62.3573 lbm/ft3 (from Table 2-32 of Perry’s ChE
Handbook)
Simplified Bernoulli equation

𝑔
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ𝑓
𝑔𝑐
𝑔
𝑧𝑏 𝑔𝑐 + ℎ𝑓
𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
(160 𝑓𝑡) (1
𝑙𝑏𝑚 ) + 35 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = 354.5455
0.55 𝑙𝑏𝑚
3
𝑔𝑎𝑙 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 3.7854 𝐿 1 𝑚3 1 𝑓𝑡 62.3573 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑚̇ = (15 )( )( )( )( ) ( )
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 1 𝑔𝑎𝑙 1000 𝐿 0.3048 𝑚 1 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑚̇ = 2.0840
𝑠
𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1 ℎ𝑃
𝑃 = (354.5455 ) (2.0840 )( )
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
550 𝑠
𝑃 = 1.3434 ℎ𝑃
Example No. 9
A pump pumps 0.200 ft3/s of brine solution having a density of 1.15 g/cm 3 from an open feed tank
having a large cross-sectional area. The suction line has an inside diameter of 3.548 inches and the
discharge line from the pump a diameter of 2.067 inches. The discharge flow goes to an open
overhead tank and the open end of this line is 75 ft above the liquid level in the feed tank. If the
friction losses in the piping system are 18.0 ft-lbf/lbm, what pressure must the pump develop and
what is the horsepower of the pump if the efficiency is 70%? The flow is turbulent.
Given:
Required: a) Power requirement in Horsepower
b) 𝑃𝑏′ − 𝑃𝑎′
Solution:
a)

 Va = 0 (negligible due to large cross-sectional area)
 Vb = velocity of flowing fluid out of the pipe
 Za = 0 ft (datum line/reference point)
 Zb = 75 ft
 Flow is turbulent (𝛼 = 1.0)

𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = + 𝑧𝑏 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
2𝑔𝑐 + 𝑧𝑏 𝑔𝑐 + ℎ𝑓
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑞 (0.2 𝑠 ) 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑏 = = 2 = 8.5827
𝑆𝑏 𝜋 2.067 𝑠
4 ( 12 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡 2
(1.0) (8.5827
𝑠) 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
( )
𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑓𝑡 + 75 𝑓𝑡 (1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 ) + 18 𝑙𝑏𝑚
2 (32.174 ) 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 2
𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = = 134.4925
0.7 𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑔 62.42 3
𝑓𝑡
𝑚̇ = (0.2 ) (1.15 ) ( 𝑔 )
𝑠 𝑐𝑐 1 𝑐𝑐
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝑚̇ = 14.3566
𝑠
𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑙𝑏𝑚 1 ℎ𝑃
𝑃 = (134.4925 ) (14.3566 )( )
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓
550 𝑠
𝑃 = 3.5106 ℎ𝑃
b)
𝑷𝒂′ 𝜶𝒂′ 𝑽𝟐𝒂′ 𝒈 𝑷𝒃′ 𝜶𝒃′ 𝑽𝟐𝒃′ 𝒈 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

+ + 𝒛𝒂′ + 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + + 𝒛𝒃′ + + 𝒉𝒇
𝝆𝒂′ 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄 𝝆𝒃′ 𝟐𝒈𝒄 𝒈𝒄 𝜼𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
 Pa’ = pressure of fluid entering to the pump
 Pb’ = pressure of fluid outflowing from the pump
 Va’ = velocity of fluid entering to the pump
 Vb’ = velocity of fluid outflowing from the pump
 Za’ = Zb’= 0 ft (a little difference in the height of the suction and discharge line)
 Flow is turbulent (𝛼 = 1.0)
 Frictional losses are negligible since instead of a pipe from a’ to b’, a pump is present.
𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓
 From a) Wpump = 134.4925 𝑙𝑏
𝑚

𝑃𝑎′ 𝛼𝑎′𝑉𝑎′2 𝑃𝑏′ 𝛼𝑏′ 𝑉𝑏′2
+ + 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = +
𝜌𝑎′ 2𝑔𝑐 𝜌𝑏′ 2𝑔𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝑞 0.2 2 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑎′ = 2 = 𝑠
2 = 2.9130
𝑆𝑎 𝜋 3.548 𝑠
4 ( 12 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡
𝑞 0.2 2 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑏′ = 2 = 𝑠
2 = 8.5827
𝑆𝑏 𝜋 2.067 𝑠
4 ( 12 𝑓𝑡)
𝑃𝑏′ − 𝑃𝑎′ 𝛼𝑎′ 𝑉𝑎′2 𝛼𝑏′ 𝑉𝑏′2

= + 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 −
𝜌 2𝑔𝑐 2𝑔𝑐
𝛼𝑎′ 𝑉𝑎′2 𝛼𝑏′ 𝑉𝑏′2
𝑃𝑏′ − 𝑃𝑎′ = 𝜌 𝑥 ( + 𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 − )
2𝑔𝑐 2𝑔𝑐
𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡 2
( 1.0 ) (2.9130 ) ( 1.0 ) (8.5827
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠)
𝑃𝑏′ − 𝑃𝑎′ = 71.783 3 𝑥 + (0.7) (134.4925 )−
𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 𝑓𝑡
2 (32.174 2) 2 (32.174 )
( 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 𝑙𝑏𝑓 − 𝑠 2 )
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑃𝑏′ − 𝑃𝑎′ = 6,685.2846
𝑓𝑡 2
UNIT 2 Torricelli’s Equation
The most interesting applications of Bernoulli’s Equation include the effects of friction.
Before one can solve these, the friction head loss must be evaluated first. However, there
are many flow problems in which the friction heating terms are small compared with the
other terms and can be neglected. These problems can be solved by means of the of
Bernoulli’s Equation without the friction term. A good example of this type of problem is
tank-draining problem, which leads to Torricelli’s equation.
■ From the Bernoulli Equation:

+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + + 𝒉𝒇
■ These are the following assumptions to be made:
• Water is a nearly incompressible substance.
• The distance between the bottom of the tank and the center of the hole is
negligible compared to the total water height.
• The pressures at the free surface in the tank (point 1) and at the discharge
point (point 2) are the local atmospheric pressures.
• There is no friction or external work
• The velocity of fluid at a large reservoir is almost negligible
• Flowing out fluid in the nozzle is assumed to be turbulent.
■ Applying the assumptions in the Bernoulli Equation:
+ + 𝒛𝟏 + 𝜼𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + + 𝒉𝒇
■ Therefore the Toricelli’s Equation is
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
■ Where
V = the velocity of flowing fluid out of the bottom of the tank or the nozzle
h = initial height of the fluid in the tank
𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
■ Take note that when speaking of a lost of volume in a system, it should be denoted
with a negative sign.
𝜋 2
𝑑ℎ ( 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 ) 𝜋 2
− 4 = √2𝑔ℎ ( 𝐷𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 )
𝑑𝑡 4
2
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = − 2
𝐷𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 √2𝑔ℎ
■ Integrating
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 2 0
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑑ℎ
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = − 2 ∫
0 𝐷𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 ℎ0 √2𝑔ℎ
■ Simplifying
𝑫𝟐𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒌 −𝟐(√𝒉𝟎 )
𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚 = − 𝟐 ( )
𝑫𝒏𝒐𝒛𝒛𝒍𝒆 √𝟐𝒈
Example No. 10
A water tank is 30 ft in diameter , and the normal depth is 25 ft. The outlet is a 4-
in.horizontal pipe at the bottom. If this pipe is sheared off close to the tank.
a) What is the initial flow rate of water from the tank? (Neglect friction loss in the
short stub of pipe.)
b) How long will it take for the tank to be empty?
c) Calculate the average flow rate and compare it with the initial flow rate.
Given:
Required: a) Vinitial
b) tempty
c) 𝑉̅
Solution:
a) initially, z = 25 ft
𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = √2 (32.174 ) (25 𝑓𝑡)
𝑠2
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 = 40.1086
𝑠
b) Conditions/assumptions used in the derivation of the equation below will be applied to the
problem.
2
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 −2(√ℎ0 )
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = − 2 ( )
𝐷𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 √2𝑔
(30 𝑓𝑡)2 −2(√25 𝑓𝑡)

𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = − 2
4 𝑓𝑡
(12 𝑓𝑡) √2 (32.174 )
( 𝑠2 )
𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = 10,097.58 𝑠 = 2.81 ℎ𝑟𝑠
c)
𝜋
𝑞 (30 𝑓𝑡)2 (25 𝑓𝑡)
𝑉̅ = = 4
2
𝑆 𝑥 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝜋 4
( 𝑓𝑡) (10,097.58 𝑠)
4 12
𝑓𝑡
𝑉̅ = 20.0543
𝑠
Module/Unit Assessment: Module 3 Evaluative Assessment

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MOMENTUM TRANSFER

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

UNIT 1 Basic Equations of Fluid Flow

Three Vital Equations:

Relationship of mass flowrate and volumetric flowrate

Conservation of Mass Principle

Basic Equations of Fluid Flow

b) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is

c) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle exit is

Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

Pumps and Turbines

Mechanical Energy Principles

Transfer of Mechanical Energy

Pump Efficiency and Turbine Efficiency

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝛥Ė𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ, 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 Ẇ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝, 𝑢

𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 Ẇ,𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝑜𝑢𝑡 Ẇ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒

c) The shaft power output is determined from the definition of mechanical

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

LIMITATIONS ON THE USE OF THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

2. Negligible viscous effects

5. Negligible heat transfer

6. Flow along a streamline

BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS

KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR, α

Bernoulli Equation with correction factor

From Table 10-22 of Perry’s Handbook:

Required: Power requirement by the pump, kW

Simplified Bernoulli Equation

Simplified Bernoulli Equation

Required: Power requirement of the pump

Simplified Bernoulli Equation

Conditions and assumptions

Simplified Bernoulli Equation

To determine the 𝑊𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 :

Required: Power requirement in Horsepower

Conditions and assumptions

Simplified Bernoulli equation

Conditions and assumptions

Simplified Bernoulli equation

𝑷𝒂′ 𝜶𝒂′ 𝑽𝟐𝒂′ 𝒈 𝑷𝒃′ 𝜶𝒃′ 𝑽𝟐𝒃′ 𝒈 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆

Simplified Bernoulli equation

𝑃𝑏′ − 𝑃𝑎′ 𝛼𝑎′ 𝑉𝑎′2 𝛼𝑏′ 𝑉𝑏′2

■ From the Bernoulli Equation:

(30 𝑓𝑡)2 −2(√25 𝑓𝑡)

𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 = 10,097.58 𝑠 = 2.81 ℎ𝑟𝑠

Module/Unit Assessment: Module 3 Evaluative Assessment

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